ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
SEVENTH EDITION.
THE
ENCYCLOREDIA BRITANNICA
OR
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
SEVENTH EDITION,
WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES,
AND
OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,
A GENERAL INDEX,
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME XXL
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
M.DCCC.XLII.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
SURVEYING.
THE system of rules and operations by which the rela¬
tive position of any number of points in a tract of
country may be determined, so that it may be delineated on
a plane surface, is called surveying. When the extent of
country is not great, the subject involves little difficulty; but
when a kingdom, such as Britain or France, is to be sur¬
veyed, in addition to some of the more profound theories of
pure mathematics, the aid of astronomy, and other branches
of natural philosophy, is required; but such an extensive
view of the subject will not be expected in this work.
As a surveyor has perpetual occasion for calculation, it
is necessary that he be thoroughly master of arithmetic, and
understand the nature of logarithms, the use of logarithmic
tables, and algebraic notation. As it is his business to in¬
vestigate and measure lines and angles, and to describe
them on paper, he should be well acquainted with the ele¬
ments of geometry and trigonometry, and with the applica¬
tion of their principles to the mensuration of heights, dis¬
tances, and surfaces. In particular, he should be familiar
with the best practical methods of solving the ordinary geo¬
metrical problems, and should be expert in drawing lines
and describing figures. He should know something of the
principles of geology, optics, and magnetism, and possess
some skill in drawing and painting.
In a survey, the most remarkable objects, such as the
summits of hills, spires, towers, &c. must be chosen as sta¬
tions, and, if necessary, marked by signals. These must
be considered as joined by straight lines forming a chain
of triangles, each connected with all the others. The angles
of the triangles should neither be very acute nor very ob¬
tuse ; their sides should be as long as possible, so as to ad¬
mit of two of the stations, at the angles, being seen from
the third: the nearer each triangle approaches to the equi¬
lateral form, the better. The three angles of each triangle
should be measured, if possible, for although two of them
be sufficient to determine the third, yet it will conduce to
accuracy if all the three be taken ; and if their sum hardly
differ from 180°, it may be supposed that they have been Surveying,
correctly determined. The principal points should also be s-—-y—-^
intersected as much as possible by lines from different sta¬
tions, to ascertain whether different data give the same po¬
sition.
A theodolite is the most convenient instrument for mea¬
suring the angles, because it gives them at once reduced
to the plane of the horizon. When a sextant is used, the
angles, if out of that plane, must be reduced to it by cal¬
culation.
Supposing a proper disposition of the triangles to have
been made, when their angles are known, if a side of any
one of them were also known, then the sides of all the others
might be found by calculation, and a plan of the country
constructed. Therefore, a side of one of the triangles must
be taken as a base, and measured with great care, for upon
this the just determination of the absolute length of all the
other lines depends ; and if the survey be extensive, it will
be proper to assume another base, called a base of verification,
and compare its measured with its calculated length. The
base should be as long as possible, and lie on a flat surface;
if it is not perfectly level, its slope must be measured, and
its horizontal length calculated. In ordinary cases, the
base may be measured by a chain or tape, but more accu¬
rately by stretching a rope, 100 yards or more, tight in its
direction, and applying repeatedly to it a twenty-feet deal-
rod. A pin may be stuck in the rope at the fore-end of
the rod, each time it is removed, and before the rope is
removed to a new position : a point directly under the end
of the last rod may be marked on the top of a peg fixed
in the ground. In the trigonometrical survey of Britain,
which has been going on ever since 1784, under the direc¬
tion of the Board of Ordnance, an original base of about
five miles was measured three times over, first with twenty-
feet deal-rods, then with glass rods of the same length,
and at a later period by a hundred feet steel chain of a
particular construction. Several bases of verification have
SURVEYING.
Surveying, also been measured. The labour and ingenuity exerted in
these operations have been very great.
As, generally speaking, all bodies expand by heat and
contract by cold, a rod or chain varies in absolute length
as it varies in temperature. A steel rod at the tempera¬
ture of water boiling is the one thousandth part longer than
at the temperature of water freezing. Hence, when great
accuracy is required, the temperature of the measure must
be noted, that its precise length may be known.
When the sides of the primary triangles are known, they
serve as bases by which the situation of objects near them
may be determined. In this way, the position of any num¬
ber of points in a road, or the course of a river, also the
situation of towns, country-seats, the boundaries of enclo¬
sures, and every feature of a country, may be found, and
laid down in a plan or map: and to construct it with accu¬
racy, the principal points should be laid down by their cal¬
culated distances from each other, rather than by the mea¬
sures of the angles formed by the lines joining them, because
a point may be more correctly laid down by the intersec¬
tion of two arcs of circles, than by that of lines which
make given angles with a third line.
A small extent of the earth’s surface may be regarded as
a plane, and lines perpendicular to it as parallel to one an¬
other. However, in an extensive survey, such as that of
Britain, the curvature of the earth must be taken into ac¬
count, and then its figure and magnitude enter as elements
into all the calculations.
This connection between the figure of the earth and
the magnitude and position of lines traced on its surface
affords, reversely, the means of determining the former
when the latter are known: so that such surveys, besides
their immediate object, are applicable to the solution of the
still more sublime problem of finding the magnitude and
figure of the earth itself.
Of Terrestrial Refraction.
It is a matter of experience, that the rays of light pro¬
ceeding from the heavenly bodies are bent from their
original rectilineal direction in passing through the atmo¬
sphere. A ray in its progress may be considered as passing
through a very great number of thin strata of air, which
are denser the nearer they are to the earth ; and these, by
their action on the particles of light, bend the ray down¬
wards, so that, in fact, its path is a curve line concave to¬
wards the earth, and situated in a vertical plane passing
through the luminous object and the eye of the observer.
To understand the nature of this effect, let AB (fig. 1)
represent a portion of the
Fig. 1.
earth’s surface, and DFG the
upper boundary of the atmo¬
sphere : a succession of par¬
ticles of light from the sun
or a star S, proceed on a
straight line, until they arrive
at F; afterwards, in their
passage through the atmo¬
sphere, their path is gradually
bent into the curve FE, so
that when they reach the eye at E, the object S appears as
if it were at S’, in the direction of a straight line which
touches the curve at E.
This bending of the ray is called refraction ; it increases
the apparent elevation of the heavenly bodies above the
horizon, except when they are in the zenith, and in that
position there is no refraction.
The rays of light, by which terrestrial objects are render¬
ed visible, are, in their passage through the atmosphere,
bent downwards, exactly as those proceeding from the
heavenly bodies; so that the apparent elevation of a re- Surveying,
mote object is always greater than its true elevation. This s—v——^
incurvation is called terrestrial refraction; in the case of
the heavenly bodies, it is astronomical refraction.
Terrestrial refraction varies with the state of the atmo¬
sphere, so that an object appears more elevated at one time
than at another: the displacement, however, is always in
a vertical plane, but never sensibly in a horizontal direc¬
tion. How it may be found for any case will appear from
the following problem.
Prob. I.
Having given the apparent positions of two remote stations,
as seen from each other at the same instant, to determine
the error produced by refraction.
Let A and B be the stations (fig. 2), and C the earth’s
centre ; draw the lines CA, CB, and produce them towards
Z and V, the zeniths of the
Fig. 2.
stations ; join AB; then the
true zenith distance of B, as
seen from A, is the angle
ZAB, and the true zenith
distance of A, as seen from
B, is the angle VBA. These,
however, cannot be directly
measured, for, by refraction,
the point B, as seen from A,
appears elevated to the posi¬
tion b; and the point A, as
seen from B, is elevated to
the position a. The errors,
then, produced by refraction
are the angles SAB and «BA, and these will be nearly equal,
if the angles be observed at the same instant, which may
be done by setting two watches to the same time, or mak-
ing a signal at one station so as to be seen from the other.
Put the greater apparent zenith distance ZAS = d,
the lesser VBa = d\
the refraction SAB = aBA —r,
the angle C at the earth’s centre = C.
Then ZAB = ABC + C, and VBA = BAC + C (Geom.
23, 1), therefore ZAB + VBA = ABC + BAC + C + C.
But ABC + BAC + C =: 180°,
therefore ZAB + VBA r= 180° -f- C.
Again, ZAB = ZAS + SAB = d + r,
VBA =: VBa + aBA — dr-\- r,
therefore ZAB + VBA = d + d’ + 2r.
Put the two values of ZAB + VBA equal to each other,
and we have
d + d’ +2r= 180° + C, and 2r = 180° + C — (d + d%
and r = 90° + iC — 1 (d + d).
Ex. In the British survey, on Wisp Hill and Cross Fell
are two stations in a triangle, which connects the north of
England with the borders of Scotland. Their distance is
computed at 235,018-6 feet = 4*4-511 miles, this corresponds
on the surface of the earth to an arc of 38' 33"-7. From
Cross Fell, Wisp Hill was seen depressed 30' 48" below the
horizon, and from the latter place the former was found
to have a depression of 2' 31". Here we have
d = 90° 30' 48", o" = 90° 2' 31", C = 38' 33"*7 ; hence
r = 90° + 1C — 1 (rf + d') = 2' 37"-3.
In this case the error produced by refraction is nearly
TJth ot the arc intercepted between the stations. Dr Mas-
e yne reckoned it to be -^yth. Delambre and Legendre,
r rench mathematicians, estimated it, the former at TUh,
an t le attei at ^j-th; and Col. Mudge, by numerous and
correct observations, found its medium value to be about
fVth.
SURVEYING.
3
Surveying. In the examples of the mensuration of heights, the verti-
' cal line to be measured has been supposed to stand on the
horizontal plane of the station, where the angle of eleva¬
tion was taken ; but in estimating the difference between
the heights of two stations which are at a considerable dis¬
tance from each other, this is not exactly true : in such a
case it is necessary to correct the observed vertical angle,
on account of the earth’s curvature.
Prob. II.
Having given the distance between two stations, and the
elevation or depression of the one as seen from the
other, to determine the correction to be made in the ver¬
tical angle on account of the earth’s curvature.
Let A and B be the two stations (fig. 3), and C the earth’s
centre. Draw the horizontal line AH in the plane of the
triangle ABC, then
BAH will be the ap- Fig* 3.
parent angle of ele-
vation or depression B
of B, according as it H~
is above or below
the horizon of A.
Take CD = CA,
and join AD ; the
line BD is the dif¬
ference between the
heights of the sta¬
tions A and B, and
to determine BD,
the vertical angle BAD must be known ; now this angle
differs from the apparent elevation BAH by the angle HAD,
therefore HAD is the correction of the vertical angle, de¬
pending on the earth’s curvature.
In the isosceles triangle A CD, the sum of its angles, that
is, 2CAD + C, is equal to two right angles (Geom. 11 and
24, 1), and therefore CAD + 1C = one right angle ; but
CAH is a right angle, therefore CAH = CAD + -gC, and
taking away the common angle CAD, there remains HAD
= ^C. Hence the correction on account of the earth’s
curvature is half the arc intercepted between the stations.
Cor. If the station B be above the horizon, as seen from
A, the corrected vertical angle will be the sum of its appa¬
rent elevation and half C, the angle contained by the ver¬
ticals passing through the stations ; but if B be below the
horizon, then it will be the excess of half C above the ap¬
parent depression.
Ex. In the British trigonometrical survey, the distance
between the stations on Wisp Hill and Cross Fell was
found to be 235,018,6 feet, which, reckoning 60941 feet to
a minute, corresponds to 38' SS"*? on the earth’s surface.
From Wisp Hill, Cross Fell appeared depressed below its
horizon 2' 31"; but, by a corresponding observation at the
other station, the error arising from refraction was estimated
at 2' 37"-3. Hence the difference between the heights of
the stations is required.
Let A be Wisp Hill, B Cross Fell. The observed de¬
pression HAB was 2' 31"; but as the line AB was elevated
2'J<87"-3 by refraction, the correct value of HAB was 2' 31"
-p 2' 37"’3 = 5' 8"‘3. This subtracted from HAD = ^C
= 19' 16"'8, leaves 14' 8"'5 for the vertical angle BAD.
And because in the triangle BAD the angle D is almost a
right angle, therefore BD will be found by this proportion ;
rad.: tan. BAD (14'8"-5).: AD (235,018*6): BD= 966*8feet,
the height of the station on Cross Fell above that on Wisp
Hill.
On a survev, it will sometimes happen that the instru¬
ment cannot be conveniently placed at the very centre of
a station, in order to determine the angles subtended by
remote objects: it must then be placed at a point near the Surveying,
station, and the angles taken at that point must be correct-
ed by calculation, so as to reduce them to the centre. How
this may be done is shown in the next problem.
Prob. III.
To reduce an angle taken out of a station to the centre of
the station.
Let C be the centre of a permanent station (fig. 4), where
the angle ACB, subtended by
two remote objects A and B, is
to be determined; let O be a
given point at a little distance,
where the instrument is placed,
and the angle A OB actually
measured ; then, having given
the distance CO, and the an¬
gles CO A, COB ; also the dis¬
tances CA, CB, or at least their
values nearly, it is required to
find the difference between the
angles ACB, AOB.
Let I be the intersection of
AC and BO ; and because the
angle AIB is the sum of ACB and CBO, also the sum of
AOB and CAO (Geom. 24, 1) ; therefore
ACB + CBO = AOB + CAO,
and ACB — AOB = CAO — CBO.
Now, in the triangles COA, COB,
CA : CO : : sin. COA : sin. CAO,
CB : CO : : sin. COB : sin. CBO.
From these proportions, the angles CAO, CBO may be
found, and their difference, which is also the difference of
the angles ACB, AOB will be known.
It is useful in practice to have a formula that expresses
the difference of the angles BCA, BOA in minutes of a
degree. For this purpose, put the angles
ACB = C, AOB = O, BOC = v; then COA = O + a;
also put the lines CA = m, CB zz w, OC = d /
then the two proportions become
m: d: : sin. (O v) : sin. CAO ; n:d :: sin. v : sin. CBO ;
hence sin. CAO zz - sin. (O + v), sin. CBO zz - sin. v.
But small angles being almost proportional to their sines,
it follows that the number of minutes in the angle CAO
sin CAO
wiH be —  r— nearly; and in like manner the number
sin. 1
sin. CBO ,
of minutes in the angle CBO will be —: ^7" near'y 5
° sin. I
Fig. 4.
therefore
CAO z= CBO
m sin. r
d sin. v
n sin.F ’
hence, since CAO — CBO :z: C — O, we have
n ^ d sin. (O + v) d sin. v
—• v/ —- . i i /*
. m sm. V n sin. 1
This is the correction of the angle O expressed in mi¬
nutes of a degree ; in its application, attention must be paid
to the signs of sin. (O + «) and sin. v, agreeably to the
rules laid down in Arithmetic of Sines, Algebra (225).
A different and more simple expression for the correc¬
tion of the angle O may be found as follows:
Let a circle be described about the triangle ABC, meet¬
ing BO in H, and join CH, AH. Let the angles BCA,
BOA, BOC, and the lines CA, CB, CO, be denoted by
the same letters as before ; and in addition, put the angle
BAG zz A.
SURVEYING.
Surveying. Because
" y~~' C—O (= BCA—BOA)=: BHA—BOA (Geom. 24, 1),
and HAO = BHA —BOA,
therefore C — O r= HAO.
In the triangle OHC, sin.CHO or CHB: sin.HCO: :CO: HO;
and in the triangle OHA, HA: HO :: sin. HOArsin. HAO.
Remarking now that CHB = CAB = A, and that HCO =
CHB — COB — A. — v, also that HA and CA =: m are
nearly equal, these proportions may be expressed thus:
sin. A: sin. (A — v)::d " : HO,
: HO :: sin. O : sin. HAO ;
_ d sin. (A — v)
sin. A
hence HO =
HAO — HQ X sin. O c?sin. (A — v) sin. O
and sin   _
m m sin. A
But, on account of the smallness of the angle HAO, the
i. HAO
——TT— nearly ;
sin. 1' 1
O = HAO, we have, in minutes of
number of minutes it contains will be
therefore, because C —
a degree,
C —O =
d sin. (A — v) sin. O
d 1-060698
sin. (O + v) 9-997614
m } Ar. Comp. 6-088097
sin. V / log. 3-536274
d
sm.v
n
sin
8 1
in. 1'J
Ar. Comp.
Jog.
1-060698
9-886152
6-109970
3-536274
Fig. 5.
m sin. A sin. 1'
This expression for the difference of the angles C and
O is not quite so accurate as the former, yet, in practice, it
is near enough the truth. It requires that approximate
values of the distance AC and the angle BAC be known ;
the distance d should, however, be accurately determined.
It is obvious that if the instrument were placed at H, in
the circumference of a circle passing through A, B, C, the
observed angle AHB would then be equal to the angle C
at the station. This may be done by moving it along OB
until the angle CHB is found to be equal to CAB, and then
no correction is wanted.
Ex. In a survey, A, B, C are three stations, and AB r=
6196 feet. At A, the angle BAC = 63° 44', and at O. a
point 11-5 feet from the centre of the station C, the angle
AOB rr 45° 42'; the angle COB = 50° 18'. Hence it is
required to find the angle ACB.
The angle ACB will be nearly equal to AOB = 45° 42',
hence CBA == 70° 34' nearly. In the triangle CAB we
have now approximate values of all the angles, and a side
AB ; hence (by the first case of oblique-angled triangles)
BC = 7763, and AC = 8164 feet.
To apply the formulae for reducing to the centre, we have
wz=8164 O zr 45° 42' O + r = 96° O'
n — 7763 v = 50 18 A — v—\Q2Q
d = 11-5 A = 63 44
to find C — O. The logarithmic calculation by the first
formula may stand thus :
less than 180°, and therefore sin. (A— v) is a positive quan- Surveying.
When a theodolite is employed in surveying, the angles
are taken at once in a horizontal plane; but when a sex¬
tant is used, the angles are measured in the planes of the
objects, and if they are oblique, the corresponding horizon¬
tal angles are found by calculation.
Prob. IV.
Having given the inclination of each of two lines to the
horizon, and the oblique angle they contain, to find the
corresponding horizontal angle.
Let AB, AC be the straight lines, which contain between
them the given oblique angle BAC: in AV, a perpendicu¬
lar to the horizon, take any point
H, and let a horizontal plane
pass through H and meet AB,
AC in B and C; join HB, HC,
BC ; then BHC is the horizon¬
tal angle corresponding to the
given oblique angle BAC, and
HAB, HAC the complements
of the inclinations of the lines
AB, AC to the horizontal plane.
Put the angles HAB = b, HAC
= c, the given oblique angle BAC = A, and its corre¬
sponding horizontal angle BHC = H.
Then, supposing AH to be the radius of a circle, and
= 1, it is evident that in the right-angled triangles AHB,
AHC,
AB ~ sec. &, HB =tan. b, AC = sec. c, HC = tan. c.
Now, in the triangles ABC, HBC, by Trigonometry,
AB2 + AC2 = BC2 + 2AB X‘AC x cos. A,
HB2 + HC2 = BC2 + 2HB X HC X cos. H;
Hence, by subtracting equals from equals, and observing
that AB2 —HB2 = AH2, and AC2 —HC2 = AH2, we have
2AH~ = 2AB x AC X cos. A — 2HB x HC X cos.H, that is,
1 = sec. b sec. c cos. A — tan. b tan. c cos. H.
From this expression, after substituting —L- and ——
cos. b cos. c
for sec. b and sec. c, also
sin. b
cos. b
and
for tan. b and
cos. c
tan. c, we get
sin. b sin. c cos. H — cos. A — cos. b cos. c.
Now cos. H = 1 _ 2 sin.21H (Algebra, 248), hence,
by substituting and transposing, we get this other expres¬
sion,
2 sin. b sin. c sin.2 iH cos. b cos. c + sin, b sin. c — cos. A.
Again, cos. b cos. c -f sin. b sin. c — cos. (b — c) (239),
A + (6 — c) .
and
■{b-
(b-c)
-c)
cos. A = 2 sin.
0-682683
3'-918
4'-816
Hence C— O = 4'-816 —3'-918 = 0'-898 = 54" nearly;
this gives C = 45° 42' 54".
Calcidation by the second formula.
d   1-060698
sin. (A — v)  9-366075
sin. O  9-854727
0-593094 2 sin. 6 sin. c sin.2 4H = 2
(240) ; therefore,
A + (5—c)
A — (b—c)
If we put —■ C —
—} = s — b, and
•?, then
A + (J-c)
sin. b sin
and hence
c sin.2 ^H = sin.
sin. A Ar. Comp.log...
sin. 1'j
6-088097
0-047331
3-536274
(s — b) sin. (s -
sin. 1H zr Ain- (s — b)s\n. (s — c).
fcin. A cin
•c)>
C — O = 0'-898 — 54" — 1-953202
The correction is positive, because the angle A
■v is
sin. b sin. c
Note. In this formula, the sines are supposed to be
computed to a rad. = 1, but in the table of log. sines, the
rad. is a number of which the log. is 10; therefore, to
adapt the formula to the table, we must divide each sine
SURVEYING.
i
sin. = R y*-
Surveying. to rad. = 1 by this number, so that calling the number R,
' we have
^sin. (s — b) sin. (s — c)
sin. b sin. c  ^ '
When the lines which contain the given oblique angle
have their inclinations to the ho¬
rizontal plane less than 2° or 3°, Fig. 6.
the general solution does not
conveniently apply. In this case,
instead of seeking the horizontal
angle directly, it is better to find
its difference from the oblique
angle.
To investigate a rule, let the
horizontal triangle BHC (see last
figure) be applied upon the plane
of the oblique triangle BAG, so
that they may still have a common base BC ; join AH, pro¬
ducing it to K, and draw HP, HQ perpendicular to AB,
AC. And because BHK = BAH + ABH, and CHK
= CAH + ACH, therefore BHC = BAG + ABH +
ACH, and putting d for the difference BHC — BAG, we
have
d - ABH + ACH.
Put r for AH, m for the angle HAP, and n for the angle
HAQ.; then HP rr r sin. m, HQ — r sin. n, AP r cos. m,
AQ = r cos. n, and, by the formulae of Art. (24i6) Algebra,
HP 4- HQ sin. m 4- sin. n , , . 1 .
= ; : = tan. 4- n) — tan. ^ A,
AQ+ AP " COS. ft-p 771 ‘2V • y 2
HP —HQ sin. m — sin. n i . .
-7-7C ,= = cot. Urn ft) = cot. 4A;
AQ — AP cos. ft — cos. m > / z
therefore HP HQ — (AQ -j- AP) tan. ^A,
HP —HQ= (AQ —AP) cot. 1A;
and, by adding and subtracting,
HP — — tan. A     cot. A,
HQ =
AQ + AP
tan,
lA
AQ—AP
2
cot. i|A.
2
V
BH — tan. b — cot. V — ^cot. - ■
2tan-1
Algebra
(249);
therefore, by subtracting, AP BA ■
V
BH = tan.-.
d
HQ=
d , V
tan. - ff- tan. —
tan. ^ A
d
tan-2-
V
-tan. -
2  2- 2
Now, in the triangles HBP, HCQ, because HB
cot.
tan. bn
and HC = cot. d -
HP
sin. HBP = ~
Irllj
we have
sin. HCQ =
HQ
HC
" tan. d’
— HP X tan. b’;
rr HQ X tan. c ;
In like manner it appears that AQ = CA — CQ= tan. -.
These values of AP and AQ being substituted in the
values of HP and HQ, we have
d H d b’
tan. - ff- tan. - tan. - — tan. -
HP —     tan. |A +       cot. | A,
therefore, by adding, and observing that the sum of the sines
of the angles HBP, HCQ, is, by reason of their smallness,
almost equal to twice the sine of half their sum, that is, to
twice the sine of ^(H — A) = ^d, we have
2 sin. \d — HP x tan. b’ + HQ x tan. d.
In this expression, substitute the values already found for
HP and HQ, and the result will be
cf l),\
^(tan. c' + tan.i') (tan. - + tan.-Jtan. ^A,
2sin.7,-rf:
d
-i(tan •c'— tan. b') (tan. - — tan. ~ J cot. ^ A. |
(2)
The approximation will be sufficiently accurate, and more
simple, if we put the arcs instead of the sine and tangents,
to which they are almost equal. The formula then becomes
/db'U i . fd—b'Y 1
d — I ——J tan. JA —^—-—J cot. \k.
In this formula, the arcs or angles d, b', d are expressed
in parts of the radius. If we suppose the same letters to
express the number of minutes in each, then, observing that
an arc of 1' = •00029888, in parts of the radius, we must
substitute d X -00029888, or, which is the same thing,
d
and instead of b' and
instead of d, and similarly,  
d. This being done, and the quantities tan. |A and cot. ^A
being divided by R, the radius, for the convenience of lo¬
garithmic calculation, we have
, / (d + by tan. r|A fd—b'\2 cot. ^A 1 1
R VaJ RJ 3438 ^ }
Supposing b and c to denote the same things as in the
general solution, put b* for the difference between b and a
right angle, and d for the difference between c and a right
angle, then 1/ and d are the inclinations of the sides of the
given oblique angle to the horizontal plane.
The lines BA, BH are nearly equal, because the one is
the secant and the other the tangent of an angle nearly
= 90° ; and the same is true of the lines CA, CH ; hence
the points A and H will be near each other, and the angles
ABH, ACH will be small, and BP zz BH nearly, also
CQ zz CH nearly ; and since
BA z= sec. b zr cosec. b' zz ^cot. ^ -j- ^tan. ^
2 J R \ 2 J R
Note. We have supposed the angles b\ d to be both
elevations. If one be a depression, the formula will still
hold true, provided the arc of depression be regarded as a
negative quantity. This may be inferred from the position
of the lines, also from the rules for the signs of the cosine
and sine of an arc (Algebra, 225).
Ex. 1. The angles of elevation of two straight lines, which
contain an oblique angle of 64° 10', are 6° 20' and 8° 46':
Find the corresponding horizontal angle.
In this case A = 64° 10' Log. calcu. by the 1st formula.
sin. & ( * ( 0’002659
b = 90°
c — 90
• 6° 20'zz 83
• 8 46 z= 81
40
14
I
Ar. Co.
(0-005104
2)229 4
s — 114
s — b= 30
.9 — c zz 33
32
52
18
sin. |H
The horizontal angle H z
1A
cot. U
sin. (s — b) 9-710153
sin. (s — c) 9-739590
2)19-457506
32° 22' 42" 9-728758
z 64 45 24, the answer.
As the ar. comp, of two logarithms are added, we ought
to reject 20 from the sum, or 10 from half the sum ; but the
formula requires that 10, the log. of rad., be added to half
the sum. As these operations compensate each other, both
are here omitted.
Ex. 2. As an example of the second formula, let A
rz 97° 36'; d, an angle of elevation, zz: 1° 30'; b', an angle of
depression, zz: 1° 6': Find the horizontal angle H.
Here c' zz -f- 90', b' zz — 66', c' -f- 6' zz 90' — 66' zz 24', d
— z= 90' + 66' zz 156'. The calculation by logarithms
may be thus:
6
Surveying.
SURVEYING.
c4-sy
Log.
2-158362
tan. 1A 10-057777
3438 Ar. Co. 6-463694
0'-048 _ 2-679833
cot. ^A
3438 Ar. Co.
T-549
Log.
3-784190
9-942223
6-463694
0-190107
Here 20 is subtracted from each sum, viz. 10 because of
the ar. co. of the log. that is added, and 10 because the rad.
is a divisor of each term of the formula. The calculation
gives d - 0’-048 — T-549 = _ C-501 =— 1' 30", a nega¬
tive quantity, and the required horizontal angle is 97° 36'
— T 30'7 = 97° 34' 30".
Scholium. If a station be taken at a known height above
a horizontal plane, and the oblique angles subtended by any
number of objects be measured, also their depressions, the
corresponding horizontal angles may be found by this prob¬
lem. Their horizontal distances may also be found, and
their places laid down in a map of the country.
When a tract to be surveyed has been covered with a
series of triangles, so as to connect the principal points, and
all the angles of each, and a side of one, are known, the sides
of all the triangles may be found, and a plan made, by con¬
structing the triangles on the sides of each other ; but in a
plan constructed by this method, an error in the position
of one triangle must necessarily affect the positions of all
the others that depend on it.
To avoid this inconvenience, we may determine the po¬
sition of a side of one of the triangles in respect of a meri¬
dian, or line drawn due north and south, by a compass, or
more accurately by astronomical observations, and then cal¬
culate the distances of all the stations from the meridian,
and also the distances from each other reduced to the di¬
rection of the meridian : from these, the position of each
station may be laid down in the plan independently of the
others, and also the direct distance between any two points
may be easily found. The manner of proceeding will ap¬
pear from the following example.
Let A, B, C, D, E, F, be six stations connected by four
triangles ABC, BCD, BDE, EDF ;
the angles are Fig. 7.
BAG — 79° 20' CBD = 39° 20'
ABC = 51 31 BCD = 69 28
ACB r= 49 9 BDC = 71 12
sum =180
DBE =
BDE =
BED =
45c
72
62
28'
3
29
sum =180
sum = 180
EDF = 62° 3'
DEF = 52 25
DFE = 65 32
sum = 180
A side AB of one of the triangles
is 4213 yards, and it makes with NS,
the meridian, an angle of 62° 52' at
the point A. Find the points in
which perpendiculars from the sta¬
tions cut the meridian, and the length of each perpendicular.
Draw B6, Cc, D^, Ee, Fy perpendicular to the meridian,
and Bra, D^, parallel to it, forming the right-angled tri¬
angles AB6, BCw, BDrc, ED/?, FDq. Because the angles
of the four triangles ABC, BCD, BDE, DEF are <nven,
and also AB, a side of one of them, the five lines AB, BC,
BD, DE, DF may be found from AB and each other (by
case 1, oblique-angled triangles). Their logarithms will be
AB 3-624591, BD 3-733559, DF 3-578533,
BC 3-738255, DE 3-638690.
In the right-angled triangle ABZ>, the side AB (or its
log.) and the angleBA6= 62° 52' are known ; hence we find
Ab = 1921-4, Bi = 3749-3 yards.
If from ABwi = 117° 8' (the sup. of BA6) the angle
ABC = 51° 31' be taken, there remains CB«i = 65° 37'. Surveying.
Therefore, in the right-angled triangle CB»j, the angles '
and the log. of BC are now known; hence we find Bm =
2259‘fi Cm—49fi5-2
And if from CBn= 65° 37', CBD = 39° 20' be sub¬
tracted, there remains DB« = 26° 17'. Therefore, in the
right-angled triangle DBw, the angles, and the log. of BD,
are known ; and hence
Bn = 4854-7, Dn= 2397-6.
From BD5'= 153° 43'(the sup. of BDn) subtract BDE=
72° 3', and there remains ED/? = 81° 40'; then, in the
right-angled triangle ED/?, the angles, and the log. of DE,
are known, and hence D/? = 630-7, E/> = 4306*1.
Lastly, subtracting EDF = 62° 31'from ED/? = 81° 40',
there remains FD/= 19° 37'; and hence, in the right-angled
triangle DF/, we find D/ = 3569-1, F/ = 1272-1.
To determine the stations, we have now
Yards. Yards.
Ab  = 1921-4, Bb   =3749-3,
Ac = Ab -f Bm = 4181-0, Cc = Cm—BJ = 1235-9,
Ad= Ab + Bn = 6776-1, T>d = Bb —Dn= 1351-7,
Ac = Ad + D/? = 7406-8, Ec = Dd +Ep = 5657-8,
A/= Ad +Dq = 10345-2, F/ = T>d +Fq = 2623-8.
By these numbers the position of each station may be
laid down with great accuracy in a plan, independently of
the others: also the distance between any two may be
readily found ; for example,
CE = V | (Cc + Ee)2 + (Ae — Ac)2 j (Geom. 13, 2).
Of Surveying with a Compass.
When a tract of country is to be surveyed with expedi¬
tion, and no great degree of accuracy is required, the com¬
pass, notwithstanding its imperfections, is preferable to any
other instrument. Even in a correct survey, it may be ap¬
plied with advantage in filling up the less important parts
of a plan.
The principle which renders the compass applicable to
surveying is generally known. The instrument should ad¬
mit of being fixed in a horizontal position on the top of a
staff, and it should be furnished with two sights diametri¬
cally opposite to each other. The circumference of a circle
immediately under or opposite to the point of the needle
should be divided into degrees, and it may be numbered
both ways, beginning from the extremities of the diameter
that passes through the sights ; or it may be numbered all
one way from 0° to 360°, beginning at a point immediately
under one of the sights.
The use of the instrument is to determine the bearings
of objects as seen from each other, or the angles which the
lines joining them make with the magnetic meridian. Thus,
if the perimeter of a polygon is to be surveyed and laid
down on paper, the instrument must be placed at one of
its angles, so that an object at the next angle may be seen
through the twro sights. The needle of the compass being
then allowed to turn freely on its pivot, it will settle in the
magnetic meridian, and point out on the divided circle the
number of degrees the line deviates from the north or south,
and on which side of the meridian it lies. If this be done
at each angle, the positions of all the lines in respect of the
magnetic meridians passing through their intersections will
be determined. J he sides of the polygon may be mea¬
sured in passing from one angle to another ; and then, as
the meridians may be supposed parallels, sufficient data will
be obtained for constructing a plan of the figure, and veri-
fying the accuracy of the survey; for any angle of the
figure will manifestly be equal to the sum or difference of
the angles which the lines that contain it make with the
meridian passing through their intersection, according as
they lie on opposite sides or the same side of that meridian.
s u s
s u s
7
All the angles of the figure may therefore be found; and,
if they have been accurately observed, their sum, together
with four right angles, will make twice as many right angles
as the figure has sides (Geom. 21, 1). If the survey be¬
gin and end at the same point, the positions of the begin¬
ning and end ought to coincide in the plan.
If the lines which join the objects do not form an en¬
closed figure, still the manner of proceeding may be the
very same ; and the positions of many points may be de¬
termined by observing their bearings from other points
having given positions in the plan, without the trouble of
measuring distances on the ground; and, in the whole pro¬
cess, the compass serves merely as an instrument for mea¬
suring angles.
In practice, the figure may be constructed in the field,
or else a mode of registering the observations may be easily
devised, from which a plan may be afterwards made ; and
it may prevent mistakes, if the bearings of all the objects
be reckoned from the north quite round the circle in one
direction, either to the right or left. Thus, proceeding to
the right, we may consider all lines on the east side of
the meridian between due north and due south as making
with it angles between 0° and 180°, and all lines on the
west side between due south and due north as making angles
between 180° and 360°.
It must be recollected that the magnetic does not coin¬
cide with the true meridian, and that the angle between
them, called the variation of the compass, changes. It va¬
ries at different times and in different places (see Magnet¬
ism). In 1823 it was 27° 4)8' at Edinburgh, and 24° 10' at
London : the deviation was westerly.
This mode of surveying was applied by Richard Nor- Susedoon
wood, an English mathematician of the seventeenth cen- 11 .
tury, to determine the magnitude of the earth. Having jjride-e0n
found the latitudes of London and York, he travelled from
the one place to the other, measuring along the road with
a chain, and taking the bearings with a compass. He says,
“ When I measured not, I paced; and I believe the expe¬
riment has come within a scantling of the truth.”
In our article Mensuration, we have explained the prin¬
cipal problems by which heights and distances are deter¬
mined by trigonometry: these find continual application
in surveying. The theory of levelling is a branch of the
same subject; this has been discussed in a particular article
(see Levelling). Maritime surveying requires the solu¬
tion of this problem : Three stations being given, and the
angles which the lines joining them subtend at a fourth sta¬
tion in their plane; to determine the position of that fourth
station. This is Problem V. in our article Mensuration
of Heights and Distances, and is there resolved in the
usual wray. Since that was printed, Dr Wallace, emeritus
professor of mathematics in the University of Edinburgh,
has published a work entitled “ Geometrical Theorems and
Analytical Formulae,” in which various new formulae and
constructions are given for this and other geodetical prob¬
lems.
On extensive trigonometrical surveying, see the following
works: Delambre, Base du Systeme Metrique Decimal, 3
vols. 1806-10 ; Biot et Arago, Recueil d’Observations
Geodesiques, &c. 1821 ; Dalby, Mudge, Colby, &c. Trigo¬
nometrical Survey of Britain, 1799-1811; Puissant, Traite
de Geodesic, 2 vols. 1819. (r.)
SURVIVORSHIP. See Annuities and Mortality.
SUSA, the ancient royal residence of the kings of Persia,
built by Darius the son of Hystaspes, according to Pliny,
though he perhaps only restored it, being a very ancient city,
founded by Tithonus, father of Memnon. Its compass was
said by ancient authors to be 120 stadia ; but the ruins give
us the idea of a still greater extent. They are situated on the
east side of the river Kerah, in the latitude of 32°, stretch¬
ing not less than twelve miles from one extremity to the
other. These ruins consist of hillocks of earth and rub¬
bish, covered with broken pieces of brick and coloured tile.
One of these hillocks is a mile in circumference, and 100
feet high. Another, though not quite so high, has double
the circuit. Large blocks of marble covered with hiero¬
glyphics are frequently discovered by the Arabs. There
is a building, apparently modern, called the tomb of Daniel.
Susa, a province of the department of Turin, in the con¬
tinental part of the kingdom of Sardinia. It is on the fron¬
tier towards France. It is 704 square miles in extent, and
forms a large valley with two terminations or horns, through
one of which is the road over Mount Genevre to France by
the Cottian Alps, and the other passes over Mount Cenis,
and so into Savoy; but the latter is by far the preferable road.
In the western part of the province lofty rugged rocks and
even glaciers are to be seen ; but in the west is an alterna¬
tion of valleys and gentle hills, with a fertile soil watered by
the river Dora, which runs to Turin. The district produces
abundance of wine, flax, hemp, and silk, but is deficient in
corn, and chestnuts are much used as a substitute for grain.
There are iron mines and marble quarries worked; and much
linen is spun and woven. The province has the title of a
marquisate, and contains a city, with sixty-five towns and
villages, and about 70,000 inhabitants.
The capital is the city of the same name at the foot of
the Alps, on the river Dora, which here receives the Ei-
nische. The town is badly fortified, and is rather meanly
built. It is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral and two
monasteries, with nearly 2000 inhabitants, whose chief occu¬
pation is making gloves, and spinning cotton thread. It is
a place of great antiquity, and must have been formerly of
importance in a military view, from its situation on the only
road then known from Gaul into Italy ; to defend which it
had the castles of Santa Maria and La Brunette, which were
destroyed by the French in 1796. Here stands a beau¬
tiful triumphal arch in honour of Augustus, which is in good
preservation. This place is twenty-three miles from Turin,
in longitude 6. 50. 10. E., and latitude 45. 8. N.
SUSEDOON, a town of Hindustan, province of Delhi,
situated near the ancient canal of the Sultan Feroz. Long.
76. 30. E. Lat. 29. 20. N.
SUSPENSION, in musical harmony. See Music.
SUSPENSION BRIDGE is such a structure as is hung
and stretched across some chasm, water-course, or other
space, over which it is designed to form a passage. In Thi¬
bet, Peru, and various other remote regions, bridges on this
principle, though of an extremely rude and perishable con¬
struction, and forming a most unstable and oscillating path,
seem to have existed anterior to any thing which is at pre¬
sent known of the history of those countries ; but the intro¬
duction of suspension bridges into civilized states, at least
on a large scale and of a substantial fabric, is of very mo¬
dern date. The leading features in the structure of the
latter sort have hitherto, for the most part, consisted in fix¬
ing securely in the two opposite banks, the extremities of
strong chains, which, being carried over piers or pillars,
reach across the space to be passed, in such a manner that
each portion of chain intercepted between two piers is al¬
lowed naturally to assume by its weight the figure of the
curve thence named the catenaria. From these chains, a
platform for the roadway is suspended by means of a series
of equidistant vertical roads. Some bridges approaching to
this description are said to have existed in China for many
Menai
Bridge.
s s u s
Suspension ages, though these cannot be expected to bear any close
ge' comparison with the productions of more intelligent'artists,
and especially the famous bridge which Telford constructed
across the Menai Straits, to connect the Isle of Anglesea
witli the coast of Wales, and which at the time of its being
completed (1826) was the largest of the kind in the world,
the span of the suspended or central arch, between the
highest points of the chains on the tops of the piers, and 153
feet above high water in the straits, is 560 feet, and the versed
sine or depression in the middle is forty- three feet. Seven stone
arches, of 52^ feet span each, make up the rest of the bridge;
four of those being next the island, and three on the Welsh
coast. But the chains, of which there are sixteen, reach
over the whole structure, and, besides, descend sixty feet in
sloping pits or shafts, to where they are secured by means of
cast-iron fiames ingrafted in the rocks; the entire length
of each chain being 1714< feet, or almost one third of a mile.
The two suspension piers of the middle arch rise fifty-two
feet above the roadway, and are surmounted by cast-iron
blocks and saddles, moveable upon friction-rollers, for the
purpose of allowing the chains which pass over them to move
with freedom when expanding or contracting under the vicis¬
situdes of temperature. The suspended platform, elevated
100 feet above high water, is occupied by two carriage-roads,
each twelve feet wide, with a footpath of four feet between
them. These pass through arches in the suspension piers ;
and each is separated und strongly railed in by lattice iron¬
work, both for protection, and also for stiffening the road¬
way to prevent vibration. Each of the chains is fivefold,
being composed of five series of iron bars, in such a man¬
ner that there are eighty bars in the cross section of the
whole chains. Each bar is nine feet nine inches in length,
three inches in breadth, and one in thickness, with six con¬
necting plates at each double joint, eighteen inches long by
ten broad, and one thick; the whole being secured by two
bolts of fifty-six pounds each. The design of such com¬
plexity is, that any part of the chain may with safety be
removed at any time for repair, or be replaced by a new
one.
Ihe Menai Bridge, however, has been greatly surpassed,
both in length and height, by a far lighter and much less ex¬
pensive one, though of great strength, which has since been
constructed by M. Challey of Lyon, over the river Sarine,
at Freyburg, in Switzerland. This was completed in 1834.
The span is 870 feet, and the roadway is elevated 167 feet
above the water of the Sarine. The lightness of this bridge
is in a great measure owing to its neither being suspended
by chains nor solid iron rods, but by four cables of iron wire,
each containing about 1200 wires, the united strength of
which could support thrice the load they will ever be likely
to bear, or three times the weight of two rows of loaded
waggons extending over its whole length. It is greatly in
favour of these cables that the wires have not been twisted
together like so much hair or hemp; for we have no doubt
that twisting would have increased the stress in the ratio of
radius to the cosine of the obliquity, as it must unavoidably
do in ordinary ropes; but each wire just preserves the same
direction as the cable itself does, and which, between the
piers, is that of a catenarian curve, depressed fifty-five feet
at the middle. Two of the cables are placed close together
at each side of the bridge ; each cable, except where it
passes in a flattened shape over friction-rollers on the tops
of the piers, has the whole of its wires firmly bound into a
cylindrical form, by means of annealed wire wound round
them at intervals of two or three feet. They are painted
white, both for preservation, and that the least tendency to
rust might be detected at once. The cables first enter the
banks in a sloping direction, and after passing over friction-
rollers, and then descending forty-five feet vertically in
shafts cut in the rock, they are finally attached at the bot¬
tom to massy blocks of stone, which are securely held down
Freyburg
Bridge.
s u s
by means of masonry, filling up the shafts in a dovetailed Sussex.
But the catenarian form of suspension, however well Defects of
suited to support a heavy load uniformly distributed over it A16 catena-
and at rest, is by no means easily restrained from a readi-ria'
ness which it naturally has to yield, like a fluid, to any change
or inequality in the pressure, and consequently to oscillate
or undulate when used for a bridge which has to support
loads that are not only very unequal, but perpetually shift¬
ing their positions on it. To remedy or obviate this defect,
various schemes have at different times been proposed.
Some of these are merely attempts to stiffen the fabric by
means of stays, strongly trussed railings, &c. In other
schemes, it has been proposed to abandon the chains and
cables altogether, and to use in their stead separate and un ¬
yielding suspensions for the different parts of the roadway.
Thus in the Annals of Philosophy for January 1818, Mr
Loudon has given a design for a bridge to cross the Mer¬
sey at Runcorn, in which the suspension is to be effected by
a considerable number of straight iron rods, radiating from
the tops of the piers, and separately attached to two series
of equidistant points ranging along the roadway. Under
this ai rangement, it is evident that no material sinking of
a particular part of the roadway could occur without the
rods which supported it giving way altogether, and it were
easy to have these as strong as any chains. Nearly the
same scheme was afterwards given by Mr Seaward in the
Philosophical Magazine for December 1823, and has been
still more recently proposed again, with some improvements,
by Mr Curtis, at the Liverpool meeting of the British As¬
sociation, under the title of “ an inflexible suspension
bridge.” At the Newcastle meeting, a scheme was brought
forward by Mr Dredge, for what he calls “ a mathematical
suspension.” His paper then read has been printed with
some additions in the Mechanics Magazine for October
1838; but instead of any thing mathematical, the terms in
which he has expressed himself are so enigmatical, if not
paradoxical, that, from an attentive perusal, we have only-
been able to gather, that by means of a tapering chain, and
what he calls “ diagonal rods,” he professes (though without
explaining how) both to lessen the strain greatly, and also
to proportion the strength of the several parts so accurately
to the stress, as to require a much less quantity of materials
than usual. He farther informs us that a bridge constructed
at Bath, on these unexplained principles, has answered ad¬
mirably. There are various other projects for bridges, which
our limits will not permit us to specify. (e. e, e.)
SUSSEX, an English maritime county, bounded on the Bound-
east by Kent, on the north by that county and Surrey, onaries.
the west by Hampshire, and on the south by the British
Channel. It is of an oblong shape, being about seventy Extent,
miles in length from east to west, and nowhere more than
twenty-six miles in breadth from north to south. Its area
is 14-63 square miles, or 936,320 statute acres. It is di-Divisions,
vided into six portions, provincially called ropes, which are
again divided into sixty-five hundreds, and contain 313
parishes. The greater part of the county is within the dio¬
cese of Chichester ; but the deaneries of Paghamand South
Mailing, and All-Saints in Chichester, form a part of the
peculiar of the archbishop of Canterbury.
Ihe population of this county at the four decennial pe-p0pula-
riods of enumeration amounted, in 1801 to 159,311, in 1811 tion.
to 190,083, in 1821 to 233,019, and in 1831 to 272,800.
At the last period the distribution of the inhabitants was,
Occupiers of land employing labourers 3,160
Occupiers not employing labourers 1,330
Labourers employed in agriculture 26,125
Labourers employed in manufactures   109
Labourers in retail trade and handicraft 19,208
Capitalists, bankers, &c   3 094
Labourers not agricultural 8^151
Sussex.
Towns
and vil¬
lages.
s u s
Males at and above twenty years of age   4,094
' Male servants 1 >531
Female servants   13,366
In the same year the number of families chiefly employed
in agriculture amounted to 22,450; of those chiefly em¬
ployed in trade, manufactures, and handicraft, to 17,439;
and of those not comprised in either of the preceding classes,
to 12,777. The number of inhabited houses was 45,505,
occupied by 52,712 families; of the uninhabited, 1859;
and of those building, 620.
The amount of the annual value of the real property of
the county, as assessed for the purposes of the property-tax
in 1813, was L.915,348.
The towns and villages within this county, whose inha¬
bitants exceed 2000, are, with their population in 1831, as
follows, viz.
s u s
9
Sussex.
Battle „.2,909
Arundel 2,803
Mayfield 2,738
East Bourne 2,726
Cuckfield 2,586
Ticehurst. 2,314
Wadhurst 2,256
Salehurst 2,204
Bersted.....   2,190
Brighton or Bright- I 40 634f
helmstone j
Hastings .10,097
Lewes 8,592
Chichester (city) 8,270
Horsham 5,105
Rye 3,715
East Grinstead 3,364
Petworth 3,114
Rotherfield 3,097
Fare of the The northern part of the county was formerly a complete
country, forest, and still is very thickly covered with wood, and
adorned with the finest oak trees in the kingdom. The soil
is generally of so tenacious a clay, and so deep, that, until
within a few years, in which roads have been made, and the
navigation of the river Arun improved, the timber scarcely
paid the expense of carriage to districts where it was needed.
A range of chalk-hills, known as the South Downs, runs
through the county parallel to the coast, and in some points
terminating in the sea. On these, vast flocks of sheep are
fed ; and in the small valleys intervening, the heaviest crops
of wheat and other grain are raised. In the south-west
part of the county, there is a tract of arable land of most
singular fecundity. On some parts of the coast, where the
chalk-hills recede from the shore, there are rich level plains,
which feed some of the best oxen that supply the markets
of the metropolis.
The size of the estates varies much, but there are no very
great proprietors. The farms in the weald or eastern vales
are generally small, those on the South Downs as generally
large. The average rent of the land, according to the re¬
turns under the late property-tax, was 3s. 9d. per acre.
More tlnvn 100,000 acres are not estimated at above Is. 6d.
per acre, 70,000 acres of down land are estimated at 6s.
per acre, and 170,000 of woodland at 8s. per acre. The
arable and woodland in the weald, amounting to about
420,000, are estimated at 12s. The marsh land and the
arable land in the south-west have been let as high as 50s.
per acre. In the weald about one third is arable, one third
pasture, and one third wood and waste land. On the south
side of the Downs, the arable exceeds the pasture in the
proportion of thirty acres to one.
The agriculture of the county is as various as the differ¬
ences of the soil. In the stiff lands of the weald, the prac¬
tice of fallowing is generally prevalent; but to the south of
the Downs it is rarely resorted to. The growing of turnips,
potatoes, pease, or beans, is commonly found sufficient to
prepare the land for corn. Hops are very extensively cul¬
tivated in the eastern part of the county ; and as nearly the
whole manure of the farms is applied to that plant, the crops
of wheat and other grain are usually scanty.
The cattle of Sussex are celebrated throughout the whole
kingdom. The cows are of a deep-red colour, with small
heads, and horns thin and transparent, which run out hori¬
zontally, and turn up towards the tips. The quality of
VOL. XXI.
Landed
property.
Agricul¬
ture.
Cows.
their milk is not equal to that of some other breeds; hence
there are few dairies, and the cattle are chiefly reared forv ^ '
the sake of the meat, which is excellent. As much of the
ploughing is performed by oxen, they usually labour in
harness three or four years before they are fattened. They
are bift lightly worked, that their growth may not be im¬
peded ; and it is not unusual to see eight and sometimes
even ten oxen to a plough. The sheep of Sussex have Sheep,
spread gradually over most parts of the island. The sheep
known by the name of South Downs have no horns, and
their faces and legs are black or dark coloured. I he flesh
is surpassed by none in England, i heir wool is as fine as
that of Herefordshire, and they require less food for their
support than sheep of any other breed.
There ai-e no manufactures in the county. The making Employ-
of iron formerly gave employment to many persons in the meats,
weald ; but the invention of making it with coke instead oi
charcoal has removed it to those districts where mines of
* iron and of coal are to be found. T he only branch of in¬
dustry which gives any employment to the population, be¬
sides that of agriculture, is the fishery, which, in the sum¬
mer, especially when the mackerel appear, is extensive.
The prosperity of many places on the coast has arisen from
the crowds of visitors who frequent them for the pleasures
of sea air and bathing. Among those places, Brighton, as
the favourite residence of our two last monarchs, as well as
of our youthful queen, is the most prominent. Much com¬
pany is annually collected at Blastings, East Bourne, Rot-
tendean, Worthing, and Bognor.
The rivers of Sussex are all streams of short course. Rivers.
The Lavant and Arun are navigable but a few miles from
their mouths. The other rivers are the Adur, w hich, join¬
ing with the Ouse, runs by Lewes to Newhaven ; and the
Bother, which forms an estuary near Rye. The only canal
is one that connects the towns of Fetworth and Midhurst
with the river Arun.
There are several remains of Roman camps in different Antiqui-
parts of the county ; and the Stane Street Road may still be d28-
traced between Chichester and Dorking. The Saxon re¬
mains are very numerous, among which the most remark¬
able are Pevensey Castle and Battle Abbey. Arundel
Castle is a most splendid modemized edifice, upon the site
of the ancient structure of that name. Besides these, Bay-
ham Abbey, Eridge Castle, Bodiham Castle, and the buildings
at Winchelsea, are worthy the attention of the antiquary.
The titles derived from this county are those of duke of Peers and
Sussex, earls of Winchelsea, Ashburnham, Chichester, and representa-
Sheffield, and Barons Arundel, Gage, and Selsey. For elec-don-
tion purposes the county has been formed into two divisions.
The eastern election is held at Lewes ; and the other polling
places are East Grinstead, Battle, and Mayfield. The west¬
ern election place is Chichester; and the other polling places
are Steyning, Petworth, Horsham, and Arundel. By the
reform bill the boroughs of Bramber, East Grinstead, and
Steyning, have been disfranchised, and Midhurst, Rye, and
Arundel, return one member each instead of two. Brighton
has been constituted a borough with two members; and Chi¬
chester, Hastings, and Lewes, continue, as before, to elect
two.
The most remarkable seats are, the Pavilion at Brighton ;cinefseat3.
Goodwood, the duke of Richmond; Petworth, Colonel
Wyndham; Arundel Castle, duke of Norfolk ; Sheffield
Place, earl of Sheffield ; Eridge Castle, earl of Abergaven¬
ny ; Ashburnham House, earl of Ashburnham; Stanstead,
Reverend Lewis Way; Parham, Sir Cecil Bishop; Kidbroke,
Lord Colchester; Marisfield Park, Sir John Shelly; Firle,
Lord Gage; Stanmer Park, earl of Chichester; Ovingdean,
Nathaniel Kemp, Esq.; Eartham, the widow of the Right
Honourable William Huskisson ; Weshdean House, Lord
Selsey.
See Young’s Agricultural Survey of Sussex; Russell’s
10
S U T
Siitalury Description of Kent and Sussex; Gilpin’s Observations;
II Pennant’s Journey from London to the Isle of Wight;
landr* Beauties of England and Wales.
SUTALURY, a town of Bengal, province of Baker-
gunge, which trades to some extent in grain. Long. 90.
10. E. Lat. 22. 38. N. .
SUTCHANA, a town of Hindustan, province of Guje-
rat, situated to the east of Noanagur, to the chief of which
it belongs. An extensive fishery is carried on along this
part of the Gulf of Cutch. The pearl-oyster fishery is also
carried on here, and is a source of revenue. Lat. not as¬
certained.
Situation SUTHERLAND, an extensive county in the north of
and bound- Scotland, situated between 57° 53' and 58° 36' north lati¬
tude, and between 3° 39' and 5° 15' west longitude from
Greenwich ; having the sea on the south-east, west, and
north, Caithness on the north-east, and Ross-shire on the
south. From north to south it extends from 35 to 50 miles,
and from west to east from 45 to 50, and contains, accord¬
ing to the latest authorities, 1754 square miles, or 1,112,560
English acres, divided into thirteen parishes, which belong
to the synod of Sutherland and Caithness. Of the other
divisions, the principal are, Assyntand Edderachylis on the
west, and Strathnaver on the east; names recognised by the
inhabitants, and which still serve to designate the locality of
the natural objects and other circumstances of the country.
Surface. The coast of Sutherland, like that of the other Highland
counties of Scotland, presents a succession of inlets of the
sea, and bold promontories, with a number of rocks and
islets. The principal arms of the sea are Lochs Assynt,
Laxford, and Inchard, on the west; Durness Bay, Loch
Eriboll, the Kyle of Tongue, and the bays of Torrisdale
and Strathy, on the north ; and Loch Fleet in tire Frith of
Dornoch, on the south-east: and the more remarkable pro¬
montories are, Ru Stoir, on the south side of Loch Assynt;
Cape Wrath, on the north-west extremity of the county ;
Far-out Head and Whitten Head, on the north ; and Stra¬
thy Head, on the north-east. The interior consists of
mountains, mosses, lakes, and streams, presenting great
variety in form, but almost all having the same general
character of being barren, rugged, and dismal, more espe¬
cially on the western side; and so closely thrown together,
that there is no valley of any extent, and seldom a tree or
a shrub, to relieve the eye. The Assynt mountains have
not even heath to cover their nakedness, except in patches
among the rocks near their base. Exceptions to this ge¬
neral character occur on the eastern coast, along the Dor¬
noch Frith, and on the banks of a few of the lakes and ri¬
vulets. From its latitude, and exposure to the winds of the
German and Northern Ocean, the climate of Sutherland is
sharp and cold. On the east coast, however, it is not so
severe as to prevent the growth of wheat, which sometimes
ripens as early here as in many parts of England.
Rivers. The principal streams are, Oickel, Fleet, Brora, and
Helmsdale, which fall into the Dornoch Frith on the south¬
east. The tide renders the Oickel navigable by vessels of
fifty tons for about twelve miles, and for boats for about
eight miles farther ; and they have all good salmon fisher¬
ies. These rivulets have their sources among the moun¬
tains in the centre of the district, and flow south-east. In
the same quarter various streams take their rise, and flow in
a northerly direction; such as Strathy, the Naver, which gives
its name to the tract called Strathnaver, the Dinart, &c., most
of them containing salmon. The most considerable lake is
Loch Shin, about twenty miles long and one broad, situat¬
ed on the southern side of the county, through which flows
a stream of the same name, which falls into the Oickel.
There are several others of considerable extent in different
parts, the whole occupying about fifty-three square miles,
or nearly 34,000 acres. On the north coast the sea has
formed some remarkable caves in the limestone rock, par-
S U T
ticularly one at Smow, to the east of Balnakeel of Durness, Suther-
thirty-two yards wide and twenty yards high ; and another Jan{1-
at Fraisgill, fifty feet high, and twenty feet wide at its en-
trance, but contracting by degress till its termination, more
than half a mile under ground.
The oldest formation of rocks in Sutherland is gneiss, Minerals,
which extends over the whole county, and affords a great
diversity of aspect in the stratification. This formation is
traversed by granite veins, which abound in various places in
the south-east part of the county, as also in the upper part
of the parishes of Reay and Edderachylis. The gneiss is
also traversed by veins of greenstone and porphyry. Those
of the greenstone are found in great abundance in the
south-east district of Assynt, and in the country around
Scourie in Edderachylis parish. Porphyry veins are of
rare occurrence. Mica-slate is developed to a considera¬
ble extent in two parts of the county ; in that portion of the
district of Moin which stretches southwards, and constitutes
the whole of the mountains of Ben-FIope, Ben-Hee, and
Meal-Rynies ; and that part of the county between Loch
Fleet and Bonar Bridge. Granite fields prevail in the
lower part of the parish of Reay, and in the parishes of
Loth and Rogart. Syenite is to be met with in several
places. It is most abundant in the mountain of Ben- Laog-
hal, and that considerable tract of hilly country which in¬
tervenes between the head of Loch Fleet and Lairg, at the
foot of Loch Shin. The quartz series of rocks occurs prin¬
cipally in greater or less fields in the west part of the
county, from Loch Eriboll on the north, to Loch Vattie on
the south. This series is connected with sandstone and
limestone. The latter is divided into four great fields con¬
nected with each other, and running in the same direction as
the quartz. I here is also a portion of nearly six miles in
length at Durness, between Loch Eriboll and Cape Wrath.
Red stone and conglomerate are extensively displayed on
the east side, and at several points on the north coast and the
interior. J he oolite series of rocks, consisting of white sand¬
stone, sandstone flag, slate-clay, limestone, and coal, forms
the coast between Golspie and the Ord of Caithness, and
has a breadth at the river Brora of three miles. At Brora,
coal occurs at several points, but it has been found not to
be worth the working. Calcareous sinter and bog iron
ore are the only chemical alluvial deposits to be found in
the county.
This county, which is valued in the cess-books at valuation
L.26,193. 9s. 7d. Scots, is almost entirely the property of and rental,
the duke of Sutherland. In 1812 the gross rental of the
lands and houses, as returned under the property-tax act,
was L.28,458. 8s. 4d. including about L.1700 as the rent
of the salmon and other fisheries. Since that period, the
great and extensive improvements effected by the spirited
proprietors must have augmented the rental in a corre¬
sponding degree. More than half the valuation is held
under entail. The principal seats are, Dunrobin Castle, Seats,
duke of Sutherland, on the coast of the Dornoch Frith, in
the parish of Golspie ; Skibo, Dempster, on an inlet of the
same frith, near the south-eastern corner of the county;
and Tongue Castle, on the Kyle of Tongue, on the north
coast. Most of the other proprietors have good modern
houses, all of which are situated near the coast. In no part Improve,
of Britain has a greater change been effected in so short aments,
period as in Sutherland, and this chiefly by the spirit and
liberality of its greatest proprietor, the duke of Sutherland.
M ithin these twenty or thirty years, roads, bridges, har¬
bours, and villages, have been constructed wherever they
seemed to be required; and both the natural and moral
obstructions to the improvement of this extensive territory
have, as far as it appears practicable, been in a great mea¬
sure overcome. Before the beginning of the present cen¬
tury, Sutherland was almost in a state of nature, excluded
from the benefits of that civilization which had spread over
S U T
S U T
It
Slither- the rest of Britain ; and this exclusion was principally owing
land, to the want of roads and other means of communication.
—-v—During the last twenty years the greatest changes have^
taken place. “ Before that period, the injurious system of
sub-letting prevailed, and both the knowledge and the prac¬
tice of farming were exceedingly defective. The place of
Dunrobin excepted, there was neither draining, trenching,
nor fallow, and very little green crop, besides potatoes and
a little pease. There were few fences, and these few bad.
The plough, which was rudely constructed, had no part ol
it iron but the coulter, the sock, and the hook at the end
of the beam. Four country garrans, or highland ponies,
were yoked to the plough abreast, and the driver walked
in front of them backwards. There were few wheeled ve¬
hicles that deserved the name. Corn, fuel, &c. were car¬
ried in a kind of frame called crubags, fastened on horse¬
back to a wooden saddle, that rested on a straw-mat. The
public road was the only one, and that itself indifferent. The
dwellings of the subtenants were wooden frames, thatched
with turf; and of these, one end accommodated cattle, horses,
and sometimes pigs. One end also of the turf-coverings of
these huts, saturated as it was with soot, was annually stript
off and converted into manure. With such dwellings the
dress of their tenants corresponded. The state of things is
now very different. Farming is brought to the highest de¬
gree of excellence that industry, skill, and expense, can
bring it. Nor is it too much to say, that the system of
farming at present followed in the county does not fall
short of the best modes of farming in any part of the king¬
dom. The farmers have very good houses, with two pub¬
lic rooms ; and they have their wheeled carriages for per¬
sonal and family use. Sub-letting is abolished. The small
tenants or cottars live in decent cottages, built with stone
and lime, or clay, with glass windows; and their fare is cor¬
respondingly better; and the tradesmen and ploughmen
wear good clothes. In no county of Scotland was there
ever, in so short a time, the same length of road made, as
there has been within the last twenty years in the county
of Sutherland. In former times the internal communica¬
tion was by mere paths or tracks, and many parts of it were
all but inaccessible. Now, several hundred miles of good
road, unchecked by tolls, intersect the county in every di¬
rection ; and there is free and easy access to every part of
it. These roads were made, partly by the parliamentary
commissioners and the county, but chiefly at the expense
of the noble proprietors, and under the able management
of James Loch, Esq. M. P. their commissioner.” 1
Sutherland is eminently adapted by nature for sheep¬
grazing; and the plans of converting it into extensive sheep-
walks, which have been for some years carrying into exe¬
cution, have greatly augmented the revenue of the pro¬
prietors, and added to the commercial wealth of the nation ;
but they have doubtless been attended with much suffering
to the small tenants whom it was necessary to dispossess.
The people who had been removed from the interior in
ISIS and 1819, when these great changes took place, are
densely settled along the sea-coast; in some instances about
thirty cottagers occupying the land formerly in the posses¬
sion of twelve. They have likewise been obliged to make a
violent change in their occupations and habits : instead of
tending flocks, and following other rural occupations, they
have been forced to encounter the hardships and dangers
of the sea, and occupy themselves with the fisheries; and
many families have preferred emigration from their native
country, to engaging in occupations so entirely foreign to
their previous habits.
Agricul- The ordinary system of husbandry adopted is the five-
ture. course shift rotation of crops; and trenching and draining
have been executed to a great extent. The rent of arable Suther¬
land is from 20s. to 30s. per acre. The corn-farms are
generally of such an extent as yield from L.50 to L.200
of annual rent; few exceed L.300. The average rate of
grazing is L.l. 10s. per ox or cow grazed, and 2s. per
sheep. The leases of farms are generally for nineteen years;
but the cottagers on the coast are almost always tenants at
will, which is evidently a bar to the improvement of their
cots. But the greater part of the county is laid out in ex¬
tensive sheep-farms, yielding about L.500 of yearly rent
each. The Cheviot or white-faced breed of sheep is that
which is generally kept. The Dunrobin breed of cattle,
originally from Argyleshire, is excellent. Some Ayrshire
cows are kept for dairy use. On some farms the breed of
Galloway black-polled cattle, and highland black cattle, are
chiefly reared. Goats were once a part of the stock of the
farmers, but they have now nearly disappeared.
Until the recent establishments of the duke of Suther- Manufae-
land, there was no manufacture in this county, if we except tures.
that of kelp, of which the quantity used to be 250 tons.
A cotton-mill had been erected at Spinningdale, on a branch
of the Dornoch Frith, by. a Glasgow company; but the
building having been burnt down in 1806, the undertaking
was abandoned. A good many boats are employed in the Fisheries,
fisheries on the west and north coast for cod, ling, haddock,
and herring; and lobsters and mussels are found in consider¬
able quantities. At Helmsdale, on the east coast, many of
those small tenants who were removed by the introduction
of sheep-farming, have also embarked in the fisheries with
considerable success; and large sums have been expended
within these few years by the noble proprietor of the Suther¬
land estate in erecting the necessary buildings. The prin- Commerce,
cipal exports are sheep, wool, cattle, horses, salmon, and
cod. Their butter and cheese are nearly all consumed at
home; and besides the usual imports of cloths, groceries,
&c., they require some corn, chiefly oatmeal, especially on
the west and north sides of the county, where they have
very little corn-land.
Dornoch, a royal borough, situated on the south-eastern
extremity, on the frith of that name, is the only town, and
contains little more than 500 inhabitants. Golspie, Helms¬
dale, and Brora, are the principal villages. With these ex¬
ceptions, the inhabitants are scattered along the coast, and
in some of the principal straths, passing much of their time
in idleness ; a healthy, robust, and simple, though not ill-in¬
formed race, who have contributed largely to the public ser¬
vice. For the last half century, the Sutherland family have
raised among them, at the commencement of every war, a
corps of a thousand men, well known by the name of the
Sutherland Fencibles ; but this military spirit, founded hi at¬
tachment to their chiefs, has now become much weaker than
formerly.
The schools in the county are the parish schools, and Schools,
those of the Society for propagating Christian Knowledge
and the Gaelic School Society. According to the last par¬
liamentary returns, there was neither printer nor booksel¬
ler in the whole county; a circumstance indicating either
great poverty or little literary taste among the inhabitants.
Sutherland is distinguished from every other county in the
kingdom in being undisturbed by religious dissent; there
is not a single dissenting place of worship within its limits.
Savings banks have been established in some of the pa¬
rishes. The only prison in the county is at Dornoch. The
number of prisoners during the year 1833 was twenty, of
whom six were committed for smuggling, and ten for assaults.
In various districts along the coast, there are some re-Antiquities,
mains of antiquity. The most interesting are two circular
buildings, called Dun Dornadil, or Dornadilla’s Tower, and
* Statistical Account of Scotland.
12 S W A
Sutler Castle Coll, both reared of large stones, nicely fitted, but
jj..,1; || . without cement, and of which considerable portions are still
v ^ entire, after the lapse of probably 1000 years. Castle
Coll, which is situated on the east side of the county, on a
• stream that falls into the Brora, has an exterior circumfer¬
ence of fifty-four yards, with walls four yards and a half
thick at the base, inclining inwards nine inches in every
three feet in height; and two small apartments on each
side of the door-way, as if intended for guard-rooms. The
highest part of the wall is now only eleven feet high, but
Antiqui- old people remember it twice that height. Dun Dornadil
ties. jg jn t])e parish 0f Durness, on the northern side of the
county. It is a building of the same character with the
former, but still more dilapidated, and is celebrated in the
ancient Gaelic ballads as a place of renown at a very early
period. The ruins of Dornoch cathedral still display the
original grandeur of that edifice, which is said to have been
built in the eleventh century, and repaired and enlarged
in the thirteenth. Circular cairns with subterraneous pas¬
sages, tumuli, and some small forts, may yet be traced in
various situations along the coast.
Jlepresen. The county sends one member to parliament; and the
ration. town of Dornoch joins with Cromarty, Dingwall, Tain,
Wick, and Kirkwall, in electing one for the Scotish burghs.
Topula- The population, according to the census of 1801, was
23,117, in 1811 it amounted to 23,629, in 1821 to .23,840,
and in 1831 to 25,518, of which 12,090 were males, and
13,428 were females. The families employed in agriculture
were 3567, in trade and manufactures 409, in all other
occupations 1029.
New Statistical Account of Scotland; Henderson’s Gene¬
ral View of the County of Sutherland ; Loch’s Account of
the Improvements of the Marquis of Stafford in Sutherland;
and Cunningham’s Essay on the Geology of the County, in
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. xlvi.
SUTLER, one who follows the army, and furnishes the
troops with provision. Sutlers pitch their tents or build
their huts in the rear of each regiment, and about head¬
quarters.
SUTTON-COLDFIELD, a town in the hundred of
Hemlingford and county of Warwick, 112 miles from Lon¬
don. It is situated on a bleak hill in a very extensive pa¬
rish. It has a good church, with a high square tower. The
town is neat, and contains many comfortable residences.
There is a market on Wednesday, and several fairs. The
inhabitants, who are chiefly employed in the manufacture
of articles connected with the Birmingham trade, amounted
in 1821 to 3466, and in 1831 to 3684.
SUTULEGE, a celebrated river of Hindustan, and the
easternmost of those five rivers which are called the Pun¬
jab. It has its rise in the lofty ridge of the Himalaya
Mountains, and flows in a southerly direction, bounding to
the east the country of Lahore, where it enters Hindustan
at Bellaspoor. The stream is 100 yards wide when the
waters are at the lowest. About the middle of its course
it is joined by the Beyah or Hyphasis, in the latitude of
30. N., after which the united stream takes the name of
Kirah. It falls into the Indus near the 29th degree, about
eighty miles below Moultan. It is navigable 200 miles above
its conflux with the Indus. The length of its course, includ¬
ing its windings, may be 600 miles.
SWAFFHAM, a town of the hundred of South Green-
hoe, in the county of Norfolk, ninety-three miles from
London. It is well built, in a pleasant and healthful dis¬
trict. The church is of the cathedral form, with an ele¬
gant turret and steeple. It is not a place of much trade,
but has a good market on Saturday. In the market is a
handsome cross erected at the expense of the earl of Or-
fbrd. The number of inhabitants amounted in 1811 to
2350, in 1821 to 2836, and in 1831 to 3285.
SWALLY, a seaport of Hindustan, province of Gujerat,
S W A
situated at the mouth of the Taptee river; twenty milesSwanimer-
west by south of Surat, of which it may be considered as dam
the port. Long. 72. 50. E. Lat. 21. 5. E. H
SWAMMERDAM, John, a celebrated natural philoso-
pher, was the son of John James Swammerdam, an apo¬
thecary and naturalist of Amsterdam, and was born in
1637. His father intended him for the church, and with
this view had him instructed in Latin and Greek ; but think¬
ing himself unequal to so serious a vocation, he prevailed
with his father to consent to his applying himself to physic.
As he was kept at home till he should be properly qualified
to engage in that study, he was frequently employed in
cleaning his father’s curiosities, and putting every thing in
its proper place. This inspired him with an early taste for
natural history ; so that, not content with the survey of the
curiosities which his father had purchased, he soon began
to make a collection of his own, which he compared with
the accounts given of them by the best writers. When
grown up, he seriously attended to his anatomical and me¬
dical studies ; yet spent part of the day and the night in
discovering, catching, and examining the flying insects
proper to those times, not only in the province of Holland,
but in those of Guelderland and Utrecht. Thus initiated
in natural history, he went to the university of Leyden in
1651 ; and in 1653 was admitted a candidate of physic in
that university. His attention being now engaged by ana¬
tomy, he began to consider how the parts of the body,
prepared by dissection, could be preserved, and kept in
constant order for anatomical demonstration ; and here he
succeeded as he had done before in his nice contrivances
for dissecting and managing the minutest insects. He af¬
terwards made a journey into France, where he spent some
time at Saumur, and where he became acquainted with
several learned men. In 1667 he returned to Leyden, and
took the degree of M. D. The next year the grand duke
of Tuscany being in Holland in order to see the curiosi¬
ties of the country, came to view those of the father and the
son; and on this occasion Swammerdam made some ana¬
tomical dissections of insects in the presence of that prince,
who was struck with admiration at his great skill in ma¬
naging them, especially at his proving that the future but¬
terfly lay with all its parts neatly folded up in a caterpillar,
by actually removing the integuments that covered the
former, and extricating and exhibiting all its parts, how¬
ever minute, with incredible ingenuity, by means of instru¬
ments of inconceivable fineness. On this occasion the
duke offered him 12,000 florins for his share of the collection,
on condition of his removing them himself into Tuscany,
and coming to live at the court of Florence ; but Swammer¬
dam, who hated a court life, declined his highness’s propo¬
sal. In 1663, he published a General History of Insects.
About this time, his father began to take offence at his in¬
considerately neglecting the practice of physic, which
might have supported him in affluence ; and would neither
supply him with money nor clothes. This reduced him to
some difficulties. In 1675 he published his History of the
Ephemeras ; and his father dying the same year, left him a
fortune sufficient for his support; but he did not long sur¬
vive him, for he died in 1682. Gaubius gave a transla¬
tion of all his works from the orginal Dutch into Latin,
from which they were translated into English, and published
in folio, in 1758. Boerhaave wrote his life.
SWAN Isles, a cluster of small rocky islets, which lie
between the north coast of Van Diemen’s Land and the
south of New Holland. They are uninhabited.
SWAN AGE, a town of the hundred of Rowbarnwv, in
the county of Dorset, on the isle of Purbeck, 127 miles
from London. It stands on the sea-shore. A large quan¬
tity of stone is shipped from this place for London. The
population amounted in 1811 to 1483, in 1821 to 1607, and
in 1831 to 1734.
S W E
iv.vanpnn SWANPAN, or Chinese Abacus, an instrument for
I! performing arithmetical operations. See Abacus.
Sweden. SWANSEA, a seaport town of South Wales, in the
” v'1''--' county of Glamorgan, 206 miles from London. It stands
at the mouth of the river Tavvy, which serves as its haven.
It is a tidal harbour, and can only be entered with the
flood-tides, but it has a good dry dock. The town is in a
semicircular form, on a rising ground, and has a good ap¬
pearance. The chief street is wide and long, and contains
some very handsome houses of private persons, but scarcely
a public building worthy of notice. The shipping that
arrives and departs is numerous. The copper ore raised in
Cornwall is brought to this town to be smelted in its vici¬
nity. A vast quantity of coal is raised in the neighbour-
S W E 13
hood, part of which is used in the several manufactories; Sweden,
but a large portion is also exported to Cornwall, Devon,'v'-""'
and Somerset. There are establishments for making pottery-
ware, tin, cast and wrought iron, and beer. Swansea has
of late become a much-frequented bathing place, and has
been supplied with all the institutions usually found in si¬
milar towns. It is a borough, and for municipal purposes
is divided into three wards, and is governed by a portreeve,
six aldermen, and seventeen councillors. Jointly with Aber-
avon, Kenfig, Loughor, and Neath, it returns one mem¬
ber to the House of Commons. It has several fine gentle¬
men’s seats near it. The market is on Wednesday, but the
town is well supplied with provisions daily. The inhabit¬
ants amounted in 1821 to 10,007, and in 1831 to 13,256.
SWEDE N.
Albert of
Mecklen¬
burg de
Earlv his- The early history of Sweden is not less involved in fable
tory uncer-than that of most other nations. Some historians have pre-
tended to exhibitregular catalogues of the princeswho reign¬
ed in Sweden in very early times ; but they differ so much
from each other, that no credit can be given to them. All
indeed agree that ancient Scandinavia was first governed
by judges elected for a certain time by the voice of the
people. Among these temporary princes the country was
divided, until, in the year of the world 2054 according to
some, or 1951 according to others, Eric, or, if we believe
Pufendorf, Sueno, was raised to the supreme power, with
the prerogatives of all the temporary magistrates united in
his person during his lifetime, or so long as his administra¬
tion should be satisfactory to the people.
From this very early period till the year 1366 of the
Christian era, the histories of Sweden present us with no¬
thing but what is common to all nations in their early pe'
dared king. rjot|Sj t}ie endless combats of barbarians, tending to no other
a.u. l ob. pU1.p0se t}ian t]ie effUsion of blood. At length, however,
Albert of Mecklenburg, having concluded a peace between
Sweden and Denmark, which had been at violent war for
some time before, was proclaimed king of Sweden. The
peace was of short duration, being broken in 1368; and
Albert then entered into a league, offensive and defensive,
with the earl of Holstein, the Jutland nobility, the dukes
of Sleswick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse Towns, against
the kings of Denmark and Norway. At that time he proved
very successful against Waldemar king of Denmark, driving
him entirely out of his dominions; but he himself w'as de¬
feated by the king of Norway, who laid siege to his capital.
A new treaty was soon afterwards concluded, by which Al¬
bert wras allowed to enjoy the crown of Sweden in peace.
Having, how'ever, formed a design of rendering himself ab¬
solute, he so displeased his subjects that Margaret of Nor¬
way w'as proclaimed queen of Sweden by the malecontents.
Is defeated A w'ar immediately ensued, in which Albert wras defeated
and taken and taken prisoner; but as the princes of Mecklenburg,
prisoner by the earls of Holstein, and the Hanse Towns, entered into a
of Norvw leaolie *n k’s favour> the war raged with more fury than
<1^‘ ever.
Set at li- The contending parties were at length reconciled. Al-
berty. bert w'as set at liberty, on condition that he should in three
a. d. 1394. years resign to Margaret all pretensions to the city of Stock¬
holm ; and the Hanse Tow ns engaged to pay the sum of
60,000 marks of silver if Albert should break that treaty.
Eric, the son of Albert, died not long afterw ards; and
having no other child, he did not think it wmrth his while
to contend for the kingdom of Sweden : he therefore ac¬
quiesced in the pretensions of Margaret, and passed the re¬
mainder of his days at Mecklenburg.
Margaret died in 1415, and w'as succeeded by Eric of
Pomerania. This prince’s reign was cruel and oppressive.
War w'ith
Denmark
and Nor¬
way.
His misdeeds produced a revolt; and Charles Canutson, Margaret
grand mareschal of Sweden and governor of Finland, having is succeed-
joined the malecontents, was declared commander-in-chief of^^^10’
their army. Eric was now formally deposed, and Canutson
was chosen regent; but beginning to oppress the people,a.d. 1415.
and aspiring openly to the crown, the Swedes and Danes
revolted. This event was followed by a revolution ; and
Christopher, duke of Bavaria, nephew to Eric, was chosen
king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1442.
On the accession of this prince, complaints against Ca- Charles
nutson were presented from all quarters; but through the Canuteor.
interest of his friends he escaped punishment; and in 1448,Al T>'
Christopher having died, after a tyrannical reign of about
five years, he was raised to the throne to which he had so
long aspired. The kingdoms of Denmark and Norway
however refused allegiance to him, and a war immediately
ensued. In 1454 peace was concluded, and Denmark for
the present freed from the Swedish yoke. Nor did Canut¬
son long enjoy the crown of Sweden. Having quarrelled
with the magistrates and the archbishop of Upsala, the
latter formed so strong a party that the king could not re¬
sist him. Canutson died in 1470, after a long and turbulent
reign.
The affairs of Sweden continued to be involved in the
utmost confusion till the year 1520, when a great revolu¬
tion was effected by Gustavus Ericson, a nobleman of the
first rank, w'ho restored the kingdom to its liberty, and laid
the foundation of its future grandeur. In 1518, Christiern
king of Denmark had invaded Sweden, with a design to sub¬
due the whole country; but being defeated with great loss
by young Steen Sture, at that time regent, he set sail for
Denmark. Meeting, with contrary winds, he made several
descents on the Swedish coast, which he ravaged with all
the fury of an incensed barbarian. The inhabitants bravely
defended themselves, and Christiern was reduced to the ut¬
most distress; one half of his forces having perished with
hunger, and the rest being in the most imminent danger by
the approach of a rigorous winter. He then thought of a
stratagem, which had almost proved fatal to the regent; for
having invited him to a conference, at which he designed
either to assassinate or take him prisoner, Sture was about
to comply, when the senate, who suspected the plot, inter¬
posed to prevent him. Christiern then offered to proceed
in person to Stockholm in order to confer with Sture, on
condition that six hostages should be sent in his place. They
wTere accordingly sent; but the wand happening then to
prove favourable, he set sail for Denmark with the hostages,
of whom Gustavus Ericson was one. Next year he re¬
turned, and having drawn Sture into an ambush, the regent
received a wound, of which he died some time after. The
kingdom being thus left without a head, matters soon came
to the most desperate crisis. The army disbanded itself;
a. n 1520.
Christiern
king of
Denmark
invades
Sweden,
but is de¬
feated and
driven out.
He trea¬
cherously
carries off
six host¬
ages, of
w'homG us-
tavus Eric¬
son is one.
a d. 1519.
14 " SWEDE N.
x History, and the senate, instead of taking proper measures to op-
^ v p°se the enemy, spent their time in idle debates. Chris-
tiern in the mean time advanced into the heart of the king¬
dom, destroying every thing with fire and sword ; but on
his arrival at Stragnez, he granted a suspension of arms, on
Is chosen condition that they would elect him king. To this condi-
and tjon submitted, and Christiern proved one of the most
mostf8 1 Woody tyrants that ever sat on the throne of any kingdom,
bloody Immediately after his coronation, he gave grand entertain-
tyrant. ments for three days; during which time he projected the
diabolical design of extirpating at once all the Swedish no¬
bility, and thus for ever preventing the people from revolt-
by depriving them of their proper leaders. As the ty¬
rant had signed articles, by which he promised indemnity
to all who had borne arms against him, it became necessary
to invent some cause of offence against those whom he in¬
tended to destroy. To accomplish his purpose, Gustavus
i rolle, formerly archbishop of Upsala, but who had been
degraded from that dignity, in an oration before his ma¬
jesty lamented the demolition of Stecka, his place of resi¬
dence, and the losses sustained by the see of Upsala,
amounting to a very large sum of money. He then pro¬
ceeded in a bitter accusation against the widow and the
son-in-law of Sture, the late regent, comprehending in the
same accusation about fifteen of the principal nobility, the
Massacres whole senate, and the burghers of Stockholm. In conse-
the nobili- quence of this, about sixty of the principal nobility and
people of first rank in Sweden were hanged as traitors. In¬
numerable other cruelties were committed, part of which
are owned by the Danish historians, and the whole are mi¬
nutely related by those of Sweden. At last he departed
for Denmark, ordering gibbets to be erected, and causing
the peasants to be hanged on them for the slightest offences.
Adven- This monstrous cruelty, instead of securing him on the
^ „ tbrone, exasperated the whole nation against him. It has
Vasa r fb’eady been mentioned, that Gustavus Ericson, or, as he
Ericson. commonly called, Gustavus Vasa, was among the num¬
ber of the hostages whom Christiern had perfidiously car¬
ried to Denmark in 1519. Large promises had been made
in order to reconcile him to Christiern, and all means had
been employed, but in vain. Secret orders were given to
strangle him in prison; but the officer to whom the assas¬
sination was committed remonstrated to the king about the
consequences of it, and prevailed on him to change the sen¬
tence of death into close confinement in the castle of Co¬
penhagen. Some of the hostages perished in consequence
of the rigorous treatment to which they were subjected;
but Gustavus withstood all hardships. At last one Ban¬
ner, a Danish nobleman, prevailed on the king to place
him in his hands, in order to try whether or not he could
prevail on him to change his sentiments. The king how¬
ever told Banner that he must pay 6000 crowns if the pri¬
soner should make his escape. Banner generously con¬
sented ; and having brought the noble prisoner to his for¬
tress of Calo in Jutland, soon allowed him all the liberty he
could desire, and otherwise heaped favours on him. All
this however could not extinguish his remembrance of the
cruelties of Christiern, and his desire of being serviceable
He escapes to his country. He therefore determined to make his
ina'rk " e?caI)e ; and the liberty which he enjoyed soon enabled
him to accomplish his design. Having one day mounted
his horse, under pretence of hunting as usual in the forest,
when he got to a proper distance he changed his dress
to the habit of a peasant, and quitting his horse, travelled
for two days on foot through by-paths, and over wilds al¬
most impassable, arriving on the third at Flensburg. Here
no one was admitted without a passport; and Gustavus
dreaded presenting himself to the governor or the officer
Arrives at on guard, for fear of being discovered. He hired himself
J.iibeck. to a cattle-merchant, and in this disguise escaped out of
the Danish territories, and arrived at Liibeck.
Banner was no sooner acquainted with his escape, than History,
he set out after him with the utmost diligence, found him
at Liibeck, and reproached him with great warmth as un¬
grateful and treacherous ; but he was soon appeased by the
arguments urged by Gustavus, and especially by a promise
of indemnifying him in the loss of his ransom. On this
Banner returned home, and pretended that he could not
find his prisoner. Christiern was enraged at his escape,
apprehending that he might reverse all his designs in Swe¬
den ; and gave orders to Otho his general to make the
strictest search, and leave no means untried to arrest him.
Gustavus applied to the regency for a ship to convey him
to Sweden, where he hoped he should be able to form a
party against the Danes. He likewise endeavoured to draw Attempts
the regency of Lubeck into his measures; and reasoned'11 va'n to
with so much zeal and ability, that Nicholas Gemins, first ^ravv j
consul, was entirely gained; but the regency could never L^)eck
be prevailed upon to declare for a party without friends, over to hi;
arms, money, or credit. Before his departure, however, side,
the consul gave him assurances, that if he could raise a
force sufficient to make head against the enemy in the field,
he might depend on the services of the republic, and that
the regency would immediately declare for him. Gustavus
desired to be landed at Stockholm; but the captain of the
ship, either having secret orders to the contrary, or busi¬
ness elsewhere, steered a different course, and put him on
shore near Calmar, a city then garrisoned by the troops of
Christiana, widow of the regent. In fact, the governor
held this place for his own purposes, and only waited to
make the best terms he could with the Danes. When He arrives
Gustavus arrived, he made himself known to him and theat Calmar,
principal officers of the garrison, who were mostly Ger-^at meets
mans, and his fellow-soldiers in the late administrator’s
army; but the mercenary band, seeing him without troops reception.^
and without attendants, regarded him as a desperate per¬
son devoted to destruction, refused to embrace his propo¬
sals, and even threatened to kill or betray him if he did not
instantly quit the city.
Disappointed in his expectations, Gustavus departed;
and his arrival being now publicly known, he was again
forced to have recourse to his peasant’s disguise to conceal
him from the Danish emissaries dispersed over the coun¬
try to search for him. In a waggon loaded with hay, he
passed through the Danish army, and at last repaired to an
old family castle in Sudermania. Hence he wrote to his His friend
friends, intimating his return to Sweden, and beseeching refuse to
them to assemble all their forces in order to break through assis,t him.
the enemy’s army into Stockholm, at that time besieged ;
but they refused to embark in so hazardous and desperate
an attempt.
Gustavus next applied himself to the peasants ; but they Applies iu
answered that they enjoyed salt and herrings under the va'ri t0 'M
government of the king of Denmark; and that any at- Peasailts’ i
tempts to bring about a revolution would be attended wdth
certain ruin, without the prospect of bettering their condi¬
tion ; for peasants they were, and peasants they should re¬
main, whoever was king. At length, after several attempts
to throw himself into Stockholm, after that city was surren¬
dered to the king, after the horrid massacre of the senate,
and after running a thousand dangers, and undergoing hard¬
ships and fatigues scarcely to be supported by human na¬
ture, he formed the resolution of trying the courage and
affection of the Dalecarlians. While he was in the deepest
obscurity, and plunged in almost insurmountable adversity,
he never relinquished his designs nor his hopes. The
news of the massacre had, howrever, nearly sunk him into
despondency, as by it he lost all his friends, relations, and
connections, and indeed almost every prospect of safety to
himself, or deliverance to his country. This suggested the
thought of going to Dalecarlia, where he might live with
moie security in the high mountains and thick woods of
S W E D E N.
15
History, that country, if he should fail in the attempt of exciting the
inhabitants to revolt.
Arrives in Attended by a peasant, to whom he was known, he tra-
Dalecarlia, veiled in disguise through Sudermania, Nericia, and Wes-
is robbed termania, and, after a laborious and painful journey, arrived
and *n mountains of Dalecarlia. Scarcely had he finished
obliged*1 to his journey, when he found himself deserted by his com-
work in the panion and guide, who carried off with him all the money
mines. which he had provided for his subsistence. Thus forlorn
and destitute, he entered among the miners, without re¬
ed by their superstition ; some of their old men having ob- History,
served that the wind had blown from the north while Gus-
tavus was speaking, which among them was reckoned an
infallible omen of success. Gustavus did not allow their
ardour to cool, but instantly led them against the governor’s
castle, which he took by assault, and put the garrison to
the sword. This inconsiderable enterprise was attended
with the most happy consequences. Great numbers of the
peasants flocked to his standard ; some of the gentry openly
espoused his cause, and others supplied him with money,
finquishing his hopes of one daf ascending the throne of Christiern was soon informed of what had passed; but de-
Sweden. His only object for the present was to live con- spising such an inconsiderable enemy, he sent only a slender
cealed, and gain a maintenance, till fortune should effect detachment to assist his adherents in Dalecarlia. Gustavus The Danes
something in his favour ; nor was it long before this hap- advanced with 5000 men, and defeated a body of Danes; defeated.
Is discover-pened. A woman in the mines perceived, under the habit but he was strenuously opposed by the archbishop of Up-
ed and re- 0f a peasant, that the collar of his shirt was embroidered, sala, who raised numerous forces for Christiern. The for-
lieved. This circumstance excited curiosity ; and the graces of his tune of Gustavus, however, still prevailed, and the arch¬
person and conversation, which had something in them to bishop was defeated with great loss. Gustavus then laid
attract the notice of the meanest of the vulgar, afforded siege to Stockholm; but his force being unequal to such
room for suspicion that he was some person of quality in an undertaking, he was forced to abandon it with loss,
disguise, forced by the tyranny of the government to seek This check did not prove in any considerable degree de-
shelter in those remote regions. The story came to the ears trimental to the affairs of Gustavus: the peasants from all
of a neighbouring gentleman, who immediately went to the parts of the kingdom flocked to his camp, and he was joined
mines to offer his protection to the unfortunate stranger ; by a reinforcement from Liibeck. Christiern, unable to sup- Horrid
and was astonished on recognising the features of Gustavus, press the revolt, wreaked his vengeance on the mother and cruelty of
to whom he had been known at the university of Upsala. sisters of Gustavus, whom he put to death. His barbarities
Touched with compassion at the deplorable situation of so served only to make his enemies more resolute. Gustavus
• distinguished a nobleman, he could scarcely refrain from having assembled the states at ’Wadstena, he was unani-
tears. At night he sent for the illustrious wanderer, made mously chosen regent, the diet taking an oath of fidelity to
him an offer of his house, and gave him the strongest as- him, and promising to assist him to the utmost. Having
surances of his friendship and protection. He told him he thus obtained the sanction of legal authority, he pursued
would there meet with better accommodations, and as much his advantages against the Danes. A body of troops ap- Success of
security as in the mines ; and that, should he chance to be pointed to throw succours into Stockholm was cut in pieces; Gustavus.
discovered, he would, with all his friends and vassals, take and the regent sending some forces into Finland, struck the
arms in his defence. Danes there with such terror, that the archbishop of Upsala,
This offer Gustavus very gladly embraced, and he re- together with the Danish governors, fled to Denmark,
mained for some time at his friend’s house; but finding it Christiern then sent express orders to all his governors and
impossible to induce him to take part in his designs, he officers in Finland and Sweden, to massacre the Swedish gen-
quitted him, and fled to one Peterson, a gentleman whom try without distinction. The Swedes made reprisals by
he had formerly known in the service. This man received massacring all the Danes that they could find, so that the
Gustavus with all the appearance of kindness; and on the country was filled with slaughter.
very first proposal, offered to raise his vassals. He even In the mean time Gustavus had laid siege to the towns of
named the nobles and peasants whom he pretended to have Calmar, Abo, and Stockholm ; but Norby found means to
engaged in his service; but in a few days he secretly went oblige him to retire with loss. Gustavus, in revenge, laid
to a Danish officer, and gave him information of wdiat had siege to the capital a third time, and applied to the regency
passed. The officer immediately caused the house to be of Liibeck for a squadron of ships and other succours for
surrounded with soldiers, in such a manner that it seemed carrying on the siege. This request was granted on con-
Has a very impossible for Gustavus to escape. Being warned by Pe- dition that Gustavus should oblige himself, in the name of
narrow terson’s wife of the treachery of her husband, he, by her the states, to pay 60,000 marks of silver as the expense of
escape from jjrection^ contrive(i to fly to the house of a clergyman, her the armament; that, until the kingdom should be in a con-
t,ie Danes. pr^en(j} by wilom ]ie was received with all the respect due dition to pay that sum, the Liibeck merchants trading to
to his birth and merit; and lest the domestic who conduct- Sweden should be exempted from all duties on imports or
ed him should follow the treacherous example of his master, exports ; that all other nations should be prohibited from
he removed him to the church, and conducted him to a trading with Sweden, and that such traffic should be deemed
small closet, of which he kept the key. Having lived for illicit; that Gustavus should neither conclude a peace, nor
some time in this manner, Gustavus began to consult with even agree to a truce, with Denmark, without the concur-
his friend concerning the most proper method of putting rence of the regency of Lubeck; and that if the republic
their schemes in execution. The priest advised him to should be attacked by Christiern, he should enter Denmark
apply directly to the peasants themselves; told him that it at the head of 20,000 men. On these hard terms Gustavus
would be proper to spread a report that the Danes were to obtained assistance from the regency of Lubeck; nor did
enter Dalecarlia in order to establish new taxes by force of his dear-bought allies prove very faithful. They did not
arms; and as the annual feast of all the neighbouring vil- indeed transfer their services to his enemy; but in a sea-
lages was to be held in a few days, he could not have a fight, where the Danes w'ere entirely in their power, they
more favourable opportunity. He also promised to engage suffered them to escape, when their whole force might have
the principal persons of the diocese in his interest. been entirely destroyed. This treachery had nearly ruined
His cause In compliance with his advice, Gustavus repaired to Mora, the affairs of Gustavus ; for Norby was now making prepa-
espoused where the feast was to be held. He found the peasants rations effectually to relieve Stockholm, and would probably
by the P641*already informed of his designs, and impatient to see him. have succeeded in the attempt, if at this critical period news
Being prepossessed in his favour, they were soon excited to had not arrived that the Danes had revolted, and driven
a.,.! uiuo. entjms-asra jn his cause, and instantly resolved to throw off Christiern from the throne; and that the king had retired
tile Danish yoke. In this design they were more confirm- into Germany, in hopes of being restored by the arms of
16
SWEDEN.
History, his brother-in-law the emperor. On hearing this intelli-
v gence, Norby retired with his whole fleet to the island of
Gothland, leaving but a slender garrison in Calmar. Gus-
tavus did not fail to improve this opportunity to his own
advantage, and quickly made himself master of the town.
In the mean time Stockholm continued closely invested,
but he thought proper to protract the siege till he should
be elected king. Having for this purpose called a general
diet, he first filled up the vacancy in the senate occasioned
^ by tbe massacres of Christiern. He had the address to
He is clio- procure the nomination of such as were in his interest. The
Sweden8 °f assembIy was no sooner met, than one of his partisans made
A. B. 1523. a sPeech> containing the highest encomiums on Gustavus,
setting forth in the strongest terms the many eminent ser¬
vices which he had rendered to his country, and concluding
that the states would show themselves equally ungrateful and
blind to their own interest if they did not immediately elect
him king. This proposal was acceded to bv such tumultuous
acclamations that it was impossible to collect the votes; so
that Gustavus himself acknowledged, that their affection
exceeded his merit, and was more agreeable to him than
the effects of their gratitude. He was urged to have the
ceremony of his coronation immediately performed; but this
he delayed, in consequence of some designs which he had
formed to reduce the exorbitant power of the clergy. He
had himself embraced the doctrines of the reformed religion,
and did all in his power to establish the reformation in his
new kingdom. His design could not fail to raise against
him the enmity of the clergy, and of all the more supersti¬
tious part of his subjects. The first years of his reign were
accordingly embittered by internal disturbances and revolts,
which were aided and fomented by the deposed Christiern,
who was at one time very near regaining possession of the
Swedish dominions.
Fnsuccess- Christiern having established a powerful interest in Nor-
ot Ohrilt? VVay> 0nce .more made an attempt to recover his kingdoms,
ern. an(t was joined by the Dalecarlians; but being defeated by
the Swedish forces, he was compelled to return to Norway,
where, being obliged to capitulate with the Danish gene¬
rals, he was detained in captivity during the remainder of
his life.
Unsuccess- In 1542, Gustavus having happily extricated himself out
till negoci- of all his troubles, prevailed on the states to make the
marriage ^ ^own hereditary in his family; after which he applied
with Queenhimselt t0 the encouragement of learning and commerce.
Elizabeth. A treaty was set on foot for a marriage between his eldest
a. o. 1542. son Eric and the princess Elizabeth of England ; but this
negociation failed of success.
Gustavus Gustavus Vasa died in 1560, and was succeeded bv his
succeeded8Eric XIV’ Th? new kin£ was possessed of all the ex-
by Eric tenor ornaments which gave an air of dignity to the per-
a. d. 1560. S0,Ih bu^ be ba(i neither the prudence nor the penetration,
ot his father. He created the first nobility that were ever
known in Sweden ; but this he had no sooner done than he
quarrelled with them, bypassing some act which they thought
derogatory to their honour and dignity. The whole course
°f his r.eign was disturbed by wars with Denmark and dis¬
putes with his own subjects. In the former he was unfor¬
tunate, and towards the latter he behaved with the great-
Eric de- est cruelty. At last, he is said to have become mad. He
posed, and afterwards recovered his senses, but was soon dethroned by
bvClds bmJV8 brothfrs ; one of whom> named John, succeeded him in
by his bro¬
ther John.
the kingdom.
This revolution took place in the year 1568, but with no
great advantage to Sweden. Disputes about religion be¬
tween the king and his brothers, and wars with Russia,
threw matters into the utmost confusion. Prince Sigis-
mund, the king’s son, was chosen king of Poland, which
proved the source of much trouble to the kingdom. In
1590 King John died, and as Sigismund was at a dis-
a. o. 1568. tance, public aifairs fell into the utmost confusion ; the
Prince Si-
gisimmd
chosen
king of
Poland.
treasury was plundered, and the royal wardrobe spoiled, History
even before Duke Charles could come to Stockholm to v v—J
undertake the administration till King Sigismund should Slicceeds
return. This however was far from being the greatest10 ^
disaster which befell the nation at this time. It was^known Swedeif
that the king had embraced the popish religion, and it was a. i. m
with good reason suspected that he would attempt to re¬
store it upon his arrival in Sweden. Sigismund was also
obliged, on leaving Poland, to promise that he would remain
no longer in Sweden than was necessary to regulate his
affairs. These circumstances served to alienate the minds
of the Swedes from their sovereign, even before they saw
him; and the universal dissatisfaction was increased by
seeing him attended on his arrival in Sweden in 1593 by
the pope’s nuncio, to whom he made a present of 30,000
ducats to defray the expenses of his journey to Sweden.
What the people had foreseen was too well verified. A party
The king refused to confirm the protestants in their reli- formed
gious privileges, and showed such partiality on all occasions a?ainst
to the papists, that a party was formed against him, at the ^in'
head of which was Duke Charles, his uncle. Remon¬
strances, accompanied with threats, took place on both
sides. Sigismund was apparently reconciled to his uncle,
and promised to comply with the inclinations of the people,
though without any inclination to perform what he had pro¬
mised. The agreement indeed was scarcely made, before Forms a
Sigismund conceived the horrid design of murdering his design of
uncle at the Italian comedy acted the night after his coro- ,rlllll'‘lerillff
nation. 1 he duke, however, having notice of the plot, UIlc*e-
found means to defeat it. I his enraged the king so much,
that he had resolved to accomplish his designs by force:
and he therefore commanded a Polish army to march to¬
wards the frontiers of Sweden, where they committed all
the ravages that could be expected from an enraged and
cruel enemy. Complaints were made by the protestant
clergy to the senate ; but no other answer was returned
than that, till the king’s departure, they should abstain from
those bitter invectives and reproaches, which had provoked
the Catholics, and that during his absence they would be
at more liberty.
In 1595 Sigismund set sail for Dantzig, leaving the ad¬
ministration in the hands of Duke Charles. The conse¬
quence of this was, that the dissensions which had already
taken place being continually increased by the obstinacy
i cn iQking’ Ch.ar,es assumed the sovereign powder ; and in Sigismund
16U4 Sigismund was formally deposed, and his uncle Charles deposed,
IX. raised to the throne. He proved a wise and braveand's suc'
prince, restoring the tranquillity of the kingdom, and car- oe,e(it;d ^
rymg on a vyar with vigour against Poland and Denmark. 1604
He died m 1611, leaving the kingdom to his son, the cele- * ’
brated Gustavus Adolphus.
Though Charles IX. by his wise and vigorous conduct State of
lad in some measure retrieved the affairs of Sweden, they Sweden on
were still in a very bad condition. The finances of the t?le acc,!a'
kingdom were entirely drained by a series of wars and re- p0n of
volutions ; powerful armies were preparing in Denmark, Po- Adoloh^
and, and Russia, while not only the Swedish troops were in- a. d. 1611.
fenor in number to their enemies, but the government was
destitute of resources for their payment. Though the
Swedish laws required that the prince should have attained
his eighteenth year before he was of age, yet such striking
marks of the great qualities of Gustavus appeared, that he
was allowed by the states to assume the administration be¬
fore this early period. His first act was to resume all the
crown-grants, in order that he might be enabled to carry on
the wars in which he was engaged, and to fill all places,
noth civil and military, with persons of merit. At the
lead of domestic and foreign affairs was placed the chan¬
cellor Oxenstiern, a person every wav equal to the import¬
ant trust, and the choosing of whom impressed Europe with
t e highest opinion of the young monarch’s penetration.
SWEDEN.
17
Exfraordi
nary mili -
History. Soon after his accession, Gustavus received an embassy
'-■v---''from James I. of Britain, exhorting him to make peace with
his neighbours. This was seconded by another from Hol¬
land. But as the king perceived that the Danish monarch
intended to take every opportunity of crushing him, he re¬
solved to act with such vigour as might convince him that
Heinvadeshe was not easily to be overcome. Accordingly, he invaded
Denmark, Denmark with three different armies at once ; and though
and obliges (.jie enemy’s superiority at sea gave them great advantages,
conclude a ant^ tlie nu™ber of the king’s enemies distracted his atten-
peace. tion, he carried on the war with such spirit, that, in 1613, a
peace was concluded on terms favourable to himself. This
war being finished, Gustavus applied himself to civil polity,
and made some reformation in the laws of Sweden. In 1615,
hostilities were commenced against Russia, on account of
the refusal of that court to repay some money which had
Russia in. been formerly lent. The king entered Ingria, took Kex-
vaded with holm by storm, and was laying siege to Plescov, when, by
success. niediation of James I., peace was concluded, on condi¬
tion of the Russians repaying the money, and yielding to
Sweden some part of their territory. In this and the for¬
mer war, notwithstanding the shortness of their duration,
Gustavus learned the rudiments of the military art, for which
he soon became so famous. He is said to have taken every
opportunity of improvement with a quickness of under-
tary gernus stantljng seemingly more than human. In one campaign,
ot t ie mg. ^ onjy ]earne[}5 hut improved, all the military maxims
of La Gardie, a celebrated general; brought the Swedish
army to a more steady and regular discipline; and formed
an invincible body of Finlanders, who had afterwards a very
considerable share in the victories of Sweden.
Peace was no sooner concluded with Russia, than Gus¬
tavus was crowned with great solemnity at Upsala. Soon
afterwards he ordered his general La Gardie to acquaint the
Polish commander Codekowitz, that as the truce between
the two kingdoms, which had been concluded for two years,
was now expired, he desired to be certainly informed whe¬
ther he was to expect peace or war from his master. In
the mean time, having borrowed money of the Dutch for
the redemption of a town from Denmark, he had an inter¬
view on the frontiers with Christiern, the king of that coun¬
try. At this interview, the two monarchs conceived the
utmost esteem and friendship for each other; and Gusta¬
vus obtained a promise, that Christiern would not assist
Sigismund in any design he might form against Sweden.
In the mean time, receiving no satisfactory answer from
Poland, Gustavus began to prepare for war. Sigismund
entered into a negociation, and made some pretended con¬
cessions, with a view to seize Gustavus by treachery ; but
the latter having some intimation of his design, the whole
negociation was changed into reproaches and threats on the
part of Gustavus.
Immediately after this, Gustavus made a tour in disguise
daughter of through Germany, and married Eleonora the daughter of
ofBraiiden t^ie e'ector °f Brandenburg. He then resolved to enter
burg. n Un" heartily into a war with Poland ; and with this view set sail
for Riga with a great fleet, which carried 20,000 men. The
Riga be- place was well fortified, and defended by a body of veterans,
Sieged and enthusiastically attached to Sigismund; but after a vigorous
taken. siege, the garrison, being reduced to extremity, were ob¬
liged to capitulate, and were treated with great clemency.
After the reduction of Riga, the Swedish monarch enter¬
ed Courland, where he reduced Mittau ; but ceded it again
on the conclusion of a truce for one year. Sigismund, how¬
ever, no sooner had time to recover himself, than he began
to form new enterprises against the Swedes in Prussia ; but
Gustavus setting sail with his whole fleet for Dantzig, where
the king of Poland then resided, so defeated his measures,
that he was obliged to prolong the truce for another year.
Sigismund was not yet apprised of his danger, and refused
to listen to any terms of accommodation : Gustavus enter-
VOL. XXI.
Prepares
for war
with Po¬
land.
Marries a
ing Livonia, defeated the Polish general, and took Dorpat, ^ History. ^
Plockenhausen, and several other places of less importance;
after which, entering Lithuania, he took the city of Birsen.
Notwithstanding this success, Gustavus proposed peace on
the same equitable terms as before ; but Sigismund was
still infatuated with the hopes that, by means of the empe¬
ror of Germany, he should be able to conquer Sweden.
Gustavus finding him inflexible, resolved to push his good
fortune. His generals, Horn and Thurn, defeated the Poles
in Semigallia. Gustavus himself, with 150 ships, set sail for
Prussia, where he landed at Pillau. This place was imme¬
diately surrendered to him, as were several other towns.
Sigismund, alarmed at the great progress of Gustavus, sent a
body of forces to oppose him, and to prevent Dantzig from
falling into his hands. But this measure did not produce any
powerful effect; and in May 1627, Gustavus arrived with
fresh forces before Dantzig, which he would probably have
carried, had he not been wounded in the belly by a can-
not-shot. The states of Holland sent ambassadors to me¬
diate a peace between the two crowns; but Sigismund, de- The Poles
pending on the assistance of the emperor of Germany ^djr^ftime
king of Spain, determined to hearken to no terms, and resolv- D> ^2^’.
ed to make a winter campaign. The king of Sweden was
however so well intrenched, and all his forts were so strongly
garrisoned, that the utmost efforts of the Poles were to no
purpose. The city of Dantzig, in the mean time, made such
a desperate resistance as greatly irritated him. In a sea en- The Poles
gagement the Swedish fleet defeated that of the enemy; after defeated by
which Gustavus, having blocked up the harbour with his “^1“ in_
fleet, pushed his advances on the land side with incredible vested.b
vigour. He made a surprising march over a morass fifteen
miles broad, assisted by bridges of a peculiar construction,
over which he carried a species of light cannon invented
by himself. By this unexpected manoeuvre he obtained The king
the command of the city in such a manner, that the garri-
son were on the point of surrendering, when, by a sudden tion of th'
swell of the Vistula, the Swedish works were ruined, and Vistula to
the king was obliged to raise the siege. In other respects, raise the
however, the affairs of Gustavus proceeded with their usual siege,
good fortune. His general Wrangel defeated the Poles
before Brodnitz. At Stum the king gained another and
more considerable victory in person. The emperor had
sent 5000 foot and 2000 horse under Arnheim, who joined
the main army commanded by the Polish general Coniec-
spolski, in order to attack the Swedish army encamped
at Quidzin. The enemy were so much superior in num- The Poles
ber, that the friends of Gustavus warmly dissuaded him^u^er-
from attacking them. But the resolution of the king was feated with
not to be shaken, and the engagement commenced. Thegreat
Swedish cavalry charged with such impetuosity, contra-slaughter
ry to their sovereign’s express order, that they were al-intwoen-
most surrounded by the enemy; but, coming up to theirgagemeutr.
assistance, he pushed the enemy’s infantry with so much
vigour, that they gave way, and retreated to a bridge that
had been thrown over the Werder. But here they were
disappointed, for the Swedes had already taken posses¬
sion of the bridge. A new action ensued, more bloody
than the former, in which the king wras exposed to great
danger, and thrice narrowly escaped being taken prisoner;
but at last the Poles were totally defeated, and with im¬
mense loss. The slaughter of the German auxiliaries was
so great, that Arnheim scarcely carried off one half of the
troops w hich he brought into the field. This defeat did not They are
hinder the Polish general from attempting the siege of again de-
Stum ; but here he was as unsuccessful as in his previous
enterprises. Arnheim was recalled, and was succeeded by con'^gnt ^
Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg and Philip Count Mansfeldt. a truce of
The change of general officers, however, produced no good six years,
consequences to the Poles ; a famine and plague raged in
their camp, so that they were at last obliged to consent to
a truce for six years, to expire in the month of June 1635.
c
18
SWEDEN.
Reduces
Wolgast,
History. Gustavus kept the port and citadel of Memel, the harbour
^ 'Y ot Pillau, the towns of Elbing, Brunsberg, and all that he
had conquered in Livonia.
Gustavus Gustavus having thus brought the war wdth Poland to
^warwith*an ^onoura^^e conclusion, began to think of resenting the
the empe- con(^\lct emperor in assisting his enemies and op-
ror. pressing the protestant states. Before embarking in such
an important undertaking, it was necessary that he should
consult the diet. Here the propriety of engaging in a war
with Germany was warmly debated; but, after much alter¬
cation, the king, in a very noble speech, determined the
matter, having declared in such strong terms the virtuous
motives by which he was actuated, that the whole assembly
wept, and evei-y thing was granted which he could require.
It w’as not difficult for him to begin his expedition. His
troops amounted to 60,000 men, hardened by a succession
ot severe campaigns in Russia, Finland, Livonia, and Prus¬
sia. His fleet exceeded seventy sail, carrying from twenty
to forty guns, and manned with 6000 seamen. Embark¬
ing his troops, he landed at Usedom on the 24th of June
1630, the Imperialists having evacuated all the fortresses
which they there possessed; and the isle of Rugen had
been before reduced by General Lesley, in order to secure
a retreat if fortune should prove unfavourable. Passing the
„ strait, Gustavus stormed Wolgast, and another strong for-
Stettin,&c. tress in the neighbourhood, leaving a garrison for the de-
a. u. 1630. fence of these conquests. He then proceeded to Stettin,
which consented to receive a Swedish garrison, and the
king persuaded the duke of Pomerania to enter into an al¬
liance with him. In consequence of this the Swedish troops
wrere received into several towns of Pomerania; and the
most bitter enmity took place between the Imperialists and
Pomeranians.
i'hese successes of Gustavus struck the empire with con¬
sternation ; for, being already overwhelmed with civil dis¬
sensions, they were in no condition to resist so impetuous
Count Til-an enemy. At last Count Tilly was invested with the dig-
ly the em- nity of field-marshal. In the mean time, the king, being
!i r 1 ^ *e" re*n^orce(I by a considerable body of troops in Finland and
Livonia under the conduct of Gustavus Horn, defeated the
Imperialists before Griffenhagen, and soon afterwards took
the place by assault. By this and some other conquests, he
opened a passage into Lusatia and Silesia ; but in the mean
time Tilly cut off 2000 Swedes at New Brandenburg. This
Frankfurt advantage, however, was soon overbalanced by the con-
and Lands-quest of Frankfurt on the Oder, which Gustavus took by
berg taken assault, making the whole garrison prisoners. Thus he
by Gusta- commanded the rivers Elbe and Oder on both sides, and
had a fair passage, not only to the countries already men¬
tioned, but also to Saxony and the hereditary dominions of
the house ot Austria. He soon afterwafds laid siege to
Landsberg, which he took by assault.
About this time the protestant princes held a diet at
Leipzig, to which Gustavus sent deputies, and conducted
his negociations with such address as tended greatly to pro-
He reduces mote his interests. Immediately after this he reduced
Pomerania, Greifswald, and with it all Pomerania. Having then march-
10 ed to Gustrow, he restored the dukes of Mecklenburg to
their dominions.
All this time Tilly was employed in the siege of Magde¬
burg ; but being alarmed at the repeated successes of the
Swedes, he now left Pappenheim with part of the army be¬
fore that city, while he marched with the rest into Thurin¬
gia, to attack the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and the elector
Magdeburg of Saxony. After a most obstinate defence, Magdeburg
taken by fell into the hands of Pappenheim, who committed all ima-
?ialistsPand^na^e cruebies. The king formed a plan of recovering
the inhabi t^e ’ ^ut was obliged to abandon it, by Pappenheim’s
tants cruel- throwing himself into the place with his whole army, and
ly used. by the progress which Tilly was making in Thuringia. Re¬
linquishing this enterprise, he ordered an attack on Havels-
Outs off
2000
Swedes.
stores the
dukes of
Mecklen¬
burg.
burg; which was conducted with such resolution, that the History,
place was forced in a few hours, and all the garrison made
prisoners. Werben was next obliged to submit after an^ave^
obstinate conflict, in which many fell on both sides. These Werben re¬
successes obliged Tilly to attempt in person to check the duced, and
progress of the Swedes. He detached the vanguard of his the cavalry
army, composed of the flower of the Imperial cavalry, within °f the Lx
a few miles of the Swedish camp. An action ensued, in
which Bernstein the Imperial general was defeated and kill-|Jy ^he '
ed, with 1500 of his men. Gustavus, after this advantage, Swedes,
placed himself in a situation so much superior to that of his
enemies, that Tilly was fired with indignation, and marched
up to the Swedish lines to give him battle. The king kept
within his works, and Tilly attacked his camp, though al¬
most impregnably fortified, and maintained a most terrible
fire from a battery of thirty-two pieces of cannon ; which,
however, produced no other effect than obliging the Swe¬
dish monarch to draw up his army behind the walls of Wer¬
ben. Tilly had placed his chief hopes in being able to Count Til-
spike the enemy’s cannon, or set fire to their camp; after ly defeated
which he proposed making his grand attack. With this by Gusta-
view he bribed some prisoners ; but they betrayed him, and vus•
communicated his design to Gustavus. The king ordered
fires to be lighted in different parts of his camp, and his
soldiers to imitate the noise of a tumultuous disorderly rab¬
ble. This had the desired effect. The count led his army
to the breach made by the cannon, where he was received
with such a volley of grape-shot as cut off the first line, and
put the whole body in disorder, so that they could never
be brought back to the charge. In this confusion the Im¬
perial army was attacked, and after an obstinate conflict
obliged to quit the field.
Soon after this action the queen arrived at the camp with a body of
a reinforcement of 8000 men; at the same time a treaty British sol-
was concluded with Charles I. of England, by which that f3iers comes
monarch allowed the marquis of Hamilton to raise 6000 ^ tbe as-
men for the service of Gustavus. These auxiliaries were the™
to be conducted to the main army by a body of 4000 Swedes.
Swedes; and were in every thing to obey the king while
he was personally present, but in his absence were to be
subject to the orders of the marquis. With these troops
the king had resolved to make a diversion in Bremen ; but
the marquis finding it impossible to effect a junction with
the Swedish army, resolved, without debarking his troops,
to steer his course for the Oder, and land at Usedom. Gus¬
tavus was very much displeased at finding his project thus
disconcerted ; but making the best of the present circum¬
stances, he commanded the British troops to act on the
Oder instead of the Weser. The number of this little army
was magnified exceedingly by report, insomuch that Tilly
had some thoughts of marching against them with his whole
tbree ; but on the departure of the marquis for Silesia, he
reinforced the army in that country with a large detach¬
ment, which was thought to contribute not a little to the
defeat which he soon after received.
Since the late action Gustavus had kept within his in-
trenchments, where his army was well supplied with provi¬
sions and stores. Tilly made several attempts to surprise
or draw him to an engagement; but finding all his endea¬
vours fruitless, he marched into Saxony, and laid siege to
Leipzig. This precipitate measure proved highly advan¬
tageous to the Swedish monarch. A treaty offensive and
defensive was immediately concluded with Gustavus; and
the elector willingly promised every thing that was required
of him. Tilly, in the mean time, carried fire and sword Saxony ra-
into the electorate. At the head of an army of 44,000 ve- vaged by
terans, he summoned the city of Leipzig to surrender; de- C°ant Til-
nouncing, in case of a refusal, the same vengeance against!'luA° •
it as had been executed on Magdeburg. The governor was z^ es
so much intimidated, that he instantly submitted; and he
also surrendered the castle of Passenberg, which was in a
SWEDEN.
19
History.
Battle of
Leipzig
great
slaughter.
condition to have resisted till the arrival of the Swedish
army. The elector, enraged at the loss of these valuable
places, ordered his army to join the Swedes with all expe¬
dition, and pressed the king so warmly to engage, that at
last he yielded to his desire. On the 7th of September
1631, Gustavus led out his army in the finest order, the
a. d. 1031. Swedes forming one column on the right, and the Saxons
another on the left; each amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly
drew up his men in one vast column, probably with a view
of surrounding the flanks of the king’s army. The king
led his troops against that wing of the Imperialists com¬
manded by Pappenheim, whom he drove back to a consider¬
able distance. General Bannier in the mean time cut in
pieces the troops of Holstein, and mortally wounded the
duke, who commanded them. Pappenheim conducted his
troops seven times to the charge, but was as often repulsed
by the Swedes. Tilly all this while was engaged with the
Saxons; but having at last driven them off the field, the
whole strength of the Imperial army was turned against the
Swedish left wing. The Swedes sustained the attack with
the greatest firmness, until the king detached the centre to
assist them. The Imperialists then were no longer able to
maintain their ground ; but gave way everywhere except in
the centre, which was composed of eighteen regiments of
veterans accustomed to victory, and deemed invincible.
The Impe- They made incredible efforts to maintain their reputation ;
rialists de- and, though swept off in great numbers by the Swedish
feated with artillery, never shrunk or fell into confusion. Four regi¬
ments, after their officers had been killed, formed them¬
selves, and withdrew to the skirt of a wood. Tilly retired
at the head of 600 men, and escaped by the coming on of
the night. Seven thousand Imperialists lay dead on the^
field of battle ; 4000 were taken prisoners ; a fine train of
artillery was lost, with upwards of 100 standards, ensigns,
and other military trophies.
Gustavus now determined to penetrate into Franconia,
where he reduced several places, especially the fortress
of Wurzburg. Tilly having collected his scattered troops,
towns and which formed an army still superior in number to that of
cut off four Gustavus, marched to the relief of this place, but came too
regiments late. He then directed his march towards Rottenberg,
of the ene- where four regiments were cut in pieces by a Swedish de-
my" tachment. After this, the king reduced Hanau, Frank¬
furt on the Maine, and Mentz, having destroyed a body of
Spaniards who had attempted to obstruct his passage.
The court of Vienna was now' thrown into the utmost
confusion, and sent everywhere begging assistance, and so¬
liciting the Catholic princes to arm in defence of their re¬
ligion. The emperor was most embarrassed in finding a
general capable of opposing Gustavus in the field; for the
late misfortunes of Count Tilly had entirely sunk his re-
Wallen- putation. Wallenstein, an old experienced officer, was se-
stein chosen ]ecte(J ; but as he had formerly been disgraced, it was ap-
general by pre}ien(led that he would not accept of the command of
the era- which he had once been deprived. This objection how¬
ever was surmounted; and Wallenstein not only accepted
of the command, but, at his own expense, augmented the
army to 40,000 men.
During the whole winter the Swedish army kept the
field, and before the approach of summer had reduced a
grfat number of places, while the landgrave William made
the Swedes, great progress in Westphalia. Gustavus Horn was re¬
pulsed before Bamberg, but soon had his revenge, by en¬
tirely destroying two regiments of Imperialists. lo pre¬
vent the troops from being affected by the loss before Bam¬
berg, the king resolved to give battle to filly, wrho wras
marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swedes from gaining
a footing in that electorate. He pursued the Imperial ge¬
neral through a vast tract of country, defeated his rear¬
guard, and having reduced a variety of towms and for¬
tresses on the Danube, penetrated as far as Ulm. Ad-
Tile
Swedes
take a num¬
ber of
peror.
A great
number of
towns
taken by
vancing to the river Leek, the count posted himself in a History.^
wood on the opposite side, to dispute his passage. Gusta- ^
vus endeavoured to dislodge him by a regular fire fr°ra ^defeated*
seventy pieces of cannon. The slaughter was dreadful; a,ld ^Hed.
and Tilly himself, being wounded by a cannon-ball in the
knee, died a few days before he was to have been super¬
seded by Wallenstein. The following night the Imperial
army evacuated the post. Gustavus immediately crossed
the river, and seized the towns of Rain and Neuburg, which
the enemy had abandoned, and Augsburg next submitted.
From Augsburg the Swedes advanced towards Ratisbon,
but were disappointed in their'design of obtaining possession
of that city, as the Bavarians had thrown a numerous gar¬
rison into the place. In the mean time, ambassadors ar¬
rived from Denmark, offering the mediation of that crown
for obtaining a lasting peace between the contending parties.
This negociation however failed ol success, as the ambas¬
sadors had not been instructed to offer terms favourable to
the protestants. Gustavus, now resolving to retort on them- Three
selves the cruelties which the Bavarians had inflicted on towns laid
the protestants, laid the towns of Morzburg, Friesengen, a^'s
and Landshut, in ashes. The inhabitants ot Munich saved §wedes.
themselves by submission. Gustavus also defeated the
forces of the elector, who had been joined by a consider¬
able body of militia.
While the king was thus employed, Wallenstein had as¬
sembled a very numerous army. Fie was strongly solicited
by the elector of Bavaria to come to his assistance; but, in
revenge of the elector’s having formerly obtained the com¬
mand for Tilly in preference to himself, he drew off to¬
wards Bohemia to encounter the Saxons. Arnheim, who
commanded the Saxon forces in that place, was an enemy
to Gustavus, who had formerly rallied him for his cowardice.
He therefore permitted Wallenstein to gain an easy victory, The Saxon
in hopes that his master, the elector of Saxony, a prince troops de
entirely devoted to his pleasures, might be induced to re-
linquish the friendship of such a restless and warlike ally as 3tejn.
Gustavus; and indeed he used all the eloquence of which ‘
he was master to detach him from the Swedish cause. Se¬
veral advantages were in the mean time gained by the Im¬
perialists. Pappenheim defeated the archbishop of Bre¬
men’s cavalry at Werden; and three Swedish regiments
were cut off near Kadingen. Pappenheim was however
forced to retire, and to withdraw his forces from Stade, of
which the Swedes took possession. Wallenstein and the
elector of Bavaria, who had now joined their forces, threat¬
ened Gustavus with greatly superior numbers. The king,
being reinforced with 15,000 men, no longer declined the
engagement; but Wallenstein was too wise to trust the fate
of the empire to a single battle against such an enemy as
the king of Sweden. Gustavus attacked his camp, but was Gustavus
repulsed with the loss of 2000 men. Several other mis- attacks Iris
fortunes happened to the Swedes; and at last, after various
manceuvres, Wallenstein directed his course towards Misnia, wjdl ioss.
in order to oblige the elector of Saxony to declare against
the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria. Gustavus,
notwithstanding the inconstancy of Augustus, immediately
set out to assist him. With incredible diligence he march¬
ed to Misnia, where the Imperialists were assembling their
whole strength. Hearing that the enemy were encamped
at Weissenfels, and that Pappenheim had been detached
with a strong corps, Gustavus resolved to engage them be¬
fore they could effect a junction. With this view he march- Battle of
ed to Lutzen, where he attacked Wallenstein with incre-Lutzen*
dible fury. The Swedish infantry broke the Imperialists in
spite of their utmost efforts, and took all their artillery.
The cavalry not being able to pass the river so expedi¬
tiously as the king thought necessary, he led the way, at¬
tended only by a single regiment and the duke of Saxe-
Lauenburg. Here, after charging impetuously, he was Gustavus
killed. The news of his death was in an instant spread killed.
20
SWEDEN.
Christina,
an infant,
Charles
Gustavus
^History. over both armies> The courage of t]ie imperiaiistsrevived,
and they now made themselves sure of victory. But the
Swedes, eager to revenge the death of their beloved mo-
narch, charged with such fury that nothing could resist
riplhJr+Pf’ the”1> The Imperialists were defeated a second time, just
tally de- * a.S Tappenheim, with his fresh corps, came up to their as-
feated. sistance. . On this the battle was renewed, but the Swedes
were still irresistible. Pappenheim was mortally wounded,
and his army finally routed, with the loss of 9000 killed in
the field and in the pursuit.
This victory proved more unfortunate to Sweden than
proclaimed tJie §reatest defeat. The crown devolved on Christina, the
queen of daughter of Gustavus, an infant of six years old; the na-
Sweden, tion was engaged in an expensive foreign war, without any
person equal to the arduous task of commanding the armies,
or regulating domestic affairs, as Gustavus had done. Chris¬
tina was immediately proclaimed queen. The regency de¬
volved on the grand bailiff, the marshal, the high admiral,
the chancellor, and the treasurer of the crown. Oxen-
stiern was invested with the chief management of affairs,
and conducted himself with the greatest prudence. The
leign and character of Christina have been detailed under
the article Christina, to which we may refer our readers.
From the treaty of Westphalia, Sweden enjoyed some
appointed ye?rs of rePose* Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine, having
heir to the the favour of Christina, wras appointed generalissimo
crown of of the forces, and heir-apparent to the crown. A marriage
Sweden, was proposed between them; but the queen would never
listen to this or any other proposal of the kind. In 1650,
the ceremony of the queen’s coronation was performed;
a. n. 1654. but in four years after, she resigned the crown in favour of
Charles.
State of The new king found himself involved in considerable
theacces-11 difficulties on his accession to the throne. The treasury
sion of ' was fiuite exhausted; great part of the revenue was appoint-
Ckarles X. ed for the support of Christina’s household; the people were
oppressed with taxes; and the nation having been disarmed
for several years, began to lose its reputation among foreign¬
ers. To remedy these evils, Charles proposed to resume
all the crown-lands which had been alienated by grants to
favourites during the late reign; to repeal a duty which had
been imposed on salt; to put the kingdom in a posture of
defence; and to enter on a war with some neighbouring
War with state. Under a pretence that Casimir king of Poland had
solved on.' Tiestioned his title to the throne, he prepared to invade
that kingdom. Several embassies were sent from Poland
to Stockholm; but some point of ceremony always disap¬
pointed them of an audience of the king, so that they were
obliged to return without executing their commission. As
soon as matters were in readiness, General Wittemberg
made an irruption into Poland from the side of Pomerania.
The Poles opposed him with an army of 15,000 men ; but
instead of fighting, they began to negociate, and in a short
time entirely dispersed. Charles himself soon followed with
a powerful army, and pursued his march without obstruc¬
tion, all the cities throwing open their gates to him as he
approached. As he advanced to Cracow, Casimir resolved
The Poles to make one effort to save his capital. His army amounted
defeated, only to 10,000 men; and these were unfortunately such as
had never stood fire. After a feeble resistance, they fled
with precipitation, having lost 1000 men killed and taken
prisoners. A few days after this Charles defeated the Poles
a second time, about eight leagues from Cracow; on which
Casimir fled with his family to Oppeln in Silesia. The
capital was then invested, and, though defended with the
utmost valour, was in a short time obliged to capitulate.
Thus in less than three months Charles apparently became
master of Poland ; but it was soon evident that the Poles
had no intention of abandoning their former sovereign.
In 1656, a war took place with the elector of Branden-
and the
kingdom
reduced.
burg.
While Charles was employed in the conquest of Po¬
land, that prince had invaded Royal and Ducal Prussia, and History,
reduced the most considerable towns with little opposition. '
The king of Sweden took umbrage at his progress; and War with
having marched against him, defeated his forces in several onj^nt0r
slight encounters, and obliged him to acknowledge himselfdenburg.
a vassal of Sweden. These rapid conquests alarmed all a. v. 1656.
Europe; and the different powers sought for means of driv¬
ing the Swedes out of Poland, which they had so unex¬
pectedly and unjustly seized. The Poles were no sooner The Poles
assured that they should obtain assistance, than they every-revolt,
where revolted and massacred the Swedes. Casimir return¬
ed from Silesia; and those very troops and generals who
had before submitted to Charles without opposition, now
ranged themselves under the banners of his antagonist.
Charles immediately marched from Prussia to chastise the Charles
insolence of the Poles, and totally defeated a body of 12,000 £aais a vic_
men. This event did not hinder all the Poles incorporated tor-v’ but is
with his troops to desert. Their defection considerably re- 10
duced his army; and the campaign being performed in the
depth of winter, he was at last obliged to retreat to Prussia.
In his march he was harassed by the Poles; and a body of
4000 Swedes was surprised and defeated by them at Warka.
This loss however was soon after recompensed by a complete*
victory gained by Adolphus the king’s brother, and General
Wrangel. In the mean time the king was taking measures
for laying siege to Dantzig; but was prevented by the
Dutch, who threatened to oppose him, unless a proper re-
gard was paid to their interest. Charles accordingly grant- Concludes
ed them advantageous terms; and afterwards gained over3 treaty
the elector of Brandenburg, by ceding to him the sovereign-vvith the
ty of Prussia, that he might be at liberty to turn his whole a+nd
strength against Poland. the elector
r> 4.1 ? iii., Bran-
Hy the treaty just concluded with the elector, the latter denburg.
was to assist Charles in his war with Poland; but the elec¬
tor was so tardy in his measures, that the Poles, having ob¬
tained assistance from the Tartars, had reduced the city of
Warsaw. The two princes now marched in concert against
their enemies, who were encamped in a strong situation in
the neighbourhood of the city above mentioned, their camp
being fronted by the Vistula. The Poles were driven from The Poles
their intrenchments with prodigious slaughter. The Polesand Tartars
and Tartars then laboured to break the alliance; and with de.feated
which view having entered Ducal Prussia, they defeated'w£at
the electoral army, and took many prisoners. The Swedes s
soon obtained their revenge. General Steinboek attacked
the same Polish army at Philippowa, and overthrew it with
such slaughter as obliged the Poles for that season to quit
the field. A more formidable enemy than the Poles now
began to make their appearance. The Russians invaded
the provinces of Carelia, Ingermania, and Livonia; while
the elector of Brandenburg began to waver in his fidelity.
0 P1 ^s5rve, tb‘s only allY at such a critical juncture, Charles The Rus-
was obliged to grant him more advantageous terms thansians in-
those already mentioned; and the Russians were repulsed vade tbe
in the provinces of Carelia and Ingermania. But in Livo- ?wedish
ma they had better success. For seven months, however, 10nS-
they battered the walls of Riga, without venturing to pass
tiie ditch or storm the practicable breaches.
Charles, notwithstanding the number of his enemies, was
now become so formidable by the valour and discipline of
Ins troops, that entire armies often fled on his approach.
At last, in 1657, the Poles, finding they could not resist a. d. 1657.
um in the field, contented themselves with harassing the
bwedes on their march, and cutting off the foragers and
convoys. This proved much more destructive to the Swedes Charles en-
than their former method; so that Charles was obliged to^rs into
enter into an alliance with Ragotski, prince of Transylvania,an alliaiice
by assigning him certain provinces in his neighbourhood Joti,113-
m order to urmsh himself with irregular troops, who might pS’of
git the Poles m their own way. He did not thus obtain any Transylva-
leal advantage; for the confederates, after wasting a wholenia-
SWEDEN.
21
History.
Leopold
king of
Hungary
^declares
against
Sweden.
Ragotski’s
army de¬
stroyed by
the Poles
and Tar-
He is de¬
feated and
killed by
the Turks.
Bravery
and success
of General
Wrangel.
The house
Of Austria
i declares
iagainst
Sweden.
b Peace con-
1 eluded.
a. d. 1658.
The war
renewed,
land Copen¬
hagen be¬
sieged.
Charles XI,
a. d. 1660
campaign in Lithuania, were obliged to retire without ac¬
complishing more than the reduction of a single fortress.
Charles then returned with the Swedish army to Prussia.
Leopold, the young king of Hungary, having long beheld
the Swedes with a jealous eye, now resolved to declare for
Poland. The more effectually to curb the ambition of the
Swedish monarch, he solicited the king of Denmark to
come to a rupture with him. This application was attend¬
ed with immediate success, and the Danes invaded Bremen.
Charles hastened to oppose this new enemy, and he thus
gave such offence to Ragotski, that, neglecting to take the
proper measures for his own defence in the absence of the
Swedes, he suffered his army to be destroyed by the Poles
and Tartars. At the same time the Turks invaded Tran¬
sylvania, under pretence that Ragotski, being a vassal of
the grand signior, had no right to invade Poland without
his permission. Ragotski, opposing them in the field, was
defeated and killed, leaving Charles destitute of the only
ally on whom he could depend.
The king, however, not dismayed by this misfortune,
traversed Pomerania and the duchy of Mecklenburg; after
which he attacked Holstein, while General Wrangel with
another corps entered the duchy of Bremen. The general
executed his measures with the utmost vigour. In fifteen
days he retook all the towns which the enemy had reduced;
defeated and drove the Danish army out of the country,
killing 3000 of their best soldiers. In Holstein the king
reduced several fortresses, laid Itzehoe in ashes, defeated a
body of Danes, and laid siege to Frederic Udda, into which
the Danes had thrown a strong garrison. Leaving to Wran¬
gel the conduct of this siege, he himself retired to Wismar
in order to observe the situation of affairs in Poland; and
no sooner was he departed than Wrangel attacked the place
with such fury, that he became master of it in two hours.
In the province of Halland the Swedes were defeated, but
the enemy derived no advantage from their victory. At sea
the fleets met, and maintained an engagement for two days,
without any considerable advantage on either side. In Po¬
land affairs were not better conducted. The house of Aus¬
tria had now declared for Casimir; and a German army
having entered Poland, reduced Cracow, though not with¬
out sustaining great loss.
The king of Sweden was now surrounded by enemies.
The elector of Brandenburg had declared against him ; and
he had besides to engage the armies of Austria, Poland,
Russia, and Denmark. In this dangerous situation he re¬
solved to attack Denmark, so as to oblige that state to come
to a speedy accommodation. His designs were forwarded
by a very early frost, which enabled him to transport his
troops without shipping. Having marched over the ice to
the island of Funen, he cut in pieces a body of 4000 Danish
soldiers and 500 peasants. The whole island was reduced
in a few days ; after which he passed to Langland, then to
Laaland, after that to Falster, and lastly to Zealand. The
Danes were terrified at this unexpected invasion, and were
resigning themselves to despair, when Charles offered to
conclude a peace on equitable terms. The king of Den¬
mark gladly consented, intending to renew the war as soon
as he thought it could be done with safety.
Charles was no sooner retired, than the king of Denmark
began to act secretly against him ; on which, resolving to
anticipate him in his designs, he appeared unexpectedly
with a fleet before Copenhagen. The Swedish monarch
laid siege to the capital, but with so little prudence that he
made no progress, and was at length compelled to turn the
siege into a blockade, which continued to the end of the
war. Charles X. died of an epidemic fever, and was suc¬
ceeded by his son Charles XI.
The new king, Charles XI. was a minor at the time of
his father’s death ; and as the kingdom wras involved in a
dangerous war with so many enemies, the regency deter¬
mined to conclude a peace, if it could be obtained on rea- History,
sonable terms. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Oli-
via, by which Casimir renounced his pretensions to the
crown of Poland, and that state gave up all pretensions to U lv *
Livonia. Bornholm and Drontheim were ceded to Den¬
mark, and an equivalent in Schonen remained with Swe¬
den. During the minority of the king, nothing remarkable
occurs in the history of Sweden. In 1672 he entered into War with
alliance with Louis XIV. which two years after involved Branden-
him in a war with the elector of Brandenburg. At first the
Swedes carried all before them. Almost all the towns in
Brandenburg were reduced, when the elector arrived with
an army to the relief of his distressed subjects. He retook TheSwedes
several towns, defeated the Swedes in a general engage- defeated by
ment, and soon after forced them to abandon all their con- ^an<1 an(*
quests. In conjunction with the Danes, he then invaded
the Swedish dominions : many places of importance were
reduced; and, in 1676, Sweden received a most destruc-A.n. 1676.
tive blow by the defeat of her fleet in an engagement with
the combined fleets of Denmark and Holland. The king
soon afterwards took the government into his own hands,
and in some degree restored the fortune of Sweden; but
although he was more successful where he commanded in
person, the same losses and disgrace attended the Swedish
arms in every other quarter. In 1678, the Swedish fleet
was defeated in two engagements. At Landscrona a most
obstinate battle was fought, from ten in the morning till six
at night, when both parties were obliged, by fatigue, to re¬
tire to their respective camps. At Oldeval, in Norway, the
Swedes were defeated; and the Danes laid desolate the
islands of Oeland, Smaaland, Unno, and Kuno ; while the
electoral troops and Imperialists reduced Count Kdnigs-
mark to the utmost distress in the neighbourhood of Stral-
sund. In this deplorable situation of affairs Konigsmark
found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to such ad¬
vantage, that he obtained a complete victory; after which
he ravaged the duchy of Mecklenburg. Notwithstanding
this success, he could not prevent the elector from reducing
Stralsund. He was afterwards obliged to evacuate Pome¬
rania ; and, to complete his distress, the fleet which trans¬
ported the Swedish army from Pomerania was wrecked on
the coast of Bornholm.
At this unprosperous crisis a peace was concluded at St
Germains between France and her enemies, by which the
Swedes and Danes were left to decide their quarrel between
themselves. Denmark was by no means a match for Swe¬
den, even in the distressed situation to which she was re¬
duced ; and a treaty was therefore concluded, on terms Peace con-
much more favourable to Sweden than could have been ex- eluded,
pected. The peace was confirmed by a marriage between
Charles, and Ulrica Eleonora, daughter to the king of Den¬
mark. From this time the Swedish monarch applied him- Charlesbe-
self to the reformation of the state ; and by artfully manag- comes ab-
ing the disputes between the nobility and the peasants, he so^ute-
obtained a decree empowering him to alter the constitution
as he pleased. The proceedings of the king after this de¬
cree were such as to exasperate the nobility, and produce
violent commotions. See Patkul.
On the 15th of April 1697, died Charles XI. leaving his CharlesXI.
crown to his son, the celebrated Charles XII. at that time dies, and is
a minor. On his accession, he found himself under the*uc£^ec|
tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had governed the
kingdom during the minority of the late king. Though xil.
Charles was at that time only fifteen years of age, he show¬
ed a desire of taking the government into his own hands.
His counsellors, Count Piper and Axel Sparre, signified his
desire to the queen-regent. By her they were referred to
the states, and there all were unanimous ; so that the queen,
finding that opposition would be vain, resigned her pow er
with a good grace ; and Charles w-as invested with absolute
authority in three days after he had expressed his desire of
22
History.
SWEDEN.
Tonnin-
gen
fleet of the
allies.
A. D. 1700.
reigning alone. He was scarcely seated on the throne when
a powerful combination was formed against him. Augustus
A powerful king of Poland formed designs on Livonia; the king of
tior! form- Denmark revived his disputes with the duke of Holstein,
ed against as a prelude to a war with Sweden ; and Peter the Great
him. of Russia began to form designs on Ingria, formerly a pro¬
vince of Russia. In 1699 the king of Denmark marched
Holstein an army into Holstein. Charles sent a considerable body
ravaged by of troops to the duke’s assistance ; but before their arrival
the Danes. t]ie Danes had ravaged the country, taken the castle of Got-
a. d. 1699. torp^ an[j jajj cjose siege t0 Tonningen. Here the king of
Denmark commanded in person, and was assisted by the
troops of Saxony, Brandenburg, Wolfenbuttel, and Hesse-
Cassel. Britain and Holland, as guarantees of the last treaty
with Denmark, in concert with Sweden, joined Charles
against this confederacy, and sent fleets to the Baltic. They
proposed a termination of the war on equitable terms; but
these were haughtily refused by the Danish monarch, who
despised the youth and inexperience of Charles, and relied
too much on the alliance which he had formed with Saxony,
They are Brandenburg, Poland, and Russia. Tonningen, however,
repulsed at resisted all his efforts; and when he ordered the place to
be stormed, he had the mortification to see his troops driven
headlong from the walls by a handful of Swedes.
Charles de- In the year 1700, Charles, having intrusted the affairs
feats the 0f the nation with a council chosen out of the senate, set
out on the 8th May from his capital, to which he never
afterwards returned. He embarked at Carlscrona, and de¬
feated the fleet of the allies. Having made a descent on
the island of Zealand, he defeated a body of cavalry that
opposed his march, and then proceeded to invest Copen¬
hagen by sea and land. The king of Denmark saw the ne¬
cessity of either having his capital destroyed, or of doing
Obliges the justice to the duke of Holstein. He chose the latter; and
Danes to a treaty was concluded on much the same terms as formerly.
Charles, being thus at liberty to turn his arms against the
other princes who had conspired his destruction, resolved
Marches to lead his army against Augustus king of Poland. On the
against the road, however, he received intelligence that the czar of
Russians. Russia was on his march to oppose him, and had laid siege
to Narva with an army of 100,000 men. The contest that
ensued between Charles and Peter, with the celebrated
battles of Narva and Pultava, have been already related un¬
der Russia, so that we shall here confine ourselves chiefly
to those events in which Peter the Great was not immediately
concerned. Peter was the chief support of Augustus, and
he took the most active measures to oppose the progress of
the Swedish monarch. His want of success, and the sub¬
sequent contests between him and Charles, till the decisive
battles of Pultava, are related in the same article.
In 1701, as early as the season permitted, Charles, having
received a reinforcement from Sweden, took the field, and
Saxons ^ aPPeared suddenly on the banks of the Duna, along which
a. d. 1701, ^axon army was posted to receive him. The king of
Poland being at that time sick, the army was commanded
by Ferdinand duke of Courland, Marshal Stenau, and Ge¬
neral Paykel, all officers of valour and experience. They
had fortified some islands in the mouth of the river, and
taken every other precaution against an attack ; the soldiers
were hardy, well disciplined, and nearly equal to the Swedes
and entire- in number; yet Charles, having passed the river in boats
ly defeats with high sides, to screen the men from the fire of the ene-
tbem. my, attacked them with such fury, that they were entirely
defeated, and with great loss. This victory was followed
by the surrender of all the towns and fortresses in the duchy
of Courland. Charles then passed into Lithuania, where
eveij town opened its gates to him. At Birsen, an army
Forms a °u 20,000 Asians retired with the utmost precipitation on
scheme for , n.ews of his approach. Here Charles, perceiving that
dethroning ^ e kingdom of Poland was greatly disaffected to Augustus,
Augustus, began to project the scheme of dethroning him by'means
make
peace
Charles
marches
of his own subjects. This scheme he executed with moie Histo.
policy than he ever showed on any other occasion.
Augustus, in the mean time, finding his scheme of peace
frustrated, had recourse to the senate; but met with such
a rough answer from them, that he determined to apply to
Charles. To him therefore he sent his chamberlain ; but
a passport being forgotten, the ambassador was arrested.
Charles continued his march to Warsaw, which surrendered Warsav
on the first summons ; but the citadel held out for some taken,
days. Augustus, finding at last that no dependence was to
be placed on the Poles, determined to trust his fortune
wholly to the Saxon army and the nobility of the palatinate
of Cracow, who offered to support him to the utmost of
their power. The Saxon army had now advanced to the
frontiers, and Augustus immediately put himself at its head.
Being joined by the nobility of Cracow, he found that his
forces amounted to 30,000 men, all brave and well disciplined.
With these he marched in quest of his enemy; nor did the
Swedish monarch decline the combat, though he had with
him only 12,000 men. Though the Saxons were strongly The Sajin
posted, having their front covered by a morass, besides be-entirely
ing fortified with pallisadoes and chevaux de frise, they were feated.
attacked with irresistible impetuosity, and entirely defeated.
This victory was followed by the loss of Cracow. Charles Cracow
then set out in pursuit of the flying army, with a design of^611-
preventing them from re-assembling; but his horse falling
under him, he had the misfortune to break his thigh, by
which he was confined six weeks, and thus Augustus ob¬
tained some respite. He improved this interval. Having
convoked a diet, first at Marienburg, and then at Lublin,
he obtained the following resolutions; that an army of
50,000 men should be raised by the republic for the ser¬
vice of the prince ; that six wrecks should be allowed the
Swedes to determine whether they were for war or peace ;
and that the same time should be granted to the turbulent
and discontented nobles of Poland to make their concessions,
fo counteract the effects of these resolutions, Charles as-Remainof
sembled another diet at Warsaw; and while the two as-the Sax
semblies disputed concerning their rights and privileges, heaj™7 CJ
recovered from his wound, x-eceived a strong reinforcementf^tid
from Pomerania, and utterly defeated and dispersed the re-a. d. 17i.
mains of the Saxon army.
I he ill fortune of Augustus continued still to prevail. In August!
1704 he was formally deposed by the diet, and the crown deposed
was conferred by Charles on Stanislas Lecsinsky, palatine ®ta "
of Posnania. Augustus however did not yet tamely relin-
quish his kingdom. His adherents daily skirmished with throne,
the Swedes; and Augustus himself, being reinforced by Warsav
9000 Russians, retook Warsaw, and had nearly surprised r(Raken: y
the new king, who lived in perfect security in the city while'^u^ust
Charles fought his battles. Count Horn, with 1500 Swedes,
vigorously defended the citadel; but at last, finding it no
longer tenable, he was obliged to surrender at discretion.
I he reduction of \\ arsaw was among the last advantages
gained by Augustus in the course of this war. His troops
were now composed of Saxon recruits and undisciplined
I oles, who had no attachment to his person, and were ready
on all occasions to forsake him. Charles and Stanislas ad¬
vanced with the victorious army; the Saxons fled before
them, and the towns several miles round tendered their sub-
niisbion. J he Poles and Saxons were under the command Excelle,
of Schullemberg, a most sagacious and experienced general, conduct
who used every expedient to check the progress of the ^s, 1
Swedes. W ith all his conduct and caution he found him- w a e
seh outwitted, and Charles in the neighbourhood of his 0
camp, ready to fall on him, while he thought him at fifty
leagues distance. The Swedish monarch attacked him with His en-
a superior army, but entirely composed of horse. Schul - gageme;
em erg had posted his men in such a manner as renderedvvat^ ^
it impossible to surround them. His first rank, being armed Swedes
with pikes and muskets, presented a rampart of bayonets; the
SWEDEN.
23
Augustus
leaves Po¬
land.
tail
History, second line, stooping over the first, who kneeled, fired over
v>-—their heads; while the third rank, who stood upon their feet,
kept up an incessant fire, by which the Swedish horse were
exceedingly galled and put in disorder. Charles lost the op¬
portunity of cutting off the whole Saxon army, by omitting
to order his men to dismount. This was almost the first
time that infantry had been regularly opposed to cavalry,
His fine re-and the superiority of the former was evident. After the
treat. engagement had continued about three hours, the Saxons
retreated in good order ; which no enemy had ever done
before in any engagement with Charles. The Swedes pur¬
sued their enemies towards the Oder, and forced them to
retreat through thick woods, almost impervious even to in¬
fantry. The Swedish horse, however, pushed their way,
and at last enclosed Schullemberg between a wood and the
river, where Charles had no doubt of obliging him to sur¬
render at discretion, or die sword in hand, as having neither
boats nor bridges; but the genius of Schullemberg supplied
every defect. In the night he ordered planks and floats of
trees to be fastened together, on which he carried over his
troops, while the Swedes were employed in dislodging 300
men, whom he had placed in a wind-mill for the purpose of
defending his flank, and diverting the attention of the ene¬
my. Charles spoke of this retreat with admiration, and said
he had been conquered by Schullemberg.
No material advantage however resulted to Augustus, who
was again obliged to leave Poland, and fortify the capital
of his hereditary dominions, which he expected every mo-
The Rus- ment to see invested. In the mean time, the Russians hav-
skns take ing recovered their spirits, attacked the Swedes in Livonia
towns'in t^le utmost; fury. Narva, Dorpat, and several other
Livonia towns, were taken, and the inhabitants and garrison treated
and invade with great barbarity. An army of 100,000 Russians soon
Poland. afterwards entered Poland. Sixty thousand Cossacks under
Mazeppa entered the country at the same time, and com¬
mitted every outrage with the fury of barbarians. Schullem¬
berg, perhaps more formidable than either, advanced with
11,000 Saxons and 7000 Russians, disciplined in Germany,
and reputed excellent soldiers. Could numbers have de¬
termined the event of war, the Swedes must certainly have
been at this time overpowered ; but Charles seemed to tri¬
umph over his enemies with more ease the more numerous
they were. The Russians were so speedily defeated, that
they were all dispersed before one party had notice of the
Astonish- misfortunes of another. The defeating an army of 40,000
ing success men scarcely obstructed the march of the Swedes, while
their astonished enemies looked on these actions as the ef¬
fects of witchcraft, and imagined that the king of Sweden
had dealings with infernal spirits. With these apprehen¬
sions they fled beyond the Dnieper, leaving the unhappy
Augustus to his fate. Schullemberg, with all his skill and
experience, was not more successful. The Swedish gene¬
ral Renschild engaged and defeated him in half an hour,
though the Swedes were vastly inferior in number, and their
enemies posted in a most advantageous situation. Nothing
could be more complete than the victory. This extraor¬
dinary victory, indeed, is said to have been owing to a panic
which seized the troops of Schullemberg; but it was re¬
garded with admiration, and thought to make the renown
of Renschild equal to that of his sovereign. Charles him¬
self was jealous, and could not help exclaiming, “ Surely
Renschild will not compare himself with me !”
Soon after this victory, which was gained on the 12th of
of Charles
against
them.
Schullera-
berg en¬
tirely de¬
feated by
Senschild.
Charles in¬
vades Sax¬
ony.
February 1706, Charles entered Saxony at the head of
24,000 men. The diet at Ratisbon declared him an ene¬
my to the empire if he crossed the Oder. But to this de¬
claration no regard was paid: Charles pursued his march,
while Augustus was reduced to the condition of a vagrant
in Poland, where he possessed not a single town except
Cracow. Into this city he threw himself with a few Saxon,
Polish, and Russian regiments, and began to erect some
fortifications for his defence; but the approach of the History.
Swedish general Meyerfeldt, and the news of the invasion  v-'~/
of Saxony, disconcerted all his measures, and plunged him
into despair. The Russians indeed were his faithful allies, Augustus
but he dreaded them almost as much as the Swedes; so begs for
that he was reduced to the necessity of writing a letter to Peace 011
Charles with his own hand, begging for peace on whateveraiiy tenns‘
terms he thought proper to grant. As he was then at the
mercy of the Russians, this transaction was concealed with
the greatest care. His emissaries were introduced to the
Swedish court in the night-time, and being presented to
Charles, received the following answer : that King Augus- Charles’s
tus should for ever renounce the crown of Poland, acknow- answer,
ledge Stanislas, and promise never to re-ascend the throne,
should an opportunity offer; that he should release the
princes Sobieski, and all the Swedish prisoners made in the
course of the war ; surrender Patkul, at that time resident
at his court as ambassador for the czar of Russia, and stop
proceedings against all who had passed from his into the
Swedish service. These articles Charles wrote with his
own hand, and delivered to Count Piper, ordering him to
finish them with the Saxon ambassadors.
After his defeat at Pultava by the Russians, Charles fled
in a mean calash, attended by a little troop inviolably at¬
tached to his person, some on foot, and some on horseback.
They were obliged to cross a sandy desert, where neither
herb nor tree was to be seen, and where the burning heat
and want of water were more intolerable than the ex¬
tremities of cold which they had formerly endured. The
whole had almost perished for want of water, when a spring
was fortunately discovered. They reached Otchakoff, a Charles ar-
town in the Turkish dominions, the pacha of which sup-rives in
plied the king with every necessary. It was, however, some Turkey
time before boats could be got ready for transporting the
whole of the king’s attendants; by which accident 500 puitav;^
Swedes and Cossacks fell into the hands of the enemy.
This loss affected him more than all his other misfortunes.
He shed tears at seeing, across the river Bog, the greater
part of his few remaining friends carried into captivity,
without having it in his power to assist them. The pacha
waited on him to apologise for the delay, and was as se¬
verely reprimanded by Charles as if he had been his own
subject.
The king remained but a few days at Otchakoff, when
the seraskier of Bender sent an aga to compliment him on
his arrival in the Turkish dominions, and to invite him to
that city. Here he was treated with hospitality. The is kindly
Turks practised to its full extent their generous maxim of received,
regarding as sacred the persons of unfortunate princes who and his
had taken shelter in their dominions; and they perhaps re-^°Pes
garded him, notwithstanding his misfortunes, as an ally that
might be useful to themselves against the Russians. Every gin to re-
one indeed regarded him in his distress. The French kingvive.
offered him a safe passage from the Levant to Marseilles,
from whence he might easily return to his own dominions.
But Charles was too obstinate to receive advice. Puffed
up with the notion of imitating Alexander the Great, he
disdained to return except at the head of a numerous army;
and he yet expected, by means of the Turks, to dethrone
his adversary the czar. Negociations for this purpose were
carried on in the Turkish divan, and it was proposed to
escort Charles with a numerous army to the frontiers of
Poland; but the revolution which there took place put an
end to all such projects. Augustus thought himself no Augustus
longer bound to observe the treaty which he had made, recovers
than when Charles was at hand to compel him. After the^6
battle of Pultava, he entered Poland, and took every mea-j^ 0 1 °*
sure, in concert with the czar, for the recovery of his king¬
dom. Stanislas was not able to encounter such enemies,
but was obliged to leave his dominions and fly to Bender,
in the disguise of a Swedish officer, in order to share the
24:
SWEDEN.
invade
Sweden,
History, fortune of Charles. It was not in Poland alone that the
v'—“v—Swedish affairs began to suffer in consequence of the defeat
The Danes at Pultava. The Danes invaded the province of Schonen
with an army of 13,000 foot and 2500 horse. Only 13,000
Swedish forces remained to defend all the territories pos¬
sessed by Charles in Germany, and of these only a small
part was allotted for the defence of Schonen. The re¬
gency of Sweden, however, exerted themselves to the ut¬
most to repel this ungenerous invasion; and having col¬
lected an army of 12,000 militia and 8000 regulars, de¬
spatched them under General Steenboek into Schonen.
Some Saxon troops were incorporated in this army; but
among these a prodigious desertion took place, which the
general found it impossible to prevent; and thus the Danes
gained several advantages, and at last took Christianstadt.
Their insolence on this success was so great that the
Swedes demanded to be instantly led against them. Here
the good fortune of Sweden seemed once more to revive,
but are ut- The Danes were driven from a very strong situation, with
featecf6" t^e ^oss 8000 killed and taken prisoners, besides a vast
A ' number wounded. The king received the intelligence of
this victory with the greatest exultation, and could not help
exclaiming, “ My brave Swedes, should it please God that
I once more join you, we shall conquer them all.”
In the mean time, Charles, by means of his agents
the count Poniatoffski and Neugebar, used his utmost ef¬
forts to procure a rupture between the Porte and Russia.
The Turks For a long interval the money bestowed by Peter on the
against the1 v‘zirs ant* janisaries prevailed ; but at last the grand sig-
Russians.6 n*or’ ^n^uence^ by his mother, who was strongly in the
a. d. 17] ]. interest of Charles, and had been used to call him her
lion, determined to support his quarrel with Peter. He
therefore gave orders to the vizir to fall on the Russians
with an army of 200,000 men. The vizir promised obe¬
dience, but at the same time professed his ignorance in the
art of war, and dislike to the present expedition. The khan
of Crim Tartary, who had been gained over by the repu¬
tation and presents of the king of Sweden, had orders to
take the field with 40,000 of his men, and had the liberty
of assembling his army at Bender, that Charles might
see that the war was undertaken on his account. See Rus¬
sia.
The treaty of the Pruth was most violently opposed by
Poniatoffski and the khan of Tartary. The former had
made the king acquainted with the situation of both armies;
on which he instantly set out from Bender, filled with the
hopes of fighting the Russians, and taking ample vengeance.
Having ridden fifty leagues post, he arrived at the camp
just as the czar was drawing off his half-famished troops.
He alighted at Poniatoffski’s tent; and being informed of
particulars, instantly flew in a rage to the vizir, whom he
loaded with reproaches, and accused of treachery. Recol¬
lecting himself, however, he proposed a method by which
the fault might be remedied ; but finding his proposal re¬
jected, he posted back to Bender, after having by the grossest
insults showed his contempt of the vizir.
d he violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his in¬
terest. The vizir perceived that his stay in Turkey might
prove fatal to himself, and he therefore determined to re-
j ha grand move him as soon as possible. Succeeding vizirs adopted
Shim toth? Same pI™ 5 ,and at last the Srand ^gnior himself wrote
depart. ^ a letter t0 Charles, in which he desired him to depart by
next winter, promising to supply him with a sufficient guard,
with money, and every thing else necessary for his journey.
Charles gave an evasive answer, and determined to procras¬
tinate his journey, as well to gratify his own stubborn tem¬
per, as because he discovered a correspondence between
Augustus and the khan of Tartary, the object of which, he
wu reason t0 believe, was to betray him to the Saxons.
When he was again pressed to fix the day of his departure,
he replied, that he could not think of going before his debts
were paid. Being asked how much was necessary for this Histo
purpose, he replied, a thousand purses. A purse, it is to be '''“"v.
remarked, consists of thirty sequins. Twelve hundred M<ran ai
purses were instantly sent to the seraskier at Bender, with
orders to deliver them to the king of Sweden, but not be- Charles
fore he should have begun his journey. By fair promises,
Charles persuaded him to part with the money; after which,
instead of setting out, he squandered away his treasure in
presents and gratifications, and then demanded a thousand
purses more before he would set out. The seraskier was
astonished at this behaviour. He shed tears ; and turning
to the king told him that his head would be the forfeit of
having obliged him with the money. The grand signior,
on being acquainted with the shameful behaviour of Charles,
flew into a rage, and called an extraordinary divan, where he
himself spoke ; a practice very unusual for the Turkish mo-
narchs. It was unanimously agreed that such a troublesome
guest ought to be removed by force, should other means fail.
Positive orders were therefore sent to Charles to depart; and, The Ti; s
in case of his refusal, instructions were given for attacking resolve i
him in his quarters. Nothing could equal his obstinacy on f°rce
this occasion: in spite of the menaces of his enemies, in spiteto depa‘
of the entreaties of his friends, he persisted in his resolu¬
tion ; and at last determined to resist, with 300 Swedes, be- His des».
ing the entire number of his attendants, an army of 20,000 rnte ream
janisaries well armed and furnished with cannon. At length b®0 t0 •
he w'as attacked in good earnest; though it must be owned,sisfc*
that even in this extremity, the Turks showed their regard
to him, and were tender of his safety. Most of the Swedes
surrendered at once, perhaps as thinking it the only method
of saving the king’s life. This conduct, however, had an op¬
posite effect. Charles became the more obstinate, the more
desperate his affairs seemed to be. With only forty menial Is aband.
servants, and the generals Hord and Dardorff, he deter-ed by al
mined to defend himself to the last extremity. Seeing hishis fo!1o .
soldiers lay down their arms, he told the generals, “ We ®rs exce:
must now defend the house. Come,” added he with a smile,t0rty'
“ let fight pro aris etfocis” The house had been already
forced by the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the
door, and where his domestics had assembled. Charles
forced his way through the janisaries, attended by the ge¬
nerals Hord and Dardorff, joined his people, and then bar¬
ricaded the door, i he moment he entered, the enemy
who were in the house threw down their booty, and en¬
deavoured to escape at the windows. Charles pursued ,
them from room to room with much bloodshed, and cleared
the house in a few minutes. He then fired furiously from Fivhts li
the windows, killed two hundred of the Turks in a quarter a madma
of an hour, so that the pacha who commanded them wasbuGstafei
at length forced to set the house on fire. This was effected Pris,oner
by discharging arrows with lighted matches into the roof;^^'
but Charles, instead of quitting his post, gave orders for
extinguishing the fire, and he himself assisted with great
d j /^Ce’i All efforts were however vain : the roof fell in,
and Charles, with his few faithful companions, was ready
to be buried in the ruins. In this extremity one called out
that there was a necessity for surrendering. “ What a
strange fellow !” cries the king, “ who would rather be a
prisoner with the 1 urks than mix his ashes with those of
ns sovereign.” Another had the presence of mind to cry
out, that the chancery was but fifty paces off, had a stone
roof, and was proof against fire. Pleased with the thoughts
o again coming to blows, the king exclaimed, “ A true
hwede . Let us take all the powder and bail we can carry.”
He then put himself at the head of his troops, and sallied out
with such impetuosity, that the Turks retreated fifty paces ; *
u laving a en in the midst of his fury, they rushed upon
urn, and carried him by the legs and arms to the pacha’s tent.
I his extraordinary adventure, which savours not a little of
insanity, happened on the 12th of February 1713. He was
now kept prisoner with all his retinue ; and in this situation
SWEDEN. 25
History, he was visited by the unfortunate Stanislas, the dethroned
v——v'—' king of Poland.
Begins to Charles seemed at last inclined to submit to his fate, and
think of began seriously to think of returning to his kingdom, now
returning recjuced to the most deplorable situation. His habitation
to his do- jiac| j)een gxe(j at Demotica, a small town about six leagues
minions. ^.om Adrianople. Here he was allowed provisions for his
own table and those of his retinue; but only twenty-five
crowns a day in money, instead of five hundred which he
had received at Bender. During his residence here, he
received a deputation from Hesse-Cassel, soliciting his con¬
sent to the marriage of the landgrave with Eleonora, princess
royal of Sweden ; to which he readily agreed. A deputa¬
tion was also sent him by the regency of Sweden, request¬
ing that he would prepare for returning to his own domi¬
nions, which, in his absence, were ready to sink under a
ruinous war.
Setsoutfor On the 14th of October 1714, Charles set out for Swe-
Sweden. jgu, All the princes through whose territories he was to
a. d. 1714. pagg jja(j given or(iers for his entertainment in the most
magnificent manner; but the king, perceiving that these
compliments only rendered his imprisonment and other
misfortunes more conspicuous, suddenly dismissed his Turk¬
ish attendants, and assembling his own people, bid them
take no care about him, but make the best of their way to
Stralsund. After this he set out post, in the habit of a
German officer, attended only by Colonel During. Keep¬
ing the by-roads through Hungary, Moravia, Austria, Ba¬
varia, Wirtemberg, the Palatinate, Westphalia, and Meck¬
lenburg, he arrived on the 21st of November at midnight
before the gates of Stralsund. Being unknown, he was ad¬
mitted with difficulty; but being soon recognised by the
governor, the greatest tokens of joy were manifested all over
the town.
Distressed Sweden was now in the greatest distress. On the news
situation of of the defeat at Pultava, the Danes had invaded Schonen,
Sweden, were defeated by General Steenboek. This victory
did not, however, put an end to the war. The kings of
Denmark and Poland, with the czar of Russia, entered in¬
to stricter bonds of amity than ever. They dreaded the
return of Charles to his own dominions, and apprehended
that numberless ^victories would soon efface the remem¬
brance of Pultava. They determined to make the best use
of their time; and perhaps Charles never took a more im¬
prudent resolution than obstinately to remain so long in the
Turkish dominions. His return seemed to give new life to
the whole nation. Though the number of inhabitants was
visibly diminished, the levies which he had ordered were
completed in a few weeks; but the husbandmen left to cul¬
tivate the earth consisted of the infirm, aged, and decrepid;
so that a famine was threatened in consequence of the mi¬
litary rage which had seized all the youth of the kingdom.
The king is The presence of Charles did not now produce those con-
unable to sequences which the allies had feared. The kingdom was
Swedish t0° muc^ re^uced to furnish the necessary supplies of men
affairs and money ; and though the king’s courage and military
a. i). 1715. skill were not in the least diminished, the efforts which he
made, instead of restoring Sweden to its splendour, serv¬
ed more completely to ruin it. In 1715, Prussia declared
against him, on account of his demanding back the town of
Stettin, which that monarch had seized. To complete his
embarrassment, the elector of Hanover, George 1. of Bri¬
ls encom- tain, also became his enemy. The forces of Denmark,
passed on Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover joined to invest Wismar,
enemies ^ w^e a body of 36,000 men formed the siege of Stralsund ;
and at the same time the czar, with a fleet of twenty large
ships of war, and 150 transports, carrying 30,000 men,
threw every part of the Swedish coast into the greatest con¬
sternation. The heroism of Charles could not prevail
against so many enemies; yet he was still so much dread¬
ed, that the prince of Anhalt, with 12,000 brave troops, did
VOL. XXI.
not think himself a match for this furious enemy when at History,
the head of only 2000, till he had intrenched his army be-
hind a ditch, defended by chevaux de frise. It appeared,
indeed, that this precaution was not unnecessary ; for in 1 ‘
the night Charles with his men clambered up the ditch, and
attacked the enemy in his usual manner. Numbers, how¬
ever, at last prevailed, and Charles was obliged to retire,
after having seen his favourite Grothusen, General Dardoff,
and During, the companions of his exile, killed by his side,
he himself being wounded in the breast.
This rash attempt was made in order to save Rugen,stralswid
whence the town of Stralsund was supplied with provisions, besieged,
The place w'as well fortified, and garrisoned with 9000
men, with Charles himself at their head ; but nothing could
resist the efforts of the enemy. By the 17th of December
it was proposed to give the assault. The attack on the
horn-work was desperate ; the enemy was twice repulsed ;
but at last, by dint of numbers, effected a lodgment. The
next day, Charles headed a sally, in which he dealt terrible
destruction among the besiegers, but was at length over¬
powered and obliged to retreat into the town. At last his
officers, apprehending that he must either fall into the hands
of the enemy, or be buried in the ruins of the place, en¬
treated him to retire. A retreat, however, was now al-and taken,
most as dangerous as to remain in the town, on acconnt ofin spite of
the fleets of the enemy with which the sea was covered;^ utmost
and it is thought that this very circumstance induced the^^j.?]0
king to consent to it. Embarking in a small boat with sails °‘
and oars, he passed all the enemy’s ships and batteries, and
arrived safe at Ystedt in Schonen.
To revenge himself for these losses, Charles invaded Charles in-
Norway with an army of 25,000 men. The Danes werevades Nor-
every where defeated and pursued with that vigour for which way*
the king of Sweden was so remarkable ; but strong rein¬
forcements arriving from Denmark, and provisions failing,
he was at last obliged to retire. Soon after this the Swedes A treaty
lost Wismar; but when every thing seemed hopeless, Baron with the
Goertz, the chief minister and favourite of Charles, contriv- ^ar
ed to make overtures for a treaty with the czar of Russia,1, usc^'i-T
by which the most formidable of all Charles’s enemies was
taken off. The minister found means to work on the in¬
flexible temper of Charles, by representing to him that the
cession of certain provinces to Peter would induce him to
assist him in his projects of again dethroning Augustus, and
of replacing James on the throne of Britain; which last
scheme he had projected out of revenge for the elector of
Hanover having seized on the duchies of Bremen and Ver-
den. In consequence of the conferences between the czar
and Goertz, the former engaged to send into Poland an
army of 80,000 men, in order to dethrone that prince whom
he had so long defended. He also engaged to furnish ships
for transporting 30,000 Swedes to Germany, and 10,000
into Denmark. This treaty was not however ratified, and
the death of Charles put a final stop to all the great pros¬
pects of Sweden.
The king had resolved on the conquest of Norway be-Charles in-
fore he dethroned Augustus; and as no difficulties ever de- vadea Nor-
terred him, he marched his army into that cold and barren wa7-
country in the month of October, when the ground was
covered with frost and snow. With 18,000 men he formed
the siege of Frederickshall, though the severity of the frost
rendered it almost impossible to break ground. He resolv¬
ed to form trenches; and his soldiers cheerfully obeyed,
digging into the ground with the same labour as if they had
been piercing a rock. On the 11th of December the king His death,
visited the trenches in the midst of a terrible fire from the
enemy, imagining that his men might be animated by his
presence. He took his post in the most dangerous station
that he could select, standing on a gabion and leaning with
his arm over the parapet, while the enemy were firing chain
shot at the very spot where he stood. He was entreated to
D
26
SWEDEN.
History, change his station, but he remained obstinate. At last he
^     was seen to fall on the parapet, and was heard to utter a
deep groan. He soon afterwards expired, having been
mortally wounded, as is supposed, by a cannon-ball.
Account of Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister the princess
the Swe- Ulrica Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of Hesse.
fron^the13 t^*s occasion the states took care to make a previous
death of stipulation for the preservation of their liberties, and oblig-
Charles cd the princess, before entering on the government, to sign
XII. to the a document to this effect. Their first care was to make
year 1771. peace with Great Britain, which the late king intended to
have invaded. In order to prevent their further losses by
the progress of the Russian, the Danish, the Saxon, and
other arms, the. Swedes made many great sacrifices to ob¬
tain peace from these powers. The French, however, about
the year 1738, formed a dangerous party in the kingdom,
which not only broke its internal quiet, but led it into a
ruinous war with Russia, by which it lost the province of
Finland. Their Swedish majesties having no children, it
was necessary to settle the succession; especially as the
duke of Holstein was descended from the queen’s eldest
sister, and was, at the same time, the presumptive heir to
the empire of Russia. Four competitors appeared; the
duke of Holstein Gottorp, Prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel,
nephew to the king, the prince of Denmark, and the duke
of Deux-Ponts. The duke of Holstein would have carried
the election, had he not embraced the Greek religion that
he might mount the throne of Russia. The czarina inter¬
posed, and offered to restore all the conquests she had
made from Sweden, excepting a small district in Finland,
if the Swedes would receive the duke of Holstein’s uncle,
Adolphus Frederic, bishop of Liibeck, as their hereditary
prince and the successor to the crown. This was agreed
to; and a peace concluded at Abo, under the mediation of
his Britannic majesty. The peace was so firmly main¬
tained by the empress of Russia, that his Danish majesty
thought proper to drop all resentment for the indignity of¬
fered his son. The prince-successor married the princess
Ulrica, third sister to the king of Prussia; and in 1751 he
entered into the possession of his new dignity, which prov¬
ed to him a crown of thorns. The French had acquired
great influence in all the deliberations of the Swedish se-
Accession
of Adol¬
phus Fre¬
derick.
a. d. 1751
nate, who of late had been little better than pensioners to
that crown. The intrigues of the senators forced Adol¬
phus to take part in the war against Prussia; but as that
war vyas disagreeable, not only to the people, but also to
the king of Sweden, the nation never made so mean an ap¬
pearance ; and on Russia’s making peace with the king of
Gustavus Prussia, the Swedes followed the example. Adolphus died
dispirited in 1771, after a turbulent reign of twenty years,
throne ^ an^was succeeded by his son Gustavus.
a. d. 1771. I hemostremarkabletransactionofthis reign is therevolu-
tion which took place in the government in the year 1772, by
which the king, from being the most limited, became one of
the most despotic monarchs in Europe. Ever since the death
of Charles XII. the whole power of the kingdom had been
lodged in the states; and this power they had much abus¬
ed. Gustavus therefore determined either to seize on that
power of which they made such a bad use, or to perish in
Account of the attempt. The revolution was effected in the following
the revolu-manner. On the morning of the 19th of August 1772, a
1772 "by consi(Ierab,e number of officers, as well as other persons
which he known to be attached to the royal cause, had been sum-
beeame de-moned to attend his majesty. Before ten he was on horse-
spotic. back, and visited the regiment of artillery. As he passed
through the streets he was more than usually courteous to
all he met, bowing familiarly to the lowest of the people.
On the king’s return to his palace, the detachment which
was to mount guard that day being drawn up together with
that which was to be relieved, his majesty retired with the
officers into the guard-room. He then addressed them
with all that eloquence of which he is said to have been a History
master; and after insinuating to them that his life was in
danger, he exposed to them in the strongest colours the
wretched state of the kingdom, the shackles in which it
was held by means of foreign gold, and the dissensions and
troubles arising from the same cause which had distracted
the diet during the course of fourteen months. He assured
them that his only design was to put an end to these dis¬
orders, to banish corruption, restore true liberty, and re¬
vive the ancient lustre of the Swedish name, which had
been long tarnished by a venality as notorious as it was
disgraceful. Then assuring them in the strongest terms
that he disclaimed for ever all absolute potfer, or what
the Swedes call sovereignty., he concluded with these words:
“ I am obliged to defend my own liberty and that of the
kingdom against the aristocracy, which reigns. Will you
be faithful to me, as your forefathers were to Gustavus
Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus ? I will then risk my life for
your welfare and that of my country.” The officers, most
of them young men, of whose attachment the king had
been long secure, and who did not perhaps perceive the
real tendency of his majesty’s request, were allowed no
time to reflect, immediately gave their assent, and took an
oath of fidelity to him. Only three refused. One ofResolutio
these, Frederic Cederstrom, captain of a company of the of a Swe-
guards, alleged he had already, and very lately, taken an (bsk °®ce
oath to be faithful to the states, and consequently could
not take that which his majesty then exacted. The king,
looking at him sternly, answered, “ Think of what you are
doing.’’ “ I do,” replied Cederstrom; “ and what I think
to-day I shall think to-morrow; and were I capable of
breaking the oath by which I am already bound to the
states, 1 should be likewise capable of breaking that which
your majesty now requires me to take.” The king having
then ordered Cederstrom to deliver up his sword, placed
him under arrest. His majesty, however, apprehensive of
the impression which his proper and resolute conduct
might make on the minds of the other officers, soon after¬
wards softened his tone; and again addressing himself to
Cederstrom, told him, that as a proof of the opinion which
he entertained of him, and the confidence which he placed
in him, he would return him his sword without insisting on
Ins taking the oath, and would only desire his attendance
that day. The undaunted captain continued firm; he an¬
swered, that his majesty could place no confidence in him,
and that he begged to be excused from the service.
While Gustavus was shut up with the officers, senator
Railing, to whom the command of the troops in the town
had been given two days before, came to the door of the
guard-room, and was told that he could not be admitted.
The senator insisted on being present at the distribution
of the orders, and sent to the king to desire it; but was
answered, he must go to the senate, where his majesty
would speak to him. The officers then received their or¬
ders from the king; the first of which was, that the two
regiments of guards and of artillery should be immediately
assembled, and that a detachment of thirty-six grenadiers
should be posted at the door of the council-chamber to
prevent any of the senators from coming out. But before
the orders could be carried into execution, it was necessary
that Gustavus should address himself to the soldiers; men
wholly unacquainted with his designs, and accustomed to
pay obedience only to the orders of the senate, whom they
had been taught to hold in the highest reverence. As his The king
majesty, followed by the officers, was advancing from the gains ovei
guard-room to the parade for this purpose, some of them, the sol •
more cautious, or perhaps more timid, than the rest, be-^’ers‘
came, on a short reflection, apprehensive of the conse¬
quences of the measure in which they were engaged : they
began to express their fears to the king, that unless some
person of greater weight and influence than themselves
SWEDEN.
27
whole
power in
the king¬
dom.
History, were to take a part in the same cause, he could scarcely
'-v'''—^ hope to succeed in his enterprise. The king stopped a
while, and appeared to hesitate. A serjeant of the guards
overheard their discourse, and cried aloud, “ It shall suc¬
ceed. Long live Gustavus!” His majesty immediately
said, “ Then I will ventureand stepping forward to the
soldiers, he addressed them in terms nearly similar to those
which he had employed to the officers, and with the same
success. They answered him with loud acclamations. One
voice only said, No; but it excited no attention.
In the mean time some of the king’s emissaries had
spread a report about the town that his majesty was ar¬
rested. This drew the populace to the palace in great num¬
bers, where they arrived as he had concluded his harangue
to the guards. They testified by reiterated shouts their
joy at seeing him safe ; a joy which promised the happiest
Secures the conclusion to the business of the day. The senators were
senators, now immediately secured. They had from the window of
and be- Hie council-chamber beheld what was going forward on the
come*Ifas'parade before the palace ; and, at a loss to know the mean-
ar 0 L ing of the shouts which they heard, were coming down to
inquire into the cause of them, when thirty grenadiers,
with their bayonets fixed, informed them it was his majesty’s
pleasure they should continue where they were. They
began to speak in a high tone, but were only answered by
having the door shut and locked upon them. The moment
the secret committee heard that the senate was arrested,
they separated of themselves, each individual providing for
his own safety. The king then mounting his horse, fol¬
lowed by his officers with their swords drawn, a large body
of soldiers, and numbers of the populace, went to the other
quarters of the town where the soldiers whom he had or¬
dered to be assembled were posted. He found them all
equally willing to support his cause, and to take to him an
oath of fidelity. As he passed through the streets, he de¬
clared to the people, that he only meant to defend them,
and save his country ; and that if they would not confide in
him, he would lay down his sceptre, and surrender up his
kingdom. So much w'as the king beloved, that some of
the people even fell on their knees, and many more, with
tears in their eyes, implored his majesty not to abandon
them.
The king proceeded in his course, and in less than an
hour made himself master of all the military force in Stock¬
holm. In the mean time the heralds, by proclamation in
the several quarters of the city, summoned an assembly of
the states for the ensuing morning, and declared all mem¬
bers traitors to their country who should not appear.
Thither his majesty repaired in all the pomp of royalty, sur¬
rounded by his guards, and holding in his hand the silver
sceptre of Gustavus Adolphus. In a very forcible speech,
he lamented the unhappy state to which the country was
reduced by the conduct of a party ready to sacrifice every
thing to its ambition, and reproached the states with adapt¬
ing their actions to the views of foreign courts, from which
they received the wages of perfidy. “ If any one dare con¬
tradict this, let him rise and speak.” Conviction, or fear,
kept the assembly silent, and the secretary read the new
form of government, which the king submitted to the ap-
wliicli ac- probation of the states. It consisted of fifty-seven articles;
ceptsanewof which the five following were the chief. 1. The king
form of go-has the entire power of convoking and dissolving the as-
vernment. sempiy of the states as often as he thinks proper. 2. His
majesty alone has the command of the army, fleet, and
finances, and the disposal of all offices civil and military.
3. In case of an invasion, or of any pressing necessity, the
king may impose taxes, without waiting for the assembly
of the states. 4. The diet can deliberate on no other sub¬
jects than those proposed by the king. 5. The king shall
not carry on an offensive war without the consent of the
states. When all the articles were recited, the king de¬
Summons
mi assem¬
bly of the
states;
manded if the states approved of them, and was answered History,
by a general acclamation. He then dismissed all the sena- s—“y"--''
tors from their employments, adding, that in a few days he
would appoint others; and concluded this extraordinary
scene by drawing out of his pocket a small psalm-book, from
which, after taking off the crown, he gave out Te Derm.
All the members very devoutly added their voices to his,
and the hall resounded with thanksgiving.
The power which he had thus obtained, he employed for The king
the good of his subjects. He took care that the law should makes a
be administered with impartiality to the richest noble and^?0(luse of
the poorest peasant, making a severe example of such judges
as were proved to have made justice venal. He gave par¬
ticular attention and encouragement to commerce; and
being himself a man of letters, was a liberal and enlightened
patron of literature and science. He strenuously laboured
to introduce into his kingdom the most valuable improve¬
ments in agriculture that had been made in foreign countries.
But while thus active in promoting the arts of peace, he Reforms
was not inattentive to the art of war. The fleet, which hethe arn!y
found decayed and feeble, he in a few years restored to a an<i navf•
respectable footing; and, besides changing the regulations
of the navy, he raised a new corps of sailors, and formed
them to the service by continual exercise. The army,
which, like the navy, had been neglected during the aris¬
tocracy, was next to be reformed. The king began by
giving cloaks, tents, and new arms to all the regiments.
Afterwards, under the direction of Field-marshal Count de
Hessenstein, a new exercise was introduced, and several
camps were formed, in which the soldiery were manoeuvred
by the king himself. The sale of military offices, which
had been permitted for many years, was entirely suppressed;
and the king provided not only for the re-establishment of
discipline and good order in the army, but for the future
welfare of the individuals who composed it. These war¬
like preparations were necessary to a plan which he had
formed for entirely abolishing the power of the aristocracy,
and freeing Sweden from the factions which had long been
formed in it by the court of St Petersburg. The change
which he had introduced was very inimical to the intrigues
of that court; and the Russian ambassador exerted himself
openly to bring about a rupture between the king and the
discontented nobles. Gustavus ordered him to quit the
kingdom in eight days, and immediately prepared for war
with Russia. To this apparently rash enterprise he was in¬
cited by the Ottoman Porte, at that time unable to oppose
the armies of the two empires; and his own ambition, to¬
gether with the internal state of his kingdom, powerfully
concurred to make him lend every assistance to his ancient
ally. It is needless for us to enter into a detail of the par- His con-
ticulars of that war, the principal circumstances of which duct in the
have already been noticed under Russia. Suffice it to say, 1
that neither Gustavus Adolphus nor Charles XII. gave
greater proofs of undaunted courage and military conduct
in their long and bloody wars than were given by Gusta¬
vus III. from the end of the year 1787 to 1790, when peace
wras restored between the courts of St Petersburg and
Stockholm. When the court of Copenhagen was compelled,
by the means of England and Prussia, to withdraw its
troops from the territories of Sweden, the king attacked
Russia wdth such vigour both by sea and land, displayed
such address in retrieving his affairs when apparently re¬
duced to the last extremity, and renewed his attacks with
such pertinacious courage, that the empress lowered the
haughtiness of her tone, and was glad to treat with Gusta¬
vus as an equal and independent sovereign.
Sweden now enjoyed peace; but the nobles continued A conspim-
discontented, and a conspiracy was planned against Gusta- c.v fr)r*nfd
vus under his own roof. He had entered into the alliance j;pee
that was formed against the revolutionary government «fA. fi. 1792.
France; and in order to raise an army, which he was to
28
History.
SWEDEN.
The king
dangerous
ly wound¬
ed.
Death of
Gustavus
III.
a. d. 1792,
Accession
of Gusta¬
vus IV.
lead in person, to co-operate with the emperor and the king
' of Prussia, he was obliged to negociate large loans, and to
impose on his subjects heavy taxes. The nobles took ad¬
vantage of that circumstance to prejudice the minds of
many of the people against the sovereign wrho had laboured
so long for their good. On the 16th of March 1792 he
received an anonymous letter, warning him of his imme¬
diate danger from a plot that was laid to take away his life ;
requesting him to remain at home, and avoid balls for a
year; and assuring him that, if he should go to the masque¬
rade for which he was preparing, he would be assassinated
that very night. The king read the note with contempt,
and at a late hour entered the ball-room. After some time,
he sat down in a box with Count d’Essen, and observ¬
ed that he was not deceived in his contempt for the letter,
since, had there been any design against his life, no time
could be more favourable than that moment. He then
mingled, without apprehension, among the crowd; and just
as he was preparing to retire in company with the Prussian
ambassador, he was surrounded by several persons in masks,
one of whom fired a pistol at the back of the king, and
lodged the contents in his body. A scene of dreadful con-
■ fusion immediately ensued. The conspirators, amidst the
general tumult and alarm, had time to retire to other parts
of the room; but one of them had previously dropped his
pistols and a dagger close by the wounded king. A ge¬
neral order was given to all the company to unmask, and
the doors were immediately closed; but no person appeared
with any particular distinguishing marks of guilt. The king
was immediately conveyed to his apartment; and the sur¬
geon, after extracting a ball and some slugs, gave favour¬
able hopes of his recovery. But the prognostication of his
medical attendants soon appeared to be fallacious, and on
the 28th of March a mortification was found to have taken
place. He expired on the following day; and on opening
his body there were found within the ribs a square piece of
lead and two rusty nails.
The king had by his will appointed a council of regency ;
but convinced by recent experience how little dependence
was to be placed on the attachment of his nobles, and aware
of the necessity of a vigorous government in times of such
difficulty and danger, he appointed his brother, the duke of
Sudermania, sole regent, till his son, then a minor, should
attain the age of eighteen years. In his dying moments
he desired that all the conspirators, except the perpetrator
of his murder, might be pardoned.
The young king, who was about fourteen at his father’s
death, was proclaimed by the name of Gustavus IV. The
legent soon took the most vigorous and active measures to
apprehend and punish the projectors and perpetrators of
the murder of his brother. A nobleman of the name of
Ankarstrom confessed himself the assassin, and gloried in
the action, which he called liberating his country from a
monster and a tyrant. He was executed in a most cruel
manner on the I/th of May. Other two noblemen, and
two officers, also suffered death ; but the rest of the conspi¬
rators were either pardoned, or punished only by fine and
imprisonment.
from the accession of Gustavus IV. till the revolution
which has been recently effected in Sweden, few transac¬
tions of any importance have occurred. Soon after the
king had assumed the administration of affairs, he engaged
warmly in the war against France, and till the time of his
deposition continued a most faithful ally of Britain. The
efforts of the Swedish monarch towards humbling the power
of Bonaparte have been already noticed under the articles
Britain and France; and the war with Russia, in which
his alliance with Britain had involved him, has been suffi¬
ciently touched in the article Russia. This prince seems
to have been endowed with amiable qualities; but he was
certainly rash and imprudent, and perhaps in some degree
tinctured with insanity. He thus materially injured his Histor
kingdom, and alienated the affections of his principal nobles, —v—
especially of his uncle the duke of Sudermania.
In the beginning of March 1809, the plan which appears Revoluti
to have been concerted between the duke of Sudermania in favour: f
and the principal nobility was carried into effect. The t?le <luk£ f
king was arrested; the duke assumed the reins of govern- erma
ment, and issued a proclamation, announcing that, under a ‘d. jg,
existing circumstances, the king wTas incapable of conduct¬
ing the affairs of the nation. Gustavus, now in close cus¬
tody, was easily prevailed upon to abdicate the government.
The diet was assembled ; the duke of Sudermania was de¬
clared king of Sweden, under the title of Charles XIII.;
Prince Augustenberg wras chosen crown prince; and vari¬
ous changes were introduced into the constitution, confirm¬
ing the powers of the diet, and removing what the prevail¬
ing party held to be encroachments of the crown during
the late and preceding reigns. The people, wearied or dis¬
gusted by the late king’s folly and rashness, readily acqui¬
esced in all the alterations. Peace was then made with
Russia ; a measure which had become absolutely necessary,
as the military force of the kingdom was completely broken,
and no means were left for checking the progress of the
enemy. By this peace Sweden lost Finland, a country of
peculiar importance to her, on account of the supplies of
grain which she was accustomed to draw from it; but in
the treaty she reserved the right of yearly importing a cer¬
tain quantity of grain, duty free. Swedish Finland, with
Lapmark, now annexed to Russia, was estimated to contain
about 120,000 square English miles, with 895,000 inhabi¬
tants. On the 6th of January 1810, peace was also con¬
cluded with France, which restored Pomerania.
Sweden was now enjoying tranquillity, when the sudden
and unexpected death of the crown prince Augustenber^,
in April 1810, became a new source of perplexity. The
duke of Sudermania was old and in a feeble state of health ;
and as there was no person within the kingdom who had
any title by blood to the throne, it was necessary, for the
security of the new order of things, to choose a successor.
The threatening position which the acquisition of Finland
gave to Russia induced the noblemen who in concert with
the court took a lead in this business, to look for some man
of military talents. It happened that Bernadotte, prince of
Ponte Corvo, who had lately commanded in the north of
Germany, had, by his liberal and kind treatment, gained
the peculiar esteem of the Swedish officers and soldiers
whom he had made prisoners in Gustavus’s ill-concerted
operations in Pomerania. He was besides highly respected
for his military skill; and had been still further raised in
general estimation, in consequence of Napoleon having re¬
moved him from his command for his lenity and humanity
in the exercise of his power. Some of the Swedish officers,
to whom his character was known, first conceived the idea
of offering him the succession to the crown. The scheme
Mras for some time kept as secret as possible; but it receiv¬
ed so much countenance from the most considerable men,
that it was at length opened to Bernadotte himself at Paris.
He received it as might be expected, and his friends re¬
doubled their intrigues. The prince of Denmark had been
proposed, but the ancient enmity against that country was
an invincible obstacle to his success. At length, when
every thing was prepared, the diet was called, and Berna¬
dotte was with acclamation elected crown prince by all the
four orders, on the 21st of July. Of all the changes in the
fortune and station of individuals which arose out of the
French revolution, this is perhaps the most singular. Bo-
naparte seized the royal power and dignity for himself, and
by force of arms he compelled some of the weaker states
to accept his relations and followers as kings. But it does
not appear that he was ever consulted as to Bernadotte's
elevation, or had the smallest influence in it, except that
SWEDEN.
Statistics, the example given in his own person and that of his follow-
ers had contributed to destroy some of the old illusions as
to birth and hereditary honours, and had prepared men’s
minds for great innovations. It was thus that the son of a
French peasant, who began his career as a common soldier,
was raised to the Swedish throne by the spontaneous choice
of a body of nobles, proud of their birth and ancestry.
The appearance of Bernadette in the Swedish capital was
followed by numerous feasts and spectacles. He received
congratulations from all the public bodies; and though not
immediately called to the throne, was, from the king’s infir¬
mities, intrusted with the entire conduct of the government.
One of his first acts was to recommend to the diet the in¬
troduction of a conscription law like that of France, a mea¬
sure which certainly hazarded his popularity. It was how¬
ever adopted; and on this occasion he prevailed with the
nobles to make a voluntary surrender of their ancient pri¬
vilege of exemption from military service, as well as from
taxation. Pressed by France and Russia, Sweden, in No¬
vember 1810, professed her adherence to the continental
system, and declared war against Britain. The war how¬
ever was only nominal, and the British cruisers returned in
most cases their captures untouched. This state of things
continued till Bonaparte was preparing for his great Rus¬
sian campaign, when the Swedish government, solicited by
both parties, and tempted by great offers, at length signed
treaties of alliance with Russia and Britain in 1812 and
1813. By these treaties, the two powers mentioned en¬
gaged to assist the king in conquering Norway from Den¬
mark. The French, for the purpose of intimidation, had
previously seized Pomerania. Bernadotte carried over an
army of 30,000 Swedes to Germany in 1813; and being
joined by several large bodies of Prussian and German
troops, he was encountered by Marshal Ney between Ber¬
lin and Leipzig on the 6th September, and, after an obsti¬
nate engagement, drove back the French army with the
loss of 16,000 men. In the battle of Leipzig, fought on the
18th October, he likewise bore a conspicuous share. After
the victory, he continued to act against Marshal Davoust’s
corps, and against the Danes, till he reduced the latter to
the necessity of capitulating. He lost no time in improv¬
ing this advantage; and by a treaty concluded at Kiel on
the 14th January 1814, compelled Denmark to cede Nor¬
way, on surrendering to her the possession of Pomerania,
and thus securing a great advantage by the exchange of
territory. He now advanced to the Rhine; but, satisfied
with reducing Napoleon’s power, and, from views of inte¬
rest, most probably adverse to ruining him, he was thought
to be rather dilatory in improving his advantages. The
success of the allies at length left him at liberty to secure
Norway, the prize for which he had fought. As the Nor¬
wegians announced their intention of resisting, he crossed
the frontier with an army in July, and, by judicious ma¬
noeuvres, which placed the Norwegian force in his power,
he obliged them to capitulate, and obtained possession of
the country almost without bloodshed; Norway preserving
its ancient constitution, and having states of its own. On
the death of Charles XIII. in 1818, Bernadotte mounted
the throne; and being still on good terms with most of the
surrounding powers, has every chance to preserve his situa¬
tion, and transmit the crown to his posterity.
STATISTICS.
Sweden and Norway form together one geographical re¬
gion, situated between 4° and 32° E. Long., and 55° and
71° N. Lat. The greatest length, from Falsterbo in the
province of Malmo, to Cape Nordkun in Finmark, exceeds
1000 geographical miles, and the superficial area is about
292,700 English square miles, of which 170,150 are in
Sweden. Throughout the length of the peninsula, from the
29
Varangerfiord in the north-east to the Scagerack in the Statistics,
south-west, a line of lofty and rugged mountains, hills, and ''-—v—
table-lands extends for 1110 miles, forming the water-shed
between the shores of the ocean and the basin of the Baltic
Sea. Numerous rivers, which have their source at the base
of this range, empty themselves into the Gulf of Bothnia.
The principal of these are the Tornea, which, with its af¬
fluent the Muonio, forms the boundary between Swedish
and Russian Lapmark ; the Kalix, the Ranea, the Lulea, the
Pitea, the Sildut or Skellestia, the Unea, and Windel; the
Gildea, the Angerman, the Indals, the Ljusne, and Dahl.
The Gotha is the outlet of Lake Wenner, and runs into the
Cattegat at Gottenburg.
The lakes of Sweden are numerous, and cover a large
space of the surface of the country. The principal of these
are the Wenner, which, after those of Ladoga and Onega, is
the largest in Europe; it is ninety miles in length by thirty-
six at its greatest breadth, and covers an area of 2136 square
miles. The Wetter measures eighty-two miles in length
by sixteen at its greatest breadth; but is generally much
narrower, and only contains 830 square miles. The Malar
extends from Stockholm, neaidy seventy miles in length ; it
is crowded with islands, and presents throughout the great¬
est variety of beautiful scenery. At Stockholm it com¬
municates, by a narrow strait, with an arm of the Baltic
Sea, forming a very intricate navigation of sixty miles be¬
tween the open sea and the capital.
Sweden is not more fortunate in its soil than in its climate. Soil and
It cannot boast of any of those deep rich alluvial deposits vegetation,
which elsewhere usually occupy a large portion of low and
well-watered countries. Coarse sand or gravel, but par¬
tially covered over with a thin layer of fertile soil, forms in
general the champaign country; and, besides the woods,
which occupy more than three fourths of its surface, a large
portion is covered with lakes, morasses, rivers, and with in¬
conceivable numbers of boulder-stones or isolated rocks of
every size. The surface has been thus numerically repre¬
sented in square miles: Woods, 137,420; lakes,marshes,&c.,
11,900; meadows, pastures, &c., 7350; arable land, 3480;
total, 170,150 square miles. The soil of Norway is of much
the same character as that of Sweden, in both the vegeta¬
tion being abridged by the length and the severity of the
winter : the soil remains always poor; and the paucity of
alluvial tracts, with the prevalence of rock, seldom far be¬
neath, and often forming the surface, materially detract from
the quality as well as the quantity of the soil. In some
parts however it is very rich, and the valleys in particular
are celebrated for their luxuriant fertility ; but even there
much of the soil is thin, and obstructed by rocky knobs
rising above its surface.
In the most favoured situations of Sweden, as at Lund in Climate.
Schonen, the mean temperature of the year does not exceed
45° Fahr., while at the North Cape it is at the freezing
point; the extreme cold, however, is modified by the ele¬
vations of the land, and its proximity to the sea. At North
Cape, lat. 70° N., potatoes, broccoli, and gooseberries, are
raised with some difficulty ; one degree farther south a little
barley makes its appearance. In lat. 68° 20', at Enonte-
keis, the crops of barley yield a remunerating harvest
once in the three years. Rye and hemp cannot be suc¬
cessfully cultivated beyond 66°, nor oats beyond 64° ; this
latter is also the general limit of garden cultivation. The
cherry-tree, alder, and maple cease to thrive beyond 63°;
the ash and willow beyond 62° ; the elm, lime, and oak
beyond 61°; and the natural beech-woods do not extend be¬
yond 57°. The mulberry, the chestnut, and the walnut ar¬
rive at perfection in Schonen, 54°. In the southern parts
of the country an elevation of 500 feet above the level of
the sea is found to have the same effect on the climate and
vegetation as 175 miles of north latitude, a thousand feet
as 300 miles, and two thousand feet as 630 miles ; but the
30
SWEDEN.
Statistics, effect is of course more rapid and powerful as we advance
to the north.
People. The inhabitants consist of Swedes, Lapons or Laps, and
Finns. The Swedes are a branch of the same family as the
Danes and Norwegians, and speak a dialect of the same
language, considerably modified, however, by the conse¬
quences of the long political separation and international
enmity of the two nations. Books are translated from the
one language to the other; but the vulgar tongue, the lan¬
guage of the peasantry in Sweden and Norway, differs not
much more than broad Scotch from Cockney English. The
roots of words, construction, and idioms are the same in
both, or have a common origin.
Population. jn 1751 the population of Sweden amounted to 1,785,727,
in 1800 to 2,347,303, and in 1830 to 2,888,082. Norway
in 1825 contained 1,051,318 inhabitants, and in 1836 the
population was 1,200,000, showing an increase of nearly
150,000 during the preceding ten years. In Sweden the
annual number of births is one to twenty-eight of the po¬
pulation, in Norway one to thirty-four. In Sweden the
marriages are one in 112, in Norway one in 130 ; but in
Sweden the mortality is one in thirty-four and a half, and
in Norway only one in forty-eight. The standing army
amounts to 33,000 ; but in the time of war it may be raised
by conscription to 240,000. In 1825 the inhabitants of the
towns of Sweden amounted to 279,645, or about one tenth
of the population. Stockholm had then a population of
97,183, Gottenburg 26,702, Carlscrona 11,943. All the
other towns are little better than villages.
The Swedes are represented to be a brave, hardy, gene¬
rous, and enterprising people, distinguished by a happy
union of courage and steadiness, fine genius, and natural
probity of disposition. They are said, however, to be greatly
addicted to drunkenness ; and this unfortunate habit is the
fruitful source of many evils, both moral and physical.1 In
1835 one person out of every 114 of the population was
accused, and one out of every 140 convicted, of some cri-
, _ minal offence.
Iteiigion. With the exception of a few congregations in Stockholm
and other principal towns, the Swedes are all Lutherans,
and Lutheranism is the established religion of the state.
Other sects are now allowed the free exercise of worship;
but Catholics and all other dissenters are excluded from the
diet and higher offices of state. In the whole kingdom there
are 2490 congregations, viz., 1147 country parishes, and
129 town charges, with 1214 annexed chapels in the larger
parishes. The whole personal establishment consists of
3193 clergy, and 3753 sextons or parish-clerks, organists,
and church servants. The hierarchy consists of one arch¬
bishop of Upsala, and eleven bishops, viz. of Lund, Gotten¬
burg, Wexio, Calmar, Linkioping, Skara, Carlstadt, Wisby,
Westeraas, Strangles, and Hernosand; seventy archdea¬
cons, and 192 probsts (provosts or deans). The arch¬
bishop’s income is rated at about L.2000 sterling a year,
the bishops at more than L.600 each, and the archdeacons
and probsts from L.400 to L.700 each. None of the inferior
clergy has less than L.120, while many have as much as
L.300, besides parsonage-houses and glebe-lands. The
clergy, as a body, have been always distinguished for piety
and morality, and yet among their people religious feeling
and moral purity are at a very low ebb; their religion in¬
deed has become little better than a system of rites and
ceremonies. There is, however, a spirit of religious en¬
thusiasm spreading in the north of Sweden, especially
among the new colonists or squatters in Lapland ; but
this spirit the clergy attempt to extinguish. These reli¬
gionists are called Lgeseren, or readers, from their reading
the scriptures; but they do not form a sect having internal
communion and regulations. They are however numerous; Statistic
their numbers are said to be increasing, and their meetings v y"-
for preaching are attended by people from great distances.
The Catholics throughout the kingdom do not amount to
2000, the greater part of whom reside in the capital, and
the whole are foreigners. The Swedenborgians, the only
sect which the country has produced, are also comparatively
few. The Jews scarcely exceed 1000 individuals, and have
four synagogues, at Stockholm, Gottenburg, Norrkoping,
and Carlscrona.
Of the whole population, including even the Laps, it is Educatio
reckoned that the proportion of grown persons unable to
read is less than one in a thousand. This general diffusion
of elementary education is ascribed to the zeal of King
Gustaf-Wasa (Gustavus Vasa, 1523-1560), and his imme¬
diate successors. John III., in 1574, ordered that the noble¬
man who had no knowledge of book-learning should forfeit
his nobility; Charles XL, in 1684, required the clergy to
have every Swedish subject taught to read ; and made it a
law that no marriage should be celebrated unless the parties
had previously taken the Lord’s Supper; and that none
should be admitted to the communion-table who could not
read, and was not instructed in religion. Parish schools,
however, are only found where there happen to have been
lands or rents bequeathed for their endowment; and these
in some parishes are ambulatory, in others fixed. It is sup¬
posed that more than half of all the parishes have no schools;
but the deficiency is supplied by the people themselves, who
teach their children at home in the leisure hours of their
long winters. The king, however, in his speech at the open¬
ing of the present diet, 1840, has recommended the esta¬
blishment of a primary school in every parish. In the pro¬
vincial towns there are gymnasia, or high schools, which
prepare youth for the universities. They are under the care
of the bishops, and, besides the higher branches of Greek
and Roman literature, their course often embraces the ori¬
ental languages, and the leading doctrines of theology.
There are two universities, one at Upsala, and the other at
Lund. In these the teachers may be divided into three
classes: 1. professors; 2. adjuncts, or privileged teachers
in different sciences, who give instruction privately or pub¬
licly to the students, and who are expectants of profes¬
sorships; and 3. the masters in modern languages, exer¬
cises, and other inferior branches. Of the theological fa¬
culty there are four professors at Upsala, and four at Lund;
of the juridical faculty, two at each ; of the medical and sur¬
gical, five at each; of the philosophical and literary, four¬
teen at Upsala, and ten at Lund.
The constitution is of a mixed character, in which theGovem-
executive and administrative departments are managed by merit,
a hereditary king and his ministers, while the legislative is
vested conjointly in the king and a diet of four chambers,
elected by the nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants. The
noble families are reckoned at about 2400. The head of
each is by right a member of the diet, but seldom more
than 400 take any part m its proceedings. The clergy
have sixty representatives, including the archbishop and
bishops, of whom the primate is always president. The
burghers are elected by eighty-five cities and towns; Stock¬
holm returning ten, Gottenburg three, Norrkoping two, and
each of the rest one. The peasantry have between 140 and
150 representatives, chosen by districts; and these, as well
as the burghers, are required to possess a certain amount of
qualification in property; and each of their chambers has a
president, appointed by the king. During the session each
member of the last three orders receives a small pecuniary
compensation, paid oy his constituents, the amount of which
is voluntary, ihe diet meets at intervals of five years, and
■* Laing’s Travels in Sweden, p. 110.
SWEDEN.
31
Statistics, then sits for three months certain, but generally longer,
-y—Practically, the power of the diet rests in the nobility and
clergy. But the most important branch of the constitution
is the council of state, which consists of one minister for
justice, one for foreign affairs, other six councillors, and
the chancellor of the court, and is attended by the four se¬
cretaries of state, who have the four departments of home
affairs; military and naval affairs ; finances, trade, customs,
and post-office; and affairs of the church, general educa¬
tion, and the poor. The king can do nothing, except in
military and diplomatic affairs, without consulting this coun¬
cil, which must keep a protocol of its proceedings, in which
each .member has a right to explain his opinions.
Finances. Relatively to its means, Sweden is much more heavily
taxed than either England or France, and yet the public
revenues raised by taxation do not amount to L.2,000,000
sterling. According to the report of 1832, the sum was
20,247,339 dollars banca, or L.1,687,278 sterling, of which
more than one half was raised by a direct land-tax, the re¬
mainder by customs and other indirect means.
Productive Since the beginning of the present century, the agricul-
industry. ture 0f swe(len has experienced great improvement. The
Swedes have become exporters of grain to a considerable
extent; and as seven ninths of the population are engaged
in the cultivation of the soil, a large proportion of which is
still unproductive from want of cultivation, the quantity
might be very greatly increased. The whole annual produce
of the soil is estimated at forty-five millions of dollars. With¬
in a few years land has risen considerably in value ; and this
is owing to the exertions of the agricultural societies estab¬
lished in the provinces, and the great interest which the
landed proprietors now take in the management and im¬
provement of their estates. The cultivation of the potato has
indeed been the mainspring in the improvement of Swedish
agriculture. Not only has it precluded the necessity of
using the bark of trees as a miserable substitute for bread,
but has occasioned the public and private magazines to be
completely filled with grain; and the greatest difficulty with
which cultivators have at present to contend, is the want of
a market for their surplus stock.
Both horses and horned cattle are small in Sweden. The
former, however, are active and spirited, the latter afford
excellent milk and beef. The sheep are generally of an
inferior kind ; but great pains have been taken to improve
them by crosses with the Spanish, French, and English
breeds. Towards the sixty-third degree, sheep disappear,
and are superseded by goats, which are most numerous in
the woodland districts of'Dalarne and Nordland. The seed¬
time is in May, the harvest in August, and as the fine wea¬
ther is short and warm, the labours of the farmer are then
very constant and fatiguing, while a great number of people are
required to reap the crops, for whom there is no employment
during wrinter, when the country is all covered with snow.
This will ever remain an obstacle to agricultural improve¬
ment, especially in the northern districts. The average of
the harvests throughout the kingdom for seven years has
been found to be three good, three middling, and one a
failure. The average rate of fecundity is four and three
seventh grains for one.
fisheries. Both the sea and the fresh waters swarm with fish, which
afford employment and subsistence to many of the inhabi¬
tants. The fresh waters contain perch, pike, salmon, trout,
grayling, char, roach, bleak, and eels ; but of all these the
salmon is the most important object of industry and trade.
They are more abundant in the northern rivers than in
those of the south, and fisheries are established on most of
them. The sea-fish are not less numerous or important.
Herrings are sometimes caught in incredible numbers at
Gottenburg, though at other times they entirely forsake the
coast.
Next to agriculture, the mines of Sweden are the chief
source of her wealth. Throughout the kingdom, iron exists Statistics,
in great abundance. The mountain Gellivara, in Lap- v'-—^
mark, 1800 feet high, is one mass of the richest iron ore;^nes an(*
but its situation beyond the polar circle (in lat. 67° 20'N.), far unnera s'
from the sea, and in an unpeopled wilderness, deprives it of
its value. In various other places, however, there are si¬
milar hills, and even islands of compact iron ore are to be
found near the coast. About the year 1683, the quantity of
iron forged in Sweden in one year amounted to 9690 tons,
but in the course of the next century a great increase took
place. Between the years 1759-60, the average annual
produce amounted to 328,766 Swedish pounds, and has
continued very nearly the same to the present time, though
it is represented as being now in a state of great activity
and prosperity. The quantity of bar-iron produced in the
year ending 1st November 1839 is stated at 276,000 skip
pounds, and of manufactured iron 33,600, which, added to
11,600 of the latter, and 126,700 of the former, on hand at
1st November 1838, made a total of 448,000 skip pounds.
Of this amount, 304,896 were exported, 283,500 in the
shape of bar, and 21,390 manufactured ; the prices during
the year having been ten bank rix-dollars, or L.l. 5s. lOd.
sterling the skip pound, which is equal to 280 pounds, or a
quarter of a ton avoirdupois. The forests of Sweden oc¬
cupy more than one half of its surface ; and the abundance
of wood thus supplied is of the highest utility in working
the mines and smelting the ores. Swedish iron is superior
in ductility and malleability to all others; a superiority
which is attributed in part to the use of wood instead of
coal or peat in their furnaces. The number of mines in
all Sweden is 586; and of these no fewer than 361 are
close together in the heart of the kingdom, in Nerike,
Westmanland, and part of Dalarne. Danemora, the prin¬
cipal iron mine, produces yearly about 4000 tons of metal,
which is particularly adapted to the manufacture of steel.
Next to iron, copper forms the most important of the mi¬
neral riches of Sweden. The principal mine has long
been at Fahlun, but the produce scarcely exceeds 1,000,000
pounds. The most important of the other copper-mines
are those of Hakanbo in Nerike, Nyakopparberg in Nyko-
pingslan, Atvedaberg in Linkopingslan, at Areskuta in
Jemtland, and Ryddarshytta and Bastras in Westeraaslan.
The whole copper produced in Sweden in 1824 was 814
tons, of the value of L.51,777 sterling. Gold is also found
at Fahlun and in some other places ; but the produce is too
small to pay the expense. Silver is also produced to the ex¬
tent of about 3000 marks annually; but the expense is so
great that it is proposed to relinquish the working. Fahlun
likewise produces sulphur and vitriol. In Scania, near Hel¬
singfors, there is a small bed of coal; and cobalt, to the
value of about L. 12,000 sterling, is also produced in Sweden.
The manufactures are in a very low state. Every artManufac-
and trade has its own corporate rights and monopolies, tures.
which operate as a complete bar to improvement; and of
the total population only about one-seventieth part is en¬
gaged in manufactures and trade of every kind. Coarfee
linens are the chief manufacture. Machinery for spinning
wool and cotton has been introduced, but the experiment
is too recent to warrant a decided opinion as to its ultimate
success. The other articles of manufacture are such com¬
mon goods as are required to supply the ordinary wants of
the people.
The general trade of Sweden is in almost as low a state Commerce,
as its manufactures. The principal exports consist of
articles of native produce, in their raw or manufactured
state. Iron ranks first, then timber, copper, tar, and
grain. The principal imports are sugar, coffee, tobacco,
salt or smoked fish, salt, leather, hemp, silk, cotton, and
wine, chiefly articles of domestic comfort or luxury. Mr
Laing states the amount of the mercantile shipping at
only 30,439 tons ; but Forsell states it as having been>
32
Sweden¬
borg.
S W E
in 1831, 137,514 tons, or 1122 vessels. The principal
mercantile ports are Stockholm and Gottenburg.
Sweden is divided into twenty-four Ians, or governments,
which are subdivided into fogderier, or districts. Swedish
S W E
geographers, however, divide the country into three large Swedei
regions, namely, Norrland, or the north country; Svealand, boi'S-
or Sweden Proper; and Gothaland, or Gothia ; each of v“
these comprising several Ians, as stated in the following table.
Governments.
Svealand.
Stockholm
■I
Upsala 
Westeraas... j
Nykoping....
Oerebro k
Carlstad.
Storra-Kop- 1
par berg.... j’
Getieborg
Gothaland.
Linkoping... -|
Calmar 
Jonkoping.
Ancient Provinces.
Upland and 1
Soderman- j-
land.
Upland.
Westman-
land 
Sodennan-
land 
Nerike and
Westman-
land 
Wartneland
Dalarne.
Gestrikland )
and Hel- V
singland...)
Oestergoth-
land 
Smaland.
Cities and Towns.
Stockholm, Carlberg, Marie-
berg, Drotningholm, Nor-
telge, Sodertelge, Vaxholm.
Upsala, Sigtuna, Lofsta, Elf-
karleby, Sodersfors, Danne-
mora.
Westeraas, Sala, Norberg, Ar-
boga, Roping.
Nykoping, Strengnass, Grips-
holm, Eskilstuna.
Oerebro, Nora, Askersund.
Carlstad, Christinehamn, Om-
bergsheden, Oskarkstad,
Philipstad.
Fahlun, Hedemora, Avesta,
Mora, Husby.
Gefle, Soderhamn, Jarfso,
Huddikswall.
Linkoping, Norrkoping, Wad-
stena, Soderkoping, Mede-
vi, Ikeninge, Motala.
Calmar, Westerwik, Borg-
holm.
Jonkoping, TEdelfors, Ekesjo.
Kronoberg 
Blekinge 
I Skaraborg... |
Elfsborg. 
Gottenburg I
and Bohus j
Halmstad 
Christian- )
Governments.
stad.
Malmohus... J
Gottland  j
Norsland.
Norrbotten, k
Wester- v
botten I
Wester-Nor¬
land i
Jamtland
Ancient Provinces.
Blekinge |
Westergoth-)
land j
Dasland and j
Wester- >
gothland..)
Halland
Skania or
Schonen
Gottland
Island.
or |
{
-!
Westerbot-
ten and
Lapmark.
Medelpad
and Anger-
manland.
Jamtland
and Her-
jeadalen.
:]
;er- l
l...j
Cities and Towns.
Wexio.
Carslcrona, llonneby, Carl-
shamn.
Mariestad, Lidkoping, Skara,
Yanas.
Wenersborg, Boras, Troll-
hattan, Amal.
Gottenburg, Marstrand, Ny-
Elfsborg, Uddevalla, Strom-
stad.
Halmstad, Warberg, Laholm.
Christianstad, Engelholm,
Cimbrishamn.
Malmo, Ystad, Lund, Lands-
crona, Helsingborg, llam-
losa.
Wisby.
Pitea, Lulea, Arjeplog, Gel-
livara, Jukkasjarvi, Umea,
Asele, Sorsell.
Plernosand, Sunusvall.
Oestersund, Hede, Ijusnedal.
SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, was born at Stockholm, in
Sweden, in January 1689. His father was bishop of Skara
in West Gothland ; member of a society for the propagation
of the gospel, formed on the plan of that of England; and
president of the Swedish church in Pennsylvania and Lon¬
don. To this last office he was appointed by Charles XII.
who seems to have had a great regard for the bishop, and
to have continued that regard to his son.
Of the course of young Swedenborg’s education we have
procured no account; but from the character of the father,
it may be supposed to have been pious ; and by his appear¬
ing with reputation as an author when but twenty years of
age, it is proved to have been successful. His first work
was published in 1709 ; and the year following he sent in¬
to the world a collection of pieces on different subjects, in
Latin verse, under the title of “ Ludus Heliconius, sive
Carmina Miscellanea quae variis in locis cecinit.” The same
yeai he began his travels, first into England, afterwards in¬
to Holland, France, and Germany; and returning to Stock-
iP he was two years afterwards appointed to
the office of assessor in the Metallic College by Charles
XII. who honoured him with frequent conversations, and
bestowed upon him a large share of his favour. At this pe¬
riod of his life, Swedenborg devoted his attention princi¬
pally to physic and mathematical studies; and in 1718 he
accompanied the king to the siege of Frederickshall, where
he gave an eminent proof that he had not studied in vain.
Charles could not send his heavy artillery to Frederickshall,
from the badness of the roads, which were then rendered
much worse than usual by being deeply covered with snow.
In this extremity Swedenborg brought the sciences to the
aid of valour. By the help of proper instruments he cut
through the mountains and raised the valleys which sepa¬
rated Sweden from Norway, and then sent to his master
two galleys, five large boats, and a sloop, loaded with bat¬
tering pieces, to be employed in the siege. The length of
this canal was about two miles and a half. The execution
of this great work, however, did not occupy all his time.
In 1716 he had begun to publish essays and observations
on the mathematical and physical sciences, under the title
of “ Daedalus Hyperboreusand he found leisure during
the siege to complete his intended collection, and also in
the same year to publish an introduction to algebra, under
the whimsical title of the Art of the Rules.
At the siege of Frederickshall he lost his royal patron ;
but he found another in Ulrica Eleonora, the sister and
successor of that hero, by whom in 1719 he was created a
baron. His promotion did not lessen his ardour for the sci¬
ences ; for he published in the same year “ A Method to
fix the \ alue of Money, and to determine the Swedish
Measures in such a way as to suppress all the Fractions and
facilitate the Calculations.” About the same time he gave
the public a treatise on “the Position and Course of the
Planets ; with another on “ the Height of the Tides, and
mx and Reflux of the Sea;” which, from information ga-
t icred in different parts of Sweden, appeared to have been
greater formerly than when he wrote.
As Swedenborg continued, under the new sovereign, to
hold the office of assessor to the Metallic College, he thought
it necessary, for the discharge of his duty, to make a se¬
cond journey into foreign countries, that he might himself
examine their mines, particularly those of Saxony and
arts. During these travels, which were undertaken for
the improvement of the manufactures of his native country,
he printed at Amsterdam, 1. Prodromus Principiorum Na-
turahum, sive novorum Tentaminum Chemiam et Physicam
experimentalem geometrice explicandi; 2. Nova Obser-
vata et Inventa circa Ferrum et Ignem, praecipue Naturam
S W E
gweden- Ignis elementarem, una cum nova Camini Inventione; 3.
borg. Methodusnovainveniendi Longitudines Locorum terra ma-
'''"v"—’'rique ope Lunse; 4. Modus construendi Receptacula Nava-
lia, vulgo en Dockybynadder; 5. Nova Constructio Aggeris
Aquatiei; 6. Modus explorandi Virtutes Navigiorum ; and
at Leipzig and Hamburg, 7. Miscellanea Observata circa
Res Naturales, prsesertim Mineralia, Ignem, et Montium
Strata.
This journey was made, and these tracts published, in
the compass of a year and a half; and perhaps there has
not been another man, Linnaeus excepted, who has done so
much in so short a time. After his return in 1722, Swe¬
denborg divided his time so equally between the duties of
his office and his private studies, that in 1733 he finished
his grand work, entitled “ Opera Philosophica et Minera¬
lia,” and had it printed under his own direction in 1734,
partly at Dresden, and partly at Leipzig. During the same
year he also went to inspect the mines of Austria and Hun¬
gary. This work is divided into three volumes folio. The
title of the first is “ Principia Rerum Naturalium, sive no-
vorum Tentaminum Phsenomena Mundi elementaris philo-
sophice explicandiof the second, “ Regnum Subterra-
neum, sive Minerale de Ferro and the third, “ Regnum
Subterraneum, sive Minerale de Cupro, et Orichalco.” The
whole is written with great strength of judgment; and the
work is ornamented with plates to facilitate the comprehen¬
sion of the text.
In the year 1729 he was enrolled among the members of
the Society of Sciences at Upsala, and was, probably about
the same time, made a fellow of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm; nor were strangers less willing
than his own countrymen to acknowledge the greatness of
his merit. Wolfius, with many other learned foreigners,
was eager to court his correspondence. The Academy of
St Petersburg sent him, on the 17th of December 1734, a
diploma of association as a correspondent member; and
soon afterwards the editors of the Acta Eruditorum, pub¬
lished at Leipzig, recognised in his works some acceptable
contributions to useful knowledge.
By many persons the approbation of learned academies
would have been highly valued, but by Baron Swedenborg
it was considered as of very little importance. “ Whatever
of worldly honour and advantage may appear to be in the
things before mentioned, I hold them,” says he, “ but as mat¬
ters of low estimation, when compared to the honour of that
holy office to which the Lord himself hath called me, who was
graciously pleased to manifest himself to me, his unworthy
servant, in a personal appearance, in the year 1743, to open
in me a sight of the spiritual world, and to enable me to
converse with spirits and angels ; and this privilege has con¬
tinued with me to this day. From that time 1 began to
print and publish various unknown Arcana, which have
been either seen by me or revealed to me, concerning hea¬
ven and hell, the state of men after death, the true worship
of God, the spiritual sense of the Scriptures, and many other
important truths tending to salvation and true wisdom.”1
We shall not affront the understandings of our readers
by making, upon this account of the baron’s call, such re¬
flections as every person of a sound mind will make for
himself; but it is rather remarkable, that a man who had
devoted the better part of his life to the study of such sci¬
ences as generally fortify the mind against the delusions of
fanaticism, and who had even excelled in those sciences,
should have fallen into such a reverie as this. After this
extraordinary call, Swedenborg dedicated himself wholly to
the great work which, he supposed, was assigned him, study¬
ing diligently the word of God, and from time to time pub¬
lishing to his fellow-creatures such important information
as was made known to him concerning another world.
S W E S3
Among his various discoveries concerning the spiritual Sweden-
world, one is, that it exists not in space. “ Of this,” says
he, “ I was convinced, because I could there see Africans ^ Y "
and Indians very near me, although they are so many miles
distant here on earth; nay, that I could be made present
with the inhabitants of other planets in our system, and ‘
also with the inhabitants of planets that are in other worlds,
and revolve about other suns. By virtue of such presence,
(i. e. without real space), not of place, I have conversed with
apostles, departed popes, emperors, and kings ; with the late
reformers of the church, Luther, Calvin, and Melanchthon,
and with others from distant countries.”2 Notwithstanding
the want of space in the spiritual world, he tells us, “ that
after death a man is so little changed that he even does not
know but he is living in the present world; that he eats
and drinks, and even enjoys conjugal delight, as in this
world ; that the resemblance between the two worlds is so
great, that in the spiritual world there are cities, with pa¬
laces and houses, and also writings and books, employments
and merchandises ; that there are gold, silver, and precious
stones there.” In a word,” he says, “ there is in the spiri¬
tual world all and every thing that there is in the natural
world, but that in heaven such things are in an infinitely
more perfect state.”
Such was his zeal in the propagation of these whimsical
and sometimes sensual doctrines, that he frequently left his
native country to visit distant cities, particularly London
and Amsterdam, where all his theological works were print¬
ed at great expense, and with little prospect or probabi¬
lity of a reimbursement. “ Wherever he resided when on
his travels, he was,” says one of his admirers, “ a mere soli¬
tary, and almost inaccessible, though in his own country of
a free and open behaviour. He affected no honour, but
declined it; pursued no worldly interest, but spent his time
in travelling and printing, in order to communicate instruc¬
tion and benefit to mankind. He had nothing of the pre¬
cise in his manner, nothing of melancholy in his temper,
and nothing in the least bordering on enthusiasm in his con¬
versation or writings.” This is too much. We believe he
was an inoffensive visionary ; of his conversation we cannot
judge : but the specimens that we have given of his writ¬
ings are frantic enthusiasm. He died at London, Mai’ch
29th, in the year 1772; and after lying in state, his remains
were deposited in a vault at the Swedish church, near Rad-
cliff-Highway.
The theological works of Baron Swedenborg are nume¬
rous, and all or most of them have been translated from
Latin into English. A society has been formed in Lon¬
don for the express purpose of printing and circulating
them. Though his followers do not appear to have been
numerous during his life, they increased since his death;
and a small sect still subsists in England, which derives its
origin from him, and is called the New Jerusalem Church.
The discriminating tenets of this sect seem to be the fol¬
lowing : “ Holding the doctrine of one God, they maintain
that this one God is no other than Jesus Christ, and that
he always existed in a human form; that for the sake of
redeeming the world, he took upon himself a proper human
or material body, but not a human soul; that this redemp¬
tion consists in bringing the hells or evil spirits into sub¬
jection, and the heavens into order and regulation, and
thereby preparing the way for a new spiritual church ; that
without such redemption no man could be saved, nor could
the angels retain their state of integrity; that their redemp¬
tion was effected by means of trials, temptations, or con¬
flicts with evils spirits ; and that the last of them, by which
Christ glorified his humanity, perfecting the union of his
divine with his human nature, was the passion of the cross.
Though they maintain that there is but one God and one
1 Short Account of the Honourable E. Swedenborg.
VOL,. XXI.
8 Swedenborg’s Universal Theology, vol. i. p. 87.
E
34
S W I
S W I
Swift, divine person, they hold that in this person there is a real
■"-v—^ Trinity ; consisting of the divinity, the humanity, and the
operation of them both in the Lord Jesus; a Trinity which
did not exist from all eternity, but commenced at the in¬
carnation. They believe that the Scriptures are to be in¬
terpreted, not only in a literal, but in a spiritual sense, not
known to the world till it was revealed to Swedenborg;
and that this spiritual sense extends to every part of Scrip¬
ture, except the Acts of the Apostles. They believe that
there are angels attending upon men, residing, as Sweden¬
borg says, in their affections; that temptation consists in a
struggle between good and bad angels within men; and that
by this means God assists men in these temptations, since
of themselves they could do nothing. Indeed Swedenborg
maintains, that there is an universal influx from God into
the souls of men, inspiring them especially with the belief
of the divine unity. This efflux of divine light on the spi¬
ritual world he compares to the efflux of the light from the
sun in the natural world. There are, says Swedenborg,
two worlds, the natural and the spiritual, entirely distinct,
though perfectly corresponding to each other; and at death
a man enters into the spiritual world, when his soul is cloth¬
ed with a body, which he terms substantial, in opposition
to the present material body, which, he says, is never to rise
out of the grave.”
SWEEP, in the sea-language, is that part of the mould
of a ship where she begins to compass in the rung-heads.
SWIFT, Jonathan, one of the wittiest writers of his
own, and surpassed by few of any other age, was the son of
an attorney, who held the office of steward to the society of
King’s Inns, Dublin. When the father died, it was found
that he had not left behind him effects sufficient to pay his
funeral expenses. At that period, his family consisted of a
wife, then in a state of pregnancy, and an infant daughter.
Soon after his death, his widow was delivered of a son, and
the child thus ushered into a scene of indigence and grief,
afterwards became the renowned dean of St Patrick’s. He
was born at Dublin on the 30th of November 1667. By
the bounty of two brothers-in-law, neither of them in afflu¬
ent circumstances, Swift’s mother was maintained in some
degree of comfort. The nurse to whose care her son had
been confided was summoned to her native town, White¬
haven, by a dying relative, in whose will she hoped she had
been remembered. The desire of gain, however, was not
stronger than the love for her charge ; and she finally re¬
conciled her interest and her affection by absconding with
the child. Having carried him to this town, she was au¬
thorized by his mother, whose anger was disarmed by this
strange proof of her fondness, to keep him there until the
recovery of his health, which she feared was too precarious
to render his crossing the channel at that time a safe ex¬
periment. During their stay at Whitehaven, which lasted
for three years, the nurse did not neglect little Jonathan’s
education ; for on his return to Dublin, his mother found
that he had attained to considerable proficiency in spelling,
and at the age of five years he was able to read any passage
in scripture.
It is not probable that any combination of circumstances
could have rendered Swift a pattern of meekness and hu¬
mility. Early prosperity, however, might have softened if
not subdued those irascible passions which, fostered by
youthful mortifications, and matured by the disappoint¬
ments of after life, finally gratified those who had writhed
under his merciless castigation, by converting him into “ a
driveller and a show.” His paternal uncle, Godwin Swift,
doled out the allowance for his maintenance with a very Swift,
niggardly hand. This parsimony was warranted by his pe-
cuniary circumstances, which were supposed to be in a more
flourishing condition than they actually were ; but Swift
never reflected without bitterness on the despicable figure
which the scanty liberality of his relation enabled him to
make. To curse the hand that gives all that it has to be¬
stow, appears to be both foolish and ungrateful. Perhaps,
however, Swift’s uncle acted the part of a vulgar patron,
whose ostentatious benevolence never fails to blunt the edge
of gratitude. By the bounty of this relation, limited as it
was, he was, in the sixth year of his age, sent to school at
Kilkenny, from which in 1682 he was removed in his four¬
teenth year to Trinity College, Dublin. His academical
career gave no promise of future eminence. Being persuad¬
ed that the syllogistic subtleties which were regarded by
the Dublin tutors as the perfection of knowledge, instead of
teaching the art of reasoning, only taught the art of wrang¬
ling, Swift turned with disgust from such, scholastic exer¬
cises. The consequence was, that when he applied for the
degree of A. B. he had not even acquired the jargon of the
schools ; and the degree was only conferred upon him spe-
ciali gratia, or, in other words, he owed to favour what he
could not claim by merit.
At this period died his uncle Godwin, leaving his affairs
in great disorder. His studies were now in some danger
of being abruptly terminated ; but another uncle, Dryden
William Swift, befriended him in the hour of need, and
seems to have drawn his purse with a better grace than his
brother, for Swift speaks of him as “ the best of his rela¬
tions.” The consciousness of poverty and dependence, and
of the mortifying circumstances under which he obtained
his degree, he endeavoured to dissipate in a variety of those
frolics by which a careless genius now and then, but more
frequently an indolent blockhead, endeavours to get rid of
a painful sense of insignificance, and to acquire, at an easy
rate, the character of a youth of spirit. He neglected at¬
tending lectures and divine service, frequented taverns, ab¬
sented himself from college at unseasonable hours, and was
finally convicted of contemptuous insolence to Owen Lloyd,
the junior dean. Of that functionary, who afterwards ob¬
tained a comfortable provision in the church by marrying a
cast-off mistress of the duke of Wharton, he was obliged to
beg pardon on his bended knees.1 The atrocious sentiments
that must have fermented in a mind like Swift’s, when com¬
pelled to submit to such a degradation as this, may be ima¬
gined from his conduct to others who provoked his wrath
when he was in a better condition to make it felt. Such a
mode of punishment reflects more infamy upon those who
inflicted, than upon him who endured it; but no spectacle
can be more useful to those that think superior endowments
can rescue them from the mortifying consequences of in¬
discretion, than Jonathan Swift grovelling at the feet of one
of the most despicable of mankind.
In 1688, when he was in the twenty-first year of his age,
Swift quitted Ireland, a country which, although it was the
land of his birth, he always regarded as a place of exile.
Having repaired on foot, as it is said, to his mother’s resi¬
dence in Leicestershire, he consulted with her about his
future prospects, which looked sufficiently gloomy. She ad¬
vised him to pay his court to Sir William Temple, who was
connected with her family by marriage. To Temple he
accordingly presented himself; and his forlorn plight pro¬
cured him what he was in some danger of forfeiting by his
sullenness and oddity of manners, a home under the roof of
1 See Dr Barrett’s Essay on the earlier Part of the Life of Swift n 15 LnnH isns a™ rr,, .. - . . . ,
to fasten upon Swift the paternity of a certain Trinos -i sntirlnnl (’,fr ’ • ' -.j d‘ 1808, 8vo-, chief aim of that production seems to be
Swift’s faculties came very slowW to maturhv • but it’ :Vlthout,scnse humour. It has been frequently asserted that
them. While a student at Dublm, he had Sketched his Tale or a Tub ^th^ ^ ^ Ia.te b®r°re he had an opportunity of displaying
*he charge of having written, or assisted in fact is to rescue him from
SWIFT.
Swift, the veteran statesman. But Swift applied himself with
—-v—^ intense assiduity to his studies, and thus became qualified
to amuse the learned leisure of his patron. In Sir Wil¬
liam’s house, where he remained two years, he formed an
acquaintance with no less a personage than King William
the Third, who offered to make him a captain of horse.
The only favour however which he ever received at the
royal hands, was a lesson that his majesty gave him one
day in the garden, on the Dutch mode of cutting aspa¬
ragus. Swift was now in such high trust with Sir Wil¬
liam, that he was employed by him to lay before the king
some arguments in favour of triennial parliaments. This
negociation was fruitless; for all the reasoning of Tem¬
ple, reinforced by the eloquence of Swift, could not per¬
suade King William that the proposed measure threaten¬
ed no danger to the royal prerogative. Swift returned to
Moorpark not a little crest-fallen, and often spoke of this
lame conclusion of his dignified commission as a cure for
vanity, less palatable than efficacious. He was now afflicted
with a disorder which he had contracted in his youth by a
surfeit of fruit. Giddiness and deafness were the symptoms
of his malady, which visited him, after a longer or shorter
respite, until the close of his life. Being advised to go to
Ireland, he proceeded to that kingdom ; but finding no be¬
nefit from his native air, he returned to Sir William Tem¬
ple’s, where he resumed his studies. He had a notion that
violent exercise was of advantage to his complaints, and
used to leave his books every two hours for the purpose of
running up and down a hill.
In 1692 he visited Oxford, and took the degree of A. M.,
which was conferred upon him with marks of distinction
that fully consoled him for the contemptuous testimonial
which he had received from his own university. About
this period he occupied a portion of his time in the compo¬
sition of verses. Besides some less ambitious attempts, he
was persuaded by Sir William and Lady Temple to write
Pindaric odes in the metaphysical manner of Cowley. These
insipid dithyrambics, for such they are, he is said to have
submitted to the inspection of Dryden, who observed with
more candour than politeness, “ Cousin Swift, you will never
be a poet.” This prediction filled the versifier with a de¬
gree of hatred which the death of the prophet did not abate.
Every rich man can have an obsequious fool to commend
his sagacity, and the loss of a stupid parasite is easily sup¬
plied ; but it is not always that the society of wit and learn¬
ing is be obtained in exchange for the necessaries of life.
Of this truth Temple was fully aware, and was in no haste
to relieve Swift from the burden of dependence. Instruc¬
tive as Sir William’s conversation is said to have been,
Swift would gladly have obtained some suitable employ¬
ment, at the expense of a final separation from his accom¬
plished patron. When Temple learned which way his wishes
pointed, he offered to make him deputy-master of the rolls
in Ireland, the duties of which office he knew Swift had
neither inclination nor ability to discharge. After some
angry discussion, he left Temple’s house and went to Dub¬
lin. There he proposed to enter into holy orders, but was
overwhelmed with chagrin when he learned that the bishops
required a certificate of his character from the very man
whom he had hoped to mortify, by evincing that he stood
no longer in need of his assistance. Before he could bring
his mind to solicit this attestation of his conduct, Swift de¬
liberated nearly five months. The letter which he at last
addressed to Temple has been preserved, and it appears to
be the composition of a man perfectly stupified by the humi¬
liating task that was imposed upon him. Although he acted
the petitioner’s part with the worst grace in the world,
Temple did what was required, and Swift was admitted to
orders; soon after which he obtained from Lord Capell the
prebend of Kilroot, which was worth about one hundred
pounds a year. The life of a country parson was not at all
S3
adapted to the taste of Swift; and Temple soon discovered Swift,
that, in the loss of his conversation, he had been deprived of '
the chief comfort of his declining years. Temple had neither
time nor inclination to search for new companions, and
Swift was recalled, with a request that he would resign his
Irish prebend, and a promise that an English one would be
procured for him in its stead. With this summons the in¬
sipidity of the life which he led at Kilroot, or perhaps better
motives, induced him to comply. To Moorpark he accord¬
ingly returned in 1695, and lived there until Sir William’s
death, which happened in 1699. Temple left him a legacy
of a hundred pounds, and made him his literary executor.
The king had promised Sir William to bestow upon Swift
the first vacant prebend of Westminster or Canterbury.
By way of refreshing his majesty’s memory, Sv/ift dedicated
to him Temple’s posthumous works, but without success.
He attended for some time at court, but with no better re¬
sult ; and the name of this prince appears in the long list of
those whom Swift detested with a cordiality that could ad¬
mit of no increase. He gladly abandoned his fruitless so¬
licitation, and accompanied the earl of Berkeley to Ireland,
as his chaplain and private secretary. But a person called
Bushe found means to persuade his lordship that a clergy¬
man was not a proper secretary for a viceroy. He then
offered his own services, and they were accepted. Swift
was not a man to be trifled with, and his lordship was fain
to pacify him by a promise of the first good living in his
gift. The deanery of Derry soon afterwards became va¬
cant, and when Swift felicitated himself in the anticipation
of immediate preferment, he was waited upon by Bushe,
who gave him to understand that he might have the living
for a thousand pounds. “ God confound you both for a
couple of scoundrels!” Swift furiously exclaimed, and rushed
out of the castle. But Berkeley had seen some specimens
of his chaplain’s talents in the way of pasquinade, and thought
it best to arrest his hand by presenting him with the rec¬
tory of Agher, and the vicarages of Laracor and Rathbeg-
gan. To these the prebend of Dunlavin was added in the
year 1700 ; but the income arising from all his preferments
amounted to a sum very inferior to the emoluments of the
deanery, which probably fell to the share of some ecclesi¬
astic, who, in addition to his piety and learning, was posses¬
sed of a little ready money.
Swift is now to be viewed in the character of a lover,
which he sustained with his usual eccentricity. He had an
unhappy propensity to cultivate intimacies with women,
whose partiality gratified his vanity, while his constitution
protected him against the assaults of beauty. This un¬
warrantable pastime, in which he probably indulged with¬
out reflection, caused him incredible misery when living,
and has left a deep stain upon his memory. When a mere
lad, he appears to have trifled with the affections of a country
girl, who was his mother’s neighbour in Leicestershire. He
next wrote a love-letter to a Miss Waryng. This compo¬
sition is so stupid and extravagant, that it is difficult to con¬
ceive it to have been traced by the pen of Swift. The most
bungling courtship, however, is often successful with ladies
who have no rooted aversion to matrimony; and Swift’s
love affairs thrived so much better than he wished, that he
was compelled to write a second letter in a style of the most
cutting indifference, in order to counteract the effect of the
first, which was couched in heroic terms. This epistle pro¬
duced the desired effect, and Swift was freed from the im¬
portunities of Miss Waryng. The warning which he had
thus received was insufficient to deter him fi’om committing
similar follies. No sooner was he settled at Laracor, than
he decoyed from England the daughter of Sir William
Temple’s steward. This lady, whose name was Johnson,
and upon whom Swift bestowed the fanciful appellation of
Stella, had been left by Sir William a legacy of a thousand
pounds; and the higher rate of interest given in Ireland was
36 S W
Swift, the ostensible reason for her taking up her residence in
that kingdom. She was accompanied by Mrs Dingley, a
person in humble circumstances, and of feeble capacity,
whose presence was designed to obviate calumny. Swift
and Stella never met but in the presence of this or of some
other third party : when he was absent, she and her friend
lived in his parsonage, and shifted their quarters on his re¬
turn. A rival in the affections of Stella appeared in Dr
William Tisdale, a clergyman, whose notions on the sub¬
ject of love resembled those of ordinary mortals. But Swift
could not endure to see in the arms of another, a woman
who would gladly have thrown herself into his own; and
by his machinations this vulgar suitor was rejected. These
tortuous ways, however, never conducted him to happiness;
and with all his caution, Swift was only laying up for him¬
self a fund of obloquy.
Excepting a few poetical essays, which cannot be called
the foundation of his literary fame, Swift had hitherto pub¬
lished nothing. In 1701, when he was in his thirty-fourth
year, appeared the “Dissensions in Athens and Rome.” This
work, which excited much attention, was attributed to Bur¬
net. Some critics, still more undiscerning, afterwards fa¬
thered upon Swift the Characteristics of Shaftesbury, whose
general manner of writing is as verbose, ambitious, and de¬
clamatory, as that of Swift is concise, simple, and didactic;
whose pleasantry is languid and insipid, while the sarcasm of
Swift is withering, and his irony irresistible.
In 1704 was published “ A Tale of a Tub.” There can¬
not be a doubt that Swift thought this performance calcu¬
lated to serve the Church of England; but he executed
his task in a manner so likely to produce ludicrous impres¬
sions of religion in general, that Voltaire immediately ex¬
tended to him the right hand of fellowship, and hailed him
as “ le Rabelais d’Angleterre.” And the weapons with
which he assails the Catholics and Presbyterians are not
much more dignified than the flail and urinal with which
he has equipped Bentley in the Battle of the Books. But
whether this production is fitted to promote the interests of
piety or retard them, it is scarcely hyperbolical to say, that
to produce the same quantity of wit and humour in the
same space, the exchequer of human knowledge would be
ransacked in vain. His literary offspring, however, being
more beautiful than exemplary, Swift had no wish to own
it; but a clerical namesake and relation of his, who was
willing to acquire the reputation of a wit, at the expense of
being considered a little profane, confessed that he had some
share in the composition of the Tale of a Tub. But those
who were willing to take his own word for his impiety, had
strong doubts of his wit; and his self-accusation may now
be treated as modern judges treat the confessions of old wo¬
men who acknowledge having dealings with the evil one.
Ihe hint of the Battle of the Books was said to have
been taken from Coutray’s “ Histoire Poetique de la Guerre
nouvellement declaree entre les Anciens et les Modernes.”
Johnson has given ear to this assertion ; but the works of
Coutray and Swift are more dissimilar from each other than
Rasselas and Candide. The “ Dissertation on the Mecha¬
nical Operation of the Spirit,” is written in Swift’s happiest
vein, and his blows are aimed with good will.
In 1708 appeared “ The Sentiments of a Church of
England Man ; that inimitable ridicule of astrology in ge-
neral, and of one impostor, Partridge, in particular, “ Pre¬
dictions for the year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.,” a
name afterwards adopted by Steele in the Tatler; “ An Ar¬
gument against abolishing Christianity,” one of his happiest
efforts in the ironical style ; and the “ Letter on the Sacra¬
mental Test.” The publication of the last-mentioned tract
was regarded as a signal of retreat from the standard of the
Whigs ; and, with the exception of the dispassionate Addi¬
son, all his fi iends of that party became cold and estranged,
niioi were their suspicions unfounded. During this year
I F T.
Swift was employed by Archbishop King and the Irish pre- Swift,
lacy, to solicit the remission of the first fruits and twentieth
parts, in order to augment the incomes of the poorer clergy.
But the experiment had been tried in England without con¬
verting the ecclesiastics from Toryism ; and Godolphin de¬
clined conferring a like expensive favour on the Irish di¬
vines, many of whom he suspected to be disaffected to the
government as well as the ministry. Finding that this ne-
gociation in behalf of his brethren was a hopeless under¬
taking, Swift endeavoured to promote his own interest in
the best way he could. He had some prospect of being
appointed secretary of an embassy to Vienna; but Lord
Berkeley, whom he was to accompany, was detained in
England by the infirmities of age. Interest was next ex¬
erted to procure his nomination as bishop of Virginia; but
that scheme also proved abortive. He was now convinced
that the Whigs would do nothing for him. Disgusted with
compliments that could not long cajole a man of his pene¬
tration and knowledge of the world, and tired of waiting for
the fulfilment of promises made with all the alacrity, and
performed with the usual punctuality of a court, Swift re¬
turned, in no enviable frame of mind, to his Irish parson¬
age. During his stay in London, however, he had written
his “ Project for the Advancement of Religion which in
some parts is more Utopian than might have been expect¬
ed from his pen.
Swift was not long buried in the solitude of Laracor ; for
in 1710 he returned to England, being associated in the
commission with the bishops of Ossory and Killaloe, who,
in the impending change of ministry, were sent to renew
the suit which he had formerly preferred without success.
It was arranged that if the two bishops should leave Lon¬
don without bringing the matter to a satisfactory issue,
Swift should remain to negociate with government to the
best of his ability.
On the 1st of September 1710, he left Ireland, and on
the 9th of that month reached London, where he was
speedily plunged in business. His Journal to Stella, one
of the most singular records that have been submitted to
public inspection, gives a minute account of this stirring
period of his history. With the exception of Godolphin,
whose calm indifference had probably accelerated his political
apostasy, the Whigs treated him with marked respect. But
the politeness of those who seemed resolved to starve him
into hostility when they were in a condition to be of ser¬
vice to him, he estimated at its real value. Somers stoop¬
ed to make explanations which Swift did not think satisfac¬
tory ; and Godolphin’s disdain he endeavoured to humble
by means of a lampoon. He was soon afterwards intro¬
duced to Harley, refusing on the same day an invitation
from Lord Halifax. Harley made him acquainted with St
John, and both evinced the utmost eagerness to bind him
to their interests. Swift asserted with great composure,
that although a Whig in politics, he had always been a
1 ory in church affairs. A man that goes over to a victo¬
rious enemy, must say something to his new comrades, who,
if his services are of any value, will readily admit his apo¬
logies : on his former associates his eloquence will in all
likelihood be thrown away. From his Journal to Stella, it
is manifest that Swift’s standard of political consistency was
extremely low, and that he was ready to grasp the hand,
whatever cause it maintained, that had any thing to give,
or that could apply a balsam to the wounds of pride.
I o prop the interest of the new rulers, Swift was requir¬
ed to conduct the Examiner, which was the organ of the
ministerial party. Addison for some time opposed that
publication in a paper called the Whig Examiner, but with-
urew from the contest when he heard that Swift was about
to take the field, probably because his gentle spirit detest¬
ed the thoughts of entering the lists with a friend. Swift
conducted the Examiner from the 10th of November 1710,
SWIFT.
Swift, to the 14th of June 1711. During that period he attacked
.^■v—' his opponents with the utmost fury, using against them all
the arms of wit, sharpened by the first fervours of new-born
zeal.
Immersed as he was in general politics, Swift did not
neglect the object of his mission ; and his interest with the
ministry speedily obtained the boon that had so long been
desired. But when he expected to be overwhelmed with
the grateful acknowledgments of his brethren in Ireland, he
received the astounding intelligence that the bishops had
resolved to dispense with his services, and to put their trust
in the duke of Ormond. The motive for recalling a com¬
mission, the object of which they were not aware had been
already obtained, was an apprehension that Swift had for¬
merly been too much caressed by the Whigs to have any
influence with the party in power. When apprized of his
triumph, Archbishop King apologized to the exasperated
nuncio in a clumsy manner. In 1712 Swift published
“ The Conduct of the Allies,” and no political pamphlet
ever produced more powerful effects. He proved that a
prodigal expenditure of blood and treasure had secured to
the English nation nothing but a few sprigs of laurel to de¬
corate the empty heads of those chivalrous simpletons who
fought the battles of ungrateful knaves, without any pros¬
pect of benefit to themselves. To state facts so strong as
these requires little force of eloquence; nor does Swift’s
pamphlet strike the reader of the present day as a very
masterly specimen of writing. But when the blow is aimed
at a vital part, it is unnecessary that the assailant should
put forth all his strength. In the space of one week four
editions were sold; the ministerial members quoted it in
the House of Commons, and the other party talked of
bringing the author to the bar of the House of Lords. The
same year produced “ A Proposal for correcting, improv¬
ing, and ascertaining the English Tongue,” a publication
which added nothing to his reputation ; and “ Reflections
on the Barrier Treaty,” which are a sequel to the Conduct
of the Allies.
In the character of a patron, Swift appears to great ad¬
vantage. If he sometimes neglected the forms of polite¬
ness, he was never slow in conferring substantial benefits
on meritorious persons. He was never more in his element
than when he was distributing preferment, and few have
made a more commendable use of their power. Lord Bacon
has said that “ prosperity doth best discover vice, but ad¬
versity doth best discover virtue.” In order to apply to Swift,
this apophthegm must be reversed. In his prosperous days,
he exerted his influence to retain the most deserving of his
political opponents in their places, and performed many
other generous actions; but when he awoke from the flat¬
tering dream of ambition, his heart, thus ennobled by good
fortune, became the chosen residence of some of the worst
passions of our nature.
Although his recommendation in favour of others was
seldom neglected by his great friends, they seemed in no
haste to provide for Swift himself. This, however, was no
fault of theirs, but of the duchess of Somerset, whom he had
lampooned. He held her up to public detestation, as being
accessary to the murder of her husband, a calumny which
she might have forgiven ; but he also laughed at her red
hair, and she vowed revenge. An opportunity soon after¬
wards occurred of presenting Swift to the see of Hereford;
but the freckled favourite threw herself at the feet of her
royal mistress, and with streaming eyes begged that her
inhuman satirist should be refused the vacant mitre. The
entreaties of the ministers were drowned in her clamours
37
for revenge; and Swift, instead of obtaining an English Swift,
bishopric, was rewarded for his services by an Irish deanery.—v—■"
This was the effect produced by the Windsor Prophecy ;
and the tears of one favourite marred the fortunes of Swift,
the pertinacity of another, Mrs Masham, having, not long
before, deprived Marlborough of all his employments, and
occasioned the downfall of the Whig ministry. From such
despicable sources do important events sometimes take their
rise.
Soon after Swift went to take possession of his deanery
of St Patrick’s, Dublin, he was summoned to reconcile Ox¬
ford and Bolingbroke, whose increasing animosity to each
other threatened destruction to the Tory interest. Swift
hastened to England, but his journey was fruitless; for he
found that it was no temporary misunderstanding, from
which they might be extricated by his wit and pleasantries,
but that a rooted hatred had sprung up between them, which
defied the most dexterous mediation.
“ The Public Spirit of the Whigs” appeared in 1714.
It is a virulent reply to Sir Richard Steele’s Crisis, the
pamphlet that procured his expulsion from the House of
Commons. At the intercession of Swift, Steele had been
permitted to retain his post of commissioner of stamp-duties;
but, blinded by ignorance or the rage of party, he denied
the obligation and reviled his benefactor. It is intolerable
to be upbraided with favours which one is not conscious of
having received, and the careless Steele perhaps took little
trouble to inquire who had been his friend; but he was not
a man to be guilty of deliberate ingratitude.1 In this pamph¬
let Steele was attacked without mercy; and the Scotish na¬
tion was there treated with such insolence and rancour, that
the duke of Argyle, accompanied by other northern peers,
went to court to demand the punishment of the author.
A reward of three hundred pounds was offered for his dis¬
covery ; and Morphew the bookseller, and Barber the prin¬
ter of the obnoxious pamphlet, were ordered into the cus¬
tody of the black rod; but the ministers, by directing a pro¬
secution against these men, for the expenses of which they
were privately idemnified by a sum given to Swift for that
purpose, disappointed the vengeance of the Scotish nobles.
Nor is this much to be regretted; for he must be a very
facetious person whose gibes can obscure the lustre of na¬
tional renown; and to give importance to a libel by perse¬
cuting the author, is more patriotic than dignified.
Dr Swift’s political importance was now drawing near its
close. In June 1714 he retired to a friend’s house in Berk¬
shire, where he wrote “ Free Thoughts on the present State
of Public Affairsa tract winch was then suppressed. At
this period occurred the death of the queen, which restored
his enemies to power, and drove him into Ireland to avoid
the spectacle of their triumph. This event also deprived
him of a thousand pounds, for which he had an order upon
the exchequer.
During his residence in England, Swift formed another
anomalous and tender connexion, which was followed by
very tragical consequences. Miss Esther Vanhomrigh was
the daughter of a widow lady of considerable fortune. At
the house of Mrs Vanhomrigh he w'as a frequent visitor;
and being struck with the contempt which the young lady
displayed for the fopperies of the age, he took upon himself
the dangerous task of directing her studies. The result
was, that she conceived a passion for her instructor as im¬
petuous as that which swelled the breast of Eloisa. Throw¬
ing aside maidenly reserve, she confessed her flame; and
Swift had not sufficient fortitude to deprive himself of her
society by owning his engagement with Stella. He offered
1 In a petulant letter to Swift relative to this affair, Steele says, “ They laugh at you, if they make you believe your interposition has kept
me thus long in my office.” To which Swift replies with unanswerable force of reason, “ Suppose they did laugh at me, I ask whether my
inclinations to serve you merit to be rewarded by the vilest treatment, whether they succeeded or not ? If your interpretation were true, I was
laughed at only for your sake; which, I think, is going pretty far to serve a friend.”
SWIFT.
Swift, her his friendship, which she rejected with disdain, and
persisted until the end of her life in endeavouring to extort
a more lively return of her passion. Had Swift been as
other men, such sighs as hers could scarcely have been
breathed in vain. The irascible passions he indulged with¬
out either compunction or remorse; his appeared to be the
Indian’s creed, that revenge is virtue ; and there is no glar¬
ing uncharitableness in supposing, that with the same temp¬
tation, and the same means of gratification, he would have
yielded to the passion of love. There is, however, strong
reason to suppose that he laboured under a physical inca¬
pacity. When Swift returned to Ireland, he was followed
by Miss Vanhomrigh, who renewed her efforts to awake
his tenderness. To render his perplexity insupportable,
Stella began to droop, and it was in vain for him to affect
ignorance of the cause. To save a life which was gradu¬
ally wasting away under the agony of “ hope deferred,”
he consented that the nuptial blessing should be pronoun¬
ced over Stella and himself, upon condition that they should
continue in all respects to live as before. Stella was thus
silenced, if not content; but Miss Vanhomrigh petitioned
with frantic eagerness for that requital of her passion which
neither the guilt nor innocence of her lover could bestow.
At length her impatience became incapable of control, and
she addressed a letter to Stella, desiring to know the nature
of her connexion with the dean. Stella replied that they
w7ere married; and having sent Miss Vanhomrigh’s letter
to Swift, she retired, full of just indignation, to the house of
a friend at some distance from Dublin. In a paroxysm of
rage, he rode to Marley Abbey, the residence of Stella’s
miserable rival. With terror in her looks she begged in a
trembling voice that her infuriated visitor wxmld be seated.
He answered by tossing her own letter to Stella on the
table, and remounting his horse, rode back to town without
having opened his lips. Miss Vanhomrigh only survived
this interview a few weeks. The celebrated poem of Ca-
denus and Vanessa, the name which Swift had bestowed
upon her, was given to the world soon after her death. That
melancholy event appeased the anger of Stella.
In 172i, the far-famed Drapier’s Letters disappointed
the rapacity of Wood, who had obtained by patent the right
of .circulating halfpence and farthings to supply the defi¬
ciency of copper coinage in Ireland. These letters raised
Swift to an unexampled height of popularity, although it
would not be easy to prove that they had any better effect
than that of intercepting the royal bounty. In 1727, Swift
went to England, and, in conjunction with Pope, collected
three volumes of Miscellanies. The same year produced
Gulliver’s Travels. In comparing that singular produc¬
tion w'ith Lucian’s True History, the work of the pupil
must, in common candour-, be preferred to that of the mas¬
ter. If Lucian has any covert meaning at all, it must be
a design to ridicule credulous and lying travellers and his¬
torians. The introductory part of his narrative contains a
promise, which he punctually fulfills, of relating a series of
incredible wonders; and these have too much the aspect of
a feverish dream to be a direct satire upon any modifica¬
tion of human absurdity. Swift, on the other hand, speaks
in parables, it is true; but they are so plain, that he who
runs may read. Those who think favourably of the sense
and virtue of mankind, may detest the writer whose chief
solicitude is to wound the vanity of his readers; but he can
be at no loss to perceive that the ferocious scoffer laughs
at all human dealings. Indeed there is little hazard^ in
asserting, that the satire which is not obvious is good for
nothing; and that lucubrations positively hazy are only
for times w7hen a man writes with a retainer of justice at
his elbow.
When George I. died, Swift had probably some expec- Swift,
tations from the new queen, who had sent him several com- s'—'y--
plimentary messages, and seized upon some Irish silk which
the dean had sent to Mrs Howard, her husband’s mistress,
with whom she lived on very amicable terms. Wearing
his silk, however, was the chief favour he ever received at
her hands. She even broke a promise which she had made
of sending him some medals ; and he always spoke of her
with aversion and contempt. For the latter feeling there
is some ground, if she transmitted to him her grateful ac¬
knowledgments, as he said she did, for some of the bitterest
irony that he ever wrote.
Towards the end of the year 1737, he had an attack of
his old complaints, giddiness and deafness. He was then
living in the house of Pope, which he left in a strange
abrupt manner; but a letter of apology that he afterwards
addressed to the poet was sufficient to atone for a graver
offence. He hastened to a cheerless home; for he found
Stella on the confines of the tomb, which sorrow and dis¬
ease had probably stript of half its terrors. She expired on
the 28th of January 1738, aged forty-four years. Thus
died this unfortunate woman, whose history is inseparably
connected with that of one of the most extraordinary per¬
sons whom this country has produced.
After the death of Stella, he endeavoured to dissipate his
grief by directing his attention to public affairs ; with what
satisfaction to himself, the following passage from one of his
letters to Pope will show. “ I do profess, without affecta¬
tion, that your kind opinion of me as a patriot (since you
call it so) is what I do not deserve; because what I do
is owing to perfect rage and resentment, and the mortify¬
ing sight of slavery, and folly, and baseness, about me,
among which I am forced to live.”
In order to rescue Swift from the charge of fondness for
low society, Dr Delany has displayed a long list of Irish
worthies with whom the dean lived in habits of intimacy.1
That he was addicted to the society of the lowest vulgar,
there is no reason to believe; but that he preferred his in¬
feriors in fortune and intellect as constant companions, he
has himself acknowledged. In a letter to Pope, dated May
10, 1728, he says, “ I reckon that men subject like us to
bodily infirmities, should only occasionally converse with
great people, notwithstanding all their good qualities, easi¬
ness, and kindnesses. There is another race which I pre¬
fer before them-, as beef and mutton for constant diet be¬
fore partridges ; I mean a middle kind both for understand¬
ing and fortune, who are perfectly easy, never impertinent,
complying in every thing, ready to do a hundred little
offices that you and I may often want, who dine and sit
with me five times for once that I go to them, and whom I
can tell, without offence, that I am otherwise engaged at
present.” His exactions, which indeed no man could en¬
dure whose admiration of Swift did not outweigh respect
for himself, became at last too tyrannous even for those
humble friends. There can be few inducements to fx-equent
a house where thei’e is neither civility nor good cheer; and
Swift found himself alone when age and sickness rendered
solitude exceedingly dismal. Books, his usual resource
against the languor of the hour, he could no longer read with
the naked eye, and spectacles he had made some absurd
resolution never to use. But if he could not be loved, he
had not ceased to be an object of fear; for a few strokes of
his envenomed quill reduced Serjeant Bettesworth, a law¬
yer who was in the constant habit of reviling the clergy,
from affluence and professional celebrity to poverty and
contempt. Nor did he desist from those acts of charity
and benevolence, in which, however ungraciously perform¬
ed, he had never been remiss. To indigent persons he lent
1 Del any’s Observations upon Lord Orrery’s Remarks on the Life and Writings of Dr Jonathan Swift, p. 90. Lond. 1754, 8vo.
S W I
Swift, out five hundred pounds, in sums of from five to ten pounds ;
—v—' and his memory is still revered in many families which
owe their prosperity to his judicious beneficence. Johnson,
who, as Parr said of him, “ weighed every man in the ba¬
lance of the sanctuary,” but whose narrative is not a little
tinged with the spleen that he condemns in the subject of
it, talks of Swift employing “ the catch-poll under the ap¬
pearance of charity.” That Swift would not suffer profli¬
gate paupers to cheat him with impunity, it is easy to con¬
ceive ; but there are few who would relish either the trouble
or the risk of affording honest industry such chances of
emerging from poverty. Besides, a man who parts with
what he has no desire to keep to himself, does nothing me¬
ritorious: but Swift loved money as much as he hated
mankind ; his alms-giving, therefore, was a signal triumph
over avarice and misanthropy, and the conqueror is worthy
of his garland.
In 1737, Swift took some steps toward publishing his
History of the Peace of Utrecht, which he had written in
1714, and the title of which he altered to that of “ The
History of the four last years of Queen Anne.” The lite¬
rary modesty, or indifference to literary renown, for which
he was remarkable through life, induced him to listen to the
suggestions of the meanest critics, and he was persuaded to
abandon the idea of publishing this work. It appeared in
1758, but the dean would have lost little credit as an au¬
thor if it had been entirely suppressed; for it sinks beneath
the dignity of historical narrative, and has no pretensions
to the candour of political sentiment. “ Polite Conversa¬
tion” appeared in 1738. It is an admirable satire on the
pert retailers of conventional jocularity. The “ Directions
for Servants” were not printed until some time after his
death.
The misanthropical musings in which he was constantly
absorbed, at length terminated in madness. He was visited
by that dreadful affliction in 1741, when legal guardians
were appointed for his custody and sustentation. From the
condition of a furious maniac, he gradually sunk into that
of a harmless idiot; and in this lamentable situation he
lingered until the 29th of October 1745, when he resigned a
state of existence that only served to illustrate the precarious
tenure upon which the favourites of nature hold her gifts.
He was interred in St Patrick’s cathedral, where an appalling
mural inscription, composed by himself, informs the reader
who sleeps below. It is of the following tenor:
Hie depositum est corpus
Jonathan Swift, S. T. P.
hujus Ecclesiae Cathedralis
Decani;
ubi saeva indignatio
ulterius cor lacerare nequit.
Abi, viator,
et imitare, si poteris,
strenuum pro virili libertatis vindicem.
Obiit anno (1745)
mensis (Octobris) die (29),
TEtatis anno (78).
Swift was tall, muscular, and well formed. His complexion
was swarthy, and somewhat scorbutic ; his aspect was for¬
bidding ; and but for his eyes, which were blue and of un¬
common brilliancy, his features would have conveyed an
expression of sombre arrogance. He was never known to
laugh, and there was little gaiety in his smiles. His conver¬
sation had many attractions; in jest and repartee he was
unrivalled, and related anecdotes with singular felicity. In
his latter days, however, he was apt to go over the same
ground too often. He was irascible and vindictive; but
whether he wras implacable or not, it is difficult to determine ;
lor when provoked he struck so hard as to leave no room
for reconciliation. His efforts to serve his friends, however,
were as energetic as his attacks upon his enemies. Nor
S W I 39
were his attachments of the holiday kind ; for his love of Swimming.
Bolingbroke was not diminished by exile and proscription, v—*
and he was ready to wait upon Oxford in the Tower.
Notwithstanding his hatred of sectaries, it has been doubted
whether the dean was a Christian. In the Tale of a Tub,
his likening the cross to an old sign-post, and other indeco¬
rous pleasantries in the same performance, give some colour
to the charge of infidelity which has been brought against
him. Red-hot zeal for the interests of a particular church
may be connected with a total unconcern for the interests
of religion. This species of zeal only embraces the emolu¬
ments, dignities, and privileges of the clergy. It must
however be kept in mind, that Swift had a mode of doing
every thing peculiar to himself. He complimented his
friends in ironical abuse, and abused his enemies in ironi¬
cal compliments; and to his eccentric fancy a facetious
panegyric on the number three, might perhaps appear as
proper a way of defending the doctrine of the Trinity as
any other. As a son, Swift was dutiful and affectionate to
a remarkable degree. His sister, who had made a mean
marriage, he relieved, but never pardoned. With his ser¬
vants he was peevish and exacting, but was always prepar¬
ed to render them important benefits when he had it in his
power. The fruits of many years economy he bequeathed
to found an asylum for lunatics. Against avarice he main¬
tained a violent and successful struggle; but pride, ambi¬
tion, and revenge were always masters of the field. His
minor failings were a love of flattery, and a childish and
petulant mode of conducting himself towards his superiors,
which he mistook for dignity.
Upon the character of Swift as an author it is unneces¬
sary to expatiate. No one is ignorant of his merits, and
his faults are equally notorious. In grave irony he is se¬
cond to none, and the writings of few are more deformed
by obscenity and physical indelicacy. In his serious style,
although it is easy and perspicuous, he is excelled by
many. In his zeal for simplicity, he often borders upon
meanness, as his own Jack is represented to have disfigured
his coat by rudely tearing off its superfluous decorations.
Swift had great skill in versification ; but most of his poems
were designed only for the inspection of his private friends,
and his muse is often sportive, and generally trifling.
Poetry he cultivated without any view to fame or profit,
but in order to solace a mind that preyed upon itself when
unemployed. To his reputation as a writer of prose he
was equally indifferent. Posterity however has willingly
extended to him that renown which is often withheld from
more eager claimants; and it would be vain to contest his
right to be considered a British classic of the first rank.
SWIMMING, the art of floating one’s self on water,
and at the same time making a progressive motion through
it. As swimming is not natural to man, it is evident that at Swimming
some period it must have been unknown among the human not natural
race. Nevertheless there are no accounts of its origin toto mar1,
be found in the history of any nation ; nor are there any
nations so barbarous but that the art of swimming is known
among them, and that in greater perfection than among
civilized people. It is probable, therefore, that the art,
though not absolutely natural, will always be acquired by
people in a savage state, from imitating the brute animals,
most of whom swim naturally. Indeed so much does this
appear to be the case, that very expert swimmers have re¬
commended it to those who wished to learn the art, to
keep some frogs in a tub of water constantly beside them,
and to imitate the motions by which they move through
that element.
The theory of swimming depends upon one very simple Depends
principle ; namely, that if a force be applied to any body, on a simple
it will always move towards that side where there is the principle,
least resistance. Thus, if a person standing in a boat
pushes with a pole against the side or any other part of the
40 S W I
Swimming.vessel in which he stands, no motion will ensue; for as
much as he presses in one direction with the pole, just so
much does the action of his feet, on which the pressure of
the pole must ultimately rest, push the vessel the other
way: but if, instead of the side of the vessel, he pushes
the pole against the shore, then only one force acts upon
it, namely, that of the feet; which being resisted only
by the water, the boat begins to move from the shore.
Now the very same thing takes place in swimming, whether
the animal be man, quadruped, bird, or fish. It we consi¬
der the matter simply, we may suppose an animal in such
a situation that it could not possibly swim : thus, if we cut
off the fins and tail of a fish, it will indeed float in conse¬
quence of being specifically lighter than the water, but
cannot make any progressive motion, or at least but very
little, in consequence of wriggling its body; but if we al¬
low it to keep any of its fins, by striking them against the
water in any direction the body moves the contrary way,
just as the boat moves the contrary way to that in which
the oars strike the water. It is true, that as the boat is
but partly immerged in the water, the resistance is compa¬
ratively less than when a frog or even any other quadruped
swims; but a boat could certainly be rowed with oars
though it were totally immerged in water, only with less
velocity than when it is not. When a man swims, he in
like manner strikes the water with his hands, arms, and
feet; in consequence of which the body moves in a direc¬
tion contrary to the stroke. Upon this principle, and on this
only, a man may either ascend, descend, or move obliquely
in any possible direction, in the water. One would think,
indeed, that as the strength of a man’s arms and legs is
but small, he could make but very little way by any stroke
he could give the water, considering the fluidity of that
element. Nevertheless it is incredible what expert swim¬
mers wTill perform in this way ; of which Dr Forster gives
a most remarkable instance in the inhabitants of Otaheite,
whose agility, he tells us, was such, that when a nail was
thrown overboard, they would jump after it into the sea,
and never fail to catch it before it reached the bottom.
As to the practice of swimming, there are but few direc¬
tions which can be given. The great obstacle is the na¬
tural dread which people have of being drowmed ; and this
it is impossible to overcome by any thing but accustoming
ourselves to go into the water. With regard to the real
danger of being drowned, it is but little ; and on innumer¬
able occasions arises entirely from the terror above men¬
tioned, as will appear from the following observations by
Dr Franklin.
Observa- “ 1st, That though the legs, arms, and head, of a human
tions by Dr body, being solid parts, are specifically somewhat heavier
Franklin. |.jian fresij vvater, yet the trunk, particularly the upper
part, from its hollowness, is so much lighter than water, as
that the whole of the body, taken together, is too light to
sink wholly under water, but some part will remain above
until the lungs become filled with water ; which happens
from drawing water into them instead of air, when a person
in the fright attempts breathing while the mouth and nos¬
trils are under water.
“ 2dly, That the legs and arms are specifically lighter
than salt water, and will be supported by it; so that a hu¬
man body would not sink in salt water though the lungs
were filled as above, but from the greater specific gravity
of the head.
“ 3dly, That therefore a person throwing himself on his
back in salt water, and extending his arms, may easily lie
so as to keep his mouth and nostrils free from breathing ;
and by a small motion of his hands may prevent turning, if
he should perceive any tendency to it.
“ 4thly, That in fresh water, if a man throws himself on
his back near the surface, he cannot long continue in that
situation, but by a proper action of his hands on the water.
S W I
If he uses no such action, the legs and lower part of the Swimmin
body will gradually sink till he comes into an upright posi¬
tion, in which he will continue suspended, the hollow of the
breast keeping the head uppermost.
“ 5thly, But if in this erect position the head is kept up¬
right above the shoulders, as when wre stand on the ground,
the immersion will, by the wreight of that pait of the head
that is out of the water, reach above the mouth and nos¬
trils, perhaps a little above the eyes ; so that a man cannot
long remain suspended in water with his head in that po-
sition.
“ Gthly, The body continued suspended as before, and
upright, if the head be leaned quite back, so that the face
looks upwards, all the back part of the head being then un¬
der water, and its weight consequently in a great measure
supported by it, the face will remain above water quite free
for breathing, will rise an inch higher every inspiration, and
sink as much every expiration, but never so low as that the
water may come over the mouth.
“ 7thly, If therefore a person unacquainted with swim¬
ming, and falling accidentally into the water, could have
presence of mind sufficient to avoid struggling and plung¬
ing, and let the body take this natural position, he might
continue long safe from drowning, till perhaps help would
come; for as to the clothes, their additional weight while
immersed is very inconsiderable, the water supporting it;
though when he comes out of the water, he would find them
very heavy indeed.”
The method of learning to swim is as follows. The per- His me.
son must walk into water so deep that it will reach to the thod of
breast. He is then to lie down gently on the belly, keep- leaFninS
ing the head and neck perfectly upright, the breast advan- swim’
cing forward, the thorax inflated, and the back bent; then
withdrawing the legs from the bottom, and stretching them
out, strike the arms forwards in unison with the legs. Swim¬
ming on the back is somewhat similar to that on the belly,
but with this difference, that although the legs are employ¬
ed to move the body forwards, the arms are generally un¬
employed, and the progressive motion is derived from the
movement of the legs. In diving, a person must close his
hands together, and, pressing his chin upon his breast, make
an exertion to bend with force forwards. While in that
position, he must continue to move with rapidity under the
surface ; and whenever he chooses to return to his former
situation, he has nothing to do but to bend back his head,
and he will immediately return to the surface.
It is very common for novices in the art of swimming to
make use of corks or bladders to assist in keeping the body
above water. Some have utterly condemned the use of
these ; Dr Franklin however allows that they may be of
service for supporting the body while one is learning what
is called the stroke, or that manner of drawing in and strik¬
ing out the hands and feet that is necessary to produce pro¬
gressive motion. “ But,” says he, “ you will be no swimmer
till you can place confidence in the power of the water to
support you: I would therefore advise the acquiring that
confidence in the first place, especially as I have known se¬
veral who, by a little of the practice necessary for that pur¬
pose, have insensibly acquired the stroke, taught as it were
by nature.
“ The practice I mean is this. Choosing a place where and of a
the water deepens gradually, walk coolly into it till it is up quiring
to your breast: then turn round your face to the shore, and con^eI1
throw an egg into the water, between you and the shore;
it will sink to the bottom, and be easily seen there if the
water is clear. It must lie in the water so deep as that you
cannot reach it to take it up but by diving for it. To en¬
courage yourself in order to do this, reflect that your pro¬
gress will be from deeper to shallower water; and that at
any time you may, by bringing your legs under you, and
standing on the bottom, raise your head far above the wa-
S W I
S W I
41
Swimming, ter : then plunge under it with your eyes open, throwing
yourself toward the egg, and endeavouring, by the action
of your hands and feet against the water, to get forward till
within reach of it. In this attempt you will find that the
water buoys you up against your inclination ; and it is not
so easy a thing to sink as you imagined ; that you cannot
but by active force get down to the egg. Thus you feel
the power of the water to support you, and learn to confide
in that power; while your endeavours to overcome it, and
to reach the egg, teach you the manner of acting on the
water with your feet and hands ; which action is afterwards
used in swimming to support your head higher above water,
or to go forward through it.”
Swimming As swimming is a healthy exercise and a pleasant amuse-
a pleasant ment, and as a dexterity in it may frequently put it in a
and useful man’s power to save his own life and the lives of his fellow-
exercise. creatureS) perhaps of his dearest friends, it can neither be
useless nor uninteresting to consider a few of the evolutions
which a swimmer must be master of, that he move in any
direction without difficulty, without danger, and without
being unnecessarily fatigued.
j How to There are several dift’erent ways of turning one’s self in
turn to the You may do it in this way : turn the palm of
kf °r the riSht hancl outwards, extend the arm in the same man¬
ner, and make a contrary movement with the left hand and
left arm ; then, by a gradual motion, incline your head and
whole body to the left side, and the evolution will be finish¬
ed. There is another way, which is easier still. Bend your
head and body toward that side to which you are going to
turn. If you wish to turn to the left, incline the thumb
and the right hand toward the bottom, bend the fingers of
the right hand, stretch it out, and use it for driving away
the water sidewise, or, which is the same thing, for pushing
yourself the contrary way. At the same time, with your left
hand, the fingers being close, push the water behind you, and
all at once turn your body and your face to the left, and
the manoeuvre will be accomplished. If you wish to turn
to the right, you must do with your right hand what you
did with your left, and with your left what you did with
your right. You must be careful when turning yourself
never to stretch out your legs, and be sure that the water
be so deep that you be in no danger of hurting yourself.
How to When you are swimming on your belly, and wish to turn
turn from on y0ur back, draw your feet in quickly, and throw them
the backt0 ^e^ore you ’ stretch out your hands behind you, and keep
your body firm and steady. When you wish to turn from
swimming on your back, fold your feet at once under
your body, as if you were throwing them to the bottom, and
at the same instant dart your body forwards, that you may
fall upon your belly.
In swimming, the eyes ought to be turned towards heaven.
This is a most important rule, and to the neglect of it many
of the accidents which befall swimmers are owing. For
when they bend their eyes downwards, they insensibly
bend their head too, and thus the mouth being too deep in
the water, may admit a quantity of it in breaking ; besides,
the more the body is stretched, it covers a greater part of
the surface of the water, and consequently its specific gra¬
vity is less. Any person who will make the experiment
will find it impossible to dive while he keeps his head erect
and his eyes fixed on the heavens.1 *
The easiest posture in swimming is lying on the back.
When you wish to swim in this posture, lay yourself softly
The eyes
ought to
be turned
towards
heaven.
How to
swim on
the back,
on your back, and raise your breast to the surface of the Swimming.
water, keeping your body extended in the same line. Putv—-v-w/
your hands easily over the upper part of your thighs, and
throw out your legs and draw them in alternately, keeping
them within two feet of the surface. In this way you may
advance in any direction you please. You may perhaps
not like having so much of your head under water ; there
is, however, no way of swimming so easy, so safe, and so
little fatiguing. If you wish to swim with great rapidity,
you may use your arms as well as your feet; and you
will find this the easiest way of breaking the force of the
waves.
In swimming on the back, one may advance forward as and ad-
well as backward. For this purpose the body must be kept vance for-
straight and extended ; the breast inflated, so that the hoi- wal'd•
low of the back may assume a semicircular form. The
hands must recline over the upper parts of the thighs. It
is also necessary to raise the legs one after another, and
draw them in strongly towards the hams, and then leave
them suspended in the water. This way of swimming is
not only pleasant, but may serve to rest you when fatigued.
When you are tired with swimming on your back and How to
belly, you may swim on one side. When you wish to do swim on
this, sink a little your left side and raise your right; youone Side-
will immediately find yourself on your left side. Move
then your left hand without either raising or sinking it;
you have only to stretch it and draw it back, as in a straight
line, on the surface of the water. Independently of the plea¬
sure which this kind of motion will give you, you will have
the satisfaction of seeing both sides of the river.
It is possible to swim on the belly without the assistance How to
of the hands. For this purpose you must keep your breast swim on
erect, your neck straight, and fix your hands behind yo^’^kout
head, or upon your back, while you move forward by em- t^e assist.
ploying your feet. This way is not without its advantages. ance of the
It is an excellent resource when the arms are seized with a hands,
cramp, or with any indisposition which makes it painful to
exert them. This in some cases may be preferable to
swimming on the back; for while in that attitude, one can¬
not see before them without turning every instant. If one
of your legs be seized with a cramp, take hold of it with
the hand opposite to it, and use the other hand and leg to
advance or support yourself.
A very ancient and graceful mode of swimming, is that How to
of swimming with the hands joined. When you wish to putsw™ with
this in practice, join your hands, keeping the thumbs and|^ie^nt‘3
fingers towards heaven, so that they may appear above theJ
water; then draw them back and push them forwards alter¬
nately from your breast. This method of swimming may
be useful in several circumstances, but above all if you are
entangled with grass or weeds. Your hands will then open
a passage for you.
As a person may sometimes have occasion to carry some- With the
thing in his hand in swimming, which he is anxious to pre-haild8 ele-
serve from the water, he may swim easily with one handvate(1,
and hold a parcel in the other, as Caesar swam with his
Commentaries at Alexandria; or one may swim with both
hands elevated. To perform this well, the swimmer must
raise his breast, and keep it as much inflated as he can, at
the same time that he supports the arms above the water.
It must not be concealed that this method of swimming is
attended with some danger to one who is not dexterous at
the art; for if one should imprudently draw in his breast
1 An interesting question occurs here, ■which deserves to be considered. Since the body, when spread upon the surface, can be supported
with so little exertion, and frequently without any at all, as in swimming on the back, how comes it to pass that a person when drowned
sinks and frequently rises again some time afterwards. The reason is this. In the act of drowning, the lungs are filled with water, and con¬
sequently the body, being specifically heavier, sinks. It is well known that the human body contains a great quantity of air. This air is at
first compressed by the water; and while this is the case, the body remains at the bottom ; but as soon as the air by its elasticity endeavours
to disengage itself from the compression, the body is swelled and expanded, becomes specifically lighter than the water, and consequently
rises to the top.
VOL. XXI.
F
42 S W I S W I
Switzer, when his arms are raised, he would immediately sink to the
fond- bottom.
I When a man plunges into the water, and has reached the
rise'to the bottom, he has only to give a small stroke with his foot
surface against the ground in order to rise; but an experienced
after div- swimmer, if he misses the ground, has recourse to another
ing- expedient, which is very pretty, and which has not been
much considered. Suppose him at a considerable depth,
when he perceives that he cannot reach the bottom. In
such a case, he first puts his hands before his face, at the
height of his forehead, with the palms turned outwardly ;
then holding the fore part of his arm vertically, he makes
them move backwards and forwards from right to left; that
is to say, these two parts of his arms, having the elbow as a
kind of pivot, describe very quickly, both the hands being
open and the fingers joined, two small portions of a circle Swindon
before the forehead, as if he would make the water retire, . II
which he in fact does; and from these strokes given to the jand*
water, there results an oblique force, one part of which car- .. ‘ ^
ries the swimmer upwards.
SWINDON, a town of the hundred of Kingsbridge in
Wiltshire, eighty-three miles from London. It is a neat,
well-built town, with a market on Monday, and several
fairs. The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 134(1, in 1821 .
to 1580, and in 1831 to 1742.
SWINESHEAD, a town in the hundred of Kirton and
county of Lincoln, 120 miles from London. It is a place
of inconsiderable trade, with a market on Thursday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 15Q1, in 1821 to 1696,
and in 1831 to 1994.
SWITZERLAND.
Switzerland is situate in western Europe, having France
on the west, Germany on the north, Austria on the east
and south-east, and Savoy and Piedmont on the south-west.
Ancient This country was anciently called Helvetia, from its first
history. known inhabitants: its more modern name is supposed to
be derived from the canton of Schwytz, the cradle of Swiss
independence. Little is knowm of the inhabitants of Sw it¬
zerland till about one hundred years before Christ, when
the Cimbri, a race of barbarians inhabiting the northern
regions now known as Friesland and Sweden, crossed the
Rhine and extended their conquests into Gaul. Several of
the Helvetian tribes, tempted by the immense spoils gained
by the Cimbri, entered into an alliance with them, and car¬
ried their united ravages nearly to the mouths of the Rhone.
In this extremity the Gauls applied for assistance to the
Romans, who speedily sent a powerful army to their assist¬
ance, under the command of the consul Lucius Cassius.
This force, however, was suddenly attacked on the banks
of the lake of Geneva, by the Tigurini, a tribe of the Flel-
vetii, led by a young general named Divico. The Ro¬
mans were totally defeated, the consul and his lieutenant
Piso left dead on the field, and the survivors only permitted
to retreat after they had given hostages and marched under
the yoke. Emboldened by this success, Divico rejoined
the Cimbri, and with their united forces crossed the Alps
and entered Italy itself, where, how-ever, they were defeated
by Marius with tremendous slaughter, and the few who
escaped sought refuge among the fastnesses of the Helve¬
tian mountains.
For nearly half a century after this decisive defeat, the
Helvetii confined themselves to their own country. But
the recollection of the rich pastures and fertile plains of
Gaul outlived the terror of the Roman arms, and made
them resolve once more to quit their rocky fastnesses. After
spending three years in preparation, they set out with their
wives and families, cattle and possessions, led by the same
Divico who had commanded their fathers fifty years be¬
fore. The number who marched out on this expedition is
computed at 368,000 souls, of whom 92,000 were able-
bodied warriors.
The Roman province of Gaul was at that time under the
government of Julius Caesar, and that consummate general
no sooner heard of the emigration of the Helvetians than he
The Hel- took effectual measures to defeat their plans. After some
vetii de- abortive attempts at negociation, he attacked and defeated
Cafsar 0y t!iem in two engagements with tremendous slaughter. Their
strength and spirit were completely broken, and, overwhelm¬
ed with shame and grief, their numbers reduced to scarcely
110,000, they returned to their desolated country and re¬
built their ruined habitations. In order to watch and over¬
awe them, Caesar erected a fortress at Noviodunum (Nyon),
on the banks of the lake of Geneva, and established several
other garrisons in different parts of the country.
The Helvetii were at first the allies of the Roman people, Helvetia
but in the reign of Augustus they were reduced to complete subjected
subjection, and their country remained in the condition of •)-v t^ie
a Roman province for upwards of three centuries, and under- ■^omans >
went various reverses of fortune, according to the prosper¬
ous or adverse fortune of the empire to which it was sub¬
ject. When the innumerable swarms of barbarians issuing
from the unknown regions of the north and east overran
Italy and destroyed the Roman empire, Switzerland also
became their prey. The Goths established themselves in
that portion of the country which bordered on Italy; the
Burgundians fixed their residence on both sides of the Jura,
on the lake of Geneva, and in the lower Valais, as far as the
Aar; and the Allemanni took possession of the country to the
eastward of that country, and of great part of Germany.
After this state of affairs had continued about a century, and by tb
a new swarm of adventurers obtained the ascendency. These Franks,
were the Franks, another German race, who, after travers¬
ing the Netherlands, gained possession of the whole of Gaul,
and pouring their resistless myriads into Switzerland, forci¬
bly dispossessed the inhabitants, and at length, after various
changes, succeeded in obtaining exclusive dominion over
the whole of Rhaetia and Helvetia. Rhaetia and the coun¬
try between the lake of Constance and the Rhine, the Aar
and St Gothard, in which German was the current language,
were united to Suabia, while Geneva, the Valais, Neucha-
tel, and the present country of Berne, Soleure, Freyburg,
and Vaud, the districts in which Romance was the pre¬
vailing language, were united to Savoy, under the denomi¬
nation of Little Burgundy. The Franks introduced into
Helvetia the feudal system and other peculiar institutions
and laws of the Germanic tribes. To them also the inhabi¬
tants were indebted for the blessings of the Christian reli¬
gion, which contributed powerfully to the progress of civi¬
lization, and the revival of the country from its waste and
desolate state. Switzerland remained subject to the Franks
till after the death of Charlemagne, w hen, in consequence
of the feuds of that monarch’s successors, the vast empire
which he had founded was entirely dismembered, and Swit¬
zerland was portioned out among France, Italy, and Ger¬
many. But this arrangement was of short duration, for the
disorders and confusion produced by the continued wars
enabled the provincial governors to throw off all allegiance
to their feudal superiors, or to secure real independence
while yielding nominal obedience. Switzerland was thus Divided ii
divided into a great number of petty states, generally en-to petty
gaged in hostilities with each other, and seldom unitings^es•
among themselves unless when menaced by some great and
common danger. Such a case presented itself in the reign
SWITZERLAND.
Switzer- of the emperor Henry I. surnamed the Fowler. An im-
land- mense horde of barbarians, known by the name of Hunga-
'--‘"V"-'' rians, issued from the east and the shores of the Black Sea,
and overran Italy and Germany, burning and destroying
wherever they came. In order to protect the inhabitants
from the fury of these ruthless invaders, Henry built walls
around a number of defensible places, to which all, in case
of need, might fly for the security of their lives and pro¬
perty. In this manner Zurich, St Gall, Basel, and various
other places, rose from petty hamlets to towns of consider-
Subject to able strength and numerous population. About the same
the house period the bailifs of the emperor built and fortified Berne,
of Austria, freyburg, and various other towns. A ninth of the free
and nobler class of inhabitants were required to occupy these
national fortresses, and they received the same political or¬
ganization and rights as the more ancient cities of Germany.
This was the first foundation of the class of burghers, who
in process of time came to be a third estate in the kingdom.
In proportion as the wealth and importance of the towns
augmented, the citizens were eager to extend their rights
and privileges. They availed themselves of every oppor¬
tunity to purchase their emancipation from the feudal do¬
minion of the bishops, abbots, and monasteries, to whose
authority they had long been subjected ; and in a short time
the burghers were able to bid defiance to the nobles, and
even to balance the political weight of the clergy.
The affairs of Switzerland continued in this state without
any material alteration until the year 1290, when Rudolp
of Hapsburg, whose castle was situated in the canton of the
Aar, and who, besides possessing manorial rights and great
influence in Schwytz, had held the office of imperial bailif
of several towns, was elected emperor of Germany. This
prince, though inhabiting a distant country, continued
throughout his life to be strongly attached to Switzerland.
He conferred new honours on its nobles, and granted addi¬
tional privileges to its towns, or confirmed those which
they already enjoyed. Rudolp was succeeded by his son
Albert, whose ambition and rapacity soon alienated the
affections of both his German and his Swiss subjects.
I wo of the imperial bailifs, Herman Gessler and Berin-
guer of Landenberg, who were appointed over the Wald-
statten (the three cantons of Schwytz, Unterwalden, and
Uri), subjected the inhabitants to every species of inso¬
lence and oppression. Gessler, in particular, was guilty of
so many acts of wunton cruelty that he was at length put
to death by the famous William Tell, who thus paved the
way for the deliverance of his countrymen. Three patriots,
whose names are still revered throughout the republic, Wer-
ner from the canton of Schwytz, Walter Hurst from Uri,
and Arnold from Unterwalden, formed a conspiracy against
the Austrian governors; and their measures were concerted
with such wisdom, and executed with so much courage and
intrepidity, that they obtained possession of every fortress
The Swiss of any considerable strength or importance. The three
the°Afr-m cantons formerly mentioned having thus achieved their in-
trians.US dependence, held a meeting on the 7th of January 1315,
a. d, bio. and laid the foundation of the Swiss confederation. Shortly
after this revolt of the forest cantons, the emperor Albert
was murdered by his nephew and some other nobles; but
his son Duke Leopold marched against the cantons with a
powerful army. The Schwytzers waited his arrival at Mor-
garten, on the slope of the mountain Sattel, and, notwith¬
standing the disparity of their forces, routed the Austri¬
ans with great slaughter; and it was with no small difficulty
that the duke himself escaped, leaving most of his officers
and an immense number of his soldiers dead upon the field.
In 1332 the inhabitants of Lucerne formed a perpetual
league with the Waldstatten ; and in 1351 the citizens of
Zurich, having thrown oft' the yoke of the aristocracy, joined
the Swiss republic, and on account of the power and wealth
of the town it was promoted to the chief rank. Zug joined
43
the confederation in 1352, and Berne in the following year. Switzer-
To the latter, in consideration of its importance, was as? lancl-
signed the second place of precedence.
Duke Leopold III. of Austria viewed the extending con¬
federation with jealousy and alarm, and various quarrels
having taken place between him and the cantons, hostilities
were at length commenced. The duke, with a numerous Defeat
force, chiefly composed of cavalry, marched rapidly towards Leopold,
the interior of the country, and on the 9th of July 1386 ^ ^ 1386*
encountered the Swiss in the neighbourhood of Sempech.
The battle was long and fiercely contested, but at length
the Swiss patriots gained a complete victory ; the duke him¬
self was slain, and more than 600 of the higher and lower
nobility, with about 2000 of their less distinguished adhe¬
rents, were left dead on the field.
Two years after the battle of Serapech, the Austrians
stormed Naefels, a small town in the canton of Claris.
The garrison retreated from the town as far as Mount Rute,
where they took up a strong position, and awaited the ap¬
proach of the enemy. The Austrians maintained the fight Again de¬
fer some time with great ardour, but were in the end over- Lat the
thrown and put to flight. The bridge of Weser was broken Aust^ooo
down by the weight of the fugitives, and above 3000 com-AlI>‘ ' 8'
mon soldiers, and 183 knights, were slain in the battle, or
drowned in the lake and in the river. These defeats induced
Duke Leopold IV. to enter into a truce with the cantons for
seven years, during which the Swiss contrived by various
means to extend their territory and to increase their power.
With the exception of the disputes which took place
between the people of the canton Appenzell, and of the
Valais and Rhsetian Alps, with their lords, and of the
civil war which arose between Zurich and Schwytz rela¬
tive to the right to some lands, no event of much import¬
ance occurred in the history of Switzerland till the year
1474, when Louis XL of France induced the Swiss to make
a diversion in his favour, by falling on the territory of
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who had advanced to
the very walls of Paris, and threatened Louis with the loss
of his throne. This unprovoked attack induced the duke
to ofter terms of peace to the king of France, and the em¬
peror of Germany, with wdiom he was at the same time at
war; and these monarchs accepted his offer, leaving their
late allies to meet his whole vengeance as they best might.
Peace was no sooner concluded, than Charles determined
to inflict condign punishment on them for their unjustifi¬
able aggression, and in the spring of 1476 crossed the Jura
with an army of sixty thousand men. He encountered the Twice de¬
army of the confederates near the town of Grandson, and feat the
after a desperate conflict was totally defeated with the loss I?u^e
of a thousand men. His camp, with an immense booty, fell Burgundf*
into the hands of the Swiss. A few months after, he was
defeated, with prodigious slaughter, in a second action,
near the little town of Morat; and two years later, when the
duke was slain in the battle of Nancy, the Burgundians
paid the confederates the sum of 150,000 florins to make
peace with them.
These repeated victories procured for the Swiss the re¬
putation of being the best soldiers in Europe; and a con¬
siderable number of them were hired to fight the battles of
foreigners. The sudden wealth acquired by plunder and
pensions excited its possessors to pi’ofusion and extrava¬
gance ; their morals became corrupted, and the simple re¬
publican spirit almost disappeared. A spirit of cupidity
and pride displayed itself among the rulers, and dissipa¬
tion and love of plunder among the people ; and the Swiss
became notorious throughout Europe as the hirelings of
any potentate who had battles to fight and gold to squan¬
der. Domestic troubles and feuds generally prevailed ; the
peace and security of the country were disturbed to such
a degree by an armed and desperate banditti of disbanded
soldiers and idle vagabonds, that in 1480, during the short
SWITZERLAND.
44
Switzer- space of three months, nearly 1500 assassins and robbers
were condemned to death.
The confV^ con^e(ierates had been faithfully supported in their
deration *wars ^ie towns of Freyburg and Soleure, and in 1481
strengthen- these requested to be admitted into the confederation. Their
ed. request was warmly supported by the town cantons; but
a. d. 1481. the mountaineers of the forest cantons objected to it, and
the dispute ran so high, that at a general congress of all the
confederates, the deputies were at the point of coming to
blows, and the confederation was threatened with dissolu¬
tion. This catastrophe was happily averted by the eloquent
remonstrances of a pious hermit, called Nicholas Laven-
brugen. His simple but pathetic appeal had the effect of
removing their differences, and Soleure and Freyburg were
received into the Swiss confederation.
In the year 1497, the Orisons entered into a treaty of¬
fensive and defensive with the confederate cantons. This
alliance gave great offence to the emperor Maximilian, who
immediately collected his troops, and marched both against
Indepen- the Orisons and their Swiss allies. Battle after battle took
dence of place, in all of which the Austrians were defeated ; and the
Lindac" emPeror having lost 20,000 of his troops in eight months,
know-" an<^ Ending further exertions useless, concluded a peace
ledged by with the Swiss at Basel in September 1499, by which he
the em- acknowledged their unconditional independence as a na-
peror. tion. This war, called the Suabian war, was the last the
a. n. 1499. gwiss jlaj sustain for their independence. For three
centuries after this date no farther attempts were made
against the liberties of the Swiss cantons, which assumed
their station as an independent power in Europe. The
towns of Basel and Schaffhausen were received into the
confederation in 1501, and Appenzell was added in 1513,
and completed the number of thirteen cantons, which have
constituted the Helvetic body till within our own times,
Thirteen namely, Zurich; Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, the three
cantons. Waldstixtten or forest cantons; Lucerne, Claris, Zug, Berne,
Freyburg, Soleure, Basel, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell.
Besides these, there were various confederates and asso¬
ciates who were in alliance with the cantons, and entitled
to assistance in case of foreign attack. These were the ab¬
bot of St Gall, the city of the same name, the towns of
Mulhausen and Bienne, the Grisons and the Valais, the re¬
public of Geneva, and the county of Neuchatel.
Switzerland had scarcely obtained rest from her political
wars, when religious disputes arose among the cantons, and
converted into fierce enemies those who had lately fought
Eeforma- side by side in defence of their liberties. The unscrupu-
tlon- lous sale of indulgences by the agents of Pope Leo X. in
Germany, Switzerland, and the other countries, led to a
searching inquiry into the whole of the papal system, and
caused vast multitudes to renounce altogether the authority
of the church of Rome. In no country did the doctrines
of the Reformation create a greater excitement, or meet
with more zealous supporters, than in Switzerland. The
inhabitants of Zurich, Berne, Schaffhausen, Basel, St Gall,
and the Grisons, as well as of many parts in the neighbour¬
hood of Geneva and Neuchatel, eagerly adopted the opi¬
nions of Calvin and Zuinglius, while the people of the Wald-
statten, and of Soleure and Freyburg, being more se¬
cluded and ignorant, and more under the control of the
priests, continued staunch in their support of the papal au¬
thority. Fierce animosities speedily arose between the re-
foi med and the popish cantons, and various sanguinary wars
were carried on for many years. During these internal
broils, the territory of the confederation was violated and
their rights infringed without remonstrance ; and such was
the divided state of the cantons, that Austria, their ancient
enemy, might easily have subdued them, but for the jea¬
lousy of the other great powers. To prevent this danger,
they, in concluding the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, for¬
mally recognised the independence of the Swiss confede¬
ration. But though Switzerland was thus secured against Switzer-
the invasion of any of the greater powers, it continued to Lnd.
be torn by internal dissensions. The arbitrary manner in '"“"■v-'-
which the large towns levied taxes upon the people of the^saror®^
country, and of the smaller towns and villages, caused great peasants,
dissatisfaction, especially in the territories of Berne and
Lucerne, and at length the peasantry rose up in rebellion
against their rulers ; and it was not until after considerable
bloodshed that the revolt was quelled, and several of the
chiefs who were taken alive were tried, condemned, and
executed. Scarcely had this insurrection terminated when
religious quarrels again broke out between the Protestants
and the Romanists. Till near the close of the seventeenth
century, Switzerland was distracted by the dissensions aris¬
ing from this cause ; and in 1703, the whole of the Protes- Fivil war
tant and of the Catholic cantons were openly arrayed A‘ ^ *70,
against each other, and a civil war of several years’ dura¬
tion ensued. The immediate cause of the war was a quar¬
rel between the people of Toggenburg and their superior
the abbot of St Gall, who had endeavoured in a fraudulent
manner to deprive them of their privileges. Zurich and
Berne took part with the people, while the Catholic cantons
espoused the cause of the abbot. Several battles were
fought, and at length an army of Catholics, 12,000 in num¬
ber, encountered 8000 Bernois at Villmergen. The con¬
flict lasted six hours, and in the end the Catholics were
completely routed, leaving 2000 of their number dead upon
the field. A peace was soon after concluded on terms ad¬
vantageous to the victors.
From this period till towards the close of the eighteenth
century, the state of Switzerland underwent no material al¬
teration ; and their internal discord paved the way for ex¬
ternal aggression, and rendered them an easy prey to the
grasping ambition of the French republic. In 1797, the
French government, which had previously interfered in the
affairs of Switzerland, manifested a determination to take
possession of that country, and evidently sought for a pre¬
tence to come to an open rupture. The Swiss government
placed their only hope in a passive neutrality, which in the
end proved their ruin. For the sake of peace they sub¬
mitted with the utmost servility to the imperious and in¬
sulting demands of the directory ; but their humiliation did
not save them from destruction. The emissaries of P’rance
laboured but too successfully to incite dissensions among
the people, and the French rulers made these dissensions
a pretext for their interference with the constitution of the
country. In this way the bailiwicks of Valtelina, Chiaven-
na, and Bormio, which had been for centuries dependent
on the Grisons, were incorporated with the Cisalpine re¬
public. Insurrections broke out in several of the cantons,
and were rendered triumphant by the assistance of the
french arms. Ihe inhabitants of Berne, Soleure, Frey-French in
burg, and especially of the Waldstatten, made a brave but vasion.
ineffectual stand in defence of their rights and liberties.
The most horrible excesses were committed by the French
soldiers ; the towns were successively rifled of their public
property, and great part of the country was laid waste, and
many of the inhabitants reduced to utter destitution. A
new constitution was framed by the PYench directory, which Swiss re-
pi ovided that Switzerland should form a single republic, one public,
and indivisible, under a central government to be establish¬
ed at Aarau. Ihe country was divided into twenty-two
cantons, and the supreme authority was committed to two
councils and an executive directory, in whom was vested
the appointment of prefects and other authorities for the
various cantons, which were thus transformed into depart¬
ments, with the loss of their independence as separate states.
After this new constitution was established, a treaty was
made with France, by one of the articles of which the Swiss
republic was bound to furnish to its new ally a force of
18,UUt) men; and thus all the miseries of the conscription
*
SWITZERLAND. 45
Switzer- were made familiar to the Swiss, as they had previously
land, been to the French population. Great miseries were suf-
fered by the people, from the excesses of every kind com-
Excesses of mitted by the French troops, and their heavy requisitions
the French. an(j exactions. The small canton of Unterwalden refused
to swear fidelity to the new constitution of the Helvetic
republic, but after a desperate struggle it was subdued;
the inhabitants were massacred without distinction of sex
or age ; and that district, once peaceful and happy, was left
a scene of horrible desolation. During the campaign of
1799, Switzerland was the theatre of the struggle between
the great powers of Austria, Russia, and France. The
mountain cantons were in consequence utterly ruined, a
considerable part of the country rendered uncultivated, and
the population reduced to little short of actual starvation.
The Helvetic directory was suppressed in 1800, and an
executive commission substituted in its room ; and about
seven months after, this commission dissolved the councils
and convoked a new legislature. A general diet was call¬
ed in September 1801, for the purpose of re-organizing the
Indepen- constitution of the country. Meanwhile the treaty which
dence of was signed at Luneville between France and Austria, gua-
uhe repub- ranteed the independence of the Helvetic republic, and the
French troops were consequently ordered to evacuate Swit¬
zerland. Their departure was the signal for a general re¬
volt. All the old factions were awakened afresh. The
Pays de Vaud formed itself into a single republic; Uri,
Schwytz, and Unterwalden took up arms against the Helve¬
tian government; and the towns of Zurich, Basel, and SchafF-
hausen renounced their allegiance. A civil war appeared
inevitable, when Napoleon Bonaparte offered himself as ar¬
bitrator between the contending parties, and ordered Mar¬
shal Ney to advance with a body of troops to the frontiers
of Switzerland to enforce compliance with his mandates.
The existing government was dissolved, a provisional go¬
vernment established, and deputies from all the cantons
were ordered to assemble at Paris to deliberate upon a con-
Act of me- stitution for their country. Several months were spent in
diation. debates; and Napoleon, after he had heard and reflected
a. i). 1803. on t]lejr representations, promulgated an act of mediation,
which appears to have been drawn up with a view of re¬
conciling opposite factions, and of fairly meeting various
interests. It restored the old federative system, but intro¬
duced very considerable improvements. The act of media¬
tion was promulgated 19th February 1803 ; and the Hel¬
vetic general government having been dissolved, and the
new constitution put in force, the French troops finally
evacuated the country.
From that time till 1814 Switzerland enjoyed internal
peace; and during the gigantic wars which at that momen¬
tous period raged throughout Europe, this country rested
in security amid the din of battles and the crash of falling
empires, and made rapid progress in the arts of industry,
and in the career of intellectual and social improvement.
On the downfall of Napoleon the act of mediation was dis¬
solved. The integrity of the country was guaranteed by
the congress of Vienna in 1815. The territories formerly
dependent on the bishop of Basel, which had been annex¬
ed to France, together with Valais, Neuchatel, and Geneva,
were ceded to it as new cantons, and a constitution, based
on the act of mediation, was framed for the whole cantons,
New con- now amounting to twenty-two. On the 7th of August 1815
ntution. the federal compact was finally signed by all the deputies in
c n. o. (j-gj. assembled at Zurich. The deputies then repaired
in procession to the cathedral, where they bound themselves
by a solemn oath, and in the name of their constituents, to
the faithful observance of its enactments.
.jyUiit his- ^ During the fifteen years which elapsed from 1815 to 1830,
Switzerland enjoyed profound tranquillity. The general con¬
dition of the country was prosperous, and education was im¬
proved in several districts; but the civil and criminal laws
remained in a defective state ; the press was under a strict Switzer-
censorship, and various anomalies existed in the institutions 3and-
of many of the cantons. Petitions were from time to time ''-"'v'"—'
presented for the revision of the constitution of 1814, but
were everywhere rejected by the councils. The first al¬
teration of this state of things took place in the canton of
Ticino in May and June 1830, and the example was speedi¬
ly followed by all the other representative cantons of Swit¬
zerland. The new constitution established equality of po¬
litical rights among all the citizens of the state; the direct
system of electing all the members of the legislature, the elec¬
tions to take place every four years ; separation of the three
powers, legislative, executive, and judicial; publicity of de¬
bates ; liberty of the press, subject to fixed laws against libels;
inviolability of person and property, and the right of petition.
No tax can be imposed unless it is sanctioned by a majority
of two thirds in the great council. The present constitution
cannot be modified until twelve years shall have elapsed from
its enactment, and then any alterations proposed in it must
be submitted to the approval of the primary assemblies of
the people. These alterations in their constitution were
peaceably adopted by the most of the cantons ; but in some
of them popular tumults arose, which however were speedily
suppressed by the firmness and prudence of the diet.
In 1834 the tranquillity of Switzerland was endangered by
a considerable body of Polish, German, and Italian refugees,
who had taken up their residence in Switzerland. In the
month of January, some hundreds of these refugees made a
sudden attack on the dominions of the king of Sardinia, in
expectation of combined attacks and insurrections in other
parts of the Sardinian monarchy. The Sardinian government
made strong remonstrances to the confederation concern¬
ing this violation of the neutrality of the Swiss territory; and
the courts of Austria, Prussia, and other German states,
whose territories border on Switzerland, joined in these re¬
monstrances. After some negociations, the matter was
brought to an amicable termination by the Swiss govern¬
ments promising in future to send away from their territory
all those who should attempt to disturb the tranquillity of
the states.
An attempt was made in the diet of 1832, and again in
that of 1834, to procure a revision of the federal pact, but it
terminated without any result. The last eight years have
been years of severe trial for Switzerland, but she has safely
passed through them, and has succeeded in maintaining both
her internal tranquillity and her external independence.
Switzerland lies between 45° StK and 47° 40' north lati- Statistics,
tude, and 6° and 10° 30' east longitude. Its extent from Extent,
east to west is about 210 miles, and from north to south
about 130 miles. Its area is estimated to contain about
11,000 square geographical miles. Switzerland forms part
of the high land of central Europe. It rises above the plains
of Lombardy on the south, and the plains of Dijon or Bur¬
gundy on the west. On the east it is connected by the
Alps with the high lands of Tyrol and Bavaria, and on the
north it adjoins the elevated plain of Suabia; from which it
is separated only by the bed of the Rhine. It is bounded by
mountains on the west, south-west, and east, but is open to
the north on the side of Germany. The lower parts of S wit- Aspect of
zerland are generally more than 1200 feet above the levelthe couru
of the sea, and nearly 1000 feet higher than the plains oftr‘V*
Lombardy, but the greater part of the surface is much
higher. In point of romantic and picturesque scenery,
Switzerland is reckoned the finest country in Europe. It
is a singular assemblage of high mountains, deep valleys,
rivers, and lakes. Two distinct ranges of mountains tra- Mountains,
verse Switzerland; the chain of the Jura, which stretches
from south-west to north-east, and is about 240 or 250
miles in length, and from thirty-five to forty in breadth ;
and the chain of the Alps, which is much more extensive,
and covers the greater part of the country with its mime-
46
S W IT Z E R L A N D.
Switzer- rous branches. The former occupies the western part of
land. Switzerland, stretching from near the western extremity of
the lake of Geneva along the boundary between France and
the Pays de Vaud, and then enters the canton of Neu-
chatel, which it almost entirely covers, as well as the north¬
west part of Berne and the greater part of Soleure and Basel,
and the north-west part of Aargau. The range of the Jura
is divided from the mountains of the Black Forest by the
vale of the Rhine; and its eastern boundary is marked by
the lakes of Neuchatel and Bienne, and the valley of the
Lower Aar from the confluence of the Thiele to the junc¬
tion of the Aar with the Rhine. The Jura consists of se¬
veral parallel ridges, of which the most eastern is generally
the highest. It is precipitous and abrupt towards Switzer¬
land, but becomes gradually lower on the side of France.
It does not attain above one third of the height of the Alps,
its principal summit in Switzerland being from 5500 to
5300 feet high, but in proportion to its height it is colder
than the region of the Alps. The valleys formed by the
Jura run parallel with the direction of the chain, are nar¬
row and short, and some of them very elevated and cold.
The Jura is principally formed by calcareous rocks of a
grayish ash or bluish colour, and in some places mixed with
marble.
The great chain of the Alps forms the highest part of
the continent. The main ridge, called the Pennine Alps,
forms the boundary between Switzerland and Italy, and
separates the basin of the Upper Rhone on the north from
that of the Po on the south. To the south of Mont Blanc
the Alps consist of a single chain, with many lateral projec¬
tions or spurs, chiefly on the west side. Eastward they are
divided into two great ranges, which enclose the valley of
the Upper Rhone, and meet at Mount St Gothard, which
may be regarded as the centre of the Alpine system of Swit¬
zerland. Four ranges diverge from this point; the Bernese
Alps to the west; the Alps of Claris; and the northern Gri-
sons to the north-east; the south-east branch, which forms
the southern boundary of the Grisons on the side of Italy;
and the south-west branch, which connects the St Gothard
with the Pennine Alps. Between these ranges there are
four large valleys, those of the Rhone, the Reuss, the Upper
Rhine, and the Ticino. To the north-east of the group of St
Gothard is the country of the Grisons, the whole surface of
which is studded with elevated ridges and peaks. In this
Alpine region there are not less than sixty deep valleys. The
mean breadth of the highest portion of the Alps does not ex¬
ceed 100 miles, but it widens considerably as they proceed
eastward. (For an account of these mountain masses, their
geology, climate, and natural history, see Alps.)
Table-land. North of the Alpine region and east of the Jura lies the
table-land of Switzerland, which is the finest and most pro¬
ductive of the whole. It slopes from south to north, from
the foot of the Alps to the Rhine and the lake of Constance,
and includes the cantons of Vaud and Freyburg, the greater
part of Berne, Lucerne, and Aargau, the whole of Zurich,
Zug, Thurgau, and part of St Gall. The elevation of the
table-land varies from 1200 to 1800 feet above the sea.
Its surface is furrowed by numerous valleys, which gene¬
rally run from south-east to north-west. Each of these val¬
leys is divided by its river, and various ranges of wooded
hills follow the course of the streams.
The Rhine, the chief river of Switzerland, is formed by
the streams which rise in the Alps of the Grisons, and re¬
ceive the waters of all the glaciers of that lofty region.
After leaving the country of the Grisons, it receives on its
left bank the Tamina from the canton of St Gall, and on
its right bank the 111 from the Austrian territory. It then
flows through or rather forms the lakes of Constance and
Untersee. On issuing from the latter, at the town of Stein,
it flows in a general west direction, but by a tortuous course,
as far as Basel, forming the natural boundary of Switzer¬
Rivers.
land on the north side for a direct distance of about seventy Switzer
miles. By means of the Thur, the Aar, and the Birs, it v lalld-
receives the waters of three fourths of Switzerland. At ^
Basel the Rhine is about 500 feet broad; here it turns to
the north, and soon after leaves the Swiss territory. The
Rhone is formed by different streams from Mount Furca,
at the north-eastern extremity of the Valais, at the height of
5500 feet above the sea. Descending rapidly to Oberwald,
it proceeds in a south-west direction as far as Martigny,
where it turns abruptly to the north-west, and continues in
that course to its entrance into lake Leman. It issues out
of this lake again at Geneva, below which it receives the
Arve from the valley of Chamouny, and quits the Swiss
territory near Chanci, the last village of the canton of Ge¬
neva. The Inn descends from Mount Bermina. The
Adda rises from the base of Mount Gallo, and falls into
the lake of Como. The Ticino issues from Mount Gries,
and traverses the lake Maggiore in Italy. The Aar flows
through the lakes of Brientz and Thun, and forms lofty ca¬
taracts before its junction with the Rhine. The Limmat, a
rapid stream, which rises in the Alpsof Glaris, flows through
the lake of Wallerstadt: after marking the limits between
the Schwytz and St Gall it forms the lake of Zurich, and,
flowing through part of the cantons of Zurich and Aargau,
enters the Aar below the confluence of the Reuss. The
Thur rises in the mountains of High Toggenburg, in the
canton of St Gall, and enters the Rhine below Rheinau.
The Leman lake, or lake of Geneva, the great reservoir Lakes,
of the Rhone, spreads in the form of a crescent, its north¬
ern bank being about fifty-four miles in length, and its
southern bank about forty-six. Its breadth near the
middle is about nine miles, but it becomes much narrower
towards Geneva. The surface of the lake is 1200 feet
above the level of the sea. Its greatest depth is about
1800 feet, and its area 340 square miles. It receives se¬
veral streams, the principal of which are the Dranse from
the Alps of Savoy, and the Vevayse and Venoge from the
Swiss side. Lake Leman is known to have been frozen
over only twice, in a. d. 762 and 805. The lake of Con¬
stance, or Boden See, is about forty-five miles long and
ten miles wide. Its area is about 290 square miles, and its
greatest depth is 1800 feet. One or two steam-boats run
upon the lake of Constance. The Waldstatten See, or
lake of the four cantons, is about twenty-six miles in length.
The southern part of it, called the lake of Uri, is a sheet of
deep water, eight miles long and between one and two
broad, running from south to north between two ranges of
mountains almost perpendicular ; a narrow channel unites
it with the middle basin, which is about nine miles in
length and about two wide. Another narrow strait leads
from the middle into the western basin, called the lake of
Lucerne, which is the widest and finest of the three. The
lake is about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, and its
greatest depth is 1000 feet. The country around the
W aldstiitten See is the cradle of Swiss independence, and
is full of recollections of the exploits of its heroes. A
steam-boat plies between Lucerne and Fluellen, the port of
Altorf. The lake of Zurich, formed by the Limmat, is
twenty-four miles long, and from one mile to two miles
wide. Its greatest depth is 600 feet, and its surface is
about 1300 feet above the level of the sea. A steam-boat
plies on this lake between Zurich and Rapperswyl. The
lake of Neuchatel is about twenty-five miles in length, and
five miles broad throughout one half of its length. It is
about 1400 feet above the sea, and its greatest depth is
about 350 feet. A steam-boat plies daily on this lake.
Besides these there are several other lakes of considerable
dimensions, such as the lake of Wallerstadt, formed by the
Limmat, eleven miles in length, and the lakes of Brientz
and Ihun, both formed by the Aar; the latter thirteen
miles long, its greatest depth 800 feet, and more than 1900
t
SWITZERLAND.
47
Switzer¬
land.
Minerals.
lineral
ifferent
i ,ces of in-
ibitants.
’opulation
•'orm of
;overn-
iieut.
feet above the sea. A steam-boat plies on this lake, which
is much visited by tourists from Berne. The fish which
these lakes contain are pike, trout, salmon, lato, and umber,
a very delicate fish, occasionally exported to Paris, and sold
at a very high price.
The minerals and metals most abundant in Switzerland
are porphyry, marble, and alabaster; iron, lead, zinc, cobalt,
and bismuth. Arsenic and antimony are found in veins and
in masses, rock-crystals are very common, sulphur is col¬
lected in many places, and particles of gold are found in
the sands of some rivers, as the Rhine, the Aar, the Adda,
and the Reuss; strata of bituminous wood are worked in
several valleys, and the inhabitants use it for fuel.
Switzerland contains a greater number of mineral springs
than any other country in Europe. The most frequented
of these are the springs at Pfeifers and Leuk. The acidu¬
lated springs of St Maurice, in the canton of the Grisons,
the baths of Gurnigel in Berne, and those at Baden, are
also well known.
Switzerland is the central point where three great Euro¬
pean races and languages meet, and is not more remark¬
able for the variety of its physical features, than for the
moral and religious diversities of its population. The
Deutsch or German Swiss occupy the cantons of Zurich,
Lucerne, Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Glaris, Zug, Appen-
zell, St Gall, Thurgau, Schaffhausen, and Aargau, a great
part of Basel and Berne, a considerable portion of Soleure,
Freyburg, Valais, and Grisons, some communes of the can¬
ton of Vatid, and the commune of Bosco in the canton of
Ticino, forming about two thirds of the whole population
of Switzerland. The French Swiss occupy the cantons of
Neuchatel and Geneva, nearly the whole of Vaud, part of
Freyburg, Soleure, and Valais, and the Jura portions of
Basel and Berne, and form about one fifth of the entire
population. The Italian Swiss inhabit the canton of Ti¬
cino, some valleys of the Grisons, and a few places in the
Valais. To these are to be added the Romans or Rhse-
tians, who are found in small numbers in the Grisons,
the Oberland, towards the sources of the Rhine, and the
upper part of the Engardine. Their language more near¬
ly resembles Latin, or ancient Roman, than that of their
Italian neighbours.
Before 1798 Switzerland consisted of a confederation of
states of three very different kinds : 1. Thirteen cantons;
2. the subjects or vassals of these cantons; and, 3. the
allies of these cantons. The federal bond which united
the various cantons and their allies was very loose. There
was not in Switzerland any permanent sovereign body, or
central government, or standing federal magistrate, equally
acknowledged by all. No important question could be de¬
cided in the general diets, unless it had been previously de¬
bated and decided on in the councils of each of the can¬
tons. The cantons were not even allied to all; the three
forest cantons alone were allied to every one of the other
cantons. The subjects of the Swiss were either subjects of
certain particular cantons, or common bailiwicks subject to
all the cantons. The whole population of the thirteen can¬
tons at the close of last century was about 1,000,000 ; that
of their subjects was about 250,000 ; and that of their asso¬
ciates and confederates, and the subjects of these confede¬
rates, amounted to nearly half a million more. Altogether
the territory belonging to the Helvetic federal body con¬
tained a population of about 1,700,000.
Switzerland now' forms a confederation of twenty-two can¬
tons, united for the defence of their common liberty and in¬
dependence, and security against attacks from abroad, as
well as for the preservation of order and tranquillity in the
interior. They guarantee each other reciprocally their
respective territories. For these purposes a contingent of
troops is furnished by each canton when required, in the Switzer-
proportion of one to fifty of its population ; and a pecuni- land-
ary quota, for defraying the military and other general ex- ' 
penses of the confederacy, is paid by each canton in pro¬
portion to its property and resources. A war-fund is also
formed to meet exigencies ; and for this purpose a federal
duty is levied on foreign goods imported into Switzerland
which are not articles of first necessity. The diet fixes the
tariff as well as the rates to be paid by each canton. The
united federal contingents of all the cantons, which must Army,
be disciplined and furnished with clothes and arms, ready
to march when required, amount to about 34,000 men, and
the reserve, in case of need, to as many more. The gene¬
ral affairs of the confederation are intrusted to a council or
diet, composed of deputies from the cantons, who vote ac¬
cording to the instructions of their respective governments.
Each canton has only one vote, although it may send more
than one deputy to the diet. The diet meets for two suc¬
cessive years by turns, at the capital of each of the direct¬
ing cantons of Lucerne, Ziirich, and Berne, the burgomas¬
ter or avoyer of which acts as president for the turn, with
the title of Landmann. The diet usually meets on the
first Monday of July, at the capital of the directing canton,
and has the power of making war and peace, alliances
with foreign powers, appointing diplomatic agents, and dis¬
posing of the military force. The ordinary sessions of the
diet last about five weeks. Before closing its yearly ses¬
sion, it gives its instructions to the directing canton, to which
the management of the general affairs is intrusted when the
diet is not sitting. The directing canton is assisted in its
duties by a federal chancery, consisting of a chancellor and
secretary, both appointed by the diet. An extraordinary
meeting of the diet may be convoked by the directing can¬
ton, whenever urgent circumstances may require it, or sim¬
ply on the demand of five cantons.
The provisions of the federal pact are liberal and equit¬
able in their spirit. One of them states, that “ the enjoy¬
ment of political rights can never in future be the exclusive
privilege of any one class of citizens in any one canton,
free importation and exportation of provisions, or mer¬
chandise, or cattle, shall be allowed from one canton to an¬
other without any import or export duties. The property
of chapters and convents which exist in several cantons is
guaranteed, but at the same time it is liable to the public
charges and taxes, like any other private property.” It will
be seen by the above statements that the federal govern¬
ment of Switzerland has, properly speaking, no permanent
executive, and the diet is merely an assembly of delegates
from the various cantons, who decide according to the in¬
structions given by their respective governments. Many at¬
tempts have been made to give more influence to a central
authority; but the resistance to any system of centralization
and unity has been so strong, and the apprehensions of en¬
croachments on the part of any general government upon the
sovereign independent authority of the different cantons so
widely spread, that all proposals for modifying the federal con¬
vention have hitherto failed. The independence of the dif¬
ferent cantons has been singularly preserved. Revolutions
which have completely changed the constitution and the
laws of one district have had little or no influence upon an¬
other. The boundary of a canton has bounded the most
marked and violent political commotions. Civil war itself
has not spread beyond the narrow sphere of local interests.
J hough in the different cantons the inhabitants enjoy an
almost absolute equality of rights and privileges, yet these
advantages cease as soon as they pass the narrow local ter¬
ritory to which they belong; and the general character of
a Sw'iss citizen has no immunities spreading over the whole
of Switzerland.1
Bowring’s Report, p. 5.
48
Switzer¬
land.
Twenty-
two can¬
tons.
Agricul¬
ture.
Manufac¬
tures.
SWITZERLAND.
The constitutions of the twenty-two cantons may be are now convinced by experience that their views were s^*ei
ransred into three classes. The first class is that ot the erroneous. v ’
pure democracies, consisting of the old mountain cantons, The various forms of government in Switzerland have
Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, Glaris, Zug, and Appenzell. proved to some extent a cause of embarrassment and dif-
To these may be added the Grisons and the Valais, which ficulty to her national commerce. No prohibition is laid
at first were only allies of the Swiss, but are now integral by any of the states on the import, export, or transit of any
parts of the confederation. The second class of cantons article ; but each canton maintains the i ight to stipulate the
consists of those in which aristocratic privileges had been conditions of ingress and egress, and the transport of rner-
enioyed for centuries by the principal town of the canton, chandise is necessarily impeded by the collection of tolls
These cantons are Zurich, Berne, Freyburg, Soleure, Lu- at the different frontiers. Many attempts have been made
cerne, Basel, and Schaffhausen ; but their constitutions un- by the most intelligent merchants to equalize the transit-
derwent a thorough change in 1830, and the country dis- duty, and to remove the charges and embarrassments of so
tricts were then admitted to the enjoyment of equal privi- many local administrations, by some general plan ; but as
leo-es with the towns. The third class is that of the new the tolls are one of the main sources of local revenue, the
cantons formed since 1803, out of the former bailiwicks ; cantons have been unwilling to abandon them for any na-
namely, Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, Ticino, and St Gall, tional and general object. <? i • .
The constitutions of these cantons were also rendered more A very considerable amount of trade is carried on be- Foreign
popular in 1830, and framed on the principle of equality tween France and Switzerland, the frontier territory beingtrade-
of rights among all classes of the citizens. Two cantons extensive, the language in those districts identical, and the
have not been enumerated in any of the above classes, customs of the adjacent provinces substantially the same.
Geneva and Neuchatel. The institutions of the former at On an average of fourteen years the annual imports into
one time resembled those of the aristocratic cantons, but France from Switzerland amount to L.454,34«5, the annual
they have now been established on a popular basis. T-helat- exports from France to Switzerland to L. 1,094,554. The
ter is a constitutional monarchy, of which the king of Prus- principal articles imported from France are wine, oil, mad-
sia is prince. In the representative cantons of Berne, Lu- der, brandy, alcohol, salt, fruit, sugar, coffee, and colonial
cerne, Aargau, Ticino, and Geneva, a property qualification produce, silk, woollen, and cotton manufactures, and ar-
is required for members of the legislature. tides of fashion in great variety. There is no duty, ex-
The different branches of agriculture are well under- cept a nominal one, on any of these articles, while France
stood in Switzerland. The extent and fertility of the pas- receives from Switzerland some horned cattle and cheese,
tures are favourable to the breeding of cattle. The oxen are both of which pay enormous duties; and ribbands, linens,
remarkable for their size; and the cows, particularly the and threads, all subject to large custom-house imposts,
short-horned breed in the valleys of Gruyeres, are much There is also a considerable export of watches and jewel-
prized in different countries. The horses are strong and lery, which is principally in the hands of contraband traders,
hardy, but the mule is the most common beast of burden The unfriendly and hostile tariff of France has naturally
in the mountains. The central and south-eastern cantons produced much discontent in Switzerland, while it is a no-
are chiefly dependent on their agricultural productions. torious fact, that the protection afforded to French manu-
The commercial relations of Switzerland are of great factures, by highly raised or prohibitory tariffs, has not pro¬
importance, and her manufactures have gradually forced duced its intended results; that no manufacturing industry
their way into all the markets of the world, however remote has suffered such violent shocks, or seen such terrible re-
or seemingly inaccessible. This result is the more remark- verses, as the industry of France.
able, as Switzerland neither produces the raw material The Prussian commercial league caused at its origin a
which she manufactures, nor, when manufactured, has she considerable alarm, and appeared to menace Switzerland
any port of outlet, except on such conditions as her mari- with a serious reduction of exports to Germany. But time
time neighbours impose upon her; and yet, in spite of and experience have diminished these apprehensions,
these obstacles, her progress has been almost unexampled The imports from England are cast iron, steel, pewter,
in manufacturing prosperity. Capital is rapidly increasing, tin, fine hard ware, a small quantity of printed cottons, wool-
through the influence of unrestricted industry. Activity is len stuffs, tea, pottery, India and China silk, dyeing ingre-
everywhere visible both in the trading and the agricultural dients, and colonial productions, when they are cheaper in
districts. Wages are comparatively low in many of the England than in the continental ports of Europe. Switzer-
departments of industry, the necessary result of the gene- land, on the other hand, furnishes very few articles to Eng-
ral cheapness of most of the articles of consumption ; a land ; and these principally consist of embroidered muslins,
cheapness which again is the cause and consequence of the Turkey-red calicoes, and a few printed goods upon the same
free egress and ingress of all commodities. The land is red ground.
for the most part released from tithes and taxes, and the After the peace of 1815, the Swiss merchants, finding
people subject to very trifling fiscal burthens. The great themselves precluded, by the prohibitive system, from al-
secret of the commercial prosperity of Switzerland is,—in- most the whole of the European markets, directed their at-
dustiy has been left to itself. Capital has not been divert- tention to the United States of America, and gradually ex-
ed by legislative interference from its natural tendencies, tended their relations with the southern parts of that"con-
Ihe consumei has been allowed to go to the cheapest mar- tinent. Throughout the whole of that hemisphere, the
ket, the producer to the dearest; and the present position consumption of their manufactures has increased from year
and prospects of Swiss industry furnish abundant evidence of to year. Besides this new market for the sale of their
the wisdom of this policy. The prohibitory system adopted goods, they have made some experiments in the East Indies,
by the surrounding states excited at first some alarm among and these have now acquired some importance. They
the manufacturers of Switzerland; but their anxieties on this have likewise a few consumers in the states of Barbary,
subject have now ceased, and the narrow policy of their Egypt, Illyria, Greece, Turkey, and Persia,
neighbours has only had the effect of forcing the Swiss in- The Swiss cantons which are the most distinguished for
to a wider and more profitable field, which they have their wealth and industry, and for their general prosperity,
been able successfully to explore to the extent of their are Zurich, Basel, Geneva, St Gall, Neuchatel, Appenzell,
capitals and their means of production. Many of the and Aargau. The canton of Appenzell has manufactories of
manufacturers, who had formerly been strenuous advo- muslins, cottons, and silks, and receives a considerable quan-
cates for heavy custom-house duties on foreign articles, tity of cotton yarns from England. Neuchatel exports con-
SWITZE
Switzer- siderable quantities of wines and cheeses, and has very exten-
land. give manufactories of watches and jewellery, lace and print-
—ed cottons. Within these few years the making of spark¬
ling wine has been greatly extended. The principal ma¬
nufactures are watches, printed cottons, and lace, dhe
probable production of printed cottons in Neuchatel is now
about 80,000 pieces per annum, each containing about thir¬
ty-two English yards. Watch-making is carried on to an
immense and increasing extent in the mountainous districts
of this canton, in the French portion of the canton of Berne,
and in the town and neighbourhood of Geneva. It has
been a source of wealth and comfort to many thousands of
the inhabitants, who, in the remote villages of the Jura,
have gathered around them a large portion of the enjoy¬
ments of life. Switzerland has long furnished the markets
of France ; and though the names of certain French watch¬
makers have obtained a European celebrity, yet an exami¬
nation into this trade has elicited the fact, that not ten
watches are made in Paris in the course of a year, the im¬
mense consumption of France being furnished from Swit¬
zerland, and the Swiss works being only examined and rec¬
tified by the French manufacturers. The contraband trade
into France was immense, but they are now admitted into
that country at six per cent, for gold, and ten per cent, for
silver watches ; and a considerable quantity pays regularly
this moderate duty. The Jura Mountains have been the
cradle of the most exquisite productions of the mechanical
arts. During the winter, which lasts from six to seven
months, the inhabitants are almost imprisoned in tbeir dwell¬
ings, and occupy themselves in those works which require
the utmost development of skilful ingenuity. Nearly 120,000
watches are produced annually in the elevated regions of
Neuchatel. The largest proportion of these is exported
to the United States of America. It is not easy to state
the exact number of workmen who are engaged in watch¬
making, because nearly the whole of the population are more
or less occupied in this branch of industry, which they car¬
ry on in their own houses and amidst their own families.
The manufactures of Neuchatel are admitted into Prussia
on diminished duties. Watches and such articles pay only
one half of the duty stipulated by the tariff.
The main source of the trade in the canton of Thur-
gau is the manufacture of cotton, flax, and silk, with their
various establishments for weaving, printing, and dyeing.
The exports are principally wine, fruit, and cider, oats,
brandy, linen, cattle, &c. The imports principally consist
of iron, iron-wares, and metal manufactures, salt, woollen
goods, fine cloths, sugar, coffee, chicory, madder, drugs, and
dye-stuffs, tobacco, wheat, fine cotton yarns, &c.
The canton of Schaffhausen possesses a considerable tran¬
sit trade, which is facilitated by the navigation of the Rhine.
This canton has suffered more than any other from the
Prussian commercial league, its principal export being wine,
of which the German markets were the main seats of con¬
sumption. Nature has blessed this small district wuth a
fertile soil, which places it in the class of the agricultural
rather than that of the commercial cantons of Switzerland.
Basel is almost entirely a commercial and manufacturing
territory ; its industry is principally engaged in the produc¬
tion of ribbands and some silks. The former are exported
to the value of about 10,000,000 of French francs. About
one half of these goes to the United States, the remainder
is sent to Germany, France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden,
&c. Since 1814, and particularly within a few years, the
progress of Basel has been very great, both as regards the
quantity and the quality of its manufactures.
The manufactures of Zurich are of ancient date. The
silk manufacture of this town dates as far back as the thir¬
teenth century, and it still forms a very important article
in the trade of this canton. The silk manufactures of Zu¬
rich consist of florentines, gros de Naples, gros de Berlin,
VOL. xxi.
R L A N D. 49
marcelines, taffetas, serges, levantines, silk handkerchiefs, a Switzer-
few shawls, &c. The number of looms at present employ- land-
ed in the silk trade may be reckoned at 10,000; and the v'—'■'v'-"—'
total annual produce of the silk manufacture of Zurich has
been estimated at L.600,000 sterling. The silk manufac¬
ture of Switzerland is constantly increasing, and it is in the
town and canton of Zurich that it is most extensively car¬
ried on. Great improvements have been made, and are
constantly making, in this branch of industry. Zurich
also possesses some cotton manufactures. About 800,000
pieces of cotton are manufactured yearly. The imports of
Zurich consist mainly of cotton yarns from England, wool¬
len cloths, bark, straw hats, linens, furs, glass, stationery,
wheat principally from Suabia, wine from France, Neu¬
chatel, and Vaud, brandy, fruits, tobacco, fir-wood, cotton
and silk, wool and colonial cattle, butter and cheese, mine¬
rals, &c.
The principal manufacture of Aargau is cotton in its
various branches; the second in importance is that of silk.
The exportation of these articles is principally to Italy,
Piedmont, the northern states of Germany, Turkey, and
North and South America. The principal articles of im¬
port are wheat, wine, salt, and leather, iron and other me¬
tals, hard ware, tobacco and snuff, hemp and flax, chicory,
oil, raw cotton, cotton twist, fine cotton manufactures from
England, woollen cloths, raw silk, spices, drugs, dye-stuffs,
dry goods, indigo, &c.
The canton of Geneva, for its small extent of surface, pre¬
sents a remarkable scene of manufacturing industry. Jewel-
lery, watches, and musical boxes, are three of the most im¬
portant branches of trade, employing a great number of
hands, and imparting the utmost activity to a commerce
which conveys these productions to all quarters of the globe.
The watchmakers of Great Britain buy largely both in Ge¬
neva and Neuchatel. The average annual export to Eng¬
land is from 8000 to 10,000 watches, and the average price
about L.10 sterling. The jewellery sent from Geneva to
England represents a value of about L.60,000 per annum.
In an article of such small bulk as a watch, it has been
found impossible to guard against illicit introduction ; the
contraband trade is consequently very large, and scarcely a
single watch pays the duty of twenty-five per cent. The
smuggling is carried on almost wholly by French houses,
who reap the profits of the smuggling premium, and who, it
appears by the small amount of seizures, really run scarcely
any risk. The English consumer pays the gains of the
French smuggler, and pays too for that damage, delay, and
risk which accompany fraudulent transactions. Of other
sorts of merchandise Geneva exports annually about 120,000
quintals. The amount of British manufactures sold in the
canton is estimated at about L.200,000 per annum. One
half of this is supposed to be consumed in the town and
neighbourhood, the other half is smuggled into France.
There are several striking peculiarities in the condition Labouring
and employments of the labouring classes of Switzerland, classes.
There are few weaving factories or buildings in which the
labouring weavers are congregated together. Their looms
are in their own abodes, which are scattered over the coun¬
try. They receive from the manufacturer the chain and
the woof, and return to him the woven article. Weaving
can hardly indeed be called a manufacturing industry; it is
a sort of domestic labour, associated with, and often subor¬
dinate to, agricultural employment. It is in fact but one
of two means of existence, the labouring population being
only in part dependent on it. It is very common to find
many looms in the cottage of a small farming labourer, the
whole of which may be worked by its members when the
weather, or the seasons, or other circumstances, withdraw
them from the field. In the common apartment of the fa¬
mily of the country people, one or two members of the fa¬
mily may be seen weaving, and carrying on at the same
o
50
SWITZERLAND.
Switzer- time their household occupation; sometimes working in
knd. theij. gardens, and contributing in turns their assistance in
v the cultivation of their fields, and the labour of agriculture
in general. The quality and neatness of the articles pro¬
duced are evidently rendered inferior by this custom ; but,
on the other hand, it is more economical, and during a slack¬
ness of trade the workman who possesses a garden and a little
ground suffers less. In almost every part of Switzerland,
with the exception of those mountain heights which are in¬
capable of cultivation, agricultural labour affords resources
when wages fall or markets are glutted, so that the pressure
of want is generally light and temporary.
The worldng classes in Switzerland are divided into four
different sections, viz. manufacturers, weavers, winders, and
embroiderers. There are manufacturers of every order
and description, from the individual who only manufactures
the quantity which himself and his family can weave, up
to those who employ a hundred weavers or embroiderers ;
for the manufacturer who employs embroiderers dqps not
engage in weaving. These manufacturers, who either sell
their goods unbleached to the traders at home, or bleach¬
ed to foreigners, breakfast upon coffee and milk, butter,
honey, or green cheese. Their dinner is composed of soup
and bouilli, potatoes, or porridge. Their beverage is cider
or milk. Many of them sup upon coffee, and they seldom
drink wine. This class is in general very economical. They
take a great interest in public affairs, and pride themselves
particularly upon their probity and honour. They furnish
the greatest number of magistrates, and from among them
are principally chosen all the parochial authorities.
The weaver, as soon as it is possible for him to do so,
purchases a piece of ground, or at least a small house; and
very frequently the manufacturer furnishes him with the
means. The acquisition of landed property is greatly pro¬
moted in Switzerland, by the facility with which money
may be borrowed upon mortgage. This class of working
proprietors forms the great mass of voters in the popular
assemblies.
All the weavers in Switzerland make use of coffee, milk,
oatmeal, and potatoes, which compose their principal food.
They work from thirteen to fourteen hours a day. They
earn from Is. lOd. to 9s. 2d. a week; but the greatest num¬
ber only earn from 3s. 8d. to 5s. per week. The winders,
many of whom are old people of both sexes, earn from Id.
to 3d. sterling a day. The embroiderers, who are generally
women or young lads, earn on an average about fild. a day.
In Neuchatel the ordinary rate of wages is, for male domes¬
tics, from L.8 to L.12 sterling, and for females, from L.4 to
L.6 sterling, per annum. The average wages of agricultu¬
ral labourei-s are from Is. Id. to Is. 8d. per day. The wages
of artisans vary extremely, the lowest being about 9d. and
the highest lid. per day. The wages of watchmakers may
be calculated at from L.55. 10s. to L.83. 5s. per annum; but
workmen are generally paid by the job.
Provisions are very cheap in Switzerland. In the can-
provisions. ton 0f Appenzell, a pound of bread weighing 20 ounces
is worth 4 kreutzers, rather less than l^d. In Neu¬
chatel, the loaf of white bread is from 2d. to 2|d.; meat,
from 4d. to 5|d.; butter, from 9|d. to lOd. the pound of
17 ounces. The measure of potatoes weighing from 33 to
34 pounds, is worth from lOd. to Is. 1 |d.; milk, l^d.; and
wine from 3d. to 6d. the bottle.
In Switzerland the clergy are supported by the state.
The cost of the church establishment in Zurich is L.8000 per
annum, being 9d. for each individual. The clergy amount
to 271. In Neuchatel the maximum salary of a clergyman
is L.121, the minimum L.72, and the average L.83. There
are 34 clergymen in this canton, which gives one to every
1647 persons. The Protestant religion is professed by the
cantons of Basel, Berne, Vaud, Schaffhausen, Zurich, Ge¬
neva, and Neuchatel. Soleure, Freyburg, Lucerne, Zug,
Switzer¬
land.
Rate of
wages.
Price of
Clergy.
Schwytz, Unterwalden, Uri, Ticino, and Valais, have con¬
tinued Romanists. The cantons of Aargau, Glaris, Thur-
gau, St Gall, Appenzell, and the Grisons, contain a mixture
of Romanists and Protestants.
Education is very generally diffused throughout Switzer- Education,
land. In Appenzell every one is instructed ; and for many
years past the law does not allow any person to be admit¬
ted to the sacrament who cannot read; and the greater part
of the population can also write, and have acquired the ru¬
diments of arithmetic and singing. In Neuchatel a consider¬
able sum is paid by the state for the purpose of education.
Every commune is required to provide a schoolmaster, and
education is made obligatory throughout the principality.
There is no person under the age of forty who is unable to
read and write; and it is extremely difficult to find a per¬
son who does not also know how to calculate, and who is
not well acquainted with his civil and political rights. To
religious instruction much attention is paid. Before being
admitted to the sacrament, the young men are obliged to at¬
tend for a certain number of years on the public ordinances,
as well as to receive private lessons from their own pastors.
In Basel both the primary and superior schools are good;
and for many years the poor have been obliged to send their
children to school for a course of elementary instruction,
which occupies them until their tenth or twelfth year. The
means for educating them are furnished by the poor-fund.
In this manner children are prevented from entering too
young into the factories, or from being employed in too la¬
borious occupations.
At Hofwyl, in the canton of Berne, the establishments of
Mr de Fellenberg for the maintenance and education of
poor children, and his institution for the instruction of
schoolmasters, have been attended with that success which
might have been expected from efforts prompted by pure
benevolence and guided by sound judgment.
In Aargau every district of 120 children must have at
least one primary and one superior school. In every circle,
the population being from 15,000 to 20,000 souls, there are
from five to six secondary schools, and in the capital a
gymnasium and a school of art. Besides this, there is a nor¬
mal school for the instruction of teachers. The cost of
these establishments is paid partly by the communes, and
partly from the state funds. In Thurgau, every child, on
reaching the age of five years, must be sent to school. Of
the whole proceeds of the land-tax, two fifths have been ap¬
plied to the purposes of education. A model-school for
the education of teachers, established at Krutzlingen in
1833, under the superintendence of Mr Wehrlea, a pupil
of Fellenberg, has had great success. Funds are cheer¬
fully and liberally voted by the legislature. In 1834 more
than one fifth of the whole population was attending the
schools.
Ihe poor in Switzerland are supported by a poor-law, Poor-laws,
greatly assisted however by voluntary contributions. The
general law is that each parish shall take care of its own
poor, but the arrangements in the different parishes re¬
specting paupers are very various.
Ihe administration of justice in Switzerland is prompt Admini-
and economical. In Neuchdtel, for example, a verdict ob- stration of
tained in the Court of First Instance, might be pressedjust^ce"
througli all its stages, even to the confiscation of property
to any amount, at a cost of less than 6s. 8d. sterling, and
with a delay of only three weeks, there being three stages
of appeal, each one allowing of a week for appearance and
answer. While the cost to suitors is small, the cost to the
public is equally so. In the district of Valangin, consisting •
of 6104 souls, the expenses for the administration of civil
justice for 1834 amounted to less than five sixths of a far¬
thing per individual; yet there are 122 trusteeships of
minors, lunatics, &c., committed to the charge of the civil
ti ibunals. There are on an average seventy causes per
Taxes.
S Y D
Sword annum, the average cost of which to the suitors was about
4s. 6d. per suit. The cost of the criminal tribunals of the
same district was about L.140 sterling.
The taxes in Switzerland are extremely light. In Neu-
chatel they amount on an average to about 4s. 8d. per in¬
habitant yearly; in Aargau, to 2s. 6d.; in the canton of
Vaud, to 4s. 8d. The whole amount of taxes paid per in¬
dividual in Thurgau, is not more than one fifth of what is
paid in England per individual for the poor-rates alone. In
Zurich the poor-rates are less than 2i-d. per annum for each
inhabitant. The civil expenditure is little more than lOd.
and the military expenses less than fid. for each.
Savings Savings banks are very generally established in Switzer-
banks. land, but the working classes seldom deposit in them any
of their earnings. They are principally made use of by the
S Y D
51
children, for whom their parents deposit their savings, in Sydenham,
order to purchase for them an equipment when their first
attendance at the Lord’s Supper gives them the rights of
citizens. Servants and artists also place their savings in
these banks ; but the ambition of the workmen is to invest
the fruits of their economy in the acquisition of a house, or
of a small portion of land.
In 1817 the population of Switzerland amounted to Population,
1,687,900, in 1827 to 1,916,000, in 1836 to 2,177,420, of
whom 130,500 were Protestants, 870,000 Roman Catholics,
about 3000 Jews, and a few Moravians and Anabaptists.
German is spoken by about 1,560,000 people, French by
450,000, Italian by 124,000, Rumonsch and Ladin by about
42,000 in the Grisons. The following table exhibits an
account of the population, &c. in 1838. (b. q.)
Aargau 
Appenzell,
Ausserrhoden )
Innerrhoden./
Basel City )
Country /
Berne 
Freyburg 
Geneva 
Claris 
Grisons 
Lucerne 
Neuchatel 
St Gall 
Schaff hausen 
Schwytz 
Soleure 
Ticino 
Thurgau 
Unterwalden,
Obwalden )
Nidwalden... J
Uri 
Valais 
Vaud 
Zug 
Zurich 
Area m
Square
Geogra¬
phical
Miles.
379
115
139
1,933
374
69
211
1,938
443
211
565
86
256
192
781
203
198
318
1,254
893
64
517
Citizens
of the
Cantons.
11,039
174,992
f 38,701
t 9,671
j 10,611
(35,990
381,200
83,234
38,156
28,217
84,670
120,512
40,868
144,359
29,462
12,948
59,214
110,445
78,160
( 11,857
\ 9,804
39,326
73,673
164,686
14,193
217,219
2,012,168
Citizens I
of other Strangers.
Cantons.
5,965
1,898
89
8,481
3,952
13,954
6,010
8,677
821
2,412
3,383
14,534
11,139
1,409
537
3,274
299
4,463
500
388
1,128
778
14,931
1,019
7,991
118,032
1,798
481
36
5,229
1,161
4,846
1,901
11,833
310
1,424
626
3,214
3,355
254
34
708
3,179
1,501
11
11
196
1,347
3,965
110
6,366
53,896
Total
Population.
1838.
Roman
Catholics.
182,755
40.080)
9,796 j
24.321 1
41,103 j
400,000
91,145
58,666
29,348
88,506
124,521
58,616
158,853
31,125
13,519
63,196
113,923
84,124
12,3681
10,203 /
40,650
75,798
183,582
15.322
231,576
Protes¬
tants.
67,500 1 79,800
9,796
6,000
50,000
82,745
17,000
3,800
24,000
124,468
2,400
99,300
600
13,519
63,190
113,923
18,500
22,671
40,650
75,798
3,000
15,322
2,000
2,184,096
40,080
49,590
358,860
8,400
41,666
25,548
62,000
53
54.400
58.400
35,125
72,191
180,582
223,240
Contingent to the
Federal Federal
Revenue. Army.
£3,016
f 482
\ 93
1,309
6,505
1,162
1,375
226
750
1.625
1,200
2,465
676
188
847
1,128
1,425
/ 69
\ 50
73
600
3,705
79
4.625
33,673
2,410
772
200
918
5,824
1,240
880
482
1,600
734
960
2,630
466
602
904
1,804
1,520
221
161
236
1,280
2,964
250
3,700
32,758
Capitals.
Aarau.
Trogen and Herisau.
Appenzell.
J Basel or Bale1
( Liechstall or Lies tail
Berne.
Freyburg or Fribourg.
Genf or Geneva.
Glarus or Claris,
Chur or Coire.
Luzern or Lucerne.
Neuenburg or Neuchatel.
St Gallon or St Gall.
Schaffhausen.
Schweitz or Schwytz.
Solothurn or Soleure.
Bellenz or Bellinzona.
Frauenfeld.
Sarnen.
Stanz.
Altorf*.
Sitten or Sion.
Lausanne.
Zug.
Zurich.
1 Switzerland being both a German and a French country, most of the principal places have both a German and a French name. Sometimes, however, there is also
an Italian name, as Bellinzona; and some of them have even three forms, as Chiavenna, eleven, Cleees, the first of which is the Italian, the second the German, and
the third the French form of the same name.
SWORD, an offensive weapon worn at the side, and
serving either to cut or stab. Its parts are, the handle,
guard, and blade ; to which may be added the bow, scab¬
bard, pummel, &c.
Sword of State, which is borne before the king, lords,
and governors of counties, cities, or boroughs, &c. For or
before the king, it ought to be carried upright; the hilt as
low as the bearer’s waist, the blade up between his eyes.
For or before a duke, the blade must decline from the head,
and be carried between the neck and the right shoulder.
For or before an earl, the blade is to be carried between
the point of the shoulder and the elbow; and for or before
a baron, the blade is to be borne in the bend of the arm.
SYDABAD, a toum of Hindustan, province of Agra, 20
miles south by east from the city of Agra. Long. 77. 57.
E. Lat. 27. 30, N.
S1DAPORUM, a town of Hindustan, in the Carnatic,
90 miles N.N.W. from Madras. Long. 79. 45. E. Lat. 14.
11. N.
SYDENHAM, Thomas, an excellent English physician,
was the son of William Sydenham of Winford Eagle, in
Dorsetshire, and was born there about the year 1624. He
studied at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but left that university
when Oxford was garrisoned for King Charles I., and went
to London, wdiere, becoming acquainted with Dr Cox, an
eminent physician, that gentleman persuaded him to apply
himself to the study of physic. Accordingly, after the gar¬
rison w?as delivered up to the parliament, he retired again
to Magdalen Hall, entered on the study of medicine, and
in 1648 was created bachelor of physic. He was soon af¬
terwards made a fellow of All-Souls College, and continued
there several years. On leaving the university he settled
at Westminster, became doctor of his faculty at Cambridge,
grew famous for his practice, and was the chief physician
in London from the year 1660 to 1670, at which period he
began to be disabled by the gout. He died in 1689. His
works, written in the Latin language, are highly esteemed
both at home and abroad. They have often been reprint-
52 S Y D
Sydney, ed, and have been translated into various languages. Sy-
denham was famous for his cool regimen in the small pox,
for giving the bark after the paroxysm in agues, and for
his use of laudanum. He regulated his practice more by
his own observations and inquiries, than by the method
either of his predecessors or contemporaries.
SYDNEY, the capital of the British settlements in New
South Wales, situated about seven miles from the mouth of
Port Jackson, in a cove of the same name, which is a most
capacious natural basin, having a depth of water to allow the
approach of the largest ships to the very sides of the rocks,
and being perfectly secure against any wind. Sydney
Cove is formed by two ridges running out into the harbour ;
the one to the left terminating in Bennilong’s Point, on the
low extremity of which stands Fort Macquarrie, with its cas¬
tellated martello towers ; and that to the right in Dawe’s
Point, with a fort bearing that name, which in like manner
occupies its extremity. Down the hollow between these
ridges a small rill trickles slowly into the head of the cove,
in the rocky sandstone bed of which tanks have been cut
to retain the water during the summer droughts, which in¬
sures a supply during that dry season. Along this hollow,
for upwards of a mile, in a westerly direction, extends the
main thoroughfare, George Street, which all the other streets
either run parallel to or intersect; the town thus occupying
the whole of the hollow, and creeping up the gradual as¬
cents on each side. Near the harbour, where the ground is
valuable, the houses are usually contiguous ; but, generally
speaking, the better houses in Sydney are built in the cottage
style, of white freestone, or of brick plastered and white¬
washed, one or two stories high, with verandahs in front, and
enclosed by a neat wooden paling lined occasionally with
geranium hedges, and having generally a commodious gar¬
den behind. The streets arewide and well lighted. Until the
administration of Governor Macquarrie, little or no attention
had been paid to the laying out of the streets. He succeed¬
ed however, in establishing a more perfect regularity; and
the town is now on the whole regularly built, and has a light
and airy appearance. It contains the parish churches of
St Philip and St George; also a Presbyterian kirk, a Method¬
ist and a Catholic chapel, a male orphan school endowed
by the government, and a benevolent asylum supported by
individuals. It has two steam flour-mills, three water-mills,
and four wind-mills in the immediate vicinity; while nume¬
rous breweries are scattered through the town. There are
several hotels, which are elegant and well kept.
The ridge on the left is successively crowned by the lofty-
looking buildings of the horse-barracks, the colonial hospi¬
tal, the convict-barracks, and a fine Gothic Catholic chapel;
beyond which lies the promenade of Hyde Park, flanked
towards the town by a row of pretty cottages, and towards
the country by a high brick-walled garden appertaining to
the government. On the ridge to the right of the cove,
rows rising above rows of neat white cottages are seen, over¬
looked by Fort Philip with its signal-post and telegraphic
appendages; also in the same line the military hospital and
wind-mill, St James’s Church, the Gothic Presbyterian kirk;
and beyond these the military barracks, forming three
fourths of a large square, and opening to George Street
with an extensive green plot in the centre for the purposes
of parade. The convict-hospital, with the officers’ apart¬
ments and store-rooms, perched upon the most prominent
ridge to the left of the cove, consists of three two-story
buildings of freestone ranged in a line, and surrounded by a
high wall. At the colonial dock-yard on the right of the
cove, all the government-vessels load and unload, and are
repaired. The timber-yard is a range of workshops form¬
ing a square to the left of George Street, near the guard¬
house, where are employed the government carpenters,
blacksmiths, and other mechanics. A few hundred yards
from the head of the cove, towards the left, stands the gover-
S Y L
nor’s house, with its beautiful domain in front ornamented Syene
by large trees of the finest foliage, with a fine shrubbery in I!
the back-ground ; the whole occupying a space from beyond ,
the head of the cove to near Bennilong’s Point. Between
the domain and the cove an agreeable walk has been formed,
chiefly in the solid rock, which has become a favourite Sun¬
day walk. A commodious market-house stands upon the
right of George Street, beyond the military barracks, which
is abundantly supplied with provisions of every description,
with butcher-meat and poultry, Besides maize, wheat, pota¬
toes, pease, carrots, turnips, cabbages, and fruit. Fish are
also abundant, being caught with hooks and lines by the
natives, and disposed of to retailers. Oysters abound on all
the tide-rocks, and are sold at a shilling a quart. Cray-
fish, lobsters, and prawns are commonly found, while the
little bays swarm with crabs. The whole is placed under the
charge "of the clerk of the market, under whose authority
good order is maintained. On the market-days all kinds
of showy wares are displayed for sale.
Sydney is divided into six police districts, with a lock-up-
house, and a nightly watch, by whose vigilance great quiet¬
ness is maintained. There are delightful promenades and
drives in the vicinity of the town, and abundance of gigs
and riding-horses may be hired at 15s. and 10s. a day. A
four-horse coach runs twice a day, and a caravan once, be¬
tween Sydney and Paramatta, a distance of fifteen miles;
and another thrice a week to-Liverpool, twenty-one miles ;
while a third proceeds from Paramatta to Windsor, twenty-
three miles, three times a week. Sydney contains several
good public schools for the youth of both sexes, and other
seminaries for those more advanced, which are well attended
to, and in which education may be obtained on reasonable
terms. The population is rapidly increasing with the pro¬
gress of the colony. About the year 1810 it amounted to
7000. The following is the census in 1836, as laid before
parliament:—Males 9179, convicts 2932; females 7032,
convicts 586 ; total, 19,729. Long. 151. 25. E. Lat. 33.
15. S. (F.)
SYENE, an ancient city of Egypt, situated, according to
Mr Bruce, in north latitude 24° O' 45". Pliny and Strabo
both say that it lay directly under the tropic of Cancer.
Syene is remarkable for being the place where the first at¬
tempt was made to measure the circumference of the earth.
This was done by Eratosthenes, whom Ptolemy Euergetes
had invited from Athens to Alexandria. In this attempt
two positions were assumed, namely, that Alexandria and
Syene were exactly 5000 stadia distant from each other,
and that they were precisely under the same meridian.
Both these positions are denied by Mr Bruce, who on this
subject has made many observations which our limits will not
allow us to notice. He states that there is at Asum an
obelisk erected by Ptolemy Euergetes, the patron of Era¬
tosthenes, without hieroglyphics, directly facing the south,
with its top first cut into a narrow neck, then spread out
like a fan into a semicircular form, with pavements curi¬
ously levelled to receive the shade, and make the separa¬
tion of the true shadow from the penumbra as distinct as
possible. This is supposed by Mr Bruce to have been con¬
structed with a design to vary the experiment of Eratos¬
thenes w ith a larger radius; and the inquiry concerning
the dimensions of the earth, in our author’s opinion, was
the occasion of many obelisks being erected in this king¬
dom ; a demonstration of which is, that the figure of the top
is varied; being sometimes very sharp, and sometimes a
portion of a circle, in order to get rid of the great impedi¬
ment arising from the penumbra, which makes it difficult
to determine the length of the shadow with precision. It
is now called Assouan.
SYLAH, a large fortified town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Gujerat. It belongs to a Hindu chief, who is tri¬
butary to the Guicowar.
S Y M
Sylla SYLLA, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman memorable for
II his vices and cruelties, and for relinquishing the dictator-
Symma- gjjjp tw0 years after he had compelled the people to elect
clms‘ ^ him. See Roman History.
"L SYLLABLE, in Grammar, one or more letters pro¬
nounced by a single impulse of the voice, forming a com¬
plete sound, and constituting a word or a part of a word.
No single letter except a vowel can form a syllable. The
longest syllable in the English language is the word strength.
The most natural way of dividing words into syllables is,
to separate all the simple sounds of which any word con¬
sists, so as not to divide those letters which are joined close
together according to the most accurate pronunciation.
SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, denotes a table of
contents, or an index of the chief heads of a book or dis¬
course.
SYLLOGISM, in Logic, an argument or term of rea¬
soning, consisting of three propositions, of which the first two
are called premises, the last, the conclusion.
SYMBOL, a sign or representation of something moral,
by the figures or properties of natural things. Hence sym¬
bols are of various kinds; as hieroglyphics, types, enigmas,
parables, fables, &c.
SYMMACHUS, Quintus Aurelius, a Latin writer of
high reputation during his own time, was born at Rome,
being the son of Lucius Avianus Symmachus, who became
prefect of the city in the year 364. The son was carefully
initiated in the learning of the age, and soon distinguish¬
ed himself by his talents and eloquence. He became pro-
consul of Africa in 370, and prefect of the city in 384.
He likewise appears to have filled the office of pontifex.
While he held that of prefect, he addressed to Valentinian
II., Theodosius, and Arcadius, an elaborate epistle, urging
the restoration of the pagan rites and observances. This
application produced no effect, but his zeal for the ancient
superstition was still unabated ; and in 388 or 389, when
congratulating Theodosius, he again, in the name of the
senate, entreated him to restore the altar of Victory to the
senate-house. But the emperor, who had a more personal
reason for being dissatisfied with his conduct, on account of
his favourable sentiments towards the usurper Maximus,
sent him into exile at a great distance from Rome. His
disgrace does not however appear to have been lasting; for
he was nominated consul in the year 391. He survived
Theodosius, and was employed by his sons Arcadius and
Honorius.
Symmachus is chiefly known to posterity as the author
of ten books of Epistles, which reflect some light on the
history of that era. He seems to have chosen Pliny as his
model; but he belongs to a very inferior age of Latinity, and
has a due share of the quaintness and affectation by which
it is generally characterized. His relatio in favour of pa¬
ganism (lib. x. epist. Ixi.) produced a refutation from Am¬
brose bishop of Milan, who on that subject addressed two
epistles to Valentinian. He was likewise assailed by Pru-
dentius, who composed a poem in two books “ Contra Sym-
machum Praefectum Urbis.” Of the literary merit of his
adversary, the Christian poet has expressed the highest ad¬
miration :
O linguam miro verborum fonte fluentem,
Romani decus eloquii, cui cedat et ipse
Tullius, has fundit dives facundia gemmas.
Os dignum seterno tinctum quod fulgeat auro,
Si mallet laudare Deum, cui sordida monstra
„ Praetulit, et liquidam temeravit crimine vocem.
The Epistolce of Symmachus are said to have been print¬
ed before the close of the fifteenth century, and other very
early editions are mentioned. Only 317 epistles appear in
S Y M* 53
the edition printed by J. Schott, Argent. 1510, 4to. The Sympathy
subsequent impressions include 965, divided into ten books. Ij
The next edition was printed by Froben, Basil. 1549, 8vo. l0Y'
An edition, illustrated with notes, was afterwards prepared
by Juretus, Paris. 1580, 1604, 4to. To the annotations of
this editor, Lectius added his own, Genev. 1587, 1599, 8vo.
The text of Lectius is preferable to that of Juretus. An¬
other edition, accompanied with notes, was published by
Scioppius, Mogunt. 1608, 4to. These notes he was ac¬
cused of having pilfered from the papers of Giphanius.1
The next editions of Symmachus were those of Pareus,
Neapoli Nemetum, 1617, 1628, Francof. 1642, 8vo. He
added a “ Lexicon Symmachianum,” and “ Electa Sym-
machiana.” We have only to mention another edition,
Lugd. Bat. 1653, 12mo. Of the orations of Symmachus
some fragments were discovered in the Ambrosian Library
at Milan by the indefatigable Angelo Mai, and by him have
been communicated to the public, under the title of “ Q.
Aurelii Summachi, V. C. octo Orationum ineditarum partes.
Invenit notisque declaravit Angelus Maius, Bibliothecae
Ambrosianse a Linguis Orientalibus. Accedunt addita-
menta quaedam.” Mediolani, 1815, 8vo. (x.)
SYMPATHY, an agreement of affections and inclina¬
tions, or a conformity of natural qualities, humours, and
temperaments. Sympathy also denotes the quality of be¬
ing affected by the affection of another, and may subsist
either between different persons or bodies, or between dif¬
ferent parts of the same body. It is either similar or dis¬
similar ; similar when the affection or action in the sym¬
pathiser is similar to the affection or action in the sympa-
thant, and dissimilar when these are different. Sympathy,
too, is often an imitative faculty, sometimes involuntarily,
frequently without consciousness. Thus we yawn when
we see others yawn, and are made to laugh by the laugh¬
ing of another.
SYMPHEROPOLE, the capital city of the Russian
province of Krimea. It stands on the southern part of the
peninsula, about twenty miles from the sea, in a fine valley
at the base of the Tauridan Mountains^ on the small river
Salghir. It was the residence of the khans or chiefs of
the peninsula till it was seized by the Russians. It now
consists of two parts; the European part, built since 1783
by the Europeans, and the Tartar or Asiatic part, which,
till very lately, consisted of structures in the peculiar fashion
of the natives. The new town displays wide streets ; and,
besides the crown buildings, the houses of the governor and
vice-governor, the police, the hospital, and the barracks,
there is a considerable number of handsome edifices. The
cathedral is yet unfinished, though a large sum has been ex¬
pended on it. It is on the spot where Suwarof gained a
great victory over the Turks. The city is now said to con¬
tain about 10,000 inhabitants, its prosperity having in¬
creased within the last twenty years.
SYMPHONY (Ital. Sinfonia). Anciently this word
had various musical meanings. It now usually signifies a
piece of instrumental music for an orchestra, consisting of
several movements, and generally performed in a concert-
room. The overture differs from the symphony chiefly in
the smaller number of its movements, seldom containing
more than a short, slow, introductory movement, and an
allegro, and being used at the beginning of an opera or a
ballet. The word symphony is also used to signify an in¬
strumental passage which usually introduces a piece of vo¬
cal music, or is brought in at its close, or occurs during
some pause of the voice. Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven
have produced the finest models of the orchestral sym¬
phony in point of originality, beauty, ingenious construc¬
tion, and skilful instrumentation. For clearness of design
J Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, tom. hi, p. 208. edit. Ernesti.
54 S Y N
Symploce and breadth of effect, Haydn’s symphonies still remain un-
il rivalled.
Syncellus. SYMPLOCE, in Rhetoric, a figure, where the
r same word is repeated several times in the beginning and
end of a sentence, including the Anaphora and Epitrophe.
Thus, “ Q,uis legem tulit ? Rullus. Quis majorem po-
puli partem suffragiis privavit ? Rullus. Qnis comitiis prse-
fuit ? Idem Rullus.”
SYMPOSIARCH, in Antiquity, the director or manager
of an entertainment. This office was sometimes performed
by the person at whose charge the entertainment was pro¬
vided, sometimes by another named by him ; and at other
times, especially in entertainments provided at the com¬
mon expense, he was elected by lot, or by the suffrages of
the guests.
SYNjERESIS, Contraction, in Grammar, a figure by
which two syllables are united in one; as vemens for ve-
hemens.
SYNAGOGUE, among the Jews, is a place where that
people met to worship God. Authors are not agreed about
the time when the Jews first began to have synagogues.
Some suppose them as old as the ceremonial law, and others
fix their beginning to the times after the Babylonish cap¬
tivity. They erected synagogues not only in towns and
cities, but also in the country, especially near rivers, that
they might have water for their purifications and ceremo¬
nial washings. No synagogue was built in any town un¬
less there were ten persons of leisure in it; but there might
be many in one town, or in one quarter of a town, pro¬
vided it was very populous. Jerusalem is said to have con¬
tained 480. The chief things belonging to a synagogue
were, 1. the ark or chest, made after the model of the ark
of the covenant, containing the Pentateuch; 2. the pulpit
and desk in the middle of the synagogue, in which he that
was to read or expound the law stood ; 3. the seats or pews
for the people; 4. the lamps to give light at evening ser¬
vice, and the feast of dedication ; 5. rooms or apartments
for the utensils and alms-chest. The synagogue was go¬
verned by a council or assembly, over whom was a presi¬
dent, called the Ruler of the Synagogue. These are some¬
times called Chiefs of the Jews, the Rulers, the Priests or
Elders, the Governors, the Overseers, the Fathers of the
Synagogue. Their business was to punish the disobedient,
by censures, by excommunication, or by penalties, such as
fines and scourging; to take care of the alms, which are
frequently called by the name of righteousness. The chief
ruler, or one of the rulers, gave permission to read and ex¬
pound the law, and appointed who should do it. In every
synagogue there were several ministers, who had different
offices assigned to them. Service was performed three times
a day, namely, in the morning, in the afternoon, and at
night. At the time of morning sacrifice, evening sacrifice,
and after the evening sacrifice on Monday, Thursday, and
Saturday, there was a more forcible obligation upon the
people to attend than upon the other days.
SYNALOEPHA, in Grammar, a contraction of sylla¬
bles, performed principally by suppressing some vowel or
diphthong at the end of a word, on account of another vowel
or diphthong at the beginning of the next. As, ill’ ego, for
Me ego, &c.
Conticuer’ omnes intentiqu’ ora tenebant. Virgil.
It is called by the Latins collisio.
SYNCELLUS, or Sincellus, an ancient officer in the
family of the patriarchs and other prelates of the eastern
church. The word, in the corrupt Greek, cuyxzKkog, sig¬
nifies a person who lies in the chamber with another; a
chamber-fellow, or chum. The syncellus was an ecclesias¬
tic, who lived with the patriarch of Constantinople, to be a
witness of his conduct; whence it is that the syncellus was
also called the patriarchs eye, because his business was to
observe and watch. The other prelates had also their syn-
SYN
celli, who were clerks living in the house with them, and Synchro
even lying in the same chamber, to be witnesses of the pu-
rity of their manners. The office afterwards degenerated Svntjje .
into a mere dignity ; and there were made syncelli ot\ ^ ^
churches. At last, it became a title of honour, and was
bestowed by the emperor on the prelates themselves; whom
they called pontifical syncelli, and syncelli Augustales.
SYNCHRONISM denotes the happening of several
things at the same time.
SYNCOPATION, in Music. See Slur.
SYNCOPE, Fainting; a deep and sudden swooning,
during which the vital functions are suspended.
Syncope, in Grammar, an elision or retrenchment of a
letter or syllable out of the middle of a word, as caldus for
calidus.
SYNDIC, an officer, in divers countries, intrusted with
the affairs of a city or other community, who calls meetings,
makes representations and solicitations to the ministry, ma¬
gistracy, &c. according to the exigency of the case.
SYNECDOCHE, in Rhetoric, a kind of trope frequent
among orators and poets.
SYNECPHONESIS, in Grammar, a coalition, by which
two syllables are pronounced as one ; being much the same
as Synaloepha and Synthesis.
SYNOD, in Astronomy, a conjunction or concourse of
two or more stars or planets, in the same optical place of
the heavens.
Synod signifies also a meeting or assembly of ecclesias¬
tical persons to consult on matters of religion.
SYNODALS, or Synodies, were pecuniary rents (com¬
monly of two shillings), paid to the bishop, or archdeacon,
at the time of their Easter visitation, by every parish priest.
They were thus called, because usually paid in synods. For
the same reason, they are sometimes also denominated sy-
nodalica ; but more usually, procurations.
SYNODICAL, something belonging to a s5mod. Thus,
synodical epistles are circular letters written by the synods
to the absent prelates and churches; or even those general
ones directed to all the faithful, to inform them of what had
passed in the synod.
SYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feast celebrated at
Athens in memory of Theseus’s having united all the petty
communities of Attica into one single commonwealth, the
seat of which was at Athens, where all the assemblies were
to be held. This feast was dedicated to Minerva; and, ac¬
cording to the scholiast on Thucydides, it was held in the
month Metagitnion.
SYNONYMOUS is applied to a word or term that has
the same import or signification with another. Several
works have been composed for the express purpose of ex¬
plaining synonymous words. In 1777 a work was published
on the Latin synonymes at Paris by M. Gardin Dumesnil.
The Abbe Girard published one on the synonymous terms
of the French language many years ago. Another was pub¬
lished on the same subject in the year 1785 by the Abbe
Roubaud. An account of the English synonymes was pub¬
lished by an anonymous author in 1766. This work is a
close imitation, and in some parts a literal translation, of
Girard’s “ Synonymes Franqois.” A rambling work, abound¬
ing with errors, was published by Mrs Piozzi, under the
title of “ British Synonymy.” Lond. 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. A
much better book, more recently published, by Mr Crabb,
is entitled “ English Synonymes explained.” Lond. 1816,
8vo. Lond. 1826, 4to.
SYN I AX, in Grammar, the proper construction or due
disposition ot the words of a language into sentences and
phrases.
SYNTHESIS, in Logic, denotes a branch of method,
opposite to analysis. In the synthesis or synthetic method,
we pursue the truth by reasons drawn from principles before
established or assumed, and propositions formerly proved;
SYR
SYR
55
Syra
II
Syracuse.
.t what
me built,
thus proceeding by a regular chain, till we come to the con¬
clusion. Such is the method in Euclid’s Elements, and
most demonstrations of the ancient mathematicians, which
proceed from definitions and axioms, to prove propositions,
&c. and from those propositions proved to prove others.
This method we also call composition, in opposition to ana¬
lysis or resolution.
SYRA, an island in the Grecian archipelago, classed
among the Cyclades, anciently called Syros. The south¬
west point of the island is north-east from Serpho-Poulo
about five leagues, and the summit of its high land, which
is towards the east, is in longitude 24° 55' 13" east, and la¬
titude ST0 28' 56" north. It is three leagues long from north
to south, and about one league and a half in breadth. It is
mountainous and destitute of wood; but being well watered
and well cultivated, produces barley, wine, figs, cotton,
olives, and a small portion of wheat. There is a good har¬
bour on the eastern side, very secure for vessels of an easy
draught, and where two or three frigates might find shel¬
ter. The land has a very picturesque appearance from this
harbour, near to which is the town, reaching half way down
the side of a conical hill. The whole inhabitants are cal¬
culated to be about 2000, mostly adhering to the Roman
Catholic church.
SYRACUSE, a celebrated city of Sicily, and once the
capital of the island. According to Thucydides and Strabo,
it was built by Archias, one of the Heraclidse, who came
from Corinth into Sicily in the secohd year of the 11th
Olympiad, and derived its name from a neighbouring marsh
named Syraco. What form of government first prevailed
in the city, is not known. Many have supposed it original¬
ly to have been governed by kings: but if this was the
case, the monarchical government continued only for a very
short time ; since Aristotle, Diodorus Siculus, and Justin,
mention it as being very early subject to a democracy.
The history is obscure and unimportant till the time of
Gelon, when Syracuse first began to make a conspicuous
figure.
Gelon was born in the city of Gela in Sicily, of the fa¬
mily of Telines, who had been created priest of the infernal
gods. He signalized himself in a war carried on against
the Syracusans, by Hippocrates, tyrant ofi. Gela, whom he
defeated in a pitched battle. Having thus become very
powerful among his countrymen, he soon found means to
seize on the sovereignty for himself. In a short time, hav¬
ing put himself at the head of some Syracusan exiles, he
marched towards that place, where he was received with
loud acclamations, and obtained possession of the city.
In order to people the capital of his new dominions, Ge¬
lon first demolished the neighbouring city of Camarina, and
transplanted the inhabitants to Syracuse. Soon afterwards,
entering into a war with the Megareans, he defeated them,
took and razed their cities, and in like manner transplanted
the people. Syracuse thus became powerful, and full of
inhabitants; and the friendship of Gelon was courted both
by Athens and Lacedaemon at the time of the Persian in¬
vasion. In the mean time the Carthaginians had entered
into a treaty with the Persians; by which it was agreed,
that the former should attack those of the Greek name in
Sicily and Italy, in order to divert them from assisting each
1 Meats the other. Sicily was accordingly invaded by the Carthaginians
iribagi- with a vast army ; but they were utterly overthrown by
'a'kes' the^ ^e*on’ as *s re^atetl under the article Carthage. After
itie of this victory, the people out of gratitude obliged him to as-
:ing. sume the title of king, which till that time he had refused.
A decree also passed by which the crown was settled on
his two brothers Hiero and Thrasybulus after his death,
■hs excel- The new king, instead of keeping his subjects in greater
tut reign. awe> studied to make them happy, and was the first man
who became more virtuous by being raised to a throne.
He was particularly famous for his honesty, truth, and sin¬
ton seiz-
s on the
overeign-
y-
cerity; is said never to have wronged the meanest of his Syracuse,
subjects, and never to have made a promise which he did v—’—^
not perform.
Gelon died in the year 471 b. c. after having reigned three Gelon dies,
or four years; and was succeeded by his brother Hiero,an(* i8SUC_
whose character is differently drawn by different historians, ^
He is highly celebrated in the odes of Pindar; and it isB_ o. 471.
certain that his court was the resort of men of wit and learn¬
ing, to whom he behaved in the most courteous manner and
with the greatest liberality.
In 459 b. c. Hiero was succeeded by Thrasybulus; who Thrasybu-
proving a tyrant, was in ten months dethx-oned, and a po-^us> a ty*
pular government restored, which continued for the space railt‘
of fifty-five years.
About this time the Syracusans entered into a war with The Sieull
the Siculi, which terminated in the total subjection of thesufdued.
latter ; after which Syracuse became so powerful, that it in
a manner gave law to the whole island. The Greek cities
indeed enjoyed a perfect liberty, but they all acknowledged
Syracuse as their metropolis. By degrees, however, the lat¬
ter began to assume such an authority over them as was
totally inconsistent with liberty ; and this occasioned many
wars, which involved them in much distress and danger.
They began with the Leontines, whose territory they laid
waste, and reduced their city to great straits. Leontini Syracuse
was an Athenian colony ; and this furnished the Athenians, invaded by
wdio had already meditated the conquest of Sicily, with a11?6
pretence to attack the Syracusans with their whole force. 0utsucces'.
Under colour of assisting their countrymen, therefore, they
sent a fleet of 250 sail to Sicily ; but the Leontines, sen¬
sible that their pretended allies aimed at nothing less than
the conquest of the whole island, concluded a peace with
Syracuse; and the disappointed Athenians vented their
rage on those who had advised and conducted the expedi¬
tion.
During the continuance of the popular government, the
Syracusans took part in the long war between Athens and
Sparta. This war was scarcely ended, when a new and for- New inva-
midable invasion by the Carthaginians took place ; but the^on j,-v tlie
event of that expedition was as unfortunate to the Cartha-
ginians as the former had been. In the mean time, a con¬
siderable revolution had happened in Syracuse. The city
of Agrigentum had been taken by the Carthaginians ; and
of the few inhabitants who escaped, some fled to Syracuse,
where they accused the Syracusan commanders of having
betrayed the city into the hands of the enemy. Dionysius, Rise of
a man of great valour and address, but who had become Dionysius,
very obnoxious to the populace, took this opportunity of at¬
tempting to retrieve his credit. He therefore supported the
accusations brought against his countrymen by the Agri-
gentines, and even impeached the magistrates as having a
secret intelligence with the enemy, and attempting to intro¬
duce an oligarchy. As his speech was entirely levelled
against the more wealthy, it was very agreeable to the
poorer citizens : the commanders were instantly degraded;
and others, among whom was Dionysius, were appointed.
Having once gained this point, he began to consider how
he might effect the dismission of his colleagues. For this
purpose, he never joined in any council of war with the
other commanders, nor imparted to them his resolutions,
giving out that he could not trust them, and that they had
more regard for their own interest than the welfare of their
country. But while he was proceeding in this manner, the
more prudent part of the citizens, perceiving what he aim¬
ed at, complained of him to the senate and magistrates, and
fined him as a disturber of the public peace. According to
the laws, the fine was to be paid before he could speak in
public, and the circumstances of Dionysius did not allow
him to discharge it. In this dilemma he was assisted by
Philistus the historian, a man of great wealth, who not only
paid this fine for him, but encouraged him to speak his
cuse.
b. c. 404
Dionysius
n.
b. c. 366.
56 SYR A
Syracuse, mind freely, as it became a zealous citizen to do, promising
x~-—to pay all the fines which should be imposed upon him.
Being extricated out of this difficulty, Dionysius next
proceeded, with all the eloquence of which he was master,
to inveigh against those who by means ot their power or
interest were able to oppose his designs, and by degrees
brought them into discredit. His next scheme was to get
those exiles recalled whom the nobility had banished at dif¬
ferent times; as thinking that they would support him with
all their power, as well out of gratitude, as out of hatred to
the opposite party. Having likewise gained this point, he
next found means to ingratiate himself with the soldiery to
such a degree that, under pretence of taking proper mea¬
sures for resisting the Carthaginians, he was chosen com¬
mander in chief, with absolute and unlimited power. This
was no sooner done than, pretending his life was in dan¬
ger, he selected 1000 men for his guard, whom he attached
to his interest by great promises. As no person durst now
oppose him, he possessed himself of the capital, where all
the arms and provisions were kept; after which he publicly
who be- took the title of king of Syracuse in the year 404 b. c. The
comes king Syracusans did not tamely submit to their new master; but
of Syra- Dionysius managed matters so well, that their frequent re¬
volts answered no other purpose than more certainly to en¬
tail slavery on themselves ; and he was allowed to possess
the throne without much opposition till his death, which
happened in the year 366 b. c.
On the death of Dionysius, he was succeeded by his son,
likewise called Dionysius. He was naturally of a mild and
peaceable temper, averse to cruelty, and inclined to learn¬
ing ; but his father, to whom all merit, even in his own
children, gave umbrage, stifled as far as possible his good
qualities by a mean and obscure education. He no sooner
ascended the throne, than Dion, brother to Aristomache,
wife of the elder Dionysius, undertook to correct the faults
of his education, and to inspire him with thoughts suitable
Put under to the high station in which he was placed. For this pur-
the care of p0se he sent for the philosopher Plato, under whose care
Plato by ]ie immediately placed the young king. This instantly pro¬
duced a reformation on Dionysius; but the courtiers, dread¬
ing the effects of the philosopher’s instructions, prevailed
on him to banish Dion, and to keep Plato himself in a kind
of imprisonment in the citadel. At last, however, he set
him at liberty; and Plato then returned to his own coun¬
try.
Dion, in the mean time, visited several of the Grecian
cities, and at last took up his residence in Athens ; but the
honours which were everywhere paid him raised such jea¬
lousies in the breast of the tyrant, that he stopped his reve¬
nue, and caused it to be paid into his own treasury. In a
short time Dionysius again sent for Plato; but, finding it
impossible to dissolve the friendship between him and Dion,
disgraced, and placed him in a very dangerous situation, in
the midst of assassins who hated him. Not daring, how¬
ever, to offer him any violence, he allowed him soon after
to depart; revenging himself on Dion, whose estate he sold,
and gave his wife Arete in marriage to Timocrates, one of
his flatterers.
Dion raises Dion now resolved to revenge himself on the tyrant for
troops for the many injuries which he had sustained, and at once to
the't^ranf deliver his country from the oppression under which it
'* } “ ' groaned. He began with raising foreign troops privately,
by proper agents, for the better execution of his design.
Many Syracusans of distinction entered into his scheme,
and gave him intelligence of what passed in the city ; but
of the exiles, of whom there were upwards of 1000 dispersed
up and down Greece, only twenty-five joined him ; so much
were they awed by the dread of the tyrant. The troops
were assembled at the island of Zacynthus, in number only
about 800 ; but who had all been tried on many occasions,
were well disciplined, and capable of animating by their
his uncle
Dion,
whom he
banishes.
CUSE.
example the forces which Dion hoped to find in Sicily. Syracuse
When they were about to sail, Dion acquainted them with
his design, the boldness of which at first occasioned among
them no small consternation ; but he soon removed their
fears, by telling them that he did not lead them as soldiers,
but as officers, to put them at the head of the Syracusans
and all the people of Sicily, who were ready to receive them
with open arms. Having then embarked in two small trad¬
ing vessels, they arrived in twelve days at Cape Pachynum,
near Syracuse. They at length reached the port of Minoa,
not far from Agrigentum, and here they received intelli¬
gence that Dionysius had set sail for Italy, attended by a
fleet of eighty galleys. Dion now resolved to take advan¬
tage of the tyrant’s absence, and immediately proceeded to
Syracuse. On his march he prevailed on the inhabitants
of Agrigentum, Gela, Camarina, and other cities, to join
him. As soon as he entered the territories of Syracuse, Enters
multitudes flocked to him ; and as nobody appeared to op- Syracuse
pose him, he boldly entered the city, where he quickly found wltho.11?
himself at the head of 50,000 men. As soon as he had0pp0sl 10
landed in Sicily, Timocrates, to whom his wife Arete had
been given by Dionysius, and to whom the care of the city
had been left, despatched a courier to let the tyrant know the
danger to which he was exposed. Dionysius was, however,
accidentally prevented from receiving a timely account of
Dion’s arrival; so that when he entered the citadel by sea,
seven days after Dion’s arrival, he found his affairs in a des¬
perate situation. Upon this he had recourse to artifice ; Dionysiu
and having amused the Syracusans by a feigned negociation, arriveb,!
until he observed that they kept a negligent guard, he at-
tacked them all at once with such fury, that he had almostae eu e
taken the city. But Dion encouraged the soldiers by his
example so much, that he at last obtained a complete vic¬
tory ; for which they presented him with a crown of gold.
It was not long, however, before the ungrateful Syracusans Ingratib
began to think of conferring quite different rewards on their of die S
benefactor. Dionysius had the address to render him sus- £j^ans
pected by the multitude ; at the same time that Heraclides,
an excellent officer, but a secret enemy to Dion, did all that
lay in his power to sink his credit. Dionysius was soon ob¬
liged to fly into Italy, but left Heraclides to oppose Dion.
Dion at length obtained possession of the city, and He¬
raclides having submitted to him, was received into favour;
but as his seditious and turbulent behaviour still continued,
Dion at last gave orders to put him to death. This action, Dion be
however necessary, so affected the mind of Dion, that he comes n
became melancholy; and ever after imagined himself haunt-
ed by a frightful spectre, resembling a woman of gigantic
stature, with the haggard looks and air of a fury. In a short
time after he lost his life, through the treachery of Calip-
pus, or Gylippus, who pretended to be his intimate friend,
and who immediately after caused his wife and sister to be
carried to prison. Calippus having removed Dion, soon
made himself master of Syracuse, where he committed all
manner of cruelties; but he was driven out, and forced to fly
to Rhegium, where he was murdered by the same dagger
which had killed Dion. In 350 b. c. Dionysius again made Dionysi
himself master of Syracuse ; and being exasperated by hisrestorei
past misfortunes, became more tyrannical than ever. The
Syracusans first had recourse to Icetas, tyrant of Leontini;
but as the Carthaginians took this opportunity to invade
them with a powerful fleet and army, they were obliged to
apply to the Corinthians. By them Timoleon, a celebrated
commander, was sent to the assistance of the Syracusans,
whom he found in a very distressed situation ; Icetas being
master of the city, the Carthaginians of the harbour, and
Dionysius of the citadel. As all parties were equally theSurrenf
enemies ot Dionysius, he found it impossible to resist, andto
therefore surrendered himself to Timoleon, by whom he was^0"’^'
sent to Corinth ; where at last he was reduced to the ne- school
cessity of teaching a school for his support. Corintt
SYRACUSE.
57
and other
forts de¬
molished
by Timo
Icon.
Syracuse. After the expulsion of the tyrant, Timoleon withdrew to
Catana, leaving only 400 Corinthians, under the command
of an experienced officer named Leon, to guard the citadel.
These were immediately besieged by Icetas and the Car¬
thaginians, but Timoleon found means to relieve them in
Cowardice spite of all opposition ; and having dispersed emissaries
of the Cal-through the army of Mago the Carthaginian general, ex-
thaginians. horting the mercenary Greeks to forsake him, he was so
much intimidated, that in spite of all the remonstrances
which Icetas could make, he set sail for Africa, leaving his
colleague to carry on the war in the best manner he could.
The day after the departure of Mago, Timoleon assault¬
ed the city so fiercely, that the troops of Icetas were driven
from the walls, and the Corinthians became masters of the
Citadel of place. Timoleon, by sound of trumpet, invited the inha-
Syracuse bitants to come and assist in demolishing the citadel and
other castles, which he called the nests of tyrants ; after
which he caused edifices for the administration of justice
to be erected in the place where the citadel had stood. He
found the city in a most miserable condition; for many
having perished in the wars and seditions, and others having
fled to avoid the oppression of tyrants, Syracuse, once so
wealthy and populous, v/as now become almost a desert;
insomuch that the horses were fed on the grass which grew
lie repeo- in the market-place. Timoleon supplied the city with in-
ples the habitants from Corinth and other cities of Greece, at the
city. same time that great multitudes from Italy and the other
parts of Sicily resorted thither. Timoleon distributed the
lands among them ; but sold the houses, and with the
money arising from the sale established a fund for the sup¬
port of the poor. Having thus restored Syracuse, he next
delivered all the Greek cities of Sicily from the tyrants who
had taken possession of them, all of whom he put to death.
After this he resigned his authority, and led a retired life,
venerated in the highest degree by the Syracusans, and by
Dies, and all the cities in Sicily. After his death he w'as honoured
•s honoured as a god; the expense of his funeral was defrayed by the
as a god. public; sports, with horse-races and gymnastic exercises,
were held annually on the day of his death ; and it was de¬
creed, that whenever the Syracusans were at war with the
barbarians, they should send to Corinth for a general.
For twenty years the Syracusans enjoyed the fruits of
Timoleon’s victories; but new disturbances arising, in a
short time another tyrant started up, who exceeded all that
Syracuse
again falls
under the
power of
tyrants.
Pyrrhus
king of
Epirus in¬
vited into
Sicily.
had gone before him in cruelty and other vices. This was
the celebrated Agathocles, of whose exploits against the
Carthaginians a full account is given under the article Car¬
thage. He was poisoned by one Moenon in the year 289
b. c., after having reigned twenty-eight and lived ninety-
five years. A succession of tyrants followed, till at last the
city, being held by two rivals, Tcenion and Sosistratus, who
made war within the very walls, Pyrrhus king of Epirus
was invited into Sicily, in order to put an end to these dis¬
tractions. He willingly complied with the invitation, and
was everywhere received with loud acclamations, as the de¬
liverer, not only of Syracuse, but of all Sicily. As he had a
fine army of 80,000 foot and 5000 horse, with a fleet of
200 sail, he drove the Carthaginians from place to place,
till he left them only the two strong posts of Eryx and Li-
lybseum. The former of these he took by assault, and was
himself the first man who mounted the walls, after having
killed a great number of Africans with his own hand. The
Mamertines, likewise, who had conquered a considerable
part of the island, wrere everywhere defeated and driven
out, till at last they were shut up in the city of Messana.
The Carthaginians, alarmed at the rapidity of his conquests,
sent ambassadors with proposals of peace upon very advan¬
tageous terms; but Pyrrhus, elated by the expectation of
reducing the whole island, refused to hearken to any terms
unless they would instantly abandon it. So sanguine were
his anticipations, that he caused his son to assume the title
vol. xai.
of king of Sicily; but in the mean time, having displeased Syracuse
the Sicilians by his arbitrary behaviour, they deserted from -v——
him in such numbers that he was glad to set out for Italy,
for which retreat the embassies he received from the Sam-
nites, Tarentines, and other Italians, furnished him with an
honourable pretext. He embarked in the ships which he
had brought with him from Italy, but was met at sea by
the Carthaginians, who sunk seventy of his vessels, and dis¬
persed or took the rest, so that he saved himself in Italy
with only twelve vessels, the poor remains of a fleet of 200
sail. No sooner were the Mamertines apprised of his de- Syracuse
parture, than they despatched a body of 18,000 men to ha-
rass him after his landing. These having passed the straits
before him, posted themselves on the road which Pyrrhus
must take in marching by land to Tarentum, and conceal¬
ing themselves among woods and rocks, attacked him un¬
expectedly, and with great resolution. But Pyrrhus be
haved on this occasion with his usual bravery. The attack
being made on his rear, he hastened thither, and made a
dreadful slaughter of the enemy, till a wound in the head
obliged him to retire.
After the departure of Pyrrhus, Hiero the son of Hie- Hiero cho-
rocles, a descendant of Gelon, the first king of Syracuse, sen general
was chosen general of the forces, along with another named ^acUg^ y'
Artemidorus. The two generals had nothing more at heart forces
than to put an end to the confusion and disorder which
reigned in the city ; and with this view they entered it at
the head of their forces. On this occasion Pliero discover¬
ed extraordinary talents for government. By mere dint
of insinuation and address, without shedding blood or hurt¬
ing a single citizen, he calmed the minds of the people, re¬
conciled the factions, and so gained the affections of all,
that he was invested with the whole civil as well as military
power in the state. He soon afterwards married the daughter B elected
of one of the first citizens; and having distinguished him- r;^r.,^
self by his exploits against the Mamertines, was unanimous- B C 265.
ly elected king of Syracuse in the year 265 B. c.
Some time after Hiero’s accession to the throne, he again
defeated the Mamertines, and reduced them to such straits
that they were obliged to call in the Romans to their as¬
sistance. The consequences of this have been fully related
under the articles Rome and Carthage. Hiero, who had
allied himself with the Carthaginians, being himself defeat¬
ed by the Romans, and finding his allies unable to protect
him against the power of that republic, concluded an al¬
liance with them, and continued faithful to them even in
the time of the second Punic war, when they were in the
greatest distress. In his reign flourished the celebrated
mathematician Archimedes, whose genius he employed in
fortifying the city of Syracuse, by innumerable machines,
in such a manner as rendered it absolutely impregnable to
every method of attack known at that time.
Hiero died about 211 b. c. and was succeeded by his Hierony-
grandson Hieronymus ; but he imprudently forsook thernus-
counsels of his grandfather, and entered into an alliance
with the Carthaginians. He was soon afterwards murdered,
in consequence of his tyranny and cruelty; and the greatest
disorders took place in the city, which Hannibal, though
then in Italy, found means to foment, in hopes of keeping
the Syracusans in his interest. This indeed he effected;
but as his own affairs in Italy began to decline, he could
not prevent Marcellus from landing in Sicily with a formi¬
dable army, which the Sicilians had no means of resisting.
Syracuse was soon invested ; but the machines invented by Syracuse
Archimedes baffled all attempts to take it by assault. The k1 vested,
immense preparations which the consul had made for tak¬
ing the city by storm, could not have failed to accomplish
his purpose, had the place been otherwise defended than by
the genius of Archimedes. The Roman fleet consisted of
sixty quinqueremes, besides a far greater number of other
ships. The decks were covered with soldiers armed with
H
58
SYRACUSE.
the ma¬
chines of
Archime¬
des.
Syracuse, darts, slings, and bows, to drive the besieged from the ram-
s—parts, which on one side were washed by the sea, and to
facilitate the approach to the walls. But a machine of
Marcellus’s own invention, called a sambuca, was that on
which he placed his chief reliance. The consul’s design
was to bring his sambuca to the foot of the walls ot Acra-
dina; but while it was at a considerable distance (and it
advanced very slowly, being moved only by two ranks of
rowers), Archimedes discharged from one of his engines a
vast stone, weighing, according to Plutarch’s account, 1250
pounds, then a second, and immediately after a third, all
which, falling upon the sambuca with a dreadful noise,
broke its supports, and gave the galleys upon which it
stood such a violent shock that they parted, and the ma¬
chine which Marcellus had raised upon them with immense
Incredible labour and expense was battered to pieces. At the same
effects of time, several other machines, which were not visible with¬
out the walls, and consequently did not lessen the confi¬
dence of the Romans in the assault, played incessantly upon
their ships, and overwhelmed them with showers of stones,
rafters, and beams pointed with iron, insomuch that Mar¬
cellus found it necessary to retire with all possible haste,
and sent orders to his land forces to do the same; for the
attack on the land side was attended with no better suc¬
cess, the ranks being broken and thrown into the utmost
confusion by the stones and darts, w'hich flew with such
noise, force, and rapidity, that they struck the Romans with
terror, and dashed all to pieces before them.
Marcellus, surprised, though not discouraged, at this ar¬
tificial storm, which he did not expect, held a council of
war, in which it was resolved, the next day before sunrise,
to advance close to the wall, and remain there. They were
in hopes by this means to secure themselves against the ter¬
rible storm of stones and darts which fell on the ships when
at a distance ; but Archimedes had prepared engines which
were adapted to all contingencies. When the Romans
therefore had brought their ships close under the wall, and
thought themselves well covered, they were unexpectedly
overwhelmed with a new shower of darts and stones, which
fell perpendicularly on their heads, and obliged them to re¬
tire with great precipitation. But they had no sooner re¬
moved to some distance, than a new shower of darts over¬
took them, which made a dreadful havock of the men, while
stones of an immense weight, discharged from other ma¬
chines, either disabled or broke in pieces most of their gal¬
leys. This loss they sustained without being able to re¬
venge it on the enemy; for Archimedes had placed most of
his engines behind the walls, and not only out of the reach,
but even out of the sight, of the enemy; so that the Romans
were repulsed with a dreadful slaughter, without seeing the
hand that occasioned it. What most harassed them in the
attack by sea, was a sort of crow with iron claws, fastened
to a long chain, which was let down by a lever. The weight
of the iron made it fall with great violence, and drove it into
the planks of the galleys. Then the besieged, by a great
weight of lead at the other end of the lever, weighed it down,
and consequently raised up the iron of the crow in propor¬
tion, and with it the prow of the galley to which it was fas¬
tened, sinking the poop at the same time into the water.
After this the crow letting go its hold all of a sudden, the
prow of the galley fell with such force into the sea, that the
whole vessel was filled with water, and sunk. At other
times, the machines, dragging ships to the shore by hooks,
dashed them to pieces against the points of the rocks which
projected under the walls. Other vessels were quite lifted
up into the air, there whirled about with incredible rapidity,
and then let fall into the sea, and sunk, with all that they
contained. How these stupendous works were effected,
few, if any, have hitherto been able to comprehend.
The troops under the command of Appius suffered no less
than the fleet in this second attack. In the whole space of
ground which the army occupied when formed, the last files Syracuse
as well as the first were overwhelmed with showers of darts ''■“’’“y ‘
and flints, against which they could not possibly defend
themselves. When they had with infinite trouble brought
the mantlets and covered galleries, under which they were
to work the rams, near the foot of the wall, Archimedes dis¬
charged such large beams and stones upon them as crushed
them to pieces. If any brave Roman ventured to draw too
near the wall, iron hooks were immediately let down from
above, which, taking hold of his clothes or some part of his
body, lifted him up in the air and dashed out his brains with
the fall. Marcellus, though at a loss how to proceed, could
not however forbear expressing himself with pleasantry.
Shall we persist, said he to his workmen, in making war
upon this Briareus, upon this giant with an hundred hands ?
But the soldiers, if they saw upon the walls only a small cord,
or the least piece of wood, were so terrified, that they im¬
mediately turned their backs and fled, crying out that Ar¬
chimedes was going to discharge some dreadful machine
upon them.
The consuls, finding themselves thus defeated in every The sieg<
attempt, turned the siege into a blockade, reduced most ofturnedin
the other places in the island, and defeated the forces which*1 H°ckad
were sent against them ; and at last Marcellus made himself
master of Syracuse itself. He took the opportunity of a Account
festival, when the soldiers and citizens had drunk plentifully, the takin
to make a detachment scale the walls of Tyche, in that part01 ^yra-
of it which was nearest to Epipolae, and which was ill guard¬
ed. He speedily possessed himself of Epipolse; and the in¬
habitants of Neapolis, as well as Tyche, then sent deputies
to offer their submission. Marcellus granted life and liberty
to all of free condition, but gave up those quarters of the
city to be plundered. The soldiers had orders to spare the The city!
lives of the citizens; but they were cruel in their avarice, plundere<
slew many of them, and among the rest the incomparable
Archimedes. He was very intent on a demonstration in 1 es 1
geometry, and calmly drawing his lines, when a soldier en¬
tered the room, and applied a sword to his throat. “ Hold!”
said Archimedes, “ one moment, and my demonstration will
be finished.” But the soldier, equally regardless of his prayer
and his demonstration, instantly put him to death. Of the
manner of his death there are different accounts, but all
agree that Marcellus regretted it extremely, and showed a
singular favour to his relations for his sake.
The city of Syracuse continued subject to the western Syracuse
empire till its declension, when the island of Sicily being destroy^
ravaged by different barbarians, the capital also underwent ^ t*ie ^
various revolutions, till at last, in the ninth century, it was r'iceils-
so destroyed by the Saracens that very few traces of its an¬
cient grandeur are now to be seen. The ancient city of
Syracuse was of a triangular form, and consisted of five parts
or divisions. The circuit, according to Strabo, amounted to
180 stadia, or twenty-two English miles and four furlongs.
This account Mr Swinburne once suspected of exaggera¬
tion ; but after spending two days in tracing the ruins, and
making reasonable allowances for the encroachments of the
sea, he was convinced of the exactness of Strabo’s measure¬
ment.
The modern city is the capital of an intendancy of its
own name. It is situated on a noble harbour, with an excel¬
lent bottom, and a plentiful supply of fresh water; but though
well adapted for a naval station, or for an extended com¬
mercial port, it is only visited by a few polaccas or other small
coasting vessels. Lord Nelson, when in pursuit of the F rench
expedition in 1798, was here enabled to water and provide
his fleet with fresh meat in five days. The city is now
fortified, and has a strong citadel. The streets are confined
and narrow; the public buildings, though numerous, have
little to recommend them. There is a museum and a public
library, as well as some private cabinets. The country
around, being abundantly irrigated, is highly fertile, produ-
SYR SYR 59
Syria, cing wheat, oil, hemp, tobacco, fruits, and several kinds of to remembrance some of the most striking events of the Syria,
delicious wines. The antiquities of this, formerly one of the history of the ancient world. The lighthouse is in long.
most populous cities of Europe, are very numerous, and call lo. 16. 50. E. and lat. 37. 2. 58. N.
SYRIA.
SYRIA, a beautiful and extensive country of Asia, extend¬
ing along the shore of the Mediterranean, is estimated to be
200 miles in length, and 100 in breadth. It is bounded on
the west by the Mediterranean, and is divided from Asia
Minor on the north by Mount Taurus and its branches;
while on the east it has a vast and trackless desert, which
stretches northwards from Arabia, and which separates it,
though not by any distinct boundary, from the countries of
Kurdistan and Irak Arabi. On the south it is bounded by
Palestine. In ancient history the boundaries of Syria were
never accurately defined. They have frequently extended
so far south as to comprehend Palestine ; while towards the
east also, they were made to range indefinitely over the de¬
sert, or as far as the Euphrates. The stricter geography of
modern times has assigned more definite and narrower limits
to this country. The geographical features of Syria are
chiefly formed by the great mountain chain of Lebanon or
Libanus, and the minor chain of Anti-Libanus, which,
branching off from Mount Taurus, on the frontier of Asia
Minor, stretch southward along the whole length of the
country in an irregular line, and interlock with the mountains
of Judaea. The great chain of Libanus rises to its height
at the distance generally of 60 or 70 miles from the shore
of the Mediterranean ; the intervening country consisting
of luxuriant and fertile valleys, diversified with lower ranges
of hills; the land rising, however, gradually, until it reaches
its height. The ascent is extremely rugged; the road
narrow, and often over craggy rocks; and the cold is in¬
tense, the mountains rising above the level of perpetual
snow, which lies here to an unknown depth. Mr Bucking¬
ham found great difficulty in ascending the heights of Le¬
banon. The horses sunk depp in the snow, from which
they could hardly be extricated. From the united effects
of the constant glare of the snow, the lightness of the air,
and the fatigue of the ascent, he experienced a giddiness
as if he were intoxicated, and found it difficult to walk in
a straight line. It occupied the party four hours from the
cedars to the summit, and they were so fatigued that they
were obliged to stretch themselves on the snow to recover
breath. The prospect which the travellers enjoyed when they
reached the top was grand and magnificent. On the west they
had a view of the lower plain, and beyond, the boundless
ocean ; while to the east was seen the lower range of Anti-
Libanus, still high, and covered with snow at its summit,
which overlooks the Syrian desert. Burckhardt also men¬
tions, that when he was near the summit he had an exten¬
sive view of the sea near Tripoli on the west; and to the
east the Anti-Libanus range, with the intervening lakes. In
this manner the country is everywhere diversified, in its
interior, with mountains varying in their levels, situation,
and appearance ; and it may be divided into the higher
and the lower regions, namely, those tracts which lie be¬
tween the great mountain ranges of Libanus and Anti-
Libanus ; those, again, which lie eastward of this last
interior range, extending southwards from Aleppo, and
also from Damascus, and which are bounded to the east¬
ward by other districts rocky and mountainous, and finally
by the Syrian district ; and, lastly, the lower tract, which
descends from the mountains of Lebanon to the sea, which
is still interspersed with lower ranges of hills.
The coast is generally low and flat; and where it is of
any breadth between the Lebanon mountains and the Me¬
diterranean, the country is blessed with extreme fertility.
The valleys are productive, and yield abundantly the
most valuable grains, as well as fruits, in great variety. The
oranges of Tripoli, the figs of Beirout, and the pistachios of
Aleppo, are held in particular esteem. The coast from Acre
to Sidon, through which the road runs, presents a rich tract
overgrown with thorns and thistles. The shore is abrupt,
and the water deep; the villages thinly scattered, and the
population apparently small, though this fine plain is capa¬
ble of the highest fertility. The immediate neighbourhood
of Sidon is a fine district; the plain at the foot of the hills,
which is not above two miles wide, being entirely appro¬
priated to extensive and shady groves and gardens, with
lanes between them. The hills are also fruitful, and of a
lower level than those farther to the south and to the east
of the plains of Tyre. From Tripoli to Beirout the whole
coast appears to be formed of sand accumulated by the
prevailing westerly w inds, and hardened into rocks, where,
in order to form an artificial shelter, recourse must have
been had to excavation. The plains in the vicinity of most
of the towns along the coast have a pleasing and pictu¬
resque aspect, being generally covered with olive groves,
and fine gardens filled with fruit-trees. This lower coun¬
try is also well watered, numerous streams flowing down
from the mountains, and supplying the means of irrigation,
and of fertilizing the ground.
In ascending the sloping sides of Lebanon, all the varie¬
ties of European climate are experienced; and it is re¬
markable how successfully the industry of the inhabitants
has triumphed over the inequalities of the ground, and other
natural difficulties. Burckhardt mentions, that at Bshirrai,
which is on a very elevated situation on Mount Lebanon,
not far from its summit, and where nature seems to afford
nothing for the sustenance of the inhabitants, numerous
villages flourish, and every inch of ground is cultivated.1
The town is surrounded with fruit trees, mulberry planta¬
tions, vineyards, fields of dhourra and other grain, though
there is scarcely a natural plain twenty feet square. But
the inhabitants meet this difficulty by building terraces,
and thus, with singular industry, securing a portion of level
ground to prevent the earth from being swept down by the
winter rains, and retaining at the same time the water
requisite for the irrigation of their crops. Water is abun¬
dant, and streams from numerous springs descend on all
parts of the mountain country, and refresh the ground.
Volney concurs in the same description. “ By dint of skill
and labour,” he observes, “ they have compelled a rocky
soil to become fertile. Sometimes, to avail themselves of
the waters, they have made a channel for them by means of
a thousand windings on the declivities, or have arrested
them in the valleys by embankments. At other times they
have propt up the earth that was ready to roll down, by
terraces and wallsso that the mountains present the ap¬
pearance of a staircase, or of an amphitheatre, each tier of
which is a row of vines or mulberry trees, of which Volney
mentions that he had counted from 100 to 120 tiers from
the bottom of the valley to the top of the hill. This ele¬
vated and craggy region also presents singular appearances,
1 BurckharJtb Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, p. 20.
GO S Y R I A.
Syria, and is often the scene of fatal accidents. Here a rock
pierced by a torrent forms a natural cascade ; another as¬
sumes the appearance of a natural wall; ledges of stones
washed down by the waters resemble some of the fine ruins
which abound in the country. In other places, the waters,
undermining the rocks, have formed caverns or subterrane¬
an channels. At other times, rocks loosened, or thrown
off their equilibrium, have been known to fall on the adja¬
cent dwellings, and to crush the inhabitants. Such dan¬
gers, however, which are common to Alpine countries, do
not deter the inhabitants from their elevated residences;
the comparative security which they enjoy from Turkish
oppression being accounted a compensation for these evils.
The higher Libanus presents a steep and barren ascent,
on which the traveller toils for two hours till he reaches
the summit. The lower Libanus is a more wooded coun¬
try, fit for cultivation. The far-famed cedars are visible
from the top, standing at the foot of the steep declivities of
the higher division of the mountain. They form a small
wood, which stands on the uneven ground of the mountain.
Burckhardt mentions that he counted nearly 400 trees of
all descriptions. Of the oldest and best-looking trees there
are about eleven or twelve, distinguished by having the
foliage and small branches at the top only, and by four,
five, and even seven trunks springing from one base. They
were covered with the names of travellers, one of which was
dated in the seventeenth century. The trunks of the old¬
est trees were apparently dead. There were twenty-five
large trees, about fifty middling ones, and 300 smaller and
young trees.
The country that lies between the two ranges of Libanus
and Anti-Libanus is inhabited by an industrious race of
cultivators ; and throughout its whole extent are scattered
small towns, with from 100 to 200 houses, and everywhere
the most splendid remains of antiquity, which have drawn
to this unfrequented region a numerous concourse of Eu¬
ropean travellers. It is a plain, which is divided into the
territory of Bekaa (signifying a mulberry tree, from the
number of those trees which grow on it, and which form
the wealth of the natives), and the territory of Baalbec. On
the eastern side it comprises the mountain of Anti-Liba-
nus to its top, and on the western side the Libanus range,
also to its summit. Northward the valley widens consider¬
ably, as the range of Anti-Libanus takes an eastern direc¬
tion, where it terminates. This valley is fertile; and Burck¬
hardt mentions that, twelve years before his arrival, the
plain and a part of the mountain were covered, to the dis¬
tance of half a league from the town, with grape planta¬
tions ; but, owing to the oppressions of the government,
they are now destroyed, and the inhabitants, in place of
eating their own grapes, are obliged to import them from
other parts.1 Wherever they are treated with ordinary hu¬
manity and justice, which is the case in some parts, they are
industrious, and, though not rich, independent. They live
in houses of mud, supported with beams of pine-wood and
earth, with which the flat roofs of the houses are covered,
but which are so feeble, that deep snow, which falls in win¬
ter, would break through, if it were not carefully removed
by the inhabitants every morning. They generally depend
for subsistence on the cultivation of their vineyards and a few
mulberry plantations, or on their fields, in which grain is
produced; and partly on a trade which they carry on in
Kourdine sheep; also on their shops, and on some trifling ma¬
nufactures in cotton cloths, which they use as shirts, or as
gowns when dyed blue. They likewise fabricate woollen
mantles. This hilly district is abundantly watered by rivulets:
almost every village has its spring, all of which descend into
the valley, where they generally lose themselves, or join the
Liettani, between Baalbec and Zahle, which is one of the Syria.
most considerable towns in this territory, containing about' 
5000 Catholic Greeks, with a few Turkish families. There
are several other towns scattered over the country; and to
these the oppressed inhabitants sometimes fly from the ex¬
actions of the pacha of Damascus, or other petty tyrants who
have at different times ruled over most parts of Syria.
The land in this valley of Bekaa, between the two great
mountain ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, is not so
well cultivated as on the opposite or western declivity of
the mountain, probably because the industrious cultivator
is not so sure to reap what he may industriously sow.
About one sixth of the land only is cultivated, the remain¬
der being left for pasture to the wild Arabs. The pro¬
prietors of the soil are mostly noble families of Damascus,
which lies about sixty or a hundred miles to the east, or of
the Druse mountains, by whose exorbitant demands the
peasant cultivators are scarcely left a bare subsistence.
The whole of this valley, with occasional rocky spots, is
fertile and productive. The inhabitants consist of various
races; the majority are Turks ; one fifth are Catholic Chris¬
tians, with an intermixture of Arabs, who migi*ate along
with the season, in order to find pasture for their flocks;
and also of Druses and others. In other districts, the great¬
er part of these mountaineers are Christians. In Bshir-
rai, near the northern termination of the range, they are
all Christians; and in other parts three fourths are Chris¬
tians, mostly of the Greek church. The Arabs generally
pass the winter months on the sea-shore about Tripoli, Je-
bail, and Tartous, though they have no fixed habitations.
They have the true Bedouin features, and they have the
general propensity of their tribe to thieving. Their pro¬
perty, besides camels, consists in horses, cows, sheep, and
goats. The country in many parts, from its abundant
springs and the heavy dews which fall, produces a luxu¬
riant pasturage; and here the various wandering tribes,
the Arabs, Turkmans, and Kourdines, pasture their cattle.
These latter bring annually into Syria from 20,000 to
30,000 sheep from the mountains of Kourdistan, the great¬
er part of which is consumed in Aleppo, Damascus, and
the mountains, as Syria does not produce a sufficient num¬
ber for its own consumption. The Kourd sheep-dealers
first visit with their flocks Aleppo, then cross the Anti- *
Libanus mountains, Hama, Homs, and Baalbec; and what
they do not sell on the road they bring to pasture on the
Syrian mountains, whither the inhabitants of the neigh¬
bouring towns repair, and buy up thousands of them, which
they afterwards sell in retail to the peasantry. The coun¬
try produces in abundance the mulberry, the vine, and the
olive. The silk-worm thrives remarkably well, and the in¬
habitants rear a large produce of silk. Tobacco of a very
fine quality is also produced on Mount Libanus; as also
honey throughout the whole of this mountain district.
Fruit trees succeed remarkably, and walnuts and other
fruits form an article of export. Oaks, pines, the spread¬
ing palm, and other trees, flourish; and Burckhardt mentions
that he had seen the former more than sixty feet high.
Galls and medicinal plants are also produced in these moun¬
tains, and are exported from Tripoli and other ports. The
mineralogy of this country has been little explored. Burck¬
hardt, from whom we derive most of our knowledge, men¬
tions, that on digging he found several pieces of a metallic
substance, which he took to be native amalgam of mercury.
He also inferred from what he heard that cinnabar was to
be found. The ground all around the village of Hasbeya
he discovered to be impregnated with iron. Here are also
numerous wells of bitumen, situated on a chalky hill, be¬
low the surface of which bitumen is found in large veins.
1 Burckhardt’s Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, p. 10.
SYRIA.
Syria. The pits are from six to twelve feet in diameter, into which
the workmen descend by a rope and wheel; and in hewing
out the bitumen they leave columns of that substance at
different intervals, as a support to the earth above, d here
are upwards of twenty-five of these pits, most of which
have been abandoned, and are overgrown with shrubs.
It is only in the summer months that they are worked,
on account of the emir, who monopolizes the produce, and
sends it to the merchants of Damascus, Beirout, and
Aleppo. The wild animals found here are the wild boar,
the wolf, the ounce, and some say the lion, on the banks of
the upper Jordan. Hares are seen in abundance.
The number of Christian sectaries which exist in this rude
country is not more remarkable than their virulence against
each other. Greeks, Catholics, Maronites, Syrians, Chal¬
deans, and Jacobites, have all their respective parishes and
churches. They are furious against each other ; and each
sect has the folly to believe that its church would flourish
on the ruins of its heretic brethren. The principal hatred
subsists between the Catholics and the Greeks. Of the lat¬
ter many thousands have been converted to the Catholic
faith; all Catholics, the Maronites excepted, having for¬
merly been of the Greek church in Aleppo, Damascus, and
in all the intermediate country. Communities of the ori¬
ginal Latin Christians are only found around Jerusalem and
Nablous. The Catholic bishop resides at Zahle ; and his
diocese comprises the whole Christian community in the
Bekaa, or valley between the two great Libanus chains,
and the adjoining villages of the mountain.
Towards the north the mountains of Syria approach nearer
the sea, and leave scarcely any intervening plain. The
city of Antioch, on the Orontes, is surrounded by mountains
of great height, the different ranges from the interior ter¬
minating in this quarter, and leaving open before it a val¬
ley from ten to fifteen miles wide, presenting the appear¬
ance of an elevated plain, which is said to continue east¬
ward all the way to Aleppo. The southern boundary of
this valley is the mountain range of Jebel Okrah, the steep
sides of which seem to rise abruptly from the sea, and con¬
tinue their ascent until they terminate in its gray and bare
peak at the height of perhaps 5000 feet from its base. Its
northern boundary is the mountain range called Jebel Moosa,
the western extremity of which slopes down into a cape, at
the distance of about six miles north of the discharge of
the river Orontes into the sea, and its even summit runs
along eastward from the coast until it loses itself among
irregular ranges of hills. The inner and eastern points of
these different ranges gradually approach each other till they
seem to meet, leaving a triangular valley or plain between
them, its base-line being the sea-line, and its whole length
from eight to ten miles. It is nearly in the centre of this
valley that the Orontes takes its course ; and its northern
bank is occupied by corn-fields, mulberry grounds, gardens
of fig-trees, and detached cottages all excellently built, and
mostly of two stories, w ith sloping and tiled roots. I he
upper valley, through which this river flows, is also thickly
wooded and highly cultivated, the stream distributing fer¬
tility along its winding way. Buckingham celebrates the
beauty of the country on the banks of the Orontes, and in
the vicinity of the town of Homs. “ Our ride,” he says,
“ was through one continued park of indescribable beauty;
and although chiefly over a level ground, yet, by the pro¬
fusion of its wood, and here and there some gentle emi¬
nences, the landscape varied at every point of view. The
state of agriculture here, too, was more perfect and more
flourishing than we had hitherto seen it elsewhere. The
fields were free from weeds and stones, and many of them
were enclosed with light fences of twig-work. Some of the
61
barley was nearly ripe for the perennial harvest; and other Syria,
grounds were tilling by four ploughs in succession, each '—"y'-"'**'
followed by a sower distributing the grain from a basket for
the autumnal one. Fine fat cattle were seen in numerous
herds, with some few buffaloes among them, and all wore
an appearance of wealth, activity, and abundance.”1 To¬
wards the north of Syria, on the coast, there is a great change
from the mountain districts, in the appearance, dress, and
manners of the inhabitants. “ All,” says Buckingham, “ was
now decidedly Turkish. The peasants were of a different
physiognomy as well as dress ; and one marked peculiarity
of contrast was their wearing long boots reaching to the
knees, of black leather, and shaped like European ones, with¬
out drawers; while the Arabs of Syria all wear long full
drawers, and either red shoes, or, as often happens, go bare¬
footed.”2 The language also is Turkish instead of Arabic.
The country thence eastward, as far as Aleppo, is moun¬
tainous, with intervening valleys. Southward, the mountain
range of Libanus recedes from the coast, leaving champaign
country, diversified with lower hills. From Aleppo, as far
south as Damascus, the hilly region prevails, being the east¬
ern declivity of the Libanus mountains.
The immediate neighbourhood of Damascus is known
under the name of El Ghautta, which comprehends a dis¬
trict of about thirty square miles ; it contains upwards of
eighty villages, and is one of the most fertile districts in
Syria. In the south is a rocky district called the Ledja,
which is from two to three days’ journey in length by one
in breadth, and is inhabited by several tribes of Arabs, who
breed a vast number of goats, which easily find pasturage
among the rocks. A few of them also keep sheep and cows,
and cultivate the soil in some parts of the Ledja, where
they sow wheat and barley. This district is divided between
the inner and the outer Ledja. The inner consists of a
labyrinth of rocks, through which the Arabs alone have a
clue ; some of them are twenty feet high, and the country
is full of hills. Trees are numerous among the rocks. The
most common are the oak, and the bitter almond tree, from
the fruit of which is extracted an oil which is in great re¬
quest among the inhabitants. There are no springs in any
part of this stony district; but water collects in great quanti¬
ties in the hollows and in the cisterns, where it is kept through
the summer. Millstones are cut horizontally out of the rocks,
and are carried to be finished at Ezra, and the other towns
in this district. The camel is commonly met with in the
Ledja, and walks with a firm step over the rocky surface.
In summer he feeds on the flowers or dry grass of the pas¬
turing places. This district, like all the rest of the country,
is full of ruined towns and cities, containing the remains ol
large edifices and innumerable inscriptions, with columns,
pillars, and all the finest remains of ancient architecture.
To the south-west of this barren and rocky territory lies
the extensive district of tne Haouran, which is bounded on
the south-west by the mountain chain which is prolonged
southward, and here spreads out into a mass of mountains,
which extend still farther southward into Palestine. On the
south-east, where the farthest inhabited villages are Bosra
and El Remtha, the Haouran borders on the desert. It lies
between different ranges of lofty mountains, and is a plain
diversified with gentle elevations, the same levels being no¬
where of long continuation, though still not so much above
or below each other as to destroy the general character of
an irregular and undulating plain, in which there is nothing
that deserves to be called a hill on its whole surface. The
eminences that occasionally break the continuity of the sur¬
face, are mostly small veins of rock projecting above the
surface; and these appear in all cases to have been selected
for the sites of towns, for the sake of securing a command-
J Buckingham’s Travels in Syria, p. 507.
Buckingham’s Travels among the Arab Tribes, chap. xxvi. p. 541.
62
SYRIA.
Syria, mg position, a freer air, and a drier soil. This plain is fer-
""v'"-" tile in corn, and is considered as the granary of Syria. But
it is liable to severe droughts, under one of which calami¬
ties it was suffering when it was visited by Buckingham in
1824. In the eastern hills among the Druses, and in the
mountains of Jordan, both rain and snow had fallen; and
thither many distressed families had taken refuge from
the prevailing distress. Buckingham, when he was in this
country, had a view of this extensive district from the hills
to the west; and he could perceive, that though lower than
the elevated country of Belkah, it was a table-land on a
high level, measuring from the surface of the lake of Tibe¬
rias, as the tops of the lofty hills which form the eastern
boundary of that lake appeared but on a level with the sur¬
face of this plain, so that the lake must have been much
lower. To the east a range of hills, inhabited by the Druses,
bounds the plain. These hills are of an unbroken outline,
and not much elevated from the plain, although their sum¬
mits penetrate the line of perpetual snow. To the north¬
east the land gradually rises, and is lost in an even horizon of
high plains. To the north the view is bounded by another
range of snow-clad mountains, called also the Mountains of
the Druses. On the north-west there is a still higher range,
called Jebel-el-Tely, covered with snow, and extending
north-east and south-west; and in this last direction the
northern points of the Asswete and the Adjeloon ranges
show patches of snow amidst thick forests of evergreen
wood. Beyond these, again, is another great plain or table¬
land, on a higher level, to the eastward, and said to be in all
respects equal to the Haouran in the fertility of the soil
and the abundant remains of a numerous population.
Buckingham laments that so fine a country should be in
the possession of such barbarous inhabi tants, and abandon¬
ed, from their negligence and tyranny, to sterility and deso¬
lation. “ On the mountains and plains,” he adds, “ of these
districts of Belkah, Adjeloon, and Haouran, extending from
the Dead Sea to the sources of the Jordan north, and from
the banks of that river to the extreme limits of the culti¬
vable land on the east, there would be room for a million
of human beings to form a new colony, who would enrich
every country that was on their borders, and would form a
centre from which industry, arts, science, and morals, might
extend their influence, and irradiate regions now the prey
of ignorance, rapine, and devastation.”1 Among the hills,
horses, mules, and asses, are bred as beasts of burden; but
in the plain of Haouran numerous herds of camels are to
be seen.
To the w est of the Haouran the country becomes moun¬
tainous, but is still extremely fertile, and interspersed with
numerous valleys. To the east of the river Jordan, from
the lake of Tiberias to the Dead Sea, and from Oom Kais
to Heshbon, its fertility is great. In the mountain districts
of Belkah and Adjeloon, the woody scenery can scarcely be
surpassed in beauty. The valleys abound with corn-fields
and olive-grounds; the upland slopes of the hills are planted
with vines, and the summits of the mountains are clothed
with trees of the coldest regions. “ The climate,” says Buck¬
ingham, “ is really delightful; a clear, deep, blue sky, a pure
air, a warm summer in the valleys and plains, a snowy win¬
ter on the mountain tops, with all the finest shades of gra¬
dation between these two extremes, furnish every variety
of temperature and atmosphere that can be desired by man.
Indeed this portion of the country, included in the dis¬
tricts of Belkah and Adjeloon, on the east of the Jordan,
is as superior to the promised land on the w^est of that
stream, as the most romantic and beautiful parts of Devon¬
shire are to the bleak hills and barren heaths of the adjoin¬
ing county of Cornwall.”2
Syria is inhabited by a mixture of various races, with
their peculiar manners and modes of faith. The coast and
the seaport towns, more especially towards the north, and
Aleppo and Damascus, exhibit a population chiefly Turkish,
with Turkish manners, costume, and language. But the
mountain regions, the countries on the Libanus and the
Anti-Libanus range, the intervening valleys, the eastern
declivity towards Aleppo and Damascus, and to the south
the districts of Ledja, the Haouran, and the countries to
the wrest of the Jordan, are inhabited by Turks, Druses,
Christians, and Arabs, some wanderers and robbers, and
others following the pastoral life, or enacting alternately the
shepherd and the robber as opportunity offers. Civil order
or law is but very imperfectly maintained in those unset¬
tled countries. Some districts purchase an exemption from
Arab robbery, by paying a contribution, on the same prin¬
ciple as the Scotish Lowlanders formerly paid the contribu¬
tion of black mail to the mountain robbers of their country.
Under the former dominion of the Turkish pachas no re¬
gular police was established : there was no security to the
traveller, either for life or property; and in the mountain
districts, and to the eastward of them, traders, in journeying
to Aleppo or Damascus, were forced to associate in large
caravans in order to repel the herds of robbers with which
the roads were infested. Since the country has come un¬
der the dominion of the pacha of Egypt, it has been the
scene of rebellion, owing to his oppressions; and the dis¬
orders which have ensued cannot fail to encourage the
trade of robbery and violence. It is not possible that the
condition of the country can be improved when civil war
continues to rage within its borders.
The Druses, who are spread over all Syria, more espe¬
cially in its mountain tracts, are a very peculiar race ; and
little has yet been discovered of their religion and its oc¬
cult rites. Their priests maintain an impenetrable silence
on these subjects; and when strangers question any of the
lay-members of this curious sect, they relate numberless
fables, which find their way into books of travels, and thus
errors are propagated. A very curious remnant of Egyp¬
tian superstition is said to prevail in Mount Libanus, among
those Druses who assume the name of okkals, namely, di¬
vine honour paid to a calf; and the worship of Venus by
the most licentious rites is reported to be practised among
them. They are indifferent to all the outward forms of re¬
ligion, and admit into their temples as objects of adoration
vyhatsoever has been venerated by heathens, Jews, Chris¬
tians, or Mahommedans. They are reported to worship all
the prophets, especially Isaiah and Jeremiah, as well as
Christ and Mahommed ; and at set times the okkals, who
cultivate mysteries, elevate within their places of worship a
molten idol made of gold, silver, or brass, which has the
form of a calf. According to the report, prostrations are
made before this idol, and these are followed by a promis-
cuous intercourse of the different sexes. That they are not so
indifferent as has been reported to different systems of reli¬
gion, appears from their hatred and contempt of Mahomme-
danism, w hile they behave with great benevolence and friend¬
ship to Christians, whose faith they respect. The okkals
oi akauls, the priests of the Druse religion, are distinguish-
ed bj a white turban, and the peculiarity of the folds in
winch they wear it. They are subjected to self-denial;
t ley are not permitted to smoke tobacco ; they never sw ear,
and are reserved in their manners and conversation. They
pray in their chapels, but not at stated periods. These are
ui t in some sequestered spot, and none but Druses are
a /at i t0 ent,er t^em- They affect to follow the doctrines
o a ommed ; few, however, pray according to the Turk-
is i orm*. I hey fast during Ramadan in the presence of
.Buckingham’s Travels in Syria, p. 228.
Buckingham’s Travels among the Arab Tribes, chap. viii. p. 141.
SYRIA.
Syria, strangers, but eat at their own houses even of the flesh of
the wild boar, which is frequently to be found in the moun¬
tain districts which they inhabit.1 They are industrious
cultivators, and live comfortably where they are not op¬
pressed by Turkish extortion. Buckingham mentions, that
where he was entertained by one of them at supper, they
had a chimney, as in England, blazing with an excellent
fire. The men were all stout, handsome, clean, and well
dressed, and the children among the best-looking he had
seen in Syria.2 They speak the Arabic language, but in
every thing else they are a distinct race. Their physiog¬
nomy is particularly marked; and from the visible differ¬
ence, Dr Clarke was enabled to select one of the Druses
from the midst of a party of Arabs. According to the tes¬
timony of this traveller, they are distinguished by a certain
nobleness and dignity of feature, a marked elevation of
countenance, and superior deportment, accompanied by
openness, sincerity, and engaging manners. They are much
esteemed for their probity and mildness of disposition.3
The Bedouin Arabs wander over all Syria. They are of
two classes; those who do not fix their habitation to any
district, but who range over the whole country; and those
whose wanderings are confined within certain bounds. The
Bedouins of the Haouran were formerly bound to join the
troops of the Turkish pacha when that country was under
the dominion of the Porte ; but they were in general guid¬
ed entirely by the advantage which they were likely to de¬
rive from the contest. The Arab tribes were formerly sub¬
ject to an annual tribute, which was levied on each tent,
according to the wealth of its owner. It was often refused
by the poor or refractory Arabs. Those of the Ledja, the
district already described, on the north of Damascus, often
withheld the tribute, in the confidence that the recesses of
their abodes could not be forced. But they were often re¬
duced by the want of water ; when, their own springs fail¬
ing, they were obliged to approach the perennial springs of
other districts. The Arabs of the Haouran act as shep¬
herds for the people of the plains, who intrust to them in
summer and winter their flocks of goats and sheep, which
they pasture during the latter season among the rocks of
the mountains. In spring they account for the flocks to
their owners, who sell a part of them at Damascus. They
receive for their trouble one fourth of the lambs and
kids, and a like proportion of the butter. Casual losses in
the flocks are borne by both parties. These are the Arabs
who are comparatively stationary. The wandering Arabs
cover the whole of the plain of Haouran, whither they come
in swarms from the desert in May, and remain until Septem¬
ber. On their arrival, the resident Arabs who may happen
to be at war with them conceal themselves in the moun¬
tains, with all the recesses of which long experience has
made them familiar. Till within a few years these Arabs
Mere the constant carriers for the Hadji pilgrims on their
road to Mecca, and made yearly contracts with the pacha,
by which they were considerable gainers, as well as by the
fixed tribute which they levied on the pilgrim caravans,
and by the nightly plunder of stragglers and loaded camels
on the march.
The Arabs are generally of a short stature, thin visage,
scanty beard, and brilliant black eyes; while the Druses
are taller and stouter, with a long beard, and a less pier¬
cing look. The Turks and Christians of the Haouran live
and dress alike, and religion seems no source of difference
between them. The Christians, as they recede from the
sphere of supreme authority, enjoy a degree of boldness and
freedom unknown in the Turkish cities or in their vicinity,
or throughout the lower and more populous districts. When
quarrels arise in. these mountain regions, a Christian fears Syr
not to strike a T. urk, or to execrate his religion ; a li- v
berty which, in the Syrian towns, would expose the of¬
fender to the penalty of death, or to a heavy pecuniary fine.
1 his liberty which Christians enjoy in the Haouran and in
other remote and less frequented districts, is supposed by
Burckhardt to arise from the common sufferings and dan¬
gers which they encounter in defence of their property ;
and it is strengthened by the Druses, who show equal re¬
spect to both religions. Buckingham ascribes this diminu¬
tion of religious bigotry and intolerance to the nearly equal
mixture of Mahommedans and Christians. The prohibition
of the Christians and Jews to wear the same gay colours
as the Mahommedans, to use the salutation of peace, or to
employ the oaths and ejaculations peculiar to the faith of
Islam, which is enforced wherever the authority of Arab
or Turkish governors extends, does not take effect in the
mountain districts of Syria, where the two religions are on
a footing of equality.
There is little distinction between the richest and the
poorest of the Druses in their mode of living. In newly-
built villages the whole family, with all its household furni¬
ture, cooking utensils, and provision chests, is commonly
huddled together in one apartment; but where the ancient
buildings, which were raised by the more civilized race
that inhabited the country in the age of the Romans, are
occupied, they afford spacious and convenient dwellings of
three or four apartments for each family. The country, as
has been already mentioned, is covered with these dwell¬
ings, constructed very curiously of stone, and with other
wonderful memorials of ancient grandeur. Granite pillars,
hewn blocks, excavated sepulchres, Roman theatres and
temples, and other wrorks of masonry, all testify the great
works of former days. The houses are all built of solid
stone; and from the scarcity of wood a singular kind of
masonry has been restarted to, the stones being interlock¬
ed into each other by a kind of dove-tailing, and thus very
strongly united without cement. They have small windows,
both of the square and circular form in the same range. In
many of these dwellings there were massy folding doors of
stone, which were moved on stone hinges, and of which the
remains are still to be seen. Some are fastened by horizon¬
tal bars of stone, and others by perpendicular ones in the
inside of them, and lodging each end in the massy frame¬
work of the door on either side, or above and below, as the
position of the bar required. The want of wood for build¬
ing rendered it necessary to use very large stones for some
parts of the edifices, such as beams for the roofs and doors.
These houses are large, having several spacious apartments;
and they are still used by the inhabitants, being constructed
of such durable materials as to resist decay.
The Turkmans are a barbarous race, w ith pastoral ha¬
bits, who range over the plains west-north-west of Alep¬
po, and the mountains by which it is bounded on the
west; the average breadth of which, including the nume¬
rous valleys w hich intersect them, may be estimated at from
fifteen to twenty miles. They lose themselves in the
plain of Antioch, which is bounded on the opposite side by
the chain of high mountains that extends along the southern
coast of the gulf of Scanderoon. The plain of Antioch is
watered by the river Afrin, which is full of carps and bar¬
bies ; but the Turkmans have no implements for fishing.
The valleys among the mountains are besides watered by
numerous other rivers; and here is a small lake formed
by the river Goul, which is so full of fish that the boys
kill them by throwing stones at them. Here are also
wTarm springs, which were seen by Burckhardt, strong-
Burckhardt 3 Travels in S^ria, p. 304. * Buckingham’s Travels among the Arab Tribes, p. 189.
3 Clarke’s Travels in Syria, chap, xiv. p. 461.
64
SYRIA.
Syria.
ly impregnated with sulphur, in which the thermometer
rose to 102°. Those tribes of the Turkmans appear in
their winter-quarters in the plain of Antioch at the end of
September, and depart towards the middle of April, when
the flies of the plain begin to torment their horses and cattle.
They then begin to direct their march towards Marasch,
and remain in the neighbourhood of that place for about a
month; thence they reach the mountains to the east, where
they pass the hottest summer months; and in autumn they
return by the same route towards Antioch. 1 hey live in
tents and in huts. Those tents are always surrounded by lour
others, in which live the Fellah families, who cultivate the
land. These are the remaining peasants of abandoned^
villages, or some poor stragglers from the mountains of
Kurdistan, who live wretchedly; and when they succeed in
scraping together a small pittance, their Turkman masters
contrive to take it from them under pretence of borrow-
ing it. ,
"Syria is a country of ancient renown, and connected with
many interesting historical recollections. In the early peri¬
ods of the Jewish history, it was apowerful state, ofwhich Da¬
mascus was the capital. Phoenicia, the great commercial state
of those ancient times, flourished in Syria, and sent out colo¬
nies to other countries. Syria was, after the death of Alex¬
ander, erected into an extensive monarchy under Seleucus,
one of his lieutenants. It comprehended the whole west of
Asia, and under Antiochus maintained a long and doubtful
conflict with the Roman power. Under the Roman em¬
perors Syria was the seat of luxury and wealth, and An¬
tioch, the capital, was, next to Rome and Alexandria, one
of the first cities in the empire, famed for its riches and
splendour. Syria, during the decline of the Roman empire,
was overrun by barbarous hordes, and fell under the domi¬
nion of the Saracens. It was the great theatre of conten¬
tion between the crusading armies and those of the Mos¬
lems ; and a long and bloody contest, signalized by deeds
of valour on both sides, terminated in the triumph of the
infidels; when Syria was finally absorbed in the Turkish em¬
pire, of which it formed one of the richest and most valu¬
able provinces. It was ruled by the provincial authority
of the pachas, several of whom, in the increasing weakness
of the Turkish sway, set up the standard of independent
power. Among the earliest of these was Fackerdin, the
emir of the Druses, who made himself master of Beirout,
and successively of all the towns on the Syrian coast. He
was at last defeated and slain by the Turkish force sent
against him ; and his posterity continued to administer the
affairs of the Druses as vassals of the Porte. Daher, a
powerful Arabian scheik, contended for independent power
so successfully with the sultan, that for a long time he
was obliged to grant him an annual lease of his dominion.
He was also subdued by a powerful army sent against him
by the Porte, and was put to death. He was succeeded by
the well-known Dsjezzar Pacha, who acquired a power al¬
most equally independent, but who, unlike the former pacha,
whose administration was mild and just, was a fierce and sa¬
vage tyrant. His reign was rendered remarkable by the in¬
vasion of Syria by Bonaparte, and by his memorable defence
of Acre, along with the British under Sir Sidney Smith.
After the death of Dsjezzar, Soleiman was appointed pacha;
and it was about this period that Syria was first threatened
with an invasion by the Wahabis, whose power had been
extending for some years, and who would no longer permit
the great armed caravans to proceed to Mecca from Damas-
Yussuf Pacha succeeded, and was equally unsuccess
ful in repelling the incursions of the Wahabis, who, advan¬
cing through the Syrian desert, spread terror to the gates
e* Damascus. The important task of crushing the rising
power of this formidable sect was at length undertaken
bv Mehemet Ali, the present pacha of Egypt, who sent
Ibrahim with a numerous force, and a vast retinue of camels
and other beasts of burden, with large supplies, and suc¬
ceeded, after many bloody conflicts, in taking their capital,
and Abdallah their chief, who was sent prisoner to Constanti¬
nople, and there beheaded.1 Syria, after the extinction of the
Wahaby power, was ruled as before by Turkish pachas, the
vassals of the Porte, who oppressed the country by exac¬
tions, and left the poor peasantry scarcely a bare subsist¬
ence. When a just administration, with which they are
occasionally blessed, left them the produce of their fertile
soil, they were prosperous and happy, as they were propor-
tionably'miserable under those cruel tyrants, in whose hands
power was only used for extortion.
But a new era was now approaching, when Syria, in the
progressive decline of the Turkish dominion, was to pass
under the yoke of a new and even more severe task-master.
The pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, had been long aspiring
at independent power; and having collected and disciplined
a powerful army, he at length threw off the mask, and in
October 1831 invaded Syria by El Arish, and after taking
possession of Gaza and Jaffa, he laid siege to St Jean d’Acre,
the memorable scene of so many sanguinary conflicts. The
place was strong, and resolutely defended by Abdallah Pa¬
cha. The siege had continued three months, during which
the town was reduced to a heap of ruins. The Egyptian
army had also suffered severely. In the mean time, Osman,
the bey of Tripoli, having collected a force of 5000, pro¬
ceeded to the attack of Tripoli, on the sea-coast. Ibrahim
hastened with 5000 troops and six pieces of artillery to this
new scene of action, and on the 31st of March 1832 succeed¬
ed in putting Osman to flight after a severe engagement. He
retired across the mountains to Hamah; and Ibrahim fol¬
lowing, encamped on the plains of Homs, where he was at¬
tacked on the 15th of Api'il by a Turkish force, and after a
drawn battle, retired on Baalbec. In the mean time Me¬
hemet Ali, impressed with the importance of gaining pos¬
session of Acre, sent reinforcements from Candia; and Ibra¬
him resuming the command, pressed the siege with re¬
doubled vigour, and on the 15th of May the place capitulat¬
ed after a severe struggle, Abdallah and the garrison being
made prisoners of war. Mehemet Ali, following up his suc¬
cess, advanced on the 8th of June on Damascus, which he
entered on the 14th. He was joined by the Christian po¬
pulation of Mount Lebanon, and by their aged emir with
5000 men. The victorious army resumed its march north¬
wards for Aleppo ; and at Homs, on the head streams of the
Orontes, he was encountered by a Turkish force of 20,000
men, which was completely routed, with the loss of tents,
provisions, ammunition, and thirty-one pieces of cannon.
Ibrahim now divided his force, sending one detachment to
Antioch, and advancing with the other towards Aleppo.
Hearing that the Turkish army had now entered Syria under
Husseyn Pacha, he proceeded to meet the enemy. The
Turkish position was one of great natural strength, accessi¬
ble only by a defile. Troops were posted along all the heights,
which were besides crowned with artillery. The Egyptian
army reached the pass on the 28th of July; and the following
morning, having silenced the enemy’s batteries by his supe¬
rior fire, Ibrahim carried the heights by main force. The
victory was complete; the loss of the Turks amounted to
13,000 men, and forty pieces of cannon were left on the field.
The fruit of this victory was the surrender of Antioch, and
the submission of the whole north-eastern portion of Syria.
Another battle was fought on the 21st of December 1832,
when the Turkish army, amounting to 40,000 men, with
sixty pieces of cannon, was entirely routed and dispersed.
Syria.
1 See article Ababia in this work.
4
SYS/
Svriam The sultan was now completely humbled; and after various
li delays and negociations with Russia, a treaty was finally
Syntem. concluded, which ceded the dominion of Syria to Mehemet
Ali.
Syria has been ruled by Mehemet Ali with the most tyran¬
nical cruelty. The conscriptions both for the army and for
his military works have been enforced with the most un¬
heard-of brutality. At Damascus the houses were surround¬
ed in the night by troops, and every man capable of bearing
arms was carried off. Still greater outrages took place at
Beirout, where the inhabitants, Turks, Jews, and Christians,
were seized or knocked down in the streets; the houses broken
open, and all dragged indiscriminately to prison, and there
plundered and otherwise maltreated. His conscriptions and
rigorous exactions produced insurrection in various quar¬
ters of the country. These were soon suppressed, and were
followed by severe vengeance. The Druses were decimated,
and their villages burned. The Ansaries, who were driven
to resistance by oppression, were indiscriminately slaugh¬
tered, though they implored forgiveness. Towards the close
of 1837, the Druses again rose in arms to resist the intoler¬
able cruelty of Mehemet Ali, They gained a signal victory
over a force of 20,000 troops under Achmet Pacha, who
was driven back with great loss by the Druses, advantage¬
ously posted on the mountains. But new armies being sent,
the Druses were finally defeated, and compelled to seek re¬
fuge in the recesses of the mountains.
In the mean time the Porte, stung by recent humiliation
and the loss of Syria, was preparing for a new war; to which
the hesitation of Mehemet Ali in paying his tribute, and his
threatened declarations of independence, afforded a sufficient
motive. Mehemet Ali on his part reinforced his armies;
and although the European powers, namely, Great Britain,
Russia, France, and Austria, interposed to maintain peace,
the armies at length encountered, when victory again de¬
clared in favour of Mehemet Ali, whose way was now open
to Constantinople, when the vigorous interposition of the
European powers enforced an armistice, with a view to
establish a lasting peace. Since this period the combined
influence of the same powers has been exerted to settle
SYRIAM, a town of the Birman empire, in the province
of Pegu, on the banks of the Appoo river, where were
formerly situated several factories of the Europeans. The
British factory was destroyed during the wars between the
Birmans and the Peguers. Long. 96. 17. E. Lat. 16.
49. N.
SYRINGE, a well-known instrument, serving to imbibe
or suck in a quantity of fluid, and to squirt or expel the
same with violence. The word is formed from the Greek
tfuj/yg, a pipe. A syringe is only a single pump, and the
water ascends in it on the same principle as in the common
sucking-pump.
SYSTEM, in general, denotes an assemblage or chain
of principles and conclusions, or the whole of any doctrine,
the several parts of which are bound together, and follow
or depend on each other; in which sense we say a system of
philosophy, a system of divinity, &c. The word is formed
from the Greek rttW^a, composition.
System, in Music, signifies an exposition of all the
sounds employed in composition, considered theoretically
and practically, melodically and harmonically. The ancient
Greek melodic system was divided into tetrachords; the
modern melodic and harmonic system is divided into oc¬
taves. The Guidonian system was divided into hexachords.
The most modern system of harmony, which originated in
the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, is
founded upon a system of tonality different from that em-
VOL. XXI.
SYR 65
these eastern disputes, and, as is understood, to maintain Systyle
the integrity of the Turkish empire by the cession of Syria N,.
to the Porte. Mehemet Ali refuses to yield the hereditary , /
sovereignty of this country, the fruit of victory and his right
by conquest. The European powers are engaged in anxious
discussions to effect a settlement of these disputes, and nu¬
merous fleets are assembled in the Mediterranean to give
weight to their interference.
How far the interest or honour of those powers, and more
especially of Great Britain, is so directly concerned in the
integrity of Turkey as to warrant such actual interference,
and the maintenance of expensive armaments, may well be
questioned. The Turkish empire has been long verging to
decay; and can no longer maintain supreme rule over its
subordinate governors, who, taking advantage of its weak¬
ness, assume independent power. This is a necessary step
in the natural progress of decay which no foreign aid can
avert; nor is it easy to perceive any rational ground for
the interference of Great Britain, by means of expensive
armaments, in those distant disputes, the result of which can¬
not affect her safety. The rise of an independent power in
the east, such as Egypt, cannot possibly be prejudicial to
European interests ; and for what purpose therefore set in
motion such expensive political machinery to arrest the na¬
tural progress of events ? Even if Turkey were to fall under
the extending sway of Russia, of which there is no imme¬
diate prospect, it is doubtful whether this accession of ter¬
ritory would add to her solid strength; whether it would
render her a more formidable enemy, held as it would be
by the uncertain tenure of recent conquest; and whether
therefore it is not the wiser policy to remain quiet, watch¬
ing the course of events, than to provide by expensive pre¬
parations against dangers which may only exist in the fancies
of speculative politicians. It is this system of watchful an¬
ticipation, and of chimerical anxiety about the balance of
power, which has plunged Great Britain into so many use¬
less wars, and has overwhelmed her with debt; and the
danger is, that the same course followed in a season of pro¬
found peace will increase her burdens, until she sink at last
under the accumulating load. (f.)
ployed prior to these periods, as will be shown under the
article Tonality. For some account of harmonic systems,
see Music.
SYSTYLE, in Architecture, that manner of placing co¬
lumns where the space between the two shafts consists of
two diameters or four modules.
SYZYGY, Syzygia, in Astronomy, a term equally used
for the conjunction and opposition of a planet with the sun.
The word is formed from the Greek which properly
signifies conjunctio. On the phenomena and circumstances
of the syzygies a great part of the lunar theory depends.
See Astronomy.
SZARVAS, a large town of the Austrian kingdom of
Hungary, of the circle of the Farther Theiss, and the district
of Bekesch. It stands on the river Koros. It is chiefly
inhabited by the Saxon race, who have there a Lutheran
church, and several institutions for education, chiefly on
subjects relating to the knowledge and promotion of arts,
manufactures, and agriculture. It contains 820 houses,
with 8600 inhabitants. Long. 20. 26. 19. E. Lat. 46. 52.
30. N.
SZEGEDIN, a large city of the kingdom of Hungary,
in the province of the Farther Theiss, and circle of Song-
rab, of which it is the capital. It stands on the river
Theiss, where that stream is joined by the Maros. It is
well built and strongly fortified, is the seat of a Greek pro¬
pope, of a Piarist college, and of a Catholic gymnasium.
I
66
TAB
T From its situation on a great river, it carries on extensive
II trade both upwards and downwards, but chiefly in the pro-
Tabas. (juc^s 0f jts soi]. Here they build numerous boats and barges,
which are loaded with tobacco, corn, wood, and some manu¬
factured goods both of wool and cotton. The tobacco raised
near the city is highly valued in all the Austrian dominions,
and the quantity annually exported is said to exceed 60,000
quintals. The public buildings have nothing remarkable,
but the city contains 4600 dwellings, and the inhabitants
now amount to 32 500 having increased to that number
TAB
from 25,690 since the year 1817. Long. 20. 4.57. E. Lat. Szigeth
46. 15. 15. N. H
SZIGETH, a town of the kingdom of Hungary, in the ^ber;
province of the Farther Theiss, the capital of a circle of the FeasUf.
same name. It stands at the influx of the river Itza to
the Theiss. It contains a Catholic college, and churches
for that sect, one for the Lutherans and one for the Unita¬
rians, with 6850 inhabitants. The greater part of the king¬
dom is supplied with salt from this place. Long. 24. 16.
25. E. Lat. 47. 56. 8. N.
Tor t, the nineteenth letter and sixteenth consonant of
^ our alphabet; the sound of which is formed by a
strong expulsion of the breath through the mouth, upon a
sudden drawing back of the tongue from the fore-part of
the palate, with the lips at the same time open. The pro¬
per sound of t is expressed in most words beginning or
ending with that letter ; as in take, tell, hot, put. Ti be¬
fore a vowel has the sound of si, or rather of shi, as in crea¬
tion, except when s precedes, as in question; and deriva¬
tives from words ending in ty, as mighty, mightier. Th
has two sounds; the one soft, as thou, father; the other
hard, as thing, think. The sound is soft in these words,
then, thence, and there, with their derivatives and com¬
pounds ; and in the words that, this, thus, thy, they,
though ; and in all words in which th comes between two
vowels, as, whether, rather ; and between r and a vowel,
as burthen.
In abbreviations, among the Roman writers, T. stands
for Titus, Titius, &c.; Tab. for Tabularius ; Tab. P. H.
C. Tabularius Provincice Hispanice Citerioris ; Tar. Tar-
quinius; Ti. Tiberius; Ti. F. Tiberii Jilius; Ti. L. Ti-
berii libertus ; Ti. N. Tiberii Nepos ; T. J. A. V. P. V. D.
tempore judicem arbitrumve postulat ut det; T. M. P. ter-
minum posuit; T. M. D. D. terminum dedicavit; Tr. tram,
tribunus; Tr. M. or Mil. tribunus militum; TR. PL. DES.
tribunus plebis designatus ; TR. AER. tribunus cerarii ;
TRY. CAP. triumviri capitales; T. P. or TRIB. POT.
tribunicia potestate; Tul. H. Tullus Hostilius. Among
the ancients, T, as a numeral, stood for one hundred and
sixty ; and with a dash at top, thus T, it signified one hun¬
dred and sixty thousand. In music, T stands for tutti,
“ all, or altogether.”
TA, a city and fortress of China, of the second rank, in
Sechuen. Long. 107. 15. E. Lat. 36. 55. N. Also the
name of a river which falls into the Eastern Seas. Long.
121. 34. E. Lat. 36. 55. N.
1AAWIRY. There are two islands of this name, situ¬
ated within the reef of the island of Otaheite.
TAB, a river of Persia, the ancient Arosis, which, rising
in the mountains of Pars, divides that province from Khu-
sistan, and falls into the Persian Gulf near Endian.
TAB A Islands, four small islands in the Eastern Seas,
near the east coast of Borneo. Long. 118. 12. E. Lat. 2.
6. N.
TABABELLA, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Malwah, thirty-two miles west from Oojain. Long. 75.
20. E. Lat. 23. 16. N.
. TABAS, a city of Persia, in the province of Khorassan.
It is situated on the road from Herat to Yezd, 337 miles
from the former, and 150 from the latter. It stands with¬
in a range of mountains, and contains 20,000 inhabitants.
Tabas is also the name of a village in Anatolia.
TABBY, in Commerce, a kind of rich silk which has
undergone the operation of tabbying.
TABBYING, the passing a silk or stuff under a ca¬
lender, the rolls of which are made of iron or copper vari¬
ously engraven, which bearing unequally on the stuff, ren¬
ders the surface of it unequal, so as to reflect the rays of
light differently, and to exhibit a representation of waves.
TABELLIO, in the Roman law, an officer or scrivener,
much the same with our notaries public, who are often
called tabelliones.
TABERNA, a city of Spain, in the province of Valen¬
cia, about six miles north-east from the capital, on the
great road leading to Catalonia. It is on the sea-shore, in
a district of great richness and fertility, and contains about
4500 inhabitants.
TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of build¬
ing, in the form of a tent, set up, by express command of
God, for the performance of religious worship, sacrifices,
&c. during the journeying of the Israelites in the wilder¬
ness ; and, after their settlement in the land of Canaan, used
for the same purpose till the building of the temple of Je¬
rusalem. It was divided into two parts; the one covered,
and properly called the tabernacle; and the other open,
called the court. The curtains which covered the taber¬
nacle were made of embroidered linen, of several colours.
There were ten curtains, twenty-eight cubits long and four
in breadth. Five curtains fastened together composed two
coverings, which covered up all the tabernacle. Over
these there were other two coverings; the one of goats’
hair, the other of sheeps’ skins. The holy of holies was
parted from the rest of the tabernacle by a curtain fasten¬
ed to four pillars, standing ten cubits from the end. The
length of the whole tabernacle was thirty-two cubits, that
is, about fifty feet; and the breadth twelve cubits or nine¬
teen feet. I he court was a spot of ground 100 cubits
long, and fifty in breadth, enclosed by twenty columns, each
twenty cubits high and ten in breadth, covered with silver,
and standing on copper bases five cubits distant from one
another; between which there were curtains drawn, and
fastened with hooks. At the east end was an entrance,
twenty cubits wide, covered with a curtain hanging loose.
Tabernacles, Feast of, a solemn festival of the He¬
brews, observed after harvest, on the fifteenth day of the
month Tisri, instituted to commemorate the goodness of
TAB
Tablas God, who protected the Israelites in the wilderness, and
Isle made them dwell in booths, when they came out of Egypt.
, II On the first day of the feast they began to erect booths of
'J ‘I'0-. > the boughs of trees, and in these they were obliged to con-
tinue seven days. The boughs were placed in the open
air, and were not to be covered with cloths, nor made too
close by the thickness of the boughs, but so loose that the
sun and the stars might be seen, and the rains descend
through them.
TABLAS Isle, one of the Philippines, situated due
north of Luzon, thirty miles in length by three in average
breadth.
TABLATURE (Ital. Tabulatura, or Intavolatura), an
old species of musical notation by means of letters of the
alphabet applied to a staff of four or more lines and their
spaces, and most usually employed in music written for the
guitar, or for instruments of the lute kind. It has long
been disused, and is now generally unintelligible. For
some explanations of Tablature, see Graham’s Essay upon
Music.
TABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, usually made
of wood or stone, and supported on pillars or the like, for
the commodious reception of things placed upon it.
TABLE Island, a small island in the South Pacific
Ocean, so called by Captain Wilson. Long. 181. 54. W.
Lat. 18. 54. S. This is also the name of several small islands
in the Eastern Seas. Table Point is the southern extre¬
mity of Bali Island, in the Eastern Seas. Long. 115. 11.
E. Lat. 8. 45. S.; also the eastern boundary of the south
entrance into Bali Straits.
TABOO, a word used by the South Sea islanders, and
nearly of the same import as prohibited or interdicted. It
applies equally to persons and things, and is also expressive
of any thing sacred, devoted, or eminent.
TABOR, a celebrated mountain of Palestine, situated
to the south-west of Lake Tiberias, over which, and all
the surrounding country, it commands an extensive pros¬
pect, about two leagues south-east from Nazareth, and
nearly the same distance from Jordan. In shape it re¬
sembles a truncated cone. It is entirely calcareous, and is
covered to the top with a forest of oak, and wild pistachio,
and other trees, and a variety of plants. It is completely
insulated from any of the neighbouring mountains, none of
which is of equal height. It is estimated by Bucking¬
ham to be about 1000 feet above the adjacent country.
It is covered in the morning, and during a great part of
the day, with thick clouds, which disperse towards mid¬
day. A strong wind blows on it during the day; and
Burckhardt mentions that more copious dews fall in the
night than he had seen in any other part of Syria. Here
this traveller found a single family of Greek Christians,
who had resided on the top for several years. They rent¬
ed the oval plain into which the summit is extended for
about a quarter of a mile, at fifty piastres, and had retired
to this remote spot to avoid paying taxes. Here are found
the remains of a large fortress, the thick wall of which may
be traced quite round the summit. The area of the plain
is overspread with ruins of private dwellings, built of stone,
of great solidity, and with the vestiges of churches, grot¬
toes, and other ancient relics. There are no springs ; but
numerous reservoirs have been cut in the rock, two of which
are still of service in supplying water. Mount Tabor is ce¬
lebrated as the Mount of Transfiguration.
Tabor, a city of the Austrian kingdom of Bohemia, the
capital of the circle of the same name, which extends over
1137 square miles, and contains 171,270 inhabitants. The
city is situated on a hill near the river Luschnitz. It con¬
tains a very curious collegiate church, a monastery of Au¬
gustins, and 430 houses, with 3430 inhabitants. It is re¬
markable from having been founded in 1420, by the first
Protestants, then called Hussites, and sometimes Taborites.
TAB 67
At Tabor there are some manufactures of linens and wool- Tabriz,
lens. Long. 13. 48. E. Lat. 49. 24. 23. N. —
TABRIZ, or Tabreez, a city of Persia, and capital of
the province of Azerbijan, and for a considerable time the
residence of Abbas Mirza, the heir-apparent of the Persian
crown. It is seated in an immense plain at the foot of a
mountain, on the banks of a small river whose waters are
applied to the cultivation of the land. Tabriz was former¬
ly a magnificent city, and, according to Chardin’s account,
contained, when he visited it in 1686, 15,000 houses, as
many shops, 300 caravanserais, 250 mosques, magnificent
domed bazaars, and 550,000 inhabitants, though this last
appears rather an exaggerated estimate. At present, Mo-
rier does not consider it to be more than one tenth of its
former magnitude. All the large buildings have been de¬
stroyed by earthquakes. Two of these occurred during the
last century, and were particularly fatal: 100,000 inha¬
bitants perished, having been swallowed up in the yawn¬
ing abyss of the earth, with their houses; and others crushed
under masses of falling ruins. Notwithstanding these cala¬
mities, a new city has arisen amid the desolation of the old ;
and on all sides are to be seen the ruins of houses, streets,
&c., which afford some idea of the extent and magnificence
of the former city. Tabriz is at this day three miles and a
quarter in circumference. Morier, who visited this place
in 1809, mentions that it is surrounded by walls built of
sun-burnt bricks, and by towers of kiln-burnt bricks placed
at irregular distances from each other. After his second
visit in 1811, he mentions that, four years before, Abbas
Mirza had made Tabriz his capital, and that he had repair¬
ed and beautified the walls, and otherwise improved the city.
Sir R. K. Porter, by whom Tabriz was visited in 1817, also
says that it had been lately re-fortified by order of the prince
Abbas Mirza, who then resided in it. It is now surrounded
with a thick wall, protected by towers and bastions, with
the addition of a very deep dry ditch, the whole embracing
a circumference of 6000 yards. The object of the prince
is not so much to adorn as to strengthen the city; and, be¬
sides the fortifications, a maidan or square has been laid out
by him, and surrounded with barracks for the troops which
he is organizing according to European tactics. He w as also
building a palace for his own residence, which possessed,
however, none of that pomp which distinguished the royal
residences of former days. Beyond this boundary to the
north and east extend the suburbs, which rise amid the ruins
and broken ground which formerly composed the city.
Four gates of no very imposing appearance open into the
new city. They are surmounted by turrets, and orna¬
mented with slight minarets covered with chequer-work of
blue and green tiles, collected from the remains of the an¬
cient vaulted mosques. Out of the 250 mosques mentioned
by Chardin, the ruins of only three are visible. The most
considerable is that of Ali Shah, erected nearly 600 years
ago by Ali Koja, which still presents lofty arches and the
mouldering vaulted work of splendid domes. This building,
both within and without, has been cased over its whole
surface with lackered tiles of porcelain, adjusted with sin¬
gular taste and ingenuity into a variety of intricate and ela¬
borate figures of green, dark, and light blue, interspersed
with Arabic sentences in letters of gold; and a broad band
of rich legends formed in white upon this beautifully varied
ground, and interwoven with flowers in green and gold,
winds round the whole extent of the building. This fine
ruin is within the new fortifications of the city, where are
also the remains of the ark or citadel. The latter building
comprehends within its limits the remains of a mosque, which
is a very finely constructed mass of brick-work, about eighty
feet in height; at the top of which three small chambers
have been constructed, whence the town and the surround¬
ing country are seen as if laid out on a chart. The prince
at one time intended to reside in this place; but it was sub-
68 TAB
Tabriz, sequently converted into an arsenal and manufactory of
arms, which was visited by Morier, and in which he saw
stores of guns, artillery, and the other materiel of war, and
numerous carpenters, wheelwrights, and others, with Euro¬
pean tools, and a blacksmith’s forge at work. To the south¬
east of the city, at the foot of a sloping hill, is a powder-mill,
worked by water, and erected entirely by a Persian. It is,
says Morier, by far the best structure at Tabriz, being built
of brick, stone, and marble. The remains of this structure
that still exist, after repeated shocks of earthquakes, prove
the original solidity and excellence of the workmanship.
About two miles to the south-west of the new walls of the
town, but far within the remnants of the old boundaries,
stand the magnificent remains of the sepulchre of Sultan
Kazan. The intervening ground is marked with shapeless
ruins, even stretching beyond the sepulchre to a great ex¬
tent. The tomb itself has the appearance of a huge mound
of mingled lime, dust, tiles, and bricks, surrounded, how¬
ever, with spacious arches of stone, the remains of its for¬
mer grandeur. Beyond the eastern gate of the town, the
ruins of the ancient city reach for more than three miles
over the valley, and on the adjoining heights which skirt the
base of the hills. On one of the most commanding of these
subordinate acclivities stands the vast and venerable struc¬
ture. of an ancient fortress, which from its position and
strength must have commanded the whole valley. At what
period this vast structure was first built, is entirely un¬
known ; but the thickness of the walls, the massy towers,
and the splendid materials of its interior parts, plainly show
the great labour and cost at which it must have been rear¬
ed. No sun-dried bricks have been employed in this build¬
ing, which consists of huge masses of loose stones and mor¬
tar thrown together, and afterwards closely faced with large
stones. A very large tower, looking towards the town and
the valley, flanks the south-west front of the castle, which
seems in a less impaired state than any of the other quar¬
ters. In the interior of these ruins are found several vaulted
and spacious underground apartments, and near them the
remains of a magnificent mosque. The shattered walls are
filled up with heaps of tiles, dust, and furnace-made bricks,
interspersed with the pieces of white transparent marble
called Tabriz marble, which is dug up in immense blocks
from the mountains on the banks of Lake Ooroomia. Sir
R. K. Porter also marked the foundations of other consi¬
derable buildings, and the site where baths had been con¬
structed. He ascribes the destruction of these edifices
on the heights more to the devastations of war than to earth¬
quakes, as the ruins that still remain mark out very clearly
the plan and architectural dispositions of the edifice. The
plain in which Tabriz is situated is bounded to the north¬
east, the east, and south-east, by a chain of barren mountains,
conspicuous for their red and ochreous appearance. These
mountains rise immediately behind Tabriz, and recede into
a deep vale, which, being watered by a plentiful stream, is
perhaps more highly cultivated than any tract of its size
in Persia, and is remarkable for beautiful and picturesque
scenery.
It is generally understood that the ancient name of Ta¬
briz vyas Ganzaca; and no notice is found of it as the capi¬
tal of Azerbijan until the fourth century of the Christian
era. Irom that period, under the names of Ganzaca, Tauris,
Tabriz or Tabreez, it has been esteemed the capital of the
province. But it must have subsequently declined in con¬
sequence, as the houses of the city only amounted to 3000
when Heraclius took possession of it 300 years after. It
was not till after the accession of the Sefi race of kings that
Tabriz regained its former importance. It must have been
a great city when it was visited by Chardin in 1686, who
rates its population at 550,000. But in 1727 it was nearly
destroyed by an earthquake, in which 70,000 people are
said to have perished; and in a succeeding shock, which
TAG
took place in 1787, only 40,000 remained to be engulphed ; Tacitus
a proof that the population had in the mean time greatlys 
declined. Longitude, according to the observations of the
unfortunate traveller Browrn, 47. 17. 46. E. Latitude, ac¬
cording to Major Monteith, 38. 4. N.
TACHYGRAPHY, from ra^vg, swift, and ygapw, I
write, or the art of writing short-hand. See Stenography.
TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a celebrated Roman
historian, and one of the greatest men of his time, appears
to have been born about the fifty-seventh year of the Chris¬
tian era. He early applied himself to the labours of the
bar, in which he gained very considerable reputation. He
was a man of equestrian rank, and was promoted to various
offices. Having married the daughter of Agricola, the road
to public honours was opened to him in the reign of Ves¬
pasian ; but during the sanguinary and capricious tyranny of
Domitian, he, as well as his friend Pliny, appears to have
retired from the theatre of public affairs. The reign of
Nerva restored these luminaries of Roman literature to the
metropolis; and, in the year 97, we find Tacitus engaged
to pronounce the funeral oration of the venerable Virginius
Rufus, the colleague of the emperor in the consulship, and
afterwards succeeding him as consul for the remainder of
the year. In the year of the city 853, Pliny and Tacitus were
appointed by the senate to plead the cause of the oppressed
Africans against Marius Priscus, a corrupt proconsul, who
was convicted before the fathers; and the patriot orators
were honoured with a declaration that they had executed
their trust to the entire satisfaction of the house. The time
of the historian’s death is not mentioned by any ancient
author, but it is probable that he died in the reign of Trajan.
His works which still remain are, 1. The Life of Agricola,
his father-in-law; 2. On the Manners of the Germans;
3. Five books of his History; 4. His Annals. There is
also attributed to him a dialogue “ De Causis corruptae
Eloquentiae,” which others have ascribed to Quintilian. The
treatise on the manners of the Germans was published in
851. The exact time when Tacitus published his history
is uncertain, but it was in some period of Trajan’s reign,
who died suddenly, a. u. c. 870, a. d. 117. The history
comprises a period of twenty-seven years, from the acces¬
sion of Galba, 822, to the death of Domitian, 849. The
history being finished, he did not think he had completed
the tablature of slavery : he reverted to the time of Tibe¬
rius ; and the second work, which, however, comes first in
the order of chronology, includes a period of fifty-four years,
from the accession of Tiberius, 767, to the death of Nero,
821: this work is his Annals.
No author has obtained a more splendid reputation than
Tacitus. It is impossible not to admire and recommend his
intimate knowledge of the human heart, the spirit of liberty
which he breathes, and the force and vivacity with which
he perpetually expresses himself. He has been censured as
obscure ; and indeed nothing can be more certain than that
he did not write for the common mass of men. But to those
who are judges ot his compositions, it is no matter of re¬
gret that his manner is his own, and peculiar. Never wrere
description and sentiment so wonderfully and so beauti¬
fully blended; and never wrere the actions and characters
of men delineated with so much strength and precision.
Ot the works ot Tacitus, the first edition was printed by
V. Spira at Venice in 1468 or 1469. It is in folio, and
without a date. After some intervening impressions, a
more complete edition was superintended by Beroaldus,
Romae, 1515, fol. Here the earlier books of the Annals
were printed for the first time. The subsequent editions
are so numerous, that we can only specify a very small pro¬
portion. Tacitus was greatly indebted to the learned la¬
bours of Lipsius, wLo published several editions. His first
was printed at Antwerp, 1574, 8vo. His annotations were
gradually augmented, and underwent different revisals and
T A F T A II
69
Tack
il
Taffety.
modifications. The last edition which he himself superin¬
tended was that of Ant. 1600, fol. Passing over the edi¬
tions “ cum notis variorum,” 1672 and 1685, we arrive at
that of Ryckius, Lugd. Bat. 1687, 2 tom. 12mo. The se¬
cond volume contains the editor’s annotations. J. Grono-
vius had undertaken to prepare an edition with the notes
of various critics ; and after his death it was completed by
his son Abraham, Traj. ad Rhen. 1721, 2 tom. 4to. Two
editions by Ernesti were printed at Leipzig in 1752 and
1772, each in two vols. 8vo. An elegant edition was pub¬
lished by Brotier, Paris. 1771, 4 tom. 4to, 1776, 7 tom.
12mo. We now descend to the edition of Oberlin, Lipsiae,
1801, 2 tom. 8vo; and to that of Ruperti, Gotting. 1804,
2 tom. 8vo.
The works of Tacitus have been translated into various
languages. The earliest English version was executed by
Sir Henry Savile and Richard Greenway. Dryden lent
his ready aid to “ The Annals and History of Cornelius
Tacitus, by several hands.” Lond. 1698, 3 vols. 8vo. Some
of these hands are suspected to have been chiefly indebted
to a French translation. Their version was followed by
that of Thomas Gordon, Lond. 1728-31, 2 vols. fol. Gor¬
don’s phraseology is remarkable for its affectation ; and by
labouring to imitate the style of the original author, he has
in some instances rendered his own scarcely intelligible. A
more readable translation of Tacitus was produced by Ar¬
thur Murphy, Lond. 1793, 4 vols. 4to. The dialogue on
eloquence has been well translated by Mr Melmoth ; the life
of Agricola, and the description of Germany, by Dr Aikin.
TACK, a rope used to confine the foremost lower cor¬
ners of the courses and stay-sails in a fixed position, when
the wind crosses the ship’s course obliquely. The same
name is also given to the rope employed to pull out the
lower corner of a studding-sail or driver to the extremity
of its boom. The main-sail and fore-sail of a ship are fur¬
nished with a tack on each side, which is formed of a thick
rope tapering to the end, and having a knot wrought upon
the largest end, by which it is firmly retained in the clue
of the sail. By this means one tack is always fastened to
windward, at the same time that the sheet extends the sail
to the leeward.
To Tack, to change the course from one board to an¬
other, or turn the ship about from the starboard to the lar¬
board tack, in a contrary wind. Thus a ship being close-
hauled on the larboard tack, and turning her prow suddenly
to windward, receives the impression of the wind on her
head sails, by which she falls off upon the line of the star¬
board tack. Tacking is also used in a more enlarged sense,
to imply that manoeuvre in navigation by which a ship
makes an oblique progression to the windward, in a zigzag
direction. This, however, is more usually called beating,
or turning to windward.
TACOULUM, a town of Hindustan, in the Carnatic,
forty miles west from Madras. Long. 79. 50. E. Lat. 13.
4. N.
TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of disposing
forces to the best advantage in order of battle, and of per¬
forming the several military motions and evolutions. See
War.
T ADC ASTER, a towm in the wapentake of Barkston-
Ash, in the west riding of the county of York, 185 miles
from London. It stands on the river Wharfe, over which
is a fine bridge, built from the ruins of its ancient castle,
called by the Romans Calcaria, from the abundance of lime¬
stone found near it. It is a well-built town, with a well-at¬
tended market on Thursday. The inhabitants amounted in
1821 to 1651, and in 1831 to 1666.
TADMOR. See Palmyra.
TAFFETY, or Taffeta, a fine smooth silken stuff, re¬
markably glossy. There are taffeties of all colours, some
plain, and others striped with gold, silver, &c., others
chequered, others flowered, according to the fancy of the Tagal
workmen. II
TAGAL, a Dutch settlement on the north coast of Java, v 3 mor'
where there is a resident to receive the contributions of the
chief. It is prettily situated on a broad river, and has a
church and a small fort. Long. 108. 55. E. Lat. 6. 44. S.
TAGAL AZ, one of the Fox Islands, in the North Pacific
Ocean. Long. 185. 26. E. Lat. 53. 30. N.
TAGANROG, a fortified city of South Russia, in Eu¬
rope, in the circle of Rostow and province of Caterinoslaw,
about 1300 miles from St Petersburg. It is built on an ele¬
vated tongue of land, on the Sea of Azoph, which forms a
small bay, where the small vessels can be secured. From
the favourable situation for trade, it has become an empo¬
rium for the productions that are conveyed from the inte¬
rior of the empire by the great rivers the Wolga, the
Don, and the Donetz. It is a kind of free port, has quaran¬
tine regulations, custom-house, naval and land police, and
is furnished with a regular garrison. The chief impediment
to the progress of the commerce from this place is the shal¬
lowness of the water in the Sea of Azoph, which forbids
large vessels from approaching to nearer than two miles
from the city. In spite of this obstacle, however, more
than 1400 vessels have been loaded in one year, with wheat,
iron, tallow, oil, cordage, leather, sail-cloth, and hides.
Though the greater part of the ships are Russian, yet many
of them are Greek, Austi’ian, and English. The country
around is highly beautiful and fertile, and the fruits of warm
climates come to perfection in the summer in the open air,
especially the melons and grapes. The city has been rapid¬
ly increasing in population ever since 1805, and is now said
to contain 20,000 inhabitants. The late emperor Alexan¬
der died here in 1825, whilst busily occupied in projects to
improve the place, and extend its prosperity. Long. 38.
34. 25. E. Lat. 47. 12. 30. N.
TAGAPOLA, a small island among the Philippines,
twenty-five miles west of the island of Samar.
TAGLIACOZZI, Gasparo, a renowned surgeon, was
born at Bologna in the year 1546. He studied in that
university under Cardan, and took his doctor’s degree at the
age of twenty-four. He wras appointed professor of surgery,
and afterwards of anatomy ; and after having acquired much
reputation, he died at Bologna on the 7th of November
1599. His principal work is entitled “ De Curtorum Chi-
rurgia per Insitionem libri duo.” Yenet. 1597, fol. It was
reprinted under the title of “ Chirurgia nova, de Narium,
Aurium, Labiorumque Defectu per Insitionem Cutis ex
Humero, arte hactenus omnibus ignota, sarciendo.” Fran-
cof. (1598), 8vo. This new title sufficiently indicates the
art which he professed, of repairing noses, ears, and lips, by
a species of ingrafting. The name of Taliacotius is well
known to the readers of Hudibras.
TAGOLANDA,a small island, about twenty miles in cir¬
cumference, situated off the north-eastern extremity of Ce¬
lebes. It is populous, and plentifully supplied with provi¬
sions. Long. 125. 5. E. Lat. 2. 10. N.
TAGUS, or Tajo, the largest river of Spain; which,
taking its rise on the confines of Aragon, runs south-west
through the provinces of New Castille and Estremadura;
and passing by the cities of Aranjuez, Toledo, and Alcan¬
tara, and then crossing Portugal, forms the harbour of Lis¬
bon, at which city it is about three miles broad ; and about
eight or ten miles below this it falls into the Atlantic Ocean.
TAGYPEEL, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
the north-east coast of Borneo. Long. 117. 54. E. Lat.
6. 29. N.
TAHEJ, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Cutch,
of which it was formerly the capital; but it has now dwindled
into a small village. Long. 76. 27. E. Lat. 23. 17. N.
TAHMOR, a town of Hindustan, province of Oude.
Long. 81. 10. E. Lat. 27. 41. N.
70 T A I
Tahnesir TAHNESIR, an ancient town of Hindustan, in the pro-
11. vince of Delhi, in thp Sikh territories, ninety miles north
v . by west from the city of Delhi. Long. 76. 30. E. Lat.
y 30. N.
TAHNOON, a district of Northern Hindustan, tribu¬
tary to the Ghoorkali rajah of Nepaul. It has an irregu¬
larly mountainous surface, and is known to be but thinly
inhabited. To the south it is bounded by the British ter¬
ritory of Terriani, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains.
TAHNUM, a town of Northern Hindustan, tributary
to the Ghoorkali rajah of Nepaul, about twenty-five miles
north-west from Gorcah. Long. 84. 10. E. Lat. 28.41. N.
TAHOOROWAH, one of the smaller Sandwich Islands,
situated about nine miles from the south-west part of Mo-
wee. Long. 199. 30. E. Lat. 21. 40. N.
TAHRAH, a town and fortress of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Cutch, situated about thirty miles from Luckput
Bunder, on the road from that place to Mundavee, a sea¬
port in the Gulf of Cutch.
TAHUK, or Tabuk, a town of Hedsjas, in Arabia, the
first conquest made by Mahommed. It is 176 miles south-
south-east from Jerusalem.
TAIF, or Tayf, a town of Arabia, in the Hedsjas, si¬
tuated in a mountainous but fertile and well-cultivated dis¬
trict. It was visited by Burckhardt in 1814, who describes
it at that time as nearly in a state of ruin, many of the build¬
ings having been nearly destroyed by the Wahabys when
they took Taif in 1802; and the town having afterwards
been abandoned, every thing is hastening to decay. There
were not more than four or five buildings, inhabited by the
principal officers of the pacha, above the common size.
There were at that time two small mosques. The tomb of
El Abbas, which had a good dome over it, and was often
visited by pilgrims, was entirely destroyed by the Waha¬
bys. Taif is celebrated for its beautiful gardens, which
are situated some distance from the town, are well water¬
ed by wells and rivulets descending from the mountains,
and produce grapes of a very large size and delicious
flavour, figs, quinces, and pomegranates, besides all the
other fruits which are found in these climates. They are
also renowned for the finest roses, which, like the grapes,
are transported to all parts of the country. There are small
pavilions in these gardens, to which the people of Taif, and
formerly the great merchants of Mecca, resorted in sum¬
mer. They had all their houses and establishments here,
and lost considerable property when the town was plunder¬
ed by the Wahabys. The indigenous inhabitants of Taif
are Arabs. There are a few natives of Mecca, but the
far greater part of the foreigners are Indians by origin, who
still preserve the dress and manners of Indian Mussulmans.
Some are merchants, but the greater part are druggists,
whose trade is of great importance from the general predi¬
lection of all classes for drugs and perfumes. Taif was a
commercial town before the Wahaby invasion, when it
was plundered. It was resorted to by the Arabs of the
country around for articles of dress, while by the mountain
tribes were brought supplies of wheat and barley in cara¬
vans. It was also a considerable entrepot for coffee, brought
from the mountains of Yemen by the Bedouins on camels.
When Burckhardt visited it, every thing denoted great mi¬
sery. The only imports from the interior were dates ; and
the streets abounded with beggars, many of whom must
have perished wdth hunger, as it cost at that time a sum
equal to tenpence to procure bread enough for a man’s
daily subsistence. The town is supplied with water from
two copious wells. It is sixty miles south-east from Mecca.
TAIL, the train of a beast, bird, or fish, which in land
animals, it is said, serves to drive away flies, &c. and in birds
and fishes to direct their course, and assist them in ascend¬
ing or descending in the air or w-ater. But the tail in all
animals is of great use in directing their motions.
T A L
Tail, or Fee-tail, in Law, is a conditional estate or Tail
fee, opposed to fee-simple. II
TAILZIE, in Scotish Law, the same with entail, a deed . a aYei
settling an estate upon a series of heirs, and generally ac¬
companied with conditions and limitations, making a per¬
petuity.
TAIMBOORNY, a town of Hindustan, province of Au¬
rangabad, now belonging to the British. Long. 75. 23. E.
Lat. 18. 0. N.
TAIMUR, a cape of Asiatic Russia, in the district of
Turuchansk, on the Frozen Ocean.
TAIMURSKAIA, a gulf of the Frozen Ocean, on the
coast of Asiatic Russia. Long. 94. 10. to 98. 10. E. Lat.
75. to 77. N.
TAIN, a royal borough of Scotland, and the county
town of Ross-shire. It is situated on the margin of the
Firth of Dornoch, about a mile from the sea, in the neigh¬
bourhood of a fertile and well-cultivated country. The
town is pleasant and prosperous. It is provided with an
excellent academy, taught by a rector and two masters.
The trade is principally confined to the demands of the
town and adjoining districts. Tain unites with Cromarty,
Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall, and Wick, in sending a mem¬
ber to parliament. The population of the borough and
parish in 1831 amounted to 3078, of which about 2000 be¬
longed to the borough.
TAI-PING, a city of China, of the first rank, in Kiang-
nan, on the Yang-tse-kiang river, and at the junction of
three of its tributaries. It is 525 miles south of Pekin.
Long. 118. 14. E. Lat. 31. 38. N.
Tai-Ping, a city of China, of the first rank, in Quang-
see, near the confines of the kingdom of Tonquin. It is
built on a point of land which is almost surrounded by a
river. Long. 106. 34. E. Lat. 22. 25. N.
TAITONG, a city of China, of the first rank, in Shan-
see, situated in a mountainous country, and exposed to the
incursions of the Tartars. It is well fortified, and has a
strong garrison. It is 155 miles west of Pekin. Long. 112.
44. E. Lat. 40. 5. N.
TAI-YUEN, a city of China, of the first rank, in Shan-
see. It is populous, and strongly fortified. It is 230 miles
west-south-west of Pekin. Long. 111. 56. E. Lat. 37.
54. N.
TAJGAUW, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bejapoor, fortified, in 1792, by Purseram Bhow. It is
seventeen miles north by west from Merritch. Long. 75.
55. E. Lat. 16. 47. N.
TAKAKAKAN, a small island in the Eastern Seas,
near the east coast of Borneo. Long. 116. 51. E. Lat. 38. N.
TALALAP, one of the Philippine Islands, where the
Spaniards, in 1730, built a church, and established a reli¬
gious mission ; but the w'hole party were soon after murder¬
ed by the natives, and the church was demolished.
TALAVERA, usually distinguished by the addition to
its name of de la Reyna, is the capital of a partido, which
comprises within it almost the whole of the western side
of the province of Toledo, in Spain. It is a place of great
antiquity, containing many Roman monuments. When
Spain was invaded by the Moors, it speedily surrendered,
but was successively occupied and plundered by the con¬
tending armies as long as the Mahommedan power existed
in the Peninsula. It is remarkable as the scene of the first
great conflict that occurred between the British army under
the command of the duke of Wellington, and the French.
On the 27th and 28th July 1809, the British army, of
19,000, with a Spanish force of 40,000 indifferent troops,
were repeatedly attacked in their position by a well-appoint¬
ed French army of 47,000 French troops, under the com¬
mand of the intrusive king Joseph Bonaparte. The con¬
flict was severe, but the British repelled the attacks, and
the enemy retreated. 1 hough the victory was thus gain-
Talent
II
Tali.
T A L
ed, it was indecisive, as the duke of Wellington soon after¬
wards retreated, and his wounded men fell into the hands
^ of the French. The city stands on a beautiful plain watered
by the Tagus. It is but indifferently built, has seven churches,
one of which, that of the Hieronymites, is very fine, and no
less than twelve monasteries. It contains about 5000 inha¬
bitants, but with the suburbs and contiguous villages about
8000. The chief occupation is the fabrication of silk
stockings; but there are manufactures of soap, of earthen
ware, of hats, and cordage, upon a small scale. Talavera
is remarkable as the birth-place of Mariana, the historian of
Spain. Long. 5. 1.5. W. Lat. 39. 59. 50. N.
TALENT signifies both a weight and a coin very com¬
mon among the ancients, but very different among different
nations. The common Attic talent of weight contains 60
Attic minae, or 6000 Attic drachmae; and weighed, ac¬
cording to Dr Arbuthnot, 59 lbs. 11 oz. 17f gr. English
Troy weight. There was another Attic talent, by some
said to consist of 80, by others of 100 minae. The Egyp¬
tian talent was 80 minae, the Antiochian also 80, the Pto¬
lemaic of Cleopatra 861, that of Alexandria 96, and the
Insular talent 120. In the valuation of money, the Gre¬
cian talent, according to Dr Arbuthnot, was equal to 60
minae, or, reckoning the mina at L.3. 4s. 7d., equal to
L.193. 15s. The Syrian talent, in this valuation, consisted
of 15 Attic minae, the Ptolemaic of 20, the Antiochian of
60, the Eubcean of 60, the Babylonic of 70, the Greater
Attic of 80, the Tyrian of 80, the Eginaean of 100, the
Rhodian of 100, and the Egyptian of 80 minae. There is
another talent much more ancient, which Dr Arbuthnot
calls the Homeric talent of gold, which seems to have weigh¬
ed six Attic drachms or three darics, a daric weighing very
little more than a guinea. According to this talent, some
reckon the treasure of King David, particularly that men¬
tioned 1 Chron. xxii. 14, which, according to the common
reckoning, would amount in gold talents to the value of
L.547,500,000, and the silver to above L.342,000,000. As
David reigned in Judaea after the siege of Troy, it is not
improbable but Homer and he might use the same numeral
talent of gold. Among the Romans there were two kinds
of talents, the little and the great talent. The little was the
common talent; and whenever they say simply talentum,
they are to be understood of this. The little talent was
sixty minas or Roman pounds; the mina or pound being esti¬
mated at 100 drachmae or denarii. It was also estimated at
twenty-four great sesterces, which amounted to sixty pounds.
The great talent exceeded the less by one third part. Bu-
daeus computes that the little talent of silver was worth
L.75 sterling, and the greater L.99. 6s. 8d. sterling. The
greater of gold was worth L.1125 sterling.
Talent, as a species of money, among the Hebrews,
was sometimes used for a gold coin, the same with the
shekel of gold, called also stater, and weighing only four
drachms. The Hebrews reckoned by these talents as we
do by pounds, &c. Thus a million of gold, or a million of
talents of gold, among them, was a million of shekels or
nummi; the nummus of gold being the same weight with
the shekel, viz. four drachms. But the Hebrew talent
weight of silver, which they called dear, was equivalent to
that of 3000 shekels, or 113 lb. 10 oz. 1 dwt. lOf gr. Eng¬
lish Troy weight, according to Arbuthnot’s computation.^
TALGARTH, a market and borough town of the county
of Brecon, in South Wales. It is situated in a fertile dis¬
trict ; and near to it is an extensive lake, well stocked with
fresh-water fish. The population amounted in 1821 to 698,
and in 1831 to 741.
TALI, a city of China, of the first rank, in the province
°f y^nan> situated on a large lake. The mountains in the
vicinity produce a species of marble, which is fashioned by
the inhabitants into tables and other pieces of furniture.
Long. 100. E. Lat. 25. 45. N.
T A L
71
TALIACOTIUS. See Tagliacozzi. Talio
TALIO {lex talionis), a species Of punishment in the „ II
Mosaic law-, by which an evil is returned similar to that com- Talmu<I.
mitted against us by another; hence that expression, “ Eye S‘*
for eye, tooth for tooth.” This law was inserted in the twelve
Tables of the Romans ; but it was afterwards set aside, and
a power was given to the praetor to fix a sum of money for
the injury inflicted.
TALISMANS, magical figures cut or engraved with
superstitious observations on the characterisms and configu¬
rations of the heavens, to which some astrologers have at¬
tributed wonderful virtues, particularly that of calling down
celestial influences. The talismans of Sanjothrace, so fa¬
mous of old, were pieces of iron formed into certain images,
and set in rings: these were esteemed preservatives against
all kinds of evils. There were likewise talismans taken
from vegetables, and others from minerals.
TALLY is a stick cut in two parts, on each of which is
marked, with notches or otherwise, what is due between
debtor and creditor ; and this was the ancient way of keep¬
ing all accounts, one part being kept by the creditor, the
other by the debtor. Hence the tallier of the exchequer,
whom we now call the teller. But there are two kinds of
tallies mentioned in our statutes to have been long used in
the exchequer. The one is termed tallies of debt, which
are in the nature of an acquittance for debts paid to the
king, on the payment of which these tallies are delivered to
the debtors, who carrying them to the clerk of the pipe-
office, have there an acquittance in parchment for their full
discharge. I he other are tallies of reward or allowance,
being made to sheriffs of counties, as a recompense for such
matters as they have performed to their charge, or such,
money as is cast upon them in their accounts of course, but
not leviable. In the exchequer there is a tally-court, where
attend the two deputy-chamberlains of the exchequer and
the tally-cutter; and a tally is generally the king’s acquit¬
tance for money paid or lent, and has w’ritten on it words
proper to express on what occasion the money is received.
TALMUD, a collection of Jewish traditions. There
are two works which bear this name, the Talmud of Jeru¬
salem, and the Talmud of Babylon. Each of these is com¬
posed of two parts; the Mishna, which is the text, and is
common to both, and the Gemara or commentary. The
Mishna, which comprehends all the laws, institutions, and
rules of life which, beside the ancient Hebrew scripture, the
Jews thought themselves bound to observe, was composed,
according to the unanimous testimony of the Jews, about
the close of the second century. It was the work of Rabbi
Jehuda (or Juda) Hakkadosh, who was the ornament of the
school at Tiberias, and is said to have occupied him forty
years. The commentaries and additions which succeeding
Rabbis made wrere collected by Rabbi Jochanan Ben Eli-
ezer, some say in the fifth, others say in the sixth, and
others in the seventh century, under the name of Gemara,
that is, completion, because it completed the Talmud. A
similar addition was made to the Mishna by the Babylonish
doctors in the beginning of the sixth century according to
Enfield, and in the seventh according to others. The
Mishna is divided into six parts, of which every one which
is entitled order is formed of treatises, every treatise is di¬
vided into chapters, and every chapter into mishnas or
aphorisms. In the first part is discussed whatever relates
to seeds, fruits, and trees; in the second, feasts; in the third,
women, their duties, their disorders, their contracts, mar¬
riages, and divorces; the fourth treats of the damages or
losses sustained by men or beasts, of things found, depo¬
sits, usuries, rents, farms, partnerships in commerce, in¬
heritance, sales and purchases, oaths, witnesses, arrests,
idolatry ; and here are named those by whom the oral law
was received and preserved; in the fifth part are noticed
what regards sacrifices and holy things; and the sixth treats
72
Talnere
T A M
on purifications, vessels, furniture, clothes, houses, leprosy,
baths, and numerous other articles. All this forms the
Tambour Mishna>
The Talmud of Babylon is most valued by the Jews;
and this is the book to which they refer when they speak
of the Talmud in general. An abridgement of it was in
the 12th century made by Maimonides, in which he re¬
jected some of its greatest absurdities. The Gemara is
stuffed with dreams and chimeras, with many ignorant and
impertinent questions, and the style is very coarse. TheMish-
na is written in a style comparatively pure, and may be very
useful in explaining passages of the New Testament where
the phraseology is similar. This is indeed the only use to
which Christians can apply it; but this renders it valuable.
Lightfoot had judiciously availed himself of such informa¬
tion as he could derive from it. Some of the popes, with
a barbarous zeal, and a timidity of spirit for the success of
the Christian religion, which the belief of its divinity can
never excuse, ordered great numbers of the Talmud to be
burned. Gregory IX. burned about twenty cart-loads, and
Paul IV. ordered 12,000 copies of the Talmud to be de-
stroyed.
The last edition of the Talmud of Babylon, printed at
Amsterdam, is in twelve vols. folio. Jhe lalmud of Jeru¬
salem is in one large folio.
TALNERE, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta ter¬
ritories, and province of Khandesh, situated on the Tuptee
river, ninety-two miles west from Boorhanpoor. It was
conquered by Aurungzebe, and formed part of the posses¬
sions of Holcar, and was ceded by that chief to the L>ii-
tish. But the governor refusing to deliver it up, it was
besieged and taken by the troops under Sir Thomas Hislop
in 1818, who ordered him to be executed on one of the
bastions, as an example to the other refractory governors.
Long. 75. E. Lat. 21. 13. N.
TAM AH 00, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
the west coast of Borneo. Long. 109. 21. E. Lat. 0. 7. N.
TAMAN, an island in the Russian province of Taurida,
at the entrance of the Sea of Azoph from the Black Sea.
Though properly a peninsula, it is made an island by the
overflowings of the river Kuban, but which at some sea¬
sons are quite dried up. The strait of Taman is a narrow
and dangerous passage leading to Taganrog, having in some
places no more than thirteen feet of water. This strait,
sometimes called the Strait of Yenicaleh, is defended by
a powerful fort. Part of the island is low, but it contains
a number of small hills of volcanic origin, from one of which
there was an eruption in July 1804. There are three towns
on the island. Taman, or Fanagoria, on the south-east, is
a place of some trade, and is defended by a fort; Kertch, on
the opposite side, stands at the foot of a steep hill, and con¬
tains about 1000 inhabitants, chiefly Greek fishermen and
Jews; and Yenicaleh, beyond Kertch, contains a population
of 2000 persons, and has a strong citadel. It stands in long.
36. 35. E. and lat. 45, 21. 30. N.
TAMAR, a river of Van Diemen’s Land, which has more
the appearance of a chain of lakes than of a regularly
formed river. The waters are supposed by Captain Flin¬
ders to have forced a passage by long undermining to the
sea.
TAMBAH, a town of Hindustan, province of Bejapoor,
seventy miles south from Poonah. Long. 73. 35. E. Lat.
17. 28. N.
TAMBEKAN, a town of Hindustan, province of Ne-
paul, belonging to the Ghoorkali rajah of Nepaul, cele¬
brated for the copper mines in its vicinity. Long. 85. 30.
E. Lat. 27. 25. N.
TAMBOLTR, in Architecture, a term applied to the Co¬
rinthian and Composite capitals, as bearing some resem¬
blance to a drum, which the French call tambour. Some
choose to call it the vase, and others campana or the bell.
TAM
Tambour is also used for a little box of timber-work, Tamb,,,
covered with a ceiling, within the porch of certain churches; Tam
both to prevent the view of persons passing by, and to keep
off the wind, &c. by means of folding doors, &c.
Tambouk also denotes a round course of stone, several
of which form the shaft of a column, not so high as a dia-
meter.
Tambour, in the arts, is a species of embroidery. The
tambour is an instrument of a spherical form, upon which
is stretched, by means of a string and buckle, or other suit¬
able appendage, a piece of linen or thin silken stuff; which
is wrought with a needle of a particular form, and by means
of silken or gold and silver threads, into leaves, flowers, or
other figures.
TAMBOUR de Basque, a well-known kind of small
drum, commonly called a tambourine. It is much used
among the Biscayans, and consists of one piece of parch¬
ment stretched over the top of a broad hoop, which is fur¬
nished with little bells. It is sounded by sliding the fingers
along the parchment, or by striking it with the back of the
hand, or with the fist or the elbow.
TAMBOURIN, a drum much used in Provence. Its
case is much longer and somewhat narrower than that of
the common drum. It is beaten with a drumstick, while
the performer at the same time plays with his left hand
upon a small flute, called galoubet. See Pipe.
1 TAMBURO (Ital), the common military drum.
TAMBURONE, or Cassa Grande, or Cassa (/to/.),
the military bass-drum. See Music.
TAMBOW, a government of Russia, one of the East Sea
provinces, extending in east longitude from 38° 3P to 43°
20', and in north latitude from 51° 8' to 55° 9', being 26,072
square miles. It is a level district in the northern part,
sandy and swampy; but in the south it is of moderate ferti¬
lity. It is well watered, some of its many streams running to
the Wolga and others to the Don. The climate is healthy,
but the winters are severely cold. The corn is more than
sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants, and a
large quantity is distilled. The crown forests cover a large
proportion of the district, and create a large export of tim¬
ber and fuel. Many herds of cattle yield both hides and
tallow, and the former are converted into leather for expor¬
tation. The growth of flax is extensive, and the manufac¬
tory of linens from it flourishing. There are also some
manufactures of cloth, and many of iron, and some of glass
ware. The trade is almost exclusively internal, the province
having no communication by water with the sea. The po¬
pulation, by the latest accounts, is 1,422,000 persons.
Tambow, a city of Russia, the capital of the province of
that name, 804 miles from St Petersburg. It is an ancient
place, but has been much modernized of late years. It
contains six wooden and seven stone churches, about 1600
houses, mostly of wood, and 15,000 inhabitants, who sub¬
sist by making linen goods and cordage, and in a greater
degree by agriculture. Long. 41. 40. E. Lat. 52. 43. 44. N.
TAMERLANE, or Timur Bek, a celebrated prince
and conqueror, was born in 1335, in the village of Kesch,
belonging to the ancient Sogdiana. His origin is obscure¬
ly known, some writers describing him as of royal blood,
others as the son of a shepherd. It is however evident
that he chiefly owed his elevation to his talents and bravery.
At the age of twenty-five he attained the highest dignities,
with surprising courage, and an ambition astonishing to all
the world. Endeavouring to perfect the great talents which
he had received from nature, he spent nine years in differ¬
ent countries, where his strong sense and elevated genius
appeared in councils and assemblies, while his intrepidity
and valour, whether in personal combats or pitched battles,
drew upon him the admiration of all mankind. He made
himself master of the three empires of Jagatay Khan, Tushi
Khan, and Hulaku Khan ; so that his power, riches, and
TAN
' mworth magnificence, were immense. Of his grandeur vast monu-
II ments remain in the cities, towns, castles, and walls, which
Tan- he built; in the rivers and canals which he dug, as well as
','~v ' the bridges, gardens, palaces, hospitals, mosques, and mo¬
nasteries, which he erected in divers parts of Asia, in so
great a number, that a king might be accounted very power¬
ful and magnificent who should have employed thirty-six
years only in building the great edifices which Timur caused
to be founded. He undertook the conquest of India, and
having obtained possession of Delhi, he became master of
the immense treasures of the Mogul empire. He after¬
wards invaded Syria, and took Damascus ; and Bagdad
having attempted to throw off his yoke, he put many thou¬
sands of the inhabitants to the sword, and delivered the
city to the rapacity of his soldiers. In Bajazet, emperor
of the Turks, he found a formidable antagonist. In 1402
they engaged on the plains of Ancyra; and in a battle which
lasted for three days, the emperor was defeated and taken
prisoner. According to the common account, the victor
confined him in an iron cage. Tamerlane died on the 1st
of April 1405, in the seventieth year of his age. When he
found death approaching, he sent for his principal officers, de¬
clared his grandson his heir, and made them swear to execute
his will. Having recommended brotherly love and con¬
cord to the princes his children, he ordered one of the doc¬
tors to read the Koran at his bed head, and often repeat
the unity of God. At night he several times made profes¬
sion of his belief, “ that there is no other God than God,”
and then expired.
Timur, according to the historian Arabshah, wras in his
person very corpulent and tall. He had a large head, with
an ample forehead. His countenance wras agreeable, and his
complexion fair. He wore a long beard, w as very strong
and well limbed; had broad shoulders, thick fingers, and
long legs. His constitution was amazingly vigorous; but
he was maimed in one hand, and lame of the right side.
His eyes appeared full of fire ; his voice was loud and pier¬
cing ; he feared nothing; and when far advanced in years,
his understanding was sound and perfect, his body vigorous
and robust, his mind constant and unshaken like a rock.
He was surprisingly happy in his conjectures; vigilant,
active, and unshaken in his resolutions. He took great de¬
light in reading history, and was well versed in the state of
countries, provinces, and cities. He was penetrating, sub¬
tle, close, and dissembling ; just by inclination, liberal from
disposition; but ambition had in a great measure extiiy-
guished his humanity ; war had familiarized him to blood ;
and his religious zeal had inspired him with the most cruel,
implacable, and pernicious fanaticism.
TAMTAM, or Gong. See Music.
TAMWORTH, an ancient borough, situated partly in
Warwickshire and partly in Staffordshire, 117 miles from
London. The situation is at the confluence of the rivers
Tame and Anker. The church is an ancient but irregular
building, with some fine monuments. The ancient castle
formerly belonged to the earls of Leicester. Near to it is
Drayton Park, the seat of Sir Robert Peel. In Tamworth
there are some cloth manufactures. It is a borough, governed
by four aldermen and twelve councillors, and returns two
members to parliament. There is a good market on Thurs¬
day. The inhabitants amounted in 1831 to 7182.
TAN, the bark of trees after it has been ground and
used by the tanner. The smallest sort is generally made
up in little square cakes called turf and sold for firing. The
coarser sort is sometimes dried in the sun, and used by bak¬
ers for heating their ovens, &c.; but its chief use is for mak¬
ing hot-beds to raise pine-apples and other plants. Wil¬
liam III. introduced the use of it from Holland, for the pur¬
pose of raising orange trees; after which it was discontinu¬
ed for many years : but about 1719, when ananas were first
brought into England, it came into general use, and has
VOL. XXI.
TAN 73
ever since been in great estimation with gardeners for all Tanah
the purposes of forcing, &c. on account of its strong and I!
lasting fermentation. The smaller the tan the quicker it ^anjorej J
heats; but the larger sort acquires heat more gradually, and '
retains it longer. The skilful gardener therefore uses the
one or the other, or a mixture of both, according to the time
and purpose for which it is wanted. It is not till some time
after the tan comes out of the tanner’s pit that it begins
to heat, and therefore it is not fit for immediate use; but
having lain a week or two, it enters into a state of fermen¬
tation, and if put into hot-beds properly prepared, will re¬
tain a moderate beat for three or four months. When it
becomes useless for the hot-house, it is said to be an excel¬
lent manure for some kinds of land.
The word tan is sometimes, though improperly, used for
the bark itself, which is the chief ingredient in the tanning
of leather. Oak bark, on account of its great astringency
and gummy-resinous properties, is preferred to all other
substances for the purpose of tanning, as it not only pre¬
serves the leather from rotting, but also, by condensing the
pores, renders it impervious to water.
TANAH, a town of Hindustan, province of Gujerat, forty-
one miles east by north from the city of Surat. Long. 73.
41. E. Lat. 21.21. N.
TANAGA, one of the Fox Islands, in the North Pacific
Ocean, about forty miles in circumference. Long. 182. 14.
E. Lat. 53. 20. N.
TANAKEKE, a small island, about twelve miles in cir¬
cumference, surrounded by a cluster of smaller ones. Many
of the smaller islands of this group are uninhabited, and the
others are peopled by the Buggesses. It is situated off the
south-west extremity of Celebes. Long. 19. 10. E. Lat.
5. 30. S.
TANDAH, a town of Llindustan, in the province of Ben¬
gal, adjacent to the ruins of the ancient city of Gour. Long.
88. 15. E. Lat. 24. 49. N.
TANETE, a town and small principality in the island of
Celebes, situated half way between Fort Rotterdam and the
bay of Sorian. Long. 119. 35. E. Lat. 4. 14. S.
TANGERANG, a village of the island of Java, about
fifteen miles west from Batavia. A large weekly bazaar is
held here, to which the produce of the adjacent country is
brought, and thence carried to Batavia. There is also a
river of the same name, which falls into the ocean about
twenty miles west of Bantam.
TANGIER, a port-town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Fez, and empire of Morocco, situated at the entrance of the
Straits of Gibraltar, in Long. 5. 50. W. Lat. 38. 49. N. In
1662, this place belonged to the Portuguese, and was given
to King Charles II. upon his marriage with the Infanta of
Portugal; but grov/ing weary of the charge of keeping it,
he caused it to be blown up and destroyed in 1684 ; and
ever since that time it has been only a poor fishing town.
It was anciently called Tingis, and gave name to the pro¬
vince of Mauritania Tingitana.
TANJORE, an extensive, populous, and well-cultivated
district of the south of India, in the Carnatic, situated in
the Bay of Bengal, between the 10th and 12th degrees of
north latitude, and intersected by the river Cauvery. It is
bounded on the north by the Cauvery river, on the south
and east by the Indian Ocean, and on the west by Trichi-
nopoly and the Polygars’ territory. It is ninety-five miles
in length by fifty in breadth. The inhabitants of this dis¬
trict are remarkably industrious and expert in husbandry,
and they have erected extensive works for the irrigation
of the country. The most prodigious mounds have been
raised at Costady, to prevent the waters of the Cauvery
from rejoining those of the Coleroon, after they have been
separated near Trichinopoly; and by numerous canals they
are diverted, by means of embankments and reservoirs,
into every field, and fertilize a tract of country from De-
K
74
TAN
Tanna.
Tanjore vicotta to Point Calymere, which without water would
have remained a barren sand. The principal exports from
, this country to Madras are indigo, cocoa-nuts, rice, grain,
paddy, lamp-oil, with some piece goods ; also betel-nut, tin,
pepper, tortoise-shell, benjamin, arrack, &c. The imports
from Madras are small in quantity and value, and chiefly
consist of articles for the European troops and residents.
The seaports of chief resort are Tranquebar, Nagore, Ne-
gapatam, Carical, and Devicotta. This territory never hav¬
ing been actually occupied by the Mahommedans, the Hindu
religion in all its original forms and ancient splendour, the
ancient places of worship, with their vast endowments, remain
untouched. The Brahmins are the chief proprietors of the
land, and perform almost every office of husbandry except
holding the plough. They are all well affected to the Bri¬
tish government, and grateful for the protection which they
receive, and also for an allowance granted by government
of 45,000 pagodas for the support of the poorer temples.
It was in the province of Tanjore that the British were
first engaged in warfare with the native troops, and they
did not succeed in their object, which was to restore the
deposed rajah of Tanjore, who had applied for assistance to
the governor of Fort St David. In 1799 the territory of
Tanjore was subjected to the British authority, a large pen¬
sion being reserved for the maintenance of the rajah, be¬
sides one fifth of the surplus revenues after payment of the
civil and military expenses; and, as a particular favour, he
retains the possession of the two forts of Tanjore, which he
keeps in excellent repair, and which are garrisoned with
1500 troops. The province now forms one of the districts
under the Madras presidency.
Tanjore, a celebrated town and fortress, and capital of
the above-mentioned district. The city comprehends two
fortresses, which are given up to the rajah ; but on the exi¬
gency of a war, the British have a right by treaty to re¬
occupy them. The small fort is a mile in circumference,
very strong and in good repair. It has lofty w’alls, and on the
corners of the ramparts are cavaliers. There is also a ditch,
broad and deep, cut out of the solid rock, with a well-formed
glacis. The small is joined to the large fort, where the rajah
resides, which is fortified in a similar manner, and, beside
the palace, contains other public buildings. The smaller
fort contains the celebrated pagoda, the chief building of
w hich is one of the finest specimens of the pyramidical tem¬
ple in Hindustan. Within is a bull carved from a block of
black granite, an excellent specimen of Hindu sculpture.
It also contains a college, formerly a celebrated place of
Hindu learning. The fortress, which may be considered
as the citadel, is extremely strong, and successfully resisted
the arms of both the French and the British, but was taken
by the latter in the vear 1773. Long. 79. 11. E. Fat. 10.
42. N.
TANK, in the language of Hindustan, a place enclosed for
receiving and retaining rain-water. During the periodical
rains the tanks are filled, and thus in the dry season furnish
water for the rice-fields and cattle. Some of them are of
great extent, measuring 300 or 400 feet on the side. They
are of a quadrangular form, and lined with granite, de¬
scending in regular steps from the margin to the bottom.
1ANKSAL, a town of Hindustan, in the Sikh territories,
province of Delhi, 150 miles north from Delhi. Long. 76.
53. E. Lat. 30. 51. N.
TANNA, a town and fortress of Hindustan, province of
Aurungabad and district of Bombay, situated on the east
side of the island of Salsette. The fort, which is very
strong, commands the passage between the island and the
T A N
main land, which is about 200 yards broad. The fort is
usually garrisoned by a battalion of sepoys, and a company
of European artillery from Bombay. The town is strag¬
gling, but not large, and has several Portuguese churches,
with a number of Christian inhabitants. It was taken from
the Mahrattas in 1773, after an obstinate resistance. Long.
73. 5. E. Lat. 19. 10. N.
Tanna, an island in the South Pacific Ocean, one of
those called the New Hebrides, discovered by Captain Cook
in the year 1774, about twenty-two miles in length and ten
in breadth. Long. 169. 44. E. Lat. 19. 32. S.
Tanna Balloo, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
the east coast of Borneo. Long. 118. 21. E. Lat. 4.52. N.
TANNER, Thomas, an eminent antiquary, was born in
1674. His father, Thomas Tanner, w'as vicar of Market
Lavington in Wiltshire. The son was sent to Queen’s Col¬
lege, Oxford, in 1689; took the degree of A.B. in 1693,
and that of A.M. in 1696; and was elected a fellow of All
Souls College in 1697. He became prebendary of Ely in
1713, archdeacon of Norfolk in 1701, and canon of Christ
Church in 1724. He wras consecrated bishop of St Asaph
on the 23d of January 1732 ; and died at Christ Church on
the 14th of December 1735. He was thrice married. Dr
Tanner was a very industrious antiquary, and left an im¬
mense collection of papers, which are preserved in the Bod¬
leian Library. He had a considerable share in the second
edition of Wood’s Athenae Oxonienses. He published a
work entitled “ Notitia Monastica; or, a short History of
Religious Houses in England and Wales.” Lond. 1695,
8vo. After the author’s death, an enlarged edition was
published by his brother the Rev. John Tanner, Lond. 1744,
fob And an improved edition was published by Mr Na¬
smith in 1787. His principal work, with which he had been
more or less occupied for the space of forty years, bears the
title of “ Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica ; sive, de Scrip-
toribus qui in Anglia, Scotia, et Hibernia, ad saeculi xvn.
initium floruerunt.” Lond. 1748, fob The preface was
written by Dr Wilkins, who did not live to see the com¬
pletion of the work.
TANNING, the art of converting hides and skins into
leather. This art has been practised for many centuries in
Britain; but some improvements have been recently made on
it, suggested by the discoveries of modern chemistry. These
we shall briefly notice, after having described the method
generally practised.
The leather tanned in England is generally divided by
the manufacturer into three kinds; butts or backs, hides,
and skins. Butts are made from the stoutest and heaviest
ox-hides. The butt is formed by cutting off' the skin of the
head for glue-pieces, the neck, which is tanned as a shoul¬
der, and the shanks and a strip of the belly on each side,
which, with the shoulder, are tanned in the poor tanning
fluids left by the remaining central part or butt of the
hide. Hides, or crop-hides, are made from cow-hides, or
the lighter ox-hides, whole, and employed for ordinary soles,
\vhereas butts are used for boots and the stoutest shoes.
I he term skins is applied to all the other kinds of leather,
comprehending that made from the skins of calves, seals,
dogs, kids, &cJ
Ihe first operation to which they are subjected is depila-
tion, which removes not only the hair, but also the scarf-
skin. This is effected variously in different countries. In
England the most common plan is to throw the hide or
skin into a strong solution ol slaked lime, wdth lime in ex¬
cess. Here, in a few days, more or less according to the
proportion of lime present, the hair is easily detached, the
Tanna
Hides are imported in large quantities, and sold as wet salted, dry salted, or dry hides The two latter remU^ ,
to soften them ; they are thrown into water, and frequently taken out and bmshed Ld stretched bTheW Jaced unT! lffP^tI0.n’"orde,r
d?nCinnFdaWlthftbIU1l1t1knifei!)-y dfbreCS:-tiieir h“ny character is lost’ and they become pliant and soft! In sonic places0dry hides ^fter
StetTw” sXd JJScO6 •'"«** like of *• *•** A d.-, hid. of SO U* ShLTd prolSt
TANNING.
75
anning. hair-sheath having been dissolved, and at the same time the
scarf-skin with the hair is scraped off upon a sloping rest,
with a species of knife with two handles. The lime has also
combined with the fat of the hide to form a calcareous
soap, to dissolve which, and the excess of lime, it is well
washed, sometimes in a running stream. The hide is fleshed,
or deprived of the loose or extraneous flesh or cellular tis¬
sue; and if butts are to be made, the head, shoulder,
and bellies are cut off. The central part or butt weighs
about two thirds of the wdiole leather. The hair was for¬
merly taken off by making a sour liquor from fermented
vegetable matter, in which the hide lay for several days;
they were also smoked in a damp state for the same pur¬
pose ; but both those methods are now abandoned. They
are still sometimes sweated, that is, they are laid in heaps,
kept wet and warm : but in America the sweating is per¬
formed cold; the hides are hung up wet in a damp under¬
ground cellar, and are kept wet for ten days or a fort¬
night. In either of the three last processes, incipient putre¬
faction takes place sooner or later, when the hair and scarf-
skin are easily removed ; but the fatty matter remains, and
in some cases prevents the hide from taking the tan. The
tanning either follows at once, or is preceded by what is
called abating or grainering. For this process, a quantity of
pigeon’s dung is steeped in water. In this mixture the hides
are steeped for a week or ten days, with occasional removals
and strikings. The excess of lime is removed by the lithic
acid of the dung; and the ammonia generated by the pu¬
trefaction of the mixture tends to form an ammoniacal soap
with any remaining fat of the hide : but as the gelatine of
the hide exists in two states; one, the principal, hard, or
fibrous portion,—and the other (which is more soluble) con¬
tained between the fibres, and more affected by agents and
putrefaction ; this softer portion is removed by grainering,
and the leather, when tanned, is light and porous, and more
readily permeable to water.
Some tanners are anxious that their leather should look
thick wdien completed. To “ raise” the hide, they use a solu¬
tion of sulphuric acid, containing jJLyth part of acid: in this
the hides remain ten or twelve hours, when they are found to
be thickened, or to have substance; but as nothing is added
to the gelatine by the process, it is only the appearance
which is altered, and no difference of thickness is found in
the leather after it has been under the shoemaker’s hammer.
The hide or skin thus prepared is ready for tanning. For¬
merly in England, and at present on the continent, it is
done by stratification. A bed of bark is made upon the bot¬
tom of the pit; upon this is laid the hide, then bark, then a
hide, until the pit is full; water is sometimes pumped in,
and the pit left for some months ; it is then emptied, and
the same hides returned with fresh bark and w^ater for a
few months longer: this is repeated again and again, until
the tanning is completed; the time varying from one to four
years for heavy leather.
About the end of the eighteenth century, Seguin profess¬
ed to give a theory of tanning. He showed that astringent
solutions contained gallic acid, which precipitated sulphate
of iron black, but did not precipitate gelatine; whereas
the tannin present threw down gelatine as well as sul¬
phate of iron ; and from this he deduced that leather was
a compound of gelatine and tannin. Upon this he founded
a new process. He recommended solutions of tannin, made
by pumping water successively upon the vegetable used,
contained in latches or spenders, until it arrived at as great
a degree of strength as the series of spenders permitted. In
this way he was continually throwing away some bark as
expended, and replacing it with fresh, which was next to
be the strongest tap.
This is the plan now generally followed in England; but
in practice it is varied, some using ground bark only, others
terra japonica, valonia, or divi-divi, or mixtures of two or
more ; some using steam to facilitate the solution, others
steaming only the backward latches ; and some using only
cold water. In some yards clean water only is used to ex¬
tract the soluble matter, while in other's the ooze, exhausted
as much as it can be by hides, is made to perform the office
instead of water. Every tanner has also his own particular
strength of liquor to work at, the strongest being about
sixty degrees, while others do not go beyond ten degrees.
It is these variations which cause so great a variety among
the samples of leather in the market.1
This improvement of Seguin proved a most important
one; and although not equal in practice to his original ideas,
yet it has shortened the period to about half of that pre¬
viously occupied. The principal difficulty experienced in
its use occurs in the estimation of the real quantity of tan¬
ning material actually in solution. He proposed the use of
a solution of gelatine, isinglass, or glue, which was to be
dropped into the fluid as a test of the presence of the
tannin. In the hands of an experienced chemist this is a
tolerable means of arriving at the quantity; but it proved
too difficult for the tanner of the day. He therefore judges
by the astringent taste of the solution, and its darkness of
colour; or depends upon its strength from a certain weight
of bark, &c. which may have been used.
Upon the principle that substances dissolved in water in¬
crease its density, an instrument is used which is a variety
of gravimeter—a floating bulb with a stem, graduated into
certain fractional parts of the bulk of fluid displaced by it.
This is generally called a barkometer; and although it only
indicates and measures differences of gravity, and conse¬
quently does not necessarily indicate whether it is tan, or
gum, or sugar, in solution, yet in tanning solutions it affords
a tolerable approximation to the relative strengths of so¬
lutions from the same substances. Each degree upon the
stem is equal to y^^th part of the weight of water. Thus,
1° shows the specific gravity of the fluid to be T001, and
60° are equal to specific gravity 1-060, water being TOGO.
But this instrument is but of little use in oozes which have
been long upon hides, as tannin is converted by long ex¬
posure into gallic acid, acetic acid, and carbonic acid gas:
these act upon the soluble or interstitial gelatine, and by
dissolving it in the poor ooze, give the fluid an apparent
and not a real value by the instrument. Thus, if a spent
liquor of 5° or 6° by the instrument be tasted, or tested, it
will be found to have no astringent taste ; it will give no
precipitate to gelatine while at the bottom, and in suspension
it will contain gelatine, gallate of lime, and acetate of lime.
Again, temperature alters the apparent strength ; and if an
ooze indicating 30° be heated gradually, it will be found to
appear weaker as the temperature rises, until at 190° Fah¬
renheit it will settle at 0, or no strength at all.2
Tanning.
Some tanners, instead of laying their hides flat in the ooze, suspend them vertically. They are penetrated more quickly, but require fre¬
quent moving to prevent the fold from being an objection to their future sale; and a pit will not hold so many suspended as it will of laid hides,
bkins, particularly light ones, are sometimes tanned by sewing them up as bags, filling them with fluid, and then throwing them into pits;
but although they thus tan quickly, they require a great deal of room.
W hen tannin in solution is exposed to the air tor a short time, the following changes take place: every two atoms of tannin absorb six
atoms of oxygen from the air, and are thus converted into three atoms of gallic acid, three atoms of acetic acid, and three atoms of carbonic
acid gas. 1 he gas flies oft in part ; the other two acids remain, and give the acid taste and properties to the tanners’ poor liquors:
Two atoms of tannin C36 H18 O24
Take from air  O 6
C36 HIS O30
76 TA N N IN G.
Tanning. The hide or butt, to tan it, is brought from the beam-
'v'—^ yard and introduced into a poor and milky liquor, in which
it is “ handled” for four or five days; that is, it is lifted by
hooks from the pit, laid with others in a heap on the side,
where it is allowed to drain, and is then returned into the
pit. The lime is intended to be taken out. here by the gal¬
lic and acetic acids of the poor ooze, as it is found in prac¬
tice that the presence of lime tends to darken the colour of
the future leather: this effect is produced by all alkalies
and alkaline earths. The hide is next successively handled
into, and out of, all the handlers, increasing in strength ;
and in this way at length, having after some months got to
the strongest handler, it is found to be stained through,
though not tanned, when it is removed to the troughs which
contain still stronger liquors: these it successively passes
through, being handled at longer intervals. Upon arriv¬
ing at the end of this series, it is laid away in a pit of
very strong liquor to colour, having had powdered bark ol
valonia sprinkled over its surface. When the process is
deemed complete it is taken out, and it will be found con¬
verted into leather; and a portion of its gelatine which
has been dissolved from its interior is, by combination
with a portion of tannin from the strong solution, deposited
upon its surfaces, where it is found in the form of a yel¬
low deposit, technically known as “ bloom,” or “ pitching,”
which disguises the under colour of the leather, just as if it
wrere covered with yellovr paint. This, prejudice says, must
be on its surface or it is not saleable; but it is so much qua¬
lity and weight lost to the consumer, as he pays for it on
the outside of his leather, to be scraped off by the shoemaker
in the operation of buffing; and the leather is so much the
worse, as, if it had remained incorporated with the leather,
this would not have been so porous, or so permeable to
water. The health of the wearer of the shoe is perhaps
sacrificed by wet feet occasioned by the desire of his shoe¬
maker to see a yellow paste on his leather, which in work
he scrapes off with a piece of glass.
The theory of the formation of the bloom is this. As soon
as ooze has peneti’ated into a hide, it loses its tanning mate¬
rial, but by capillary attraction is detained ; this exhausted
ooze acts by maceration on the finer and more soluble in¬
terstitial gelatine, and dissolves it. In handling, about one
twelfth of this flows out; the remaining eleven twelfths ac¬
company the hide into the next stronger solution, of which
only one twelfth is absorbed directly, and a small portion
is slowly exchanged by endosmosis and exosmosis. The
small portion of strong solution which passes into the pores
of the hide contributes to tan the hard fibrous portions not
dissolved ; and the small portion of weak solution passing
out of the hide by exosmosis, gives up its dissolved gelatine
to the tan of the stronger solution outside, to form tannate
of gelatine, which partly adheres to the surface as bloom,
and partly falls to the bottom of the pit as pitching. It is to
be hoped that such an exposition will tend to explode this
absurdity, and lead to the adoption of a system of tanning
in which the exhausted ooze shall be so quickly removed
by pressure as not to allow it to dissolve the finer and bet¬
ter portions of the skin. Some years since Mr Spilsbury
endeavoured to introduce a new principle in tanning, by
which some part of this action should be prevented, by
bringing strong ooze at once into contact wfith the inside of
the hide. He obtained a patent for a plan of tanning by
infiltration. He fastened two hides in clamps, so that the
frame represented four sides of a box, and the two hides two Tanning;
sides. By filling this box with strong tanning ooze, and' 
forcing it through the pores by the pressure of a column of
the fluid, he expected to tan them promptly and well; but
he was not aware that a large excess of tannin dissolves
gelatine, and thus tannate of gelatine was found on the out¬
side of his box in long masses of slime, while the leather had
lost as much in weight, was porous, and was tanned very
much more in the thin than the thicker parts, as the fluid
always passed through the easiest channel. Many other
inconveniences attending the process caused it soon to be
abandoned; but the erroneous principle upon which it was
founded not having been made public, three other patentees
have followed in the same track. Mr Drake of Bedminster
sewed hides together so as to form a bag, which he placed
inside a hollow frame-work of wood to support the bag, and
then filled it with ooze. Mr William Cox of Bedminster
sewed up a hide as it wras on the animal’s back, laced a can¬
vass support round, and then filled it with ooze; and Mr
Chaplin sewed his hide into a bag, filled it with ooze, but
laid it in a reclining position, turning it periodically. Three
if not the whole of these plans are now abandoned by the
patentees themselves.
Seguin’s process of tanning by solutions, although a great
improvement upon the old method, is still tedious, and most
expensive. Where warm oozes are used it lasts six or seven
months for sole-leather; where cold oozes are in use, it ex¬
tends to twelve months, consequently the tanner can turn
his money only once a year: he must have capital enough
to pay for twelve months’ hides, bark, &c., labour and con¬
tingent expenses, besides keeping a stock of leather ; and
when his capital has been turned at the end of twelve or
more months, it must pay him in one single profit, the in¬
terest, &c. of twelve months. This has confined the trade to
a few wealthy individuals, who look upon tanning as an in¬
vestment for capital, rather than as a business which might
be improved by science ; and being in comfortable circum¬
stances, they are not driven to personal exertion and close
application, which w7ould be required of less wealthy trades¬
men. It is from these circumstances that tanning has been
more stationary than any other manufacture, and the few
improvements which have been made in it have not been
made by tanners. A more recent patent appears at pre¬
sent to occupy considerable attention. It is founded upon
the principles put into action in washing a sponge. The old
tanner takes his sponge (the hide) full, or nearly so, out of
one ooze, and inserts it nearly full into the next. The pa¬
tentees of the roller and belt system squeeze, by a simple
and self-feeding press, their hide, before they drop it into
the fresh ooze; and this very simple modification bids fair
to revolutionize the trade, and it is already very extensively
introduced into this and foreign countries.
Messrs Herapath and Cox of Bristol, the patentees, say,
that to tan 100 butts per wreek, they erect in a tanyard,
at present capable of tanning fifty per week, six or eight
large pairs of rollers, one pair over each pit. The lower rol¬
ler is thirty inches in diameter, covered with horse-hair cloth :
the top one eighteen inches, with levers for weights, covered
with woollen cloth, each covering nailed on. For each pair
of rollers there are from fifty to 100 hides connected toge¬
ther, head to head and tail to tail, each by about four strings.
Now the first butt or hide is inserted between the rollers
loaded to the proper pressure; and upon turning the bottom
Becoming
Three gallic acid   C21 H 9 O1^
Three acetic acid   (g2 H 9 O 9
Three carbonic acid C 3 o 6
C36 H18 030
So that it may be said that the air takes three atoms of carbon from two atoms of tannin, and leaves the remainder in the state of °-allic and
acetic acids. The letters C, II, and O, in the table, mean carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
TAN
T A O
77
'anning. roller (which requires very little force, as it is a slow mo¬
tion), all parts of the butt are pressed as pulled through by
the rollers; the next comes in order by the assistance of
the strings; and so on, until the whole of the hides in the
belt have been pressed, and deposited in the fluid on the
other side of the pit. By a detent the motion is now revers¬
ed, when the belt
ginal position for
a fresh supply of
ooze. This sim¬
ple plan brings
strong ooze so fre¬
quently into the
interstices of the
hide, that the cen¬
tre of a stout butt
is not only stain¬
ed through, but
tanned, in be¬
tween one and
two months; calf¬
skins and kips are
tanned in from
twenty to thirty
days; and the
liquors are so rapidly exhausted, that they are reduced from
45° to nothing in thirty-six days, losing at first more than
2° per day; and the shortness of this exposure to the air
prevents much of the tannin from being decomposed. At
Nailsea, near Bristol, 100 butts per week are tanned, with
six latches, six rolling pits, twenty-four handlers for the
offal, and six layers ; one horse power drives the rollers, and
two boys manage them. The following are given to us as
the results produced in the first yard which was put en¬
tirely on the patent plan, as compared with those of the
same yard on the old plan. Double the work is done, and
half the capital drawn out as useless. The saving on bark,
labour, and general cost of manufacture, is l^d. per lb. The
increase in the weight of butt leather is as 34 lb. to 28 lb.;
46-^ lb. of leather being produced from a 60 lb. wet salted
hide. The butts are sent to market within four months
from the time the hides are delivered to the yard. The
profits from quick return, great weight, and small expense,
are eight times as great as on the old plan, at similar prices
of hides, bark, and leather. The leather is more elastic
and more impervious to wet than any other that is made.
Oak bark was formerly the only substance used in tan¬
ning ; but large quantities of valonia and terra japonica
are now imported for the purpose; and recently a bean pod
called divi-divi has excited attention. These substances
have lessened the demand for oak bark, of course lessening
the price, and rendering it not so needful to cut down oak
for the sake of the bark. Valonia gives to leather great
solidity and weight: the colour inclines to gray, while there
is a considerable quantity of bloom on its surface. The co¬
lour of terra japonica leather is dark fawn, inclining to red ;
it is light, spongy, and very pervious to water: while that
from oak bark is well known to be a light fawn, and does
not resist water so well as that from valonia. These difl’er-
ences arise from the varying proportions of tannin, extrac¬
tive colouring matter, and vegetable acids present; and as
the tanner has the prejudices of his buyers to consult, he se¬
lects that material, or mixture of materials, which best suits
his locality. There are other vegetable productions which Tanore
contain tannin. Sir H. Davy estimates 1 lb. of catechu I! .
(terra japonica) as equal to 2i of galls, 3 of sumach (which / aorinina'
also contains oxalic acid), 7^ of the bark of the Leicester ^ v ^
willow, of oak bark, 11 of the bark of the Spanish chest¬
nut, 18 of elm bark, and 21 of common willow bark. Few
barks are entirely free from it; and recently patents have
been taken out for using the bramble and the hop-bine in
tanning; but they possess the serious inconvenience of re¬
quiring very much latch-room.1
In trying the quantity of tannin by Seguin’s process, that
is, by precipitating it with solution of gelatine, 480 grains
of the bark in coarse powder should be acted on by half a
pint of boiling wrater. The mixture should be frequently
stirred, and suffered to stand twenty-four hours ; the fluid
should then be strained through a linen cloth, and mixed
with an equal quantity of solution of gelatine, made by dis¬
solving glue, jelly, or isinglass, in hot water, in the propor¬
tion of a dram of glue or isinglass, or six table-spoonfuls of
jelly, to a pint of water. The precipitate should be col¬
lected by passing the mixture of the solution and infusion
through folds of blotting paper, and the paper exposed to
the air till its contents are quite dry. Every 100 grains of
precipitate contains 40 grains of tannin nearly.
When butts or crops are tanned, they are taken out and
hung up to dry; but once or twice during drying they are
placed upon a bench which is cylindrical and inclined to the
horizon. Upon this they are struck or smoothed with a
square bar, the surface being occasionally wetted. When
the drying is sufficiently advanced, they are rolled with a
brass roller about nine inches wide, loaded with from 15
cwt. to 30 cwt. This operation is called finishing.
TANORE, a decayed town on the sea-coast of Malabar.
It is thirty miles south by east from Calicut. Long. 75.
55. E. Lat. 10. 55. N.
TANTALUS, in fabulous history, king of Phrygia and
Paphlagonia, was the son of Jupiter and the nymph Plota.
He one day entertained the gods at his table, when, to
prove their divinity, he served up his son Pelops cut in
pieces. All the deities, except Ceres, perceived his cruelty
and impiety, and would not touch his provisions. That
goddess, whose thoughts were solely employed about her
daughter Proserpine, inadvertently ate a part of his left
shoulder. Pelops, however, was restored to life, and an
ivory shoulder given him in the room of that which had
been eaten ; while Tantalus was thrown into Tartarus,
where he was punished with perpetual hunger and thirst.
He was chained in a lake, the water of which reached up
to his chin, but retired when he attempted to drink. The
branch of a tree loaded with fruit hung down even to his
lips, but on his attempting to pluck the fruit the branch
sprung upwards.
TAOO, one of the Friendly Islands, in the South Pacific
Ocean, about twenty-four miles in circumference.
TAORMINA, a town in Sicily, situated on a high rock,
and eighty-eight miles south of Messina. A colony from
the isle of Naxos settled at the foot of JStna, at no great
distance from the shore, and at about a league or a league
and a half from the present situation of Taormina. Dio¬
nysius the tyrant attacked this colony, and either took or
set fire to their city. The inhabitants retired to the
rocks of Mount Taurus, among which they found a tract of
ground sufficiently level and secure, and of sufficient ex-
is again pressed, and returned to its ori-
1 Terra japonica is the dried extract of acacia catechu, and obtained at Kauhauna in Hindustan. The name catechu means in the native
language the juice of a tree. Hr Thomson says it is composed of
Tannin 54,5
Peculiar extractive matter 34’
Mucilage    6'5
Insoluble matter, chiefly sand and lime  5’
100*
78
TAP
TAP
Taouka tent. Here therefore they built a city, which, after the
II mountain, they named Tauromenium. It was at length
-Tapestry. rajse(j a V€ry flourishing state by trade, and became cele-
brated as a seat of the arts, the remains of which shoyv that
the fine arts must there have been once successfully culti¬
vated. Among other relics are still to be seen a spacious
theatre, a tomb, and a long natural grotto, which appears
to have been anciently adorned wdthin with artificial orna¬
ments. After the inhabitants of Taormina embraced Chris¬
tianity, they still continued to visit this grotto with devout
veneration. Instead of the pagan divinities to whom it had
before been sacred, they substituted a saint, the venerable
St Leonard. But St Leonard did not long draw crowds to
this grotto ; and the Christians have either defaced its pa¬
gan decorations, or suffered them to fall into decay by the
injuries of time. It is now black and smoky ; and it is with
difficulty that any remains of the Greek paintings with which
it was once ornamented can be distinguished.
TAOUKA, one of the Society Islands, in the South
Pacific Ocean. Long. 145. 9. W. Lat. 14. 80. S.
TAPANOOLY, a small British settlement in Sumatra,
situated on a small island at the bottom of the bay of Tapa-
nooly on the north-west shore. It was taken by a French
squadron in 1760, and also in 1809, when the inhabitants
were plundered. Long. 98. 50. E. Lat. 1. 40. N.
TAPER denotes a kind of tall wax-candle, placed in a
candlestick, and burnt at funeral processions, and in other
church solemnities.
Paschal Taper, among the Romanists, is a large taper,
to which the deacon applies five pieces of frankincense, in
holes made for the purpose in the form of a cross ; and which
he lights with new fire in the ceremony of Easter Saturday.
The Pontifical makes Pope Zosimus the author of this
usage ; but Baronius will have it more ancient, and quotes
a hymn of Prudentius to prove it. That pope he supposes
to have only established the use of it in parish churches,
which, till then, had been restrained to greater churches.
Papebroch explains the original of the paschal taper more
distinctly, in his Conatus Chronico-Historicus, &c. It seems,
though the council of Nice regulated the day on which Eas¬
ter was to be celebrated, it enjoined the patriarch of Alex¬
andria to make a yearly canon of it, and to send it to the
pope. As all the other moveable feasts were to be regu¬
lated by that of Easter, a catalogue of them was made every
year ; and this was written on a taper, cereus, which was
blessed in the church with much solemnity. This taper,
according to Chastelain, was not a wax-candle made to be
burnt; it had no wick, nor was it any thing more than a
kind of column of wax, made on purpose to write the list
ot moveable feasts on, and which would suffice to hold that
list for the space of a year. For among the ancients, when
any thing was to be written to last for ever, they engraved
it on marble or steel; when it was to last a long while, they
wrote it on Egyptian paper ; and when it was only to last
a short time, they contented themselves to write it on wax.
In process of time they came to write the moveable feasts
on paper, but they still fastened it to the paschal taper.
Such is the original of the benediction of the paschal taper.
TAPESTRY, a kind of cloth made of wool and silk,
adorned with figures of different animals, &c. and formerly
used for lining the walls of rooms, churches, &c. The art
of weaving tapestry is supposed to have been borrowed from
the Saracens; accordingly the workmen employed in this
manufacture in France were formerly called Sarazins, or
Sarazinois. Guicciardini ascribes the invention of tapestry
hangings to the inhabitants of the Netherlands ; but he has
not mentioned at what time the discovery was made. This
art was brought into England by William Sheldon, near the
end of Henry VIII.’s reign. In 1619 a manufacture was
established at Mortlake, in Surrey, by Sir Francis Crane,
who received L.2000 from King James to encourage the
design. The first manufacture of tapestry at Paris was es- Tapestry,
tablished under Henry IV. in 1606 or 1607, by several' 
artists whom that monarch invited from Flanders. Under
Louis XIV. the manufacture of the Gobelins was instituted,
which has introduced very beautiful cloths, remarkable for
strength, for elegance of design, and a happy choice of co¬
lours. The finest paintings are copied, and eminent paint¬
ers have been employed in making designs for the work.
Tapestry-work is distinguished by the workmen into two
kinds, that of high and thatof low warp; though the difference
is rather in the manner of working than in the work itself,
which is in effect the same in both; only the looms, and
consequently the warps, are differently situated; those of
the low warp being placed flat and parallel to the horizon,
and those of the high warp erected perpendicularly. The
English anciently excelled all the world in the tapestry of
the high warp, and they still retain their former reputation,
though with some little change. Their low warps are still
admired ; but as for the high ones, they are quite laid aside
by the French. The French, before the revolution, had
three considerable tapestry manufactures besides that of the
Gobelins; the first at Aubusson in Auvergne, the second
at Felletin in the Upper Marche, and the third at Beauvais.
They were all equally established for the high and the low
warp; but they had all laid aside the high warp excepting
the Gobelins. There were admirable low warps likewise
in Flanders, generally excelling those of France. The
chief and almost only Flemish manufactures were at Brus¬
sels, Antwerp, Oudenarde, Lisle, Tournay, Bruges, and Va¬
lenciennes. The usual widths of tapestry are from two ells
to three ells Paris measure.
The loom on which the high warp is wrought is placed
perpendicularly: it consists of four principal pieces, two
long planks or cheeks of wood, and two thick rollers or
beams. The planks are set upright, and the beams across
them, one at the top and the other at the bottom, or about
a foot distance from the ground. They have each their
trunnions, by which they are suspended on the planks, and
are turned with bars. In each roller is a groove, from one
end to the other, capable of containing a long round piece
of wood, fastened in it with hooks. The use of it is to
fix the ends of the wrarp. The warp, which is a kind of
worsted, or twisted woollen thread, is wound on the upper
roller; and the work, as fast as woven, is wound on the lower.
In the inside the planks, which are seven or eight feet high,
fourteen or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick,
are holes pierced from top to bottom, in wffiich are put thick
pieces of iron, with hooks at one end serving to sustain the
coat-stave. These pieces of iron have also holes pierced, by
putting a pin in which the stave is drawn nearer or set far¬
ther off; and thus the coats or threads are stretched or
loosened at pleasure. The coat-stave is about three inches
in diameter, and runs all the length of the loom. On this are
fixed the coats or threads, which make the threads of the
warp cross each other. It has much the same effect here
as the spring stave and treddles have in the common looms.
The coats are little threads fastened to each thread of the
warp with a kind of sliding knot, which forms a sort of mesh
or ring. I hey serve to keep the w arp open for the passage
oi broaches wound with silks, woollens, or other matters
used in the piece of tapestry. In the last place, there is
a number of little sticks of different lengths, but all about
an inch in diameter, which the workman keeps by him in
baskets, to serve to make the threads of the warp cross each
other, by passing them across ; and, that the threads thus
crossed may retain their proper situation, a packthread is
run among the threads above the stick. The loom being
thus formed, and mounted with its warp, the first thing the
workman does is to draw on the threads of this warp the
principal lines and strokes ot the design to be represented
on the piece of tapestry ; which is done by applying car-
TAP
apestry. toons made from the painting he intends to copy to the
side that is to be the wrong side of the piece, and then,
with a black-lead pencil, following and tracing out the con¬
tours of it on the thread of the right side; so that the strokes
appear equally both before and behind. As for the original
design by which the work is to be finished, it is hung up
behind the workmen, and wound on a long staff, from which
a piece is unrolled from time to time as the work proceeds.
Besides the loom, &c. here described, there are three
other principal instruments required for working the silk or
the wool of the woof within the threads of the warp; these
are a broach, a reed, and an iron needle. The broach is
made of a hard wood, seven or eight inches long, and two
thirds of an inch thick, ending in a point with a little handle.
This serves as a shuttle; the silks, woollens, gold, or silver,
to be used in the work being wound on it. The reed or
comb is also of wood, eight or nine inches long, and an inch
thick on the back, whence it grows less and less to the ex¬
tremity of the teeth, which are more or less apart, accord¬
ing to the greater or less degree of fineness of the intended
work. Lastly, the needle is made in form of the common
needle, only bigger and longer. Its use is to press close
the wool and silks when there is any line or colour that does
not fit well.
All things being prepared for the work, and the work¬
man ready to begin, he places himself on the wrrong side of
the piece, with his back towards the design; so that he works
as it were blindfold, seeing nothing of wrhat he does, and
being obliged to quit his post and go to the other side of
the loom whenever he would view and examine the piece,
to correct it with his pressing-needle. To put silk, &c. in
the warp, he first turns and looks at the design ; then talcing
a broach full of the proper colour, he places it among the
threads of the warp, which he brings across each other with
his fingers, by means of the coats or threads fastened to the
staff ; this he repeats every time he is to change hia colour.
Having placed the silk or wool, he beats it with his reed or
comb; and when he has thus wrought in several rows over
each other, he goes to see what effect they have, in order to
icform the contours with his needle, if there be occasion.
As the work advances, it is rolled upon the lower beam, and
they unroll as much warp from the upper beam as suffices
them to continue the piece: the like they do of the design
behind them. When the pieces are wide, several workmen
may be employed at once. We have but two particulars
to add. 1 he first is, that the high warp tapestry goes on
much more slowly than the low warp, and takes up almost
twice the time and trouble. The second is, that all the
difference that the eye can perceive between the two kinds
consists in this, that in the low warp there is a red fillet,
about one twelfth of an inch broad, running on each side
f rom top to bottom, which is wanting in the high warp.
1 he loom or frame on which the low warp is wrought, is
much like that of the weavers. The principal parts are two
strong pieces of wood forming the sides of the loom, and
bearing a beam or roller at each end. They are sustained
at bottom with other strong pieces of wood in the manner
of trestles; and, to keep them the firmer, they are likewise
fastened to the floor with a kind of buttresses, which prevent
any shaking, though there are sometimes four or five work¬
men leaning on the fore-beam at once. The rollers have
each their trunnions, by which they are sustained: they are
turned by large iron pins three feet long. Along each beam
runs a groove, in which is placed the wich, a piece of wood
or about two inches diameter, and almost of the length of the
roller; this piece fills the groove entirely, and is" fastened
nom space to space by wooden pins. To the two wiches
are fastened the two extremities of the warp, which is wound
on the farther roller, and the work, as it advances, on the
nearer. Across the two sides, almost in the middle of the
loom, passes a wooden bar, which sustains little pieces of
T A R 79
wood, not unhke the beam of a balance. To these pieces are Tapool
fastened strings, which bear certain spring-staves, with which II
the workman, by means of two treddles under the loom, Taranto-
on which he sets his feet, gives a motion to the coats, and '
makes the threads of the warp rise and fall alternately. Each
loom has more or fewer of these spring-staves, and each staff
more or fewer coats, as the tapestry consists of more or fewer
threads.
The design or painting which the workman is to follow
is placed underneath the warp, where it is sustained from
space to space with strings, by means of which the design
is brought nearer the warp. The loom being mounted,
there are two instruments used in working it, the reed and
the flute. The flute does the office of the weaver’s shuttle ;
it is made of a hard polished wood, three or four lines thick
at the ends, and somewhat more in the middle, and three or
four inches long. On it are wound the silks or other mate¬
rials to be used as the woof of the tapestry. The comb or
reed is of wood or ivory ; it has usually teeth on both sides;
it is about an inch thick in the middle, but diminishes each
way to the extremity of the teeth; it serves to beat the
threads of the woof close to each other, as fast as the work¬
man has passed and placed them with his flute among the
threads of the warp. The workman is seated on a bench
before the loom, with his breast against the beam, only a
cushion or pillow between them; and in this posture, sepa¬
rating with his fingers the threads of the warp, that he may
see the design underneath, and taking a flute, mounted with
a proper colour, he passes it among the threads, after having-
raised or lowered them, by means of the treddles moving
the spring-staves and coats. Lastly, to press and close the
threads of the silk or yarn, &c. thus placed, he strikes each
course (i. e. what the flute leaves in its passing and coming
back again) with the reed.
TAPOOL, a small island, one of the Sooloo archipe¬
lago, situated due south from the principal Sooloo Isle.
TAPOPO, a small low island in the Eastern Seas, on the
west coast of the island of Waygiou, covered with trees to
the water’s edge.
TAPPA, one of the small Molucca Islands, separated
from that of Lata by a channel in some places not above
forty yards wide and one and a half long, with deep water.
Long. 123. 35. E. Lat. 0. 6. N.
T AR, a thick, black, unctuous substance, obtained chiefly
from old pines and fir trees by burning them with a close
smothering heat. It is prepared in great quantities in Nor¬
way, Sweden, Germany, Russia, and North America, and
in other countries where the pine and fir abound. Becher
the celebrated chemist first proposed to make tar from pit-
coal. Manufactures for this purpose were established many
years ago in the bishopric of Liege, and in several parts of
England. In the year 1781, the earl ofDundonald obtain¬
ed a patent for extracting tar from pit-coal by a new process
of distillation. Great hopes were entertained of the value
of this discovery, but we have not heard that it answered
his expectations. Tar, which is well known for its eco¬
nomical uses, is properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine,
and has been much used as a medicine both internally and
externally. Tar-water, or water impregnated with the more
soluble parts of tar, was formerly a very popular remedy, and
was most earnestly recommended by Bishop Berkeley.
TARA BAD, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta ter¬
ritories, in the province of Aurangabad, ninety-four miles
south-east from Surat. Long. 74. 20. E. Lat. 20. 38. N.
TARAHPOOR, a town of Hindustan, province of Ba-
har, ninety miles south-south-east from Patna. Long. 86.
40. E. Lat. 25. 7. N.
1 ARAN iELLA, a lively Neapolitan dance, the me¬
lody in | time.
TARANTO, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province
of Otranto. It stands on a rocky island near to Cape St
80 TAR T A 11
TW Vito, but U joined to the continent by a long bridge. It is but a Jant
„ I! surrounded with walls, and defended by batteries and a bab>f’‘r°” ™d!D„ the law ,0 the people in
argum. 8trong castle. It is the capital of a district, is t e sea o^ . tf..n;,'}e explained it with the other priests that were
an archbishop, and conh,,ns a cathedr^ sev^ctache. ^ h.P ^ ^ u un(Ierstood by the people (Nehem.
and monasteries, an orphan-house,
Latin schools. It is irregularly built, and occupies but a
small part of the ancient Tarentum. The harbour is now
vui. 7-9). . . . ,
But though the custom of*m&King these expositions in tnc
Chaldee language be very ancient among the Hebrews, yet
fishermen. About sixty coasting vessels belong to die port, about thirty years before
Christ, under the reign of Herod the Great. Onkelos is
somewhat more modern. The Targum of Onkelos is es-
trading, for the most part, in the Adriatic Sea. The city
is supplied with water by means of an aqueduct. It contains
14,150 inhabitants, employed in trade in corn and oil, and ^- -- - ■ aro to be found in which
other products of the land, in the ^ery and in making jeemrfrnost Itt so
-rton (mods and hats, and in collecting salt. S- ^ ^ that it cannot be suspected of being
some cotton goods and hats, and in collecting
18. 25. E. Lat. 40. 45. N.
TARARE, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and the arrondissement of Villefranche. It stands
at the foot of a mountain on the river Tardine, and has ex¬
tensive manufactures of muslins, printed cottons, mixed
cloths of wool and cotton, and considerable tanneries. It
contains 6250 inhabitants.
TARASCON, atownofFrance,in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone and the arrondissement of Arles. It
stands on the left bank of the Rhone, over which is a bridge
of boats leading to Beaucaire. It is a well -built place, and
has a castle, from the platform of which a fine prospect is
to be seen. It contains 12,500 inhabitants, who have con¬
siderable trade in woollen and cotton goods, in making
brandy, and in ship-building. Long. 4. 34. 31. E. Lat. 43.
48. 20. N.
TARBES, an arrondissement of the department of the
Upper Pyrenees, in France. It is 484 square miles in ex¬
tent, is divided into eleven cantons, and these into 197 com¬
munes, containing, in 1836, 110,542 inhabitants. The ca¬
pital is the city of the same name, which is that also of the
department. It is situated on a fine plain on the left bank
of the Adour, is well built, with good paved streets, has a
cathedral and two churches, a theatre, a hospital, and a fine
market-place. The inhabitants amounted in 1836 to 12,630,
who are chiefly employed in making hardware and leather.
They have also a considerable trade with Spain. The pros¬
pects from the bridge towards the Pyrenees are very fine.
It was the seat of the war during the duke of Wellington’s
campaign in France. Long. 0. 1. 32. W. Lat. 43. 14. 2. N.
TARDEBIG, a town of the hundred of Halfshire, in the
county of Worcester, 113 miles from London. It has no
market, and only derives some trade from the canal which
passes by it from Birmingham. The inhabitants amounted
in 1831 to 4145.
TAREM, a town of Persia, in the province of Laristan,
situated in a plain on the banks of a salt river. It is a meanly
built place, consisting of a mud fort, surrounded on aH sides
by wretched huts, but is populous, and contains many re¬
spectable merchants, who trade to Muscat, Gombroon, and
Shiraz.
TARENT, an island on the western shore of the Per¬
sian Gulf, immediately opposite Katif. It is about seven
miles in length and as many in breadth, is well supplied with
fresh water, and embellished with many delightful gardens,
which produce abundance of fruit.
TARGUM, a name given to the Chaldee paraphrases of
the books of the Old Testament. They are called para¬
phrases or expositions, because they are rather comments
and explications than literal translations of the text. They
are written in the Chaldee tongue, which became familiar
to the JewTs after the time of their captivity in Babylon,
and was more known to them than the Hebrew itself; so
that when the Hebrew text was read in the synagogue, or
in the temple, they generally added to it an explication in
the Chaldee tongue for the service of the people, wdro had
corrupted. This paraphrast wrote only upon the books of
Moses ; and his style approaches nearly to the purity of the
Chaldee, as it is found in Daniel and Ezra. This targum
is quoted in the Misna, but was not knowm either to Eu¬
sebius, Jerom, or Origen.
The Targum of Jonathan, son of Uziel, is upon the
greater and less prophets. He is much more diffuse than
Onkelos, and especially upon the less prophets, where he
takes great liberties, and abounds in allegories. His style
is tolerably pure, and approaches pretty near to the Chal¬
dee of Onkelos. It is thought that the Jewish doctors who
lived above 700 years after him made some additions to
his work.
The Targum of Joseph the Blind is upon the Hagio-
grapha. This author is much more modern and less es¬
teemed than those whom wre have now mentioned. He has
written upon the Psalms, Job, the Proverbs, the Canticles,
Ecclesiastes, Ruth, and Esther. His style is a very corrupt
Chaldee, with a great mixture of words from foreign lan¬
guages.
The Targum of Jerusalem is only upon the Pentateuch ;
nor is that entire or perfect. There are whole verses
wanting, others transposed, others mutilated ; a circum¬
stance from which many have supposed that this is only a
fragment of some ancient paraphrase that is now lost.
There is no targum upon Daniel, or upon the books of
Ezra and Nehemiah.
These targums are of great use for the better under¬
standing, not only of the Old Testament, on which they are
written, but also of the New. As to the Old Testament,
they serve to vindicate the genuineness of the present He¬
brew text, by proving it to be the same that was in use when
these targums were made, contrary to the opinion of those
who think the Jews corrupted it after our Saviour’s time.
They help to explain many words and phrases in the He¬
brew original, and they hand down to us many of the an¬
cient customs of the Jews. And some of them, with the
phraseologies, idioms, and peculiar forms of speech, which
we find in them, do in many instances help as much for the
better illustration and better understanding of the New
Testament as of the Old; the Jerusalem Chaldee dialect,
in which they are written, being the vulgar language of
the Jews in our Saviour’s time. They also very much serve
the Christian cause against the Jews, by interpreting many
of the prophecies of the Messiah in the Old Testament in
the same manner as the Christians do. Many instances are
produced to this purpose in Dr Prideaux’s Connection of
the History of the Old and New Testament, vol. ii. p. 549.
These targums are to be found in the second edition of the
great Hebrew Bible, published at Basel by Buxtorf the
father in 1610. He has rectified the Chaldee text, and re¬
formed the vowel pointings in it; the targums having at
first been written without vowel points, which were after¬
wards added very erroneously by some Jews.
TARIFF, a table containing the names of different sorts
T A B
TAR
81
Tarn
of merchandise, with the duties to be paid as settled among
trading nations.
TA RN, a department of the south-west of France, formed
out of a part of ancient Languedoc. It is bounded on the
north and north-east by the department of Aveiron, on the
south-east by Herault, on the south by Aude, on the west
by Upper Garonne, and on the north-west by Tarn-Ga-
ronne. Itsareacontains573,977hectares, equal to 1,363,912
acres, or 2131 square miles. It comprehends four arron-
dissements, thirty-five cantons, and 327 communes. The
population in 1836 amounted to 346,614i persons, of whom
about 40,000 are Protestants, and the remainder adhere to
the Roman Catholic church. The face of the country is a
mixture of plains, hills, valleys, and some few mountains,
mostly covered with woods. These are branches from the
Sevennes and Lozere chain, which in this department has
the name of Montague Noire, and extends on the south side
into the departments of the Upper Garonne and the Aude.
The chief river gives its name to the department, and
receives the waters of the Ranee and the Agout, and
is navigable from Guillac to its mouth. The northern
division is in part watered by the Aveiron and the Viaur.
The climate is mild and healthy, with summers of great
heat, and with winters of very short duration, unattended
by any severe frosts. The soil is generally fertile in corn,
and produces more grain, especially wheat, than is con¬
sumed within the department. In the higher parts of the
department rye is found to succeed better than wheat; but
the quantity raised of both is usually about equal. In the
lofty districts the pasture is good, but in the lower districts
the plains are burnt up in the summer, and the cattle, though
good,' are small in size. The husbandry work is chiefly per¬
formed by asses or mules. There are but few sheep ; and
no care has hitherto been taken to improve either the flesh
or the wool. Swine are very abundant, and geese still more
so ; and large quantities of both are cured by smoking, and
form a valuable article of export. It is said not to be un¬
common to see fat geese weighing as much as thirty pounds,
the livers of which are considered a great luxury. Fruit is
abundant, especially plums, cherries, and chestnuts; and
woad, anis and coriander seed, liquorice and saffron, are
carefully cultivated. The wine is extensively made, some
of good quality ; that near Guillac is highly esteemed, and
is principally purchased for the Bordeaux market, to be
shipped to foreign countries. Silk was once extensively ob¬
tained, but that commodity has of late years much declined.
Mines of copper and of lead were formerly worked, but have
now ceased; and the only mineral produced is iron, and
that in very small quantities. The manufacturing industry
is confined to the towns of Albi and Castres, and to the
more hilly districts. The inhabitants produce woollen stuffs
and serges, silk and cotton goods. The tanneries are nume¬
rous, and make more than sufficient leather for the domes¬
tic consumption. The department sends two deputies to
the legislative chamber. Castres is the capital town, and
had 17,602 inhabitants in 1836.
TARN and Garonne, a department of the south-west
of France. In 1808 it was formed out of portions of the
several existing departments of Lot, Upper Garonne, Lot-
Garonne, Gers, and Aveiron. In times before the revo¬
lution it was known as the Agenois, Lomagne, and Basse
Marche du Rouergue of Upper Languedoc. According
to its present state, it is bounded on the north by the
Lot, on the east by the Aveiron and the Tarn, on the
south by the Upper Garonne, and on the west by the Gers
and the Lot-Garonne. Its area contains 366,976 hectares,
equal to 872,440 acres, or 1363 square miles. It is divided
into three arrondissements, twenty-four cantons, and 191
communes, with 242,184 inhabitants in 1836, who chiefly
adhere to the Roman Catholic church, but among whom
are between 30,000 and 40,000 Protestants. The face of the
VOL. XXI.
country consists of several extensive plains, about 1000 or Tarnopol
1200 feet above the level of the sea, with valleys of various , ll
extent intersecting them, through which their several 'I^‘Ti-1g°n;u
streams flow. The principal rivers are the Garonne, the
ri arn, and the Aveiron. The soil is various in fertility,
but on the whole is productive. The plain of the Garonne
is peculiarly so, and on both sides is lined with hills, which
are covered with fruit trees and vineyards. The banks of
the other two streams are rich, and present most picturesque
prospects. Many of the farms on the Garonne are sold as
high as from L.50 to L.60 the English acre. The climate
is temperate, and sometimes the w inter passes wdthout snow,
and the streams are scarcely ever frozen ; but violent storms
of hail, collected on the Pyrenees, occasionally descend and
destroy the hopes of the cultivators. The business of agri¬
culture is conducted with great care, and on the best of the
soil the practice of fallowing is abandoned ; but on the in¬
ferior land a year’s fallow is succeeded by two corn crops,
as in most of the other parts of France. Much good wheat
is raised, and the best of it is converted into flour for the
West India markets. Other kinds of grain are raised with
success. Fruit is abundant, and forms articles of export
when preserved, especially the plums and figs. Almonds,
chestnuts, and walnuts, are also collected for trade, with
abundance of wine, and wood for fuel and building. The
only mineral procured is iron, and of that but little;
but there are valuable quarries of marble, and some of mill¬
stones. Next to wheat, the amount of the value of the wane
exceeds that of all the other products. There are manu¬
factories of linen and woollen cloths, of china and earthen
ware, of paper, cutlery articles, leather, and some silk goods.
The three rivers already mentioned are navigable, and af¬
ford the greatest advantage to commerce by the facilities
which they offer for the distribution of the heavy produc¬
tions of the department. The capital is the city of Montau-
ban, and it is also the chief seat of manufacturing industry.
Its population in 1836 amounted to 23,865.
TARNOPOL, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Gal-
licia, extending over 1317 square miles, comprehending four
cities, six market-towns, and 251 villages, with 189,600
inhabitants. The capital is the city of the same name, on
the river Sereth. It contains 1080 houses, with 7560 inha¬
bitants, of whom many are Jewrs, who carry on an active
internal trade. It has also some tanneries.
TARNOW, a circle in the Austrian kingdom of Galli-
cia, extending over 2040 square miles. It contains three
cities, eleven market-towns, and 464 villages, with 215,000
inhabitants, of whom 15,000 are Jews. The capital is the
city of the same name, which contains 360 houses, with
4540 inhabitants, employed in making table and other linens,
and having extensive tanneries. Long. 20. 55. E. Lat. 49.
59. N.
TARPA, Spurius Mecius, a Latin critic in the time of
Julius Caesar and Augustus. He had his tribunal in the
temple of Apollo, where, with four assistants, he passed
sentence on the works of the poets. Cicero and Horace
make honourable mention of this critic.
TARPAULIN, a piece of canvass, well tarred over to
keep off the rain from any place. The term is applied in a
burlesque sense to a person that has been all his life bred
to the sea.
TARPORLEY, a town of the hundred of Eddisbury, in
the county of Chichester, 179 miles from London. It lias
some small manufactories of stockings and leather breeches.
The population amounted in 1821 to 800, and in 1831 to
995 ; but the parish contains 2391.
TARRAGONA, a city of Spain, in the province of Ca¬
talonia. In the period when the Romans governed Spain,
this city was very celebrated as the capital of that division
of the kingdom which is to the east of the Ebro, then de¬
nominated Tarraconia. The streets are narrow, and the
L
82
TAR
TAR
Tarsus houses lofty. It is the see of an archbishop; but the ca¬
ll thedral, though large, is by no means handsome. It is a
Tartary. ^ pjace 0f considerable trade, especially in brandies, great
" v ^ quantities of which, made in the plain near it, are shipped
from its port. It has considerable manufactories of silk
goods of various kinds; and the whole population displays a
degree of industrious activity by no means usual in Spain.
The best-tasted brandies are those from the hills belonging
to the Carthusian convent, on the borders of the Campo ;
but those of the Campo are stronger. When first made,
they are all as white and transparent as water ; but by keep¬
ing in casks, and by artificial means, they become darker
coloured before they arrive at the markets for sale. The
city of Tarragona, as well as the country around it, abounds
with Roman antiquities, whose investigation has always been
a favourite pursuit with the more studious of the infebit-
ants. The city within the walls contains a population of
only ten thousand; but the far greater number of inhabit¬
ants reside in the suburbs. Long. 1. 46. 37. E. Lat. 41. 7.
6. N.
TARSUS, a large city of Asia Minor, the ancient ca¬
pital of Cilicia, situated on a fertile plain on the right
bank of the Cydnus, about six miles from its mouth. The
town is partly surrounded by a wall, supposed to be the
remains of that erected by Haroun al Raschid. The houses,
which seldom exceed one story in height, are flat-roofed,
and mostly constructed of hewn stone derived from the
ruins of the ancient edifices. The city contains two pub¬
lic baths, a number of mosques, several handsome caravan¬
serais, and a small ancient church. There is a castle, said
to be built by Bajazet. On an eminence to the south¬
west are the ruins of a spacious edifice, which may pro¬
bably have been the gymnasium ; and about 200 yards far¬
ther to the west, an ancient gateway stands almost entire.
The city contains about 30,000 inhabitants during the
winter, among whom are 200 Armenian and 100 Greek fa¬
milies; while a considerable proportion consists ofToorko-
mans, who migrate with their families to the mountains. A
considerable trade is carried on. The land in the neigh¬
bourhood is exceedingly fertile, and yields abundance of
wheat, barley, sesame, and cotton, which are exported to
Malta, and thence to Spain and Portugal. Copper from
Maden, and gall-nuts, are also exported in large quantities.
The imports consist chiefly of rice, sugar, and coffee. Tar¬
sus is a city of high antiquity. It is said by Arrian and
Strabo to have been built by Sardanapalus, though others
consider it to have been a Grecian colony. It was much
favoured by the Roman emperors Augustus and Adrian ;
and, in wealth and grandeur, as well as in literature and
science, rivalled the more celebrated cities of antiquity. It
was adorned with many magnificent edifices, the monu¬
ments of ancient taste; but has been subject to so many
vicissitudes, that scarcely any relics of its former splendour
are to be seen.
T ART ARY, a tract of territory in central Asia, of which
the limits have never been exactly defined. It is gene¬
rally understood to embrace that wide space which inter¬
venes between the dominions of Russia and China on the
west and east, and which on the south is bounded by
the kingdom of Persia and the lofty central mountains of
Asia. This vast space was formerly occupied by pastoral
tribes, who, united under one great chief, assailed and finally
overthrew the Roman empire ; and who afterwards, under
their great leader Ghenghis Khan, carried their devastations
both into Europe and Asia. Central Asia is one vast mea¬
dow, extended on a dead level to an almost boundless ex¬
tent, covered with flocks and herds, and necessarily the ha¬
bitation of a pastoral people. Such has accordingly been
the character of the Tartars from time immemorial ; their
sole employment being to tend their flocks and herds, and
occasionally to hunt the wild animals of the forest; living
in tents in the open fields, without towns or villages; de¬
lighting in horsemanship, and in all manly and warlike ex¬
ercises; and having a breed of the finest horses in the world.
“ The fancy of the poet,” says the Roman historian, “ has
clothed the pastoral life in the fairest attributes of inno¬
cence and peace ; but it is the province of history to ex¬
hibit a different picture, and to exhibit these shepherds as
they truly are, fierce, bloody, savage, and vindictive.” The
Tartars were accordingly known in ancient history under
the appellation of Scythians, and were admired for their
warlike virtues and for the simplicity of their manners, for
their hospitality, and their ignorance of money and luxury,
by the Greek legislators of Athens and Sparta, whose policy
it was to form a community on the same warlike model,
where nothing was to be seen but
Man and steel, the soldier and his sword.
They were at all times the most formidable enemies of ci¬
vilized life, and the various inroads into their dominions by
the greatest conquerors only ended in disaster and defeat.
As light troops, they were most formidable in the ancient
wars ; and the Persian monarchs, with their well-trained
bands, and even Alexander of Macedon, were forced to re¬
treat before their formidable though desultory attacks.
While Rome retained the vigour and simplicity of her
republican institutions, and the iron discipline of her armies,
the rude assaults of these barbarians were invariably repel¬
led ; but when the warlike habits of the Romans began to be
corrupted by the progress of luxurj7, their attacks were re¬
newed with increased fierceness, and with greater chances of
success. Numbers of the first invaders perished in the in¬
roads into the Roman provinces. But these being still re¬
inforced with increasing multitudes, while the vigour of the
defence was relaxed, they at length effected permanent con¬
quests ; and, under the appellation of Huns, finally extended
their ravagesoverall Italy. The intelligence of their success,
and of the riches and beauty of the conquered countries, at¬
tracted multitudes from the remote extremities of Asia, and
under their repeated assaults the empire of the west was
subverted. This event was hastened by the dreadful inva¬
sion of Attila, who was characterized as “ the sword of God
and the destroyer of nations.” On the east the Tartar
tribes, under the appellation of Toorks or Turks, from
Chinese or Independent Tartary, poured their innumerable
hordes on the Persian empire, where they established a
dynasty celebrated under the name of the Seljukian. About
the end of the tenth century, they crossed the Euphrates
in four divisions under different leaders, and invaded Asia
Minor and Syria, of which they conquered and retained pos¬
session of the finest provinces. They endured various vi¬
cissitudes, and w7ere at one time reduced very low. But
being directed by able leaders, they recovered the ascend¬
ant ; and, their numbers being swelled by the warlike and
migratory population which, in the course of long wars,
was scattered over those countries, they finally succeed¬
ed in overturning the eastern empire, and Constantino¬
ple became, and still continues, the seat of their em¬
pire. In the twelfth century the Tartar tribes were still
more formidable. Their whole power being consolidat¬
ed under Zingis or Ghenghis Khan, they successively
conquered China, Persia, and all central Asia from the
Black Sea to eastern Asia. His successors pursued the
career of conquest, and added Russia and Poland, with
part of Germany. A general panic was now diffused
over the w'hole civilized world by the intelligence of these
conquests, and of the ravages committed by these barba¬
rians in the fairest portions of the earth. The great em¬
pire of Ghenghis Khan was broken into divisions ; but the
different chiefs who now reigned were still eager for con¬
quest; and iimur the lartar, or Tamerlane, having esta¬
blished his dominions over a large and fertile portion of
T A R T A R Y. , 83
| rotary. Asia, conquered Persia, where the degenerate chiefs of the
-'"'V'""' race of Ghenghis still bore sway, broke the power of the
Turks in Asia Minor, ravaged and conquered India, and
in that country established a dynasty which continued till
the close of the last century, when every minor authority
in that part of Asia was swallowed up by the extending sway
of Britain, on whose bounty the great Mogul, the descen¬
dant of Ghenghis, is now a humble pensioner. China fell
an easy prey to these conquering hordes, and has long
been the seat of a Tartar dynasty, having been conquered
about the sixteenth century by the Mantchoos, a tribe
which issued from the north, near the coasts of the Eastern
Ocean. But the rising power of Russia has reduced most
of those wandering tribes under her dominion ; and the
reign of Independent Tartary is now contracted within a
narrow span. The progress of civilization, and the improve¬
ment of the art of war by the invention of fire-arms, have
entirely broken the power of these savage hordes. The
Russian cannon now forms a sure barrier against the in¬
cursions of the Tartar horse ; and under her growing civili¬
zation and military power, the fiercest tribes have been
taught to tremble and obey. All northern Asia, to the
limits of China, and eastward to the Pacific Ocean, has been
reduced under the power of Russia; and the narrow space
that is now occupied by Independent Tartary is ruled by
numerous petty sovereigns, who are often engaged in mu¬
tual w'ars, and can never be again formidable to the civi¬
lized states of Europe. On the contrary, the rude tribes
of Asia will hardly be able to maintain their ground against
the encroaching flood of European civilization or of Euro¬
pean arms. The powers of Europe seem now to have im¬
bibed the spirit of conquest which formerly propelled the
Asiatic hordes into the seats of European civilization; and
the late unsuccessful expedition of the Russians from the
west to Khyvah, about 240 miles east of the Caspian Sea,
and the bold and admirably conducted inroad of the Bri¬
tish from the east as far as Candahar and Caubul, are among
the fruits of this ambitious policy.
This extensive country may be divided into Independent
Tartary and Chinese Tartary.
I. Independent Tartary includes that extensive region
which stretches from the Caspian Sea, as far east as the
great Himalaya range of mountains, which runs through
the centre of Asia, and from which a branch diverges
from the main ridge, under the designation of Beloor
Taugh, northward, and separates Independent Tartary from
the country of Kashgar and from Chinese Tartary. On
the south, this country is indistinctly bounded by Persia,
and on the north by the provinces of Oufa, Orenburg,
and Tobolsk, belonging to Asiatic Russia. Independent
Tartary is divided into various states; namely, 1. Khyvah,
which is a stripe on the banks of the Oxus, of which the
length does not exceed between 200 and 300 miles, and
the breadth in no place more than fifty. 2. The kingdom
of Bockhara or Bukharia, which is by far the most im-
Iportant both in power and extent. The habitable part
of this kingdom is small in proportion to the desert with
which it is chiefly surrounded, and which may be consi¬
dered in a great measure as its boundary. It is divided
from Khyvah on the west and north-west; to the north¬
east stretch vast tracts of desert, thinly sprinkled with the
tents of the Toorkoman and other tribes, and only inter¬
rupted by the stream of the Jaxartes ; on the east it is
bounded by Kokaun ; and the Oxus, with the mountains
from which it flows, may be said to form its southern
boundary. The limits of this kingdom are, however, in a
State of fluctuation, varying, as is generally the case in the
disorderly regions of Asia, with the success of its arms ; so
that they can hardly be laid down with any precision. 3. Tartary.
The independent state of Kokaun, which is fully 230 miles v-*-
in length by 130 in breadth, is bounded on the east from
Bockhara by a steep and inaccessible chain of mountains,
the two countries being divided by the White River ; on
the south it has the mountainous tract which divides it
from Buduckshan and Chitral; on the south-west it is
bounded by Kurratageen; on the east and north-east by
mountains tributary to China, and inhabited by Kirgeesh
and Kuzaks; on the north-west by the district of Tash-
kund, with mountains and deserts. South and east of
Bockhara lies the large and interesting province of Balk;
and about 600 miles east of Kokaun lie the Mahommedan
states of Kashgar and Yarkund.
One of the great peculiarities of Asiatic manners, well
calculated to attract attention, is the division of the popu¬
lation into the two classes of fixed and wandering com¬
munities. In the richer countries to the south and east
of Asia the inhabitants are mostly stationary, dwelling
in fixed habitations, and occupied with trade and agricul¬
ture ; but the northern and western parts, including Ara¬
bia, Persia, a portion of Afghanistan, Balk, and all the
country that lies in the same parallel of latitude, as far
east as the most civilized parts of China, and on th west
including a portion of Poland and Russia, have been oc¬
cupied by wandering tribes, migrating with the winter
and summer in quest of pasture, and having no fixed habi¬
tations in towns and villages. This class has been gradu¬
ally diminishing with the progress of civilization. But in
the country we are now describing, the pastoral life is still
seen in its original rudeness and simplicity; and in many
districts those shepherds discover all the cruelty and fero¬
city of the Tartar tribes. The original invaders were the
Mongoles from the eastern regions bordering on China;
but they liave been supplanted in their turn by other inva¬
ders, and the country is chiefly occupied by the Toorko-
mans, and the Oosbecks or Usbecks, and other rude tribes.
The Toorkomans are divided into other tribes, the three
principal of which are, the Tuckeh, the Gocklan, and the
Yamoot. They occupy the country to the north of the El¬
burz range of mountains, and of Persia, and are found as
far north as Khyvah, all along the shores of the Caspian
Sea. They are extremely barbarous and cruel in their
manners. They live partly by plunder, and pour down
from their deserts upon the cultivated countries around,
plundering villages and caravans with every circumstance
of atrocious outrage, murdering on the spot the old, the
feeble, and the helpless. Those who are fit tor labour they
carry into slavery. They have depopulated many exten¬
sive districts, which but for them would continue fertile
and inhabited. The Toorkomans, and most of the tribes
in the same quarter, are Mahommedans of the sect of
Soonies; the Persians again are Sheahs, and the deadly
hatred which prevails between these sects may exasperate
the fury of their invaders, and add to their cruelties. On
the east, there are other tribes who commit the same ra¬
vages. The captives that are carried off are disposed of
to slave-merchants, and are by them sold in the great
slave-markets of Khyvah and Bockhara. All these tribes
are described by Fraser1 as cruel, blood-thirsty, and rapa¬
cious, even in their private lives and domestic relations.
They set no value whatever on human life ; and a word, a
look, or some trivial mistake, he observes, is apt to occasion
bloodshed. A Toorkoman will put to death his wife, his
child, or his servant, for the merest trifle; and if crimes of
this sort do not more frequently occur, it is more from con¬
siderations of interest than from any regard to the ties of
blood or affection. “ Even the wars between the tribes,’’
1 Fraser’s Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan, chap. xii.
84
T A R T A R Y.
Tartary. observes this judicious writer, “ have assumed the same
cruel and rapacious character which marks their foreign
warfare ; avarice has quite overpowered religious zeal; and
the unholy practice of selling captives of their own faith
is now frequent.”
The tribe of Tuckeh is the most numerous of the Toorko-
man tribes, containing 40,000 families. They are a treach¬
erous and faithless race, and never suffer an opportunity
to escape of plundering even their friends. The Gocklans
were formerly powerful, but their power has been broken
by adverse events, and they now acknowledge the Persian
supremacy. The Yamoot tribe is divided into two parts:
the one, amounting to 15,000 families, acknowledges the
Persian monarch ; the other, amounting to 16,000 families,
is subject to Khyvah. All these tribes resemble each other
in their customs and manners. They live in tents or port¬
able houses, and frequently change their stations, as pasture
becomes scarce, seldom remaining more than five or six
days in one place. They encamp in parties of from 30 to
200 families; each party is ruled by its elder, whose ad¬
vice is taken in all matters aftecting the interests of the
community, and who adjusts petty disputes ; but they have
no governors, chiefs, or nobles among them, nor would
they endure any one arrogating such superiority. The
same spirit of equality prevails in common life, no distinc¬
tions of rank being at any time observed, nor any great
deference to the claims of age or relationship. Like all
rude tribes, the Toorkomans pique themselves on hospita¬
lity ; but so vitiated have their morals become by the love
of plunder, that even this tie is often violated.
The wealth which they acquire by perfidy and rapacity,
they generally invest in such property as camels, horses,
valuable swords, arms and armour, women’s ornaments,
clothes, jewrels of gold or silver, and rich furniture. The
women are not concealed, as in Mahommedan countries; nor
do they wear veils. Their dress consists of a long loose
vest or skirt, with sleeves, which covers the whole person
down to the feet, and is open at the breast in front, but
buttons or ties close up to the neck. It is made of silk or
cotton stuff, red, blue, green, striped red or yellow, check¬
ed, or variously coloured. Underneath are drawers of silk
or cotton. Their head-dress is a lofty cap with a broad
crown, made of light chips of wood or split reeds covered
with cloth. With respect to the dresses of the men, those of
the poorer class consist of a stout woollen shirt, and a pair of
woollen drawers, or a long brown woollen wrapper; but the
better classes have generally adopted the common Persian
habit. There is much individual variety among those tribes.
The Tuckehs have a good deal of the Tartar physiognomy.
Many of them are tall, stout, and well made, with scanty
beards, small eyes drawn up at the corners, high cheek-bones,
and small flat noses; all the true features, in short, of a Tar¬
tar face; while others have handsome features, more re¬
sembling a European than an Asiatic countenance. The
Gocklans also bear traces of a Tartar origin, but less than
the Tuckehs, while there are remarkable differences among
them, marking the intermixture of different races. The Ya¬
moot men have less of the Tartar physiognomy than any of
the other tribes. Many of them resemble the Persians, and
also the Russians, in a certain harsh irregularity of feature
which they possess. They are all ferocious and warlike in
their habits. Their arms are a spear and sword, in the use of
which they are sufficiently dexterous. The sword is gene¬
rally formed in the curved Persian fashion, and very sharp.
They also wear a dagger. Fire-arms are as yet not in
general use among them. The Gocklans and Yamoots
use bows and arrows, in the use of which they are not
nearly so dexterous as their ancestors. These tribes are
all excellent horsemen, and they possess a race of horses
which are celebrated all over Asia. They greatly value
size and bone, which are indigenous to the country; but
figure and blood, borrowed from the Arab breed, much Tartary.
more. Their horses are capable of enduring extraordinary
fatigues. When properly trained for a plundering expedition,
they will carry their riders without flagging for eight days
together, at the rate of from eighty to a hundred miles per
day. Those of the best breeds cannot be purchased under
L.i 50 or L.200. For the protection of their flocks they have
a breed of very large and fierce dogs, which assist their shep¬
herds in managing their flocks. But though they attend to
their flocks, they still delight in plunder, to which they look
for riches and extraordinary indulgences; and when they re¬
solve on any expedition, they unite under some leader whose
conduct and courage inspire them with confidence; and, sal¬
lying from their haunts, they move wnth astonishing celerity
into some of the frontier provinces of Persia. They lie
near the gates of the town or village which they have mark¬
ed out for their prey ; and watching in silence until dawn,
when the unsuspecting inhabitants begin to issue from the
gates to pursue their daily labour, they start from their lurk¬
ing place, seize all they can catch, murder those who resist,
rapidly plunder the houses, and, binding their booty on the
cattle, hasten to retreat before the country is alarmed. They
massacre the old and infirm ; and those who are taken cap¬
tive to be sold for slaves, they fasten by ropes to their horses,
with their arms tied behind their backs; and they drive them
on with blows of heavy whips to increase their speed. They
have a few manufactures, such as carpets, which they weave
of a very beautiful fabric, and which are highly valued, and
bring high prices. They also weave cloth of camels’ hair,
and coarse woollens chiefly for their own use ; and they
dispose of butter and cheese, the produce of their flocks.
A large portion of Independent Tartary, farther to the
east of the Caspian, in the neighbourhood of Bockhara,
Balk, and Samarcand, countries which lie near the river Oxus,
is inhabited almost entirely by the Oosbecks, a people of
the widely extended race* of the Turk or Toork, but whose
original seat is not precisely ascertained. They appear to
have come from the north, and to have been tempted from
their original and inhospitable abodes by the finer countries
on the plains of the Oxus and the Jaxartes. Like the
other Turks, they are celebrated all over the east for their
fine appearance, w hich is remarkably contrasted with the
Mongoles, Kalmucks, and other Tartar tribes. They are
distinguished by broad foreheads, high cheek-bones, thin
beards, and small eyes; by a clear and ruddy complexion,
and generally by black hair. The women are fair and
beautiful. Their dress resembles that of the Toorkomans
of the desert. They wear a lofty cap upon the head, with
a handkerchief over it. The shirt and trousers, with the
gown, are not unlike those of the men. The dress of the
latter at Khyvah consists of a shirt and drawers of white
cotton cloth, with two or three gowns over them of striped
silk stuff, blue, red, and gray, all open at the breast, so that
when the girdle is loose the person is very indecorously ex¬
posed. A broad-topped sheep-skin is worn upon the head,
d he khan is hardly to be distinguished by his dress from
his subjects; but on grand days he wears a small jewTel in
his turban, with a gold-embroidered Oosbeck gown over
his white shirt and drawers ; and the other ensign of roy¬
alty which he assumes, is a tuft of gold and jewels upon his
horse’s head.
The Oosbecks at Khyvah are described as a very unci¬
vilized race, gross in their domestic habits, and coarse and
disgusting in their food and manner of eating ; the khan,
his ministers, and almost all his nobles, being fat and un-
weildy, owing to their habits of indolence. There is little
distinction between the different ranks of society ; the mas¬
ter and servant, the chief and the groom, standing or sitting
promiscuously together. In Bockhara, where the Oos¬
becks constitute the chief portion of the population, along
with the laujicks and Toorkomans, they are represented
T A R T A R Y.
85
fartary. by Fraser as honest, just, sincere, good tempered, generally
-v'-—-' well disposed, and by no means either cruel or treacherous;
rarely quarrelling, and their quarrels rarely stained with
blood; nor are they addicted to private and murderous re¬
venge, like most of their neighbours. They are fond of
horse-flesh, which they prefer to beef; and by their fond¬
ness for the intoxicating drink called mare’s milk, they are
often seduced into excess and drunkenness. They are like¬
wise fond of tea. They are the chief inhabitants of Ko-
kaun, and other districts to the east, and are there repre¬
sented as a fat, fair, and high-complexioned people, ex¬
tremely quiet, good humoured, and hospitable; very fond
of riding, hunting, hawking, and getting drunk on kimmiz,
or mare’s milk. The other wandering tribes who are scat¬
tered over this country are also described as peaceable and
honest. The Oosbecks who inhabit the desert tracts of the
country, live in parties of from two hundred to above one
thousand families. These parties have no particular chief,
but each is regulated in all its concerns by a bey or beg,
who is chosen by common consent, on account of his wealth,
character, or abilities. In the larger divisions, the king has
a voice in the election of the bey or chief, but in the smaller
divisions this is little attended to. These chiefs decide in
all disputes which are not of great importance. In serious
cases several of them consult together; and if they cannot
agree they remit the matter to the cauzee, who is always
appointed by the king, and is held in considerable awe. In
all the different states, the king or chief is perfectly abso¬
lute, the fountain of all authority and power. The only
restraint on Ids will is derived from the influence of re¬
ligion ; the oleemut and heads of religion alone possess¬
ing any authority or respect, to which it is necessary for
the king to defer. The influence of this body, however,
has been of late so much weakened, that some of them
have been put to death by the reigning monarch. The
priests rank above all classes, civil as well as military. The
nobles belonging to the army occupy the second rank. The
revenue is collected by the bey in kind; namely, sheep,
camels, oxen, and other animals, in the proportion of one in
forty. He fixes a price on them, and the tribute is paid in
money to a collector sent with another legal officer and ten
soldiers to receive it. In order to preserve his control, the
king discourages different tribes from living together in the
same union ; but it is common in the desert to see a varie¬
ty of tribes mingled together. The tents of the Oosbecks
consist of a frame-work of thin laths covered with thick
black felt, and these are called kirgahs or black houses.
The floors of the rich are spread with carpets and numuds;
those of the poor with a blanket or mat of camel’s hair; and
a hole in the roof, of open lattice-work, is the only chimney,
over which they draw a piece of black felt when it rains.
The dress of the Oozbecks in Bockhara consists of the same
loose and flowing garments as in most parts of Asia. They
were a shirt and drawers, of cotton in summer and of woollen
in winter, and over these a silk or woollen wrapping gown,
tied round the waist with a girdle; and in winter a sheep’s
skin, or a coat of thick felt, in which they wrap themselves.
The head-dress is in summer a painted cap of silk, which
they call a calpak, and in winter a small cap of broad cloth
lined with fur; a checked or white turban is often worn round
this, and forms the true national dress. Bandages of cloth
rolled round the legs form a rude substitute for stockings ;
or boots are worn, of brown leather, reaching up to the
knee. The dress of the women is very similar to that of
the men. They wear boots and silk gloves, and throw over
the person a silk sheet, which conceals them from head to
foot, a small orifice being left for the eyes. They are fond
of ornaments, wearing necklaces of gold beads, with nose¬
rings and ear-rings. In the country the women wear no
veils, but go about openly as in Europe. The Taujicks are Tartary.
a peaceable class, who are understood to be opposed to the
Toorks or Toorkomans, and the Oozbecks, and other wan¬
dering hordes, who, under various designations and subdi¬
visions into tribes, form a scanty population, inhabiting
chiefly the banks of the Oxus, and the habitable spots scat¬
tered through the desert; but they are to be found in
greater or smaller numbers, according to the quantity of
cultivated land, all over the more fertile and well-wratered
country to the south and south-east of Bockhara.
The towns of Tartary are, Khyvah, Ourgunge, Haza-
rasp, Zercaun, Pitnuck; Bockhara, Balk, both large towns;
Samarcand, now ruined and in a state of decay, though
still containing many fine buildings ; Kokaun, Khojund,
Yarkund, and others of less consequence. Of the commerce
of this distant region, some account has been given under
the articles Bukharia and Balk. The Russians have long
carried on commerce with Khyvah and the western parts
of Tartary. The possession of the port of Astracan, and
more lately those of Bako, Salian, Derbund, and Lanke-
ran, has given them an entire command of the navigation
and commerce of the Caspian Sea; and it is long since
they began to build forts on its eastern shore. The prin¬
cipal of these is Okh Trappeh, not far from Astrabad, and
some miles to the north of Attruck, in the territory of the
Toorkoman tribes. They also occupy a port or point in
or connected with the Bay of Balkan, called by the Rus¬
sians Krasnovodsk, and an island in the Bay of Mangush-
luck, still farther to the north. It is from some of these
points that they have sent a military force against Khyvah,
which, according to the latest accounts, had nearly perished
from cold and fatigue. The greatest obstacle to the march
of an army in these deserts is the w ant of water. The dis^
tance from Krasnovodsk to Khyvah is about 500 miles, in
which, for several days’ journey, no water is to be found.
Fraser, in his account of the Persian empire, states his opi¬
nion that a Russian force might be set down on the eastern
shore of the Caspian Sea, either at Balkan or at Mangush-
luck, “ that, with common management, might not only cap¬
ture, but retain possession of, Khyvah, and project and pre¬
pare for ulterior enterprises.”1 Russia has, as anticipated
by Fraser, undertaken this expedition, which has in the
mean time failed, as already stated, but whether from want
of common management, or of a sufficient force, or from the
difficulties of the enterprise, has not been clearly ascertained.
Russia supplies this extensive country, Khyvah, as well
as Bockhara, with the greater portion of the European
articles which its inhabitants require. 1 With both these
places an intercourse is maintained by means of caravans,
which proceed from Astracan by Orenburg. The route
is long and dangerous, being about forty days’ journey, and
in many places exposed to the attacks of the Kirgeesh and
Kuzaks, who inhabit the steppes north and north-west of
Khyvah. The chief traffic is by sea to Mangushluck, where
the Russian traders bring their goods, and are met by those
from Khyvah. One great branch of trade consists in slaves
captured from the surrounding countries in plundering ex¬
peditions, and Khyvah and Bockhara are the chief marts.
The Toorkomans, the Yamoots, and even the tribes around
Khyvah itself, make inroads into Persia, and carry oft' the
cattle and the inhabitants, who are sold for slaves; and
on the other side, the Kirgeesh and Kuzaks make prison¬
ers of the Russians on their own frontiers, or when jour¬
neying in caravans, and carry them for sale to the great
slave-markets in the east. Bockhara carries on a regular
trade with Russia, Persia, and the east; for a more parti¬
cular account of which, see the article Bukharia.
Several of those cities which have been mentioned, to¬
wards the east of this extensive region, are said to be rich
^ See Appendix B, part ii.
86
T A R T A R Y.
Tartary. and populous. But unless in those richer tracts which are
interspersed through central Asia, and in the cities on the
banks of rivers, the inhabitants generally retain their pas¬
toral and migratory habits ; and more especially as we pro¬
ceed farther northwards among the Kirgeesh, who connect
Independent Tartary with Russia, and have been already
described. Everywhere fertile tracts are to be found; but
the desert, the abode of the wandering tribes, greatly pre¬
ponderates.
Besides those tribes who still inhabit the country of Tar¬
tary, this pastoral population is spread over the southern
provinces of Russia, which is inhabited by the Kalmucks and
Baschkirs. The Kalmucks have been already described.
They entirely resemble the other wandering tribes in their
habits. They were formerly numbered among the most
powerful tribes in Tartary, and they even boasted of the
great conqueror Zingis as belonging to their nation. After
various wanderings and misfortunes, the whole body settled,
in 1723, on the banks of the Volga, from Tzaritzin to Astra-
can. They numbered 14,000 tents or families, and owned the
supremacy of the czar. They could not, however, relinquish
at once their predatory habits, in consequence of which they
experienced the iron grasp of Russia, and numbers of them
sought an asylum near the frontier of China, whither they
emigrated about the year 1771. Those now inhabiting
Russia still amount to about 40,000 or 50,000.
The Baschkirs inhabit the southern parts of the pro¬
vinces of Orfa and Orenburg, with part of Tobolsk, be¬
tween the rivers Belaia, Kama, Volga, and Oural. They
were established in these countries from a very early pe¬
riod, and were instigated to repeated revolts, particularly
in 1676, 1708, and 1735 ; and in 1771 they joined the
standard of Pugatscheff. Their power was entirely broken
in the course of their various conflicts with Russia; and
after they were subdued, they experienced so much lenity
from the Russian government that they are now numerous
and prosperous. They retain all their Tartar habits, be¬
ing entirely devoted to the rearing of cattle, and, so far,
to the growing of such a supply of oats and barley as
may serve them for winter food when milk fails them.
They consist of 27,000 families, and are obliged to furnish
their contingent to the Russian armies, being placed on
the footing of Cossacs, mounted and equipped at their own
expense.
II. Chinese Tartary. On the decay of the Tartar sway
over central Asia, and the breaking up of their empire, a
vast portion of territory fell under the dominion of China.
It comprehends that extensive country which is situated
between Hindustan and Asiatic Russia, bounded on the
north by the great range of the Altai Mountains, and be¬
tween the Eastern Ocean and the great range of the Beloor
Taugh, which bounds Independent Tartary on the east.
This space extends in its widest dimensions over seventy
degrees of longitude and twenty of latitude. It is doubtful
whether it includes or is bounded by Thibet on the south.
It is in many parts mountainous and desert. The great
desert of Shamo or Gobi stretches, nearly through its whole
extent, over a space of nearly 2000 miles in breadth, and
interposes between China and the Russian empire. This
immense plain is in many places barren and destitute of wa¬
ter, but in other places is watered by rivulets and springs, or
lakes, and affords pasturage to the hordes that wander over
its desert parts, and is covered with herds of cattle. Our
knowledge of this tract, especially of its western limits, is
but imperfect, and is chiefly derived from the accounts of
the early missionaries by whom it was visited. The most
westerly district on the other side of the great mountain
range of Beloor Taugh includes, according to the most re¬
cent accounts, the Mahommedan states of Kashgar and
Yarkund, about 600 miles nearly east of Kokaun. The ap¬
pearance of this country is in general more pleasing than
that to the west, being better watered and more finely di- Tartary.
versified, more verdant and better wooded, and differing
both from the gravelly and rocky soil of Persia, Khorassan,
Balk, and from the salt or sandy deserts of Khaurezm or
Bockhara to the west. Kashgar is the more westerly of the
two, and is situated in long. 76° 15' 45" E. and in lat. 39°
25' N. It is a city of great celebrity, and of great com¬
mercial resort from the surrounding countries. It embraces
a circuit of three miles, contains 10,000 houses, and is
crowded with strangers. It was destroyed by Meerza Abu-
bekr, the grandson of Timur, who having afterwards made
it his residence, restored it to prosperity, and adorned it
with many splendid edifices. Along with several of the
neighbouring states, it has been under the dominion of Chi¬
na for the last seventy or eighty years. Yarkund, which by
the road is 180 miles from Kashgar, and is placed in long.
78° 27' 45" E. lat. 38° 19' N., enjoys a high degree of
celebrity in that part of Asia, and is a rendezvous of mer¬
chants from India, Caubul, and Independent Tartary. The
bazaar contains many handsome shops, which are chiefly
occupied by the Chinese. The country which surrounds
these cities is described as rich and fruitful, well watered
and delightful, abounding in towns and villages, in rich cul¬
tivation, and especially in well-flavoured and delicious fruits.
The conquest of the country by the Chinese, as related
by Fraser, took place about seventy or eighty years ago.
About the year 1670 or 1680 the countries of Yarkund,
Kashgar, and other neighbouring districts, were under the
Moghuls or Mongoles, the descendants of Timur, from whom
they were conquered by the Kalmucks, whose king resided
at Eelah, and appointed governors over the other cities.
A great plague having broken out among the Kalmucks,
the Mongole lords, seeing the weakness of their rulers, rose
in rebellion against them, and succeeded in regaining their
lost power. But at this period they put to death an ambas¬
sador from China, who was despatched to their country by
the emperor, on which he sent an army to avenge the in¬
sult, and after a severe conflict the country was subdued,
and has ever since remained under the yoke, though they
have still preserved their paternal seat, and live ostensibly
under the government of their own princes. According to
the accounts of travellers, the strictest order and an effici¬
ent police are maintained throughout the wide precincts of
the Chinese authority ; moderate duties are levied, trade
is protected, and a single traveller may journey as securely
as a large caravan.
That portion of Tartary which is to the west and north¬
west of China, is for the most part desert, or a naked and
wide-extended plain, with occasional spots which are fertile
and well watered, and afford pasture to the flocks of the
wandering tribes of Mongoles, Kalkas, and Eluths. The
origin of these tribes is but imperfectly known. The Mon¬
goles are generally considered as having been the great dis¬
turbers of the world, whose reckless devastation seemed
destined to destroy and obliterate arts and knowledge, and
every vestige of civilized life. Being gradually broken into
separate states, they were partly crushed by the rising pow er
of Russia, and partly fell under the dominion of China. They
are really, however, under the rule of the Chinese, though
a small portion of them are within the dominions of Russia.
I hese withdrew themselves from the Chinese dominion, and
voluntarily put themselves under that of Russia; and this
example would have been followed by other races, had not
Russia engaged by a treaty not to give admittance to any
more of these tribes. The Russian Mongoles inhabit the
regions about the Selenga, in the government of Irkutsk,
from the 122d to the 125th degree of longitude, and be¬
tween the 50th and 53d degree of north latitude. The
allegiance of those who are under the dominion of China
is secured by a pension to their chiefs. They sometimes
also engage in wars with each other, though these con-
T A S
T A S
87
Tartas
II
Tasso.
tests, when they rise to a certain height, are quelled by the
Chinese. All these rude tribes are devoted to the religion
of the Lamas.
The Mantchoo Tartars inhabit the most eastern extre¬
mity of Tartary, bordering on the Pacific, which, in conse¬
quence of having given a conquering dynasty to China,
now forms a province of that empire. They resemble the
Mongoles in person, but have a fairer complexion. They
have adopted only to a limited extent the religion of Fo or
Boodh, so universally established over the east of Asia; they
have an ancient superstition of their own, to which they are
greatly attached. They have also a peculiar language, which
differs materially from that of the Chinese, Coreans, and
Mongoles. It is rude in structure, but is said to be copi¬
ous. Their country is in general mountainous and woody ;
the mountains are lofty, and the forests are of great depth.
The cold is in proportion to the altitude ; and though the
latitude be only that of the south of France, the climate is
cold, and the rivers begin to freeze in September, (f.)
TARTAS, a river of Asiatic Russia, in the government
of Tobolsk, falls into the Om near Tartaskoi.
TARTASKOI, a small town of Asiatic Russia, in To¬
bolsk, situated at the junction of the Om and Tartas. It
is forty miles west-south-west of Kainsk.
TARVEN or Tarvin, a town in the hundred of Eddis-
bury and county of Chester, four miles from the city of
Chester, and 177 from London. The church is a well-built
structure. The parish comprehends, besides the town,
eleven small townships, whose population amounted in 1821
to 3486, and in 1831 to 3415 ; but the town contains only
1020.
T A SAP AN, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
Junkseylon. Long. 98. 14. E. Lat. 8. 20. N.
TASHKUND, or Tashkent, formerly a considerable
city of Independent Tartary, situated on the Sihon or Jax-
artes. It has suffered much from the devastations of war.
It is 210 miles north of Samarcand. Long. 64. 48. E. Lat.
42. 40. N.
TASIEVA, a river of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
Tobolsk, which falls into the Tchulim about twenty miles
north-west of Tasieuskoi. The latter place is situated on
this river, 820 miles of Tobolsk.
TASMAN’S Head, the most southern point of Bru-
ny’s Island, on the north-east coast of Van Diemen’s
Land.
Tasman’s Island, a great peninsula connected with Van
Diemen’s Land by an isthmus 600 feet broad by about 1800
long. At the southern extremity is a small island, called
Tasman’s Island.
TASSISUDON, a city of Northern Hindustan, province
of Bootan, of which it is the capital. It is the residence of
the Deb rajah. It is situated in a highly cultivated valley,
about three miles in length by one in breadth, intersected
by the Tchintchieu river. The climate is esteemed ex¬
ceedingly salubrious. The castle or palace is in the centre
of the valley, built of stone of a quadrangular form, the
walls thirty feet high, pierced with very small windows.
The citadel consists of seven stories, each from fifteen to
twenty feet high, and is a very lofty building. From the
centre rises a square piece of masonry, which supports a
canopy of copper richly gilt. The town is of considerable
extent, and is populous. Its chief manufactures are brazen
images, and paper made from the bark of a tree. Long.
89. 30. E. Lat. 27. 50. N.
TASSO, Torquato, one of the most celebrated of mo¬
dern poets, was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself eminent
in the same path of literature. Bernardo, a native of Ber¬
gamo, noble but poor, published in 1560 his chivalrous poem
of the Amadigi, which forms the link between the wild and
half-burlesque school in which Ariosto was the chief, and
the serious epic given to Italy by his own son.
Torquato was born in 1544, at the beautifully situated Tasso,
town of Sorrento, on the southern shore of the Bay of Na-
pies; but, his father having been involved in the misfortunes
and exile of a distinguished patron, the son’s education was
conducted in the north. At Padua, when he had scarcely
completed his eighteenth year, he published his romantic
poem called Rinaldo, which, aided by other compositions,
soon spread his fame over the peninsula, and introduced
him into the service of the house of Este, princes of Fer¬
rara. His next work of importance w as the Aminta, a pas¬
toral drama, in which, although having no claim to rank as
the inventor of that faulty species of poetry, he exhibited
it in a height of excellence neither attained before nor
since. But, in the midst of studies, minor compositions,
and travels which carried him as far as Paris, his mind was
mainly occupied in elaborating his great work, the “ Gieru-
salemme Liberata,” which he had planned and partly exe¬
cuted before leaving the university. Though the youthful
sketch is still extant, the work was afterwards rewritten,
and did not reach its close till 1575. The poet, now more
than thirty years old, had already displayed those infirmi¬
ties of character which made him, during the remainder of
his life, the helpless victim of envious enemies, or of mean
and heartless patrons. The tale which Goethe and Byron
have made the theme of poetical invention, represents Tasso
as the lover of Leonora d’Este, or, according to some bio¬
graphers, of Lucretia her sister; but the story is neither
sufficiently vouched, nor in itself either probable or con¬
sistent ; and the real cause of the persecution to which he
was subjected remains, after all investigations, as obscure
as ever. We know, however, enough to show that his mind
was but ill qualified to stand the shock and tumult of the
world. That exquisite sensibility which reigns in his poetry
was never dormant in any action of his life: deficient in
moral courage, and acutely sensitive in taste, he hesi¬
tated for years to give his great poem to the public; his
imagination, overwrought and undisciplined, filled him w ith
exaggerated suspicions of all who were around him, and su¬
perstitious terrors completed his misery. Fie surrendered
himself to the Inquisition, confessing, as heretical doubts,
w hat the inquisitors had sense enough to consider as illu¬
sions of hypochondria; and, after an unlucky quarrel had
brought on him a temporary imprisonment at Ferrara, he
fled secretly from that city in 1577, and, crossing the cen¬
tral Appenines by unfrequented paths, sought refuge with
his sister at Sorrento. For a year and a half after this period
he w andered through Italy, alternately abandoning himself
to fanciful despondence, and arousing his mind to the com¬
position of some of his minor works. In 1579, returning to
Ferrara for the second time since his flight, he was treated
with neglect by the duke and his sisters, and insulted by
the retainers of the court: he broke out, it is said, into vio¬
lent reproaches against his alienated patrons ; and, seized
by order of the Duke Alfonso, he w as immured in the hos¬
pital of Sant’ Anna, a public madhouse. In this prison he
remained more than seven years, receiving at one time per¬
mission to see his friends, and even to pay visits in the city,
but treated during the greater part of the period with all
the severities which in those days fell to the lot of ordinary
maniacs. In the earlier years of his imprisonment, his
mind seems to have gathered, from solitude and reflection,
a strength of resolution which it had not. before possessed,
while his literary genius was undecayed and constantly ac¬
tive ; but at length the horrors of his situation increased his
constitutional tendency to mental disease, and there is little
ground for doubting that, in the later period of his confine¬
ment, he laboured under a partial alienation of reason.
At length, however, the solicitation of powerful friends
procured his release, which took place in 1586; and, al¬
though his after years present us wdth several stories of new
misfortune and neglect, he found some patrons both kind
88
Tasso.
T A S
and judicious. His Jerusalem Delivered had been published
* repeatedly during his imprisonment, in spite of his earnest
remonstrances ; and now, weaned alike from chivalrous en¬
thusiasm and from the wish to flatter princes, he rewrote the
whole poem, and published it anew at Rome in 1562, un¬
der the title of the “ Gierusalemme Conquistata.” In this al¬
tered shape the work was a religious allegory, and the Fer-
rarese princes were never named in it; but the original
editions of the poem have kept their place in general favour,
and the alteration is universally and not unjustly neglected.
Except the tragedy of Torrismondo, all his other extensive
compositions after his release were of a devotional cast. In
the spring of 1595, while preparations were making for con¬
ferring on him the honours of that triumphal coronation in
the Roman capitol, which had been invented in favour of
Petrarca, he felt that his end was approaching, and retired
to the convent of Saint Onofrio on the brow of the Janicu-
lan Mount. He there expired placidly, having just com¬
pleted his fifty-first year ; and his body still lies beneath the
pavement of the little church.
Tasso’s works are very numerous, both in prose and verse;
and recent examinations of libraries, both in Italy and
France, especially that of Alfieri, now preserved at Mont¬
pellier, have added to the list many pieces, though without
throwing any decisive light on the mysterious portions of his
history. One of the most curious of the discoveries is a
“ Discorso intorno alia Sedizione nata nel regno di Francia,”
which was published in an Italian periodical in 1817. It
was written during his residence of twelve months at Paris,
and is a bigoted argument for the use of extreme severities
against the Huguenots. This performance, with other trea¬
tises and letters, was reprinted by the Abate Mazzuchelli
in 1822. Rosini’s edition of the poet’s works contains a
volume exclusively devoted to letters and poems not pre¬
viously published; and several separate collections have ap¬
peared, the most important being the “Trattato della Dig-
nita ed altri Scritti,” by Gazzera (Turin, 1838), and the
“ Manoscritti inediti” of Count Alberti (Lucca, 1837-8).
Tasso’s prose dialogues and moral treatises, and his minor
works in general, have scarcely received, even from his own
countrymen, that attention which they fairly deserve ; and
Monti had some reason for declaring, that the poet’s shade
has been appeased but in part for the insults offered to him
in his lifetime by Salviati and the other academicians of the
Crusca. Many of his lyrics are exceedingly beautiful, and
none of them more so than those gems which stand as
choruses in the Torrismondo, atoning by their pathetic
sweetness for a bad plot and a want of all dramatic vigour
in the tragedy itself. But the Jerusalem Delivered will al¬
ways continue to be its author’s title to immortality; and,
whatever its faults may be, there are assuredly no two epics
of modern times that deserve to be placed above it. Re¬
garded in comparison with other chivalrous poems of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Italy, it distinguishes
itself by two prominent features ; its perfect regularity and
simplicity of plan, and its lofty and single seriousness of
temper. No preceding poem in the language had both
these qualities; and Ariosto’s, the masterpiece of the series,
and in some respects the masterpiece of modern Italian
literature, was possessed of neither. The completeness of
finishing in the Gierusalemme is another excellence, in which
it stands perhaps higher than any poetical work that has been
composed since the days of Virgil: and the antithetical
quibbles and plays upon words which descended from the
Troubadours to Petrarca, from Petrarca to Tasso, and from
Tasso (though not through him directly) to our own poets
of the Elizabethan age, are faults more than balanced by
T A S
the chivalrous sentiment, the picturesqueness of natural
descriptions, the fanciful beauty of the supernatural ma¬
chinery, and the tenderness which so often melts into irre¬
sistible pathos. We must not look, in that picture of the
Crusades which Tasso has painted, for the stern and vigorous
truth which such a mind as Shakspeare’s would have incor¬
porated in essential harmony with the poetical elements :
we must not look even for that inferior kind of fidelity to
historical features which gives so strong a charm to some
poems of our own time; but we must view in it, with thank¬
ful admiration, a panorama of poetically romantic incident,
and poetically chivalrous character, as delightful as any thing
which genius has ever presented.1 (b. l.)
TASSONI, Alessandro, who was born at Modena in
1565, and died in 1635, ranks as th e best of those Italian writers
who, in the seventeenth century, made the burlesque epic
a remarkable branch of literature for their nation. His work
of this class, “ La Secchia Rapita,”or the Rape of the Bucket,
commemorates an incursion which, in the middle of the
thirteenth century, the Modenese made into the town of
Bologna, carrying off as a trophy the bucket of a public
well. Much of the wit has perished with the remembrance
of the persons satirized, and much more is too local to be
relished or understood except in Italy ; while the alterna¬
tion of serious and lofty feeling with broad buffoonery,
necessarily disgusts those who take their poetical creed from
the hands of the French. But, in spite of Voltaire’s con¬
tempt for the poem, it is one which must not be neglected
by any systematic student of Italian literature. Another
work equally characteristic is Tassoni’s “PensieriDiversi,” a
collection of ingenious and outrageous paradoxes, founded
on a complete scepticism, real or pretended, as to the merits,
not only of the great names in literature, but as to the uses
of literature itself. A similar production, the “Considera-
zioni sopra il Petrarca,” was an attack made, in the same
spirit, upon the poetical idol of the author’s countrymen.2
TASTE, a certain sensation excited in the mind by cer¬
tain bodies, which are called sapid, applied to the tongue
and palate, and moistened with saliva. This is the original
and proper meaning of the word taste; but as the qualities
of bodies which produce these sensations are unknown, they
have obtained the names of the sensations themselves, by
substituting the cause for the effect. Tastes have been di¬
vided into simple and compound, and philosophers have en¬
deavoured to ascertain the number of each species. Attempts
have likewise been made to determine from their tastes the
effects of different substances on the human body, taken in¬
to the stomach as food or physic; but by stating the result
of such inquiries, we should be more likely to mislead than
to communicate useful information.
1ASFE is likewise used in a figurative sense, to denote
that faculty by which we perceive and judge of whatever is
beautiful or sublime in the works of nature or of art. This
faculty relishes some things, is disgusted with others, and
to many is indifferent. It has also been called an internal
sense, and by one philosopher a rejiex sense, while others have
considered it as the joint exertion of perception and judg¬
ment in some cases, and as a play of the imagination in
others. 1 o decide among these different opinions, it will be
necessary to ascertain, if we can, what are the objects of
this faculty. Scarlet, blue, green, and yellow, are all beau¬
tiful colours, and a cube and a sphere are beautiful figures;
but it does not appear to us that a man could be said to
have either a good or a bad taste for relishing the percep¬
tion of a scarlet more than that of a yellow colour, or a sphe¬
rical more than a cubical figure.
With respect to the objects of the external sense, we are
1 Serassi, Vita di Torquato Tasso. ^ Roma, 1785, 4to. Black’s Life of Torquato Tasso. Edinb. 1310 2 vols 4to
2 Walker’s Memoirs of Alessandro Tassoni. Lend. 1815, 8vo.
T A S
T A S
89
aste. so constituted by nature as to relish those kinds of food
which are most wholesome, and such a taste is justly said to
be sound and uncorrupted. It is at first in the highest
perfection, for it depends not on culture of any kind, and is
incapable of improvement. The reverse is the case with
respect to internal taste. Every voice, it is true, unites in
applauding elegance, simplicity, spirit in writing, and in
blaming affectation, or a false brilliancy ; but when critics
descend to particulars, this seeming unanimity vanishes.
Perhaps no man ever beheld the rising or setting sun with¬
out feeling emotions of pleasure ; yet it is certain that the
emotions of the clow'n are not the same, at least in degree,
with those of the philosopher. Any beautiful object pre¬
sented to the eye gives a pleasing sensation to the mind ;
and it appears to us that the clown feels nothing more than
a mere sensation from the view of the rising sun, similar to
what he would feel from a blazing heath. In poetry and
painting the vulgar are always delighted with the melody
of the vepe, and the brilliancy of the colours, and think of
nothing ^Ise as beauties.
If this be so, the pleasures which the vulgar derive from
what are called objects of taste, are mere gratifications of
the senses; but very different is the pleasure which the
man of cultivated taste derives from the beauties of nature
or of art. The mere sensation of the clown is followed by
a train of ideas which hurries him beyond the object before
him to its beneficent effects and its Almighty Creator. The
nature of any person’s taste, therefore, is generally deter¬
mined from the character of his imagination and thq sound¬
ness of his judgment. The simple perception of the object
we find is insufficient to excite these emotions, unless it is
accompanied with this operation of mind. Thus, when we
feel the beauty or sublimity of natural scenery, we are con¬
scious of a variety of images in our minds very different
from those which the objects themselves can present to the
eye.
If the mind is in such a state as to prevent this freedom
of imagination, the emotion is not perceived. In so far as
the beauties of nature or art affect the external senses, their
effect is the same on every man who is in possession of
these senses. But to a man in pain or in grief, the same
scene will not produce any feeling of admiration, which at
other times would have produced it in perfection.
There are many objects of taste which do not produce
their full effect on the imagination, but through the medium
of the judgment. The beauty of the Farnese Hercules is
one kind of beauty, that of the gladiators in the palace of
Chighi another, and that of the Apollo Belvidere a third.
Each of these figures is acknowledged to be perfect in its
kind; but, according to Sir Joshua Reynolds, the highest
perfection of the human figure is not to be found but in
that form which might be taken from them all, and which
would partake of the activity of the gladiator, of the deli¬
cacy of the Apollo, and of the muscular strength of the
Hercules. In this view the perfection of these statues con¬
sists in something which, being perceived by the eye, is re¬
ferred by the understanding to what we know of the cha¬
racters of Hercules, Apollo, and the gladiator, and which we
suppose it was the intention of the statuaries to express.
There are, besides, objects of which taste is sometimes said
to judge, though they have little or no effect whatever on
the imagination. A book of abstract science, written in a
prolix and intricate style, may be said to be in a bad taste;
and had Swift, in his clear and simple style, written an Es¬
say on the Human Understanding, his work, supposing him
to have been master of the subject, would undoubtedly have
displayed more taste than Locke’s, in which the terms are
sometimes vague, and the periods encumbered. This is the
case of Berkeley, who is admitted by all to have been a
writer of good taste, though neither the Principles of Hu¬
man Knowledge, nor the Minute Philosopher, is capable of
VOL. XXI.
affording pleasure, either to the senses or the imagination.
His beauty consists merely in the perspicuity of his style,
of which the understanding alone is the judge. The meta¬
physical writings of Dr Reid possess in an eminent degree
the same beauty; and no man of true taste can read them
without admiring the elegant simplicity of the composition
as much as the strength of the reasoning, and feeling from
the whole a pleasure which the inflated style of Shaftesbury
cannot communicate.
If this be a just account of the pleasures of taste, that
faculty cannot be properly considered as a mere internal
sense, since to its enjoyments a well-stored fancy is neces¬
sary in some cases, and the reasoning power in all; and the
poet and the painter who wish to excel in their respec¬
tive professions, must not content themselves, the one with
filling the ear of the reader with mellifluous sounds, and the
other with dazzling or deceiving the eye of the spectator
by the brilliancy of his colours, but both must strive for
fame by captivating the imagination; while the architect
who aspires to a similar celebrity must make the purpose
of his oi’naments obvious to every person capable of judg¬
ing. The landscapes of Claude Lorrain, the music of Han¬
del, and the poetry of Milton, excite feeble emotions in our
minds, when our attention is confined to the qualities which
they present to our senses, or when it is to such qualities of
their composition that we turn our regard. It is then only
we feel the sublimity or beauty of their productions, when
our imaginations are kindled by their power, when we lose
ourselves amid the number of images that pass before our
minds, and when we waken at last from this play of fancy
as from the charm of a romantic dream.
It is well observed by Sir Joshua Reynolds, that taste is
sometimes praised in such terms by orators and poets, who
call it inspiration, and a gift from heaven, that though a
student by such praise may have his attention roused, and
a desire excited of obtaining this gift, he is more likely to
be deterred than encouraged in the pursuit of his object.
44 He examines his own mind, and perceives there nothing
of that divine inspiration with which he is told so many
others have been favoured. He never travelled to heaven
to gather new ideas; and he finds himself possessed of no
other qualifications than what mere common observation
and a plain understanding are able to confer. Thus he be¬
comes gloomy amidst the splendour of figurative declama¬
tion, and thinks it hopeless to pursue an object which he
supposes out of the reach of human industry. But on this,
as on many other occasions, we ought to distinguish how
much is to be given to enthusiasm, and how much to com¬
mon sense ; taking care not to lose in terms of vague ad¬
miration that solidity and truth of principle upon which
alone we can reason.” Whoever possesses the ordinary
powers of perception, sensibility of heart, good sense, and
an imagination capable of being roused by the striking ob¬
jects of nature and of art, may, without inspiration, be¬
come, by mere experience, a man of fine taste in the objects
of which he aspires to be a critical judge.
This being the case, we may easily account for the va¬
riety of tastes which prevail among man, not only as indi¬
viduals, but as nations. We have already mentioned the
difference in one instance between the European taste and
the African respecting female beauty; and we may now
affirm, as we hope to prove our affirmation, that the one
taste is equally correct with the other. The charms of fe¬
male beauty exist not in the mere external form and colour
considered by themselves (for then the inanimate statue of
the Venus de’ Medici would give more delight to the Eu¬
ropean beholder than the finest woman that ever lived);
but we associate external beauty with sweetness of disposi¬
tion, and with all the train of endearments which take place
in the union of the sexes; and it is this association which
delights the man of taste, as giving refinegaent to an appe-
M
Taste.
90 T A S
Taste, tite which itself is gross and sensual. A similar association
must be formed in the breast of the African who has any
taste; and as he never knew feminine softness, or any ot
the endearing qualities of the sex, but as united with thick
lips, a flat nose, a black skin, and woolly hair, a sable beauty
of that description must excite in his breast the same emo¬
tions that are excited in the breast of an European by the
fair woman with Grecian features.
But is there not an ideal or perfect beauty of the human
form ? There certainly is, as of every other natural ob¬
ject ; but it cannot be the same in Europe as in Africa, un¬
less to a being who is acquainted with all the peculiarities
of form, national and individual, that are to be found among
the inhabitants of the whole earth. It has been supposed,
and we think completely proved, by Mr Alison, one of our
best writers on the philosophy of taste, that the sublimity
or beauty of forms arises altogether from the associations
which we connect with them, or the qualities of which they
are expressive to us. The qualities expressed by the male and
female forms are very different; and we would by no means
think the woman beautiful who should have the form of the
Farnese Hercules, or admire the shapes of the hero who
should be formed like the Venus de’ Medici; because the
proportions of such a woman would indicate strength and
intrepidity, where we wish to find only gentleness and deli¬
cacy; and the delicate form of the hero would indicate
softness and effeminacy, where the opposite qualities only
can be esteemed. As we associate with the female form
many desirable qualities, every woman is esteemed more or
less beautiful as her figure and features indicate a greater
or smaller number of these qualities; and the same is the
case with respect to the qualities which adorn the male
character, and the form and features by which they are ex¬
pressed. Upon comparing a number of human beings with
one another, we find, that with respect to every feature and
limb, there is one central form to which nature always tends,
though she be continually deviating from it on the right
hand and on the left. This form therefore is considered as
the most perfect form of the species, and most expressive
of the qualities for which that species is valued; but in
Africa, the central form, with respect to the proportions of
the human body and the features of the human face, is very
different from what it is in Europe ; and therefore the ideal
or perfect beauty of the human form and features cannot
be the same in both countries. No doubt, if a man could
examine the limbs and features of every individual of the
human race, he would discover one central form belonging
to the whole, and be led to esteem it the standard of beau¬
ty ; but as this is obviously impossible, the common idea or
central form belonging to each great class of mankind must
be esteemed the standard of beauty in that class, as indi¬
cating most completely the qualities for which individuals
are esteemed. Thus there is a common form in childhood,
and a common form in age; each of which is the more per¬
fect as it is the more remote from peculiarities: but though
age and childhood have something in common, we should
not deem the child beautiful who was formed exactly like
the most handsome man, nor the man handsome who was
formed exactly like the most beautiful child. This doc¬
trine is well illustrated by Sir Joshua Reynolds, who has
applied it to every object esteemed beautiful in nature ; and
proved, that the superiority of Claude Lorrain over the
landscape-painters of the Dutch and Flemish schools, arises
chiefly from his having generalized his conceptions, and
formed his pictures by compounding together the various
draughts which he had previously made from various beau¬
tiful scenes and prospects. “ On the whole,” says he, “ it
seems to me that there is but one presiding principle which
regulates and gives stability to every art. The works,
whether of poets, painters, moralists, or historians, which
are built upon general nature, live for ever; while those
T A S
which depend for their existence on particular customs and Taste, r,
habits, a particular view ot nature, or the fluctuation of "
fashion, can only be coeval with that which first raised
them from obscurity. All the individual objects which are
exhibited to our view by nature, upon close examination
will be found to have their blemishes and defects. The
most beautiful forms have something about them like weak¬
ness, minuteness, or imperfection. But it is not every eye
that perceives these blemishes. It must be an eye long
used to the contemplation and comparison of these forms;
which alone can discern what any set of objects of the same
kind has in common, and what each wants in particular.”
From these reasonings the same great artist concludes,
that the man who is ambitious of the character of possessing
a correct taste, ought to acquire a “ habit of comparing and
digesting his notions. He ought not to be wholly unac¬
quainted with that part of philosophy which gives him an
insight into human nature, and relates to the manners, cha¬
racters, passions, and affections. He ought to know some¬
thing concerning mind, as well as a great deal concerning
the body, and the various external works of nature and of
art; for it is only the power of distinguishing right from
wrong that is properly denominated taste.
“ Genius and taste, in the common acceptation, appear
to be very nearly related; the difference lies only in this,
that genius has superadded to it a habit or power of execu¬
tion. Or we may say that taste, when this power is added,
changes its name, and is called genius. They both, in the
popular opinion, pretend to an entire exemption from the
restraint of rules. It is supposed that their powers are in¬
tuitive ; that under the name of genius great works are pro¬
duced, and under the name of taste an exact judgment is
given, without our knowing why, and without being under
the least obligation to reason, precept, or experience.
“ One can scarce state these opinions without exposing
their absurdity; yet they are constantly in the mouths of
men, and particularly of illiterate and affected connoisseurs.
The natural appetite or taste of the human mind is for
truth ; whether that truth results from the real agreement
or equality of original ideas among themselves, from the
agreement of the representation of any object with the
thing represented, or from the correspondence of the seve¬
ral parts of any arrangement with each other. It is the
very same taste which relishes a demonstration in geome¬
try, that is pleased with the resemblance of a picture to an
original, and touched with the harmony of music.
“ But besides real, there is also apparent truth, or opinion,
or prejudice. With regard to real truth, when it is known,
the taste which conforms to it is and must be uniform.
With regard to the second sort of truth, which may be called
truth upon sufferance, or truth by courtesy, it is not fixed,
but variable. However, whilst these opinions and preju¬
dices on which it is founded continue, they operate as truth ;
and the art whose office it is to please the mind as well as
instruct it, must direct itself according to opinion, or it will
not attain its end. In proportion as these prejudices are
known to be generally diffused or long received, the taste
which conforms to them approaches nearer to certainty,
and to a sort of resemblance to real science, even where
opinions are found to be no better than prejudices. And
since they deserve, on account of their duration and ex¬
tent, to be considered as really true, they become capable
of no small degree of stability and determination by their
permanent and uniform nature.
“ Of the judgment which we make on the works of art,
and the preference that we give to one class of art over
another, if a reason be demanded, the question is perhaps
evaded by answering, I judge from my taste; but it does
not follow that a better answer cannot be given, though
for common gazers this may be sufficient. Every man is
not obliged to investigate the causes of his approbation or
TAT
"ate dislike. The arts would lie open for ever to caprice and
II casualty, if those who are to judge of their excellencies had
ianus- no settled principles by which they are to regulate their
~v ' decisions, and the merit or defect of performances were to
be determined by unguided fancy. And indeed we may
venture to assert, that whatever speculative knowledge is
necessary to the artist, is equally and indispensably neces¬
sary to the critic and the connoisseur.
“ The first idea that occurs in the consideration of what
is fixed in art or in taste, is that presiding principle which
we have already mentioned, the general idea of nature.
The beginning, the middle, and the end of every thing that
is valuable in taste, is comprised in the knowledge of what
is truly nature ; for whatever ideas are not conformable to
those of nature or universal opinion, must be considered as
more or less capricious; the idea of nature comprehending
not only the forms which nature produces, but also the na¬
ture and internal fabric and organization, as I may call it,
of the human mind and imagination. General ideas, beau¬
ty, or nature, are but different ways of expressing the same
thing, whether we apply these terms to statues, poetry, or
picture. Deformity is not nature, but an accidental devia¬
tion from her accustomed practice. This general idea
therefore ought to be called nature; and nothing else, cor¬
rectly speaking, has a right to that name. Hence it plainly
appears, that as a work is conducted under the influence of
general ideas, or partial, it is principally to be considered
as the effect of a good or a bad taste.”
Upon the whole, we may conclude that the real sub¬
stance, as it may be called, of what goes under the name of
taste, is fixed and established in the nature of things ; that
there are certain and regular causes by which the imagina¬
tion and passions of men are affected ; and that the know¬
ledge of these causes is acquired by a laborious and dili¬
gent investigation of nature, and by the same slow progress
as wisdom or knowledge of every kind, however instantane¬
ous its operations may appear when thus acquired. A man
of real taste is always a man of judgment in other respects;
and those inventions which either disdain or shrink from
reason, are generally more like the dreams of a distempered
brain than the exalted enthusiasm of a sound and true ge¬
nius. In the midst of the highest flights of fancy or ima¬
gination, reason ought to preside from first to last; and he
who shall decide on the beauties of any one of the fine arts
by an imaginary innate sense or feeling, will make as ridi¬
culous an appearance as the connoisseur mentioned by Dr
Moore, who praised as a work of the divine Raphael the
wretched daubing by a Swiss copyist. The reader who
wishes for further instruction in the philosophy of taste,
may consult the article Beauty in this work; Dr Gerard’s
Essay on Taste, with the dissertations of Voltaire, D’Alem¬
bert, and Montesquieu ; Alison’s Essays on the Nature and
Principles of Taste ; and Sir Joshua Reynolds’s Discourses
delivered in the Royal Academy.
TATE, Nahum, a poet and dramatist, the son of Dr
Faithful Tate, was born in Dublin in the year 1652. He
wras educated in Trinity College, but did not betake him¬
self to any profession. Upon the death of Shad well in
1692, Tate succeeded him as poet laureat, and held that
place until the reign of George I. whose first birth-day ode
he lived to write, and executed it with unusual spirit. He
died in the Mint in 1716. He was the author of ten dra¬
matic performances, a great number of poems, and a ver¬
sion of the Psalms in conjunction with Dr Brady. A list
of his plays may be found in the Biographia Dramatica,
vol. i. p. 703.
TATI ANUS, a Greek writer of the primitive church,
was a native of Syria, and by profession a rhetorician. He
was educated in paganism, but became a convert to Chris¬
tianity, and a disciple of Justin Martyr, whom he attended
at Rome. After the death of Justin, in the year 165, he
TAT 91
adopted some very unsound opinions, and appeared as the Tatius
author of a new sect, condemning marriage, enjoining ab- rpj.ta
stinence from wine and animal food, and suffering only, ,
water to be used in the holy mysteries; whence his followers
were called Encratitce and Hydroparastatce. From Rome
he returned to the east, and opened a school in Mesopota¬
mia ; but when or where he died, we do not find recorded.
His only work, “ Oratio ad Graecos,” was first printed at
Zurich in 1546. An elaborate edition was published by
William Worth, A. M. Oxon. 1700, 8vo.
TATIUS, Achilles, a Greek writer, is supposed by
Fabricius to have flourished in the third or fourth century.
His age seems however to be very uncertain. Suidas, who
gives him the name of Achilles Statius, informs us that
having originally been a Pagan, he was converted to Chris¬
tianity, and at length became a bishop. He is best known
as the author of a romance, in eight books, “ De Leucip-
pes et Clitophontis Amoribus.” From the strain of the
work, it may perhaps be supposed to have been written be¬
fore his conversion. It first appeared in a Latin transla¬
tion, executed by Annibal Crucceius ; a portion of which
was printed at Lyon in 1544, and a complete edition at
Basel in 1554. The Greek text was first committed to the
press by Commelin [Heidelbergae], 1601, 8vo. Another
edition was published by Salmasius, Lugd. Bat. 1640,12mo.
This most learned individual, who was so eminently quali¬
fied for the task, is allowed to have executed it too hastily.
After several intervening editions, followed that of Mit-
scherlich, which occupies the first volume of his Scriptores
Erotici Grceci. Biponti, 1792-4, 3 tom. 8vo. But the most
elaborate and valuable edition that has yet appeared, was
published by Jacobs, Lipsim, 1821, 8vo. This romance has
been translated into English, and other modern languages.
A composition of a very different nature has likewise been
ascribed to Achilles Tatius; but it may perhaps be con¬
sidered as doubtful whether they were both written by the
same individual. This is a fragment of a treatise on the
sphere, lisp' 2pa/gix$, and comprises an introduction to the
Phenomena of Aratus. It was first published by Victorius,
with his edition of Hipparchus, Florent. 1567, fol. The
Greek text, accompanied with a Latin version, was inserted
by Petavius in his Uranologion, Paris. 1630, fol.
* TATISCHEVA, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Oufa, on the Oural, twenty-eight miles west
of Orenburg.
TATTA, a district of Hindustan, formerly contained
within the great soubah of Moultan, but now comprehend¬
ing nearly the delta of the Indus, which has been already
described under the article Sinde. The country is inter¬
sected by the overflowing waters of the Indus, and where
these do not reach, it is mostly sandy and barren. It is
noted for a fine breed of camels, which are pastured on
the barren plains. It produces a quantity of rice and salt,
and the rivers abound with fish, which articles constitute
the chief food of the inhabitants. It is now part of the do¬
minions of the Ameers of Sinde, who have impoverished
the country by their extortions.
Tatta, an ancient and celebrated city, and capital of the
above district, situated near the banks of the Indus, about
130 miles by the course of the river from the sea. It was
formerly a rich and commercial city, but is now greatly
decayed, exhibiting, instead of the bustle and animation of
its ancient trade, long streets of ruinous and uninhabited
houses. The situation is in a valley formed by a range of
low rocky hills, which, during the freshes of the Indus, is
inundated ; but being placed on an eminence, apparently
formed by ancient ruins, Tatta has the appearance of an
island when the adjacent flat is inundated by the rains.
The streets are narrow and dirty; but the houses are supe¬
rior to the low huts commonly seen in native towns. They
are built on a peculiar plan. The walls are made hollow by
92 TAT
Tatta. small pieces of sticks, from eight to sixteen inches long, be-
s-—v—' ing nailed across each other, from the outer edges of a small
frame of wood. They are placed diagonally, and thus form
a strong frame on both sides, which is plastered over with
mud or mortar, and afterwards has the appearance of a
solid wall. They are frequently four stories high, with heavy
flat roofs. Many of the better sort are built with brick and
mortar on a frame of timber ; and all, from the governor’s
house to the lowest hovel, have a sort of ventilators like
chimneys, down which the wind blows cool and refreshing
in the most sultry weather ; at which time every aperture
is shut to exclude the hot wind and the dust. I he old
English factory purchased by the company in 1751 still
remains, and may be reckoned the best house in the place.
To the southward, within the town, are the remains of an
old fort.
The town was formerly defended by a strong brick wall
with round towers. These are now heaps of ruins; and the
mosques and pagodas that remain exhibit symptoms of
rapid decay. The town is, however, estimated by Colonel
Pottinger to be still six miles in circumference, exclusive of
the ruins, which extend a great way on either side. No trace
exists of the origin of this city, or by whom it was founded.
The earliest mention of it occurs in the year 677, when it
was fortified, and made some slight resistance to the victo¬
rious armies of the caliphs of Bagdad. Its site is supposed
to be that of the Pattala of the Greeks; but the lower dis¬
tricts of Sinde have undergone such remarkable changes
even within the memory of man, that all such conclusions
rest on mere conjecture. The native princes of Sinde,
when they shook off the Arab yoke, fixed on Tatta as
their capital, which, from its favourable situation between
India on the east, and Asia to the north and west, became
a great commercial emporium, and one of the richest cities
of Asia. No labour or expense was spared in beautifying
the city with handsome buildings and the establishment of
fine gardens; while the more important objects were attended
to of affording facility to trade by cutting canals from the
Indus, which runs four miles to the east of the town;
through which goods were brought and landed from boats
at the very doors of the merchants’ houses. All traces of
these ornamental improvements are now almost entirely
obliterated, and the only aqueduct that yet remains is
choked with rubbish, and is nothing superior to a common
drain. The decline of this city may be dated from its
subjection to the empire of Hindustan; still, at the time
that it was visited by Nadir Shah on his return from
Delhi, it was estimated to contain 40,000 weavers of cali¬
coes and silk stuffs, with artisans of every other class and
description to the number of 20,000 more; besides bankers,
money-changers, shop-keepers, and sellers of grain, who
were estimated at 60.000. The population has now dwindled
down to less than 20,000 ; and the annual revenue of the
city does not exceed one lac of rupees, or L.12,500, which
is not equal to the monthly collections during the period
of its former grandeur. The only manufactures now carried
on in Tatta are a few white cloths, and coloured loongees,
which are cloths for sashes, turbans, &c. of silk or cotton.
The streets are deserted; the few shops that remain open
are scarcely worthy of the name, and the whole bazaar exhi¬
bits a deplorable pictureof poverty and depressed commerce.
The chief exports are ghee, bdellium, potash, oil, raisins, salt¬
petre, aniseed, musk, chintzes, shawls from Shikarpoor, car¬
pets, and a variety of drugs. The imports are cocoa-nuts,
pepper, cardamoms, betel-nuts, nutmegs, cinnamon, silk raw
and manufactured, cochineal, broad cloth, quicksilver, tin,
iron, steel, copper, lead, black wood, sandal wood, and sandal¬
wood oil. The Indus is in general shoal opposite to Tatta;
T A U
and in consequence trading boats lie off a small village 4 atterslia
named Begurah, distant five miles, with generally two, but rp.
sometimes four fathoms of water, and the breadth of the „ _
river about one mile. 1 he boats used here on the Indus
are generally square at both ends, low forward, high abaft,
flat-bottomed, and drawing only a few inches of water;
they are either pushed along with poles, or dragged, and
when the wind is fair sails are used. I here are four routes
from Tatta to Hyderabad, two by land, and two by water;
the shortest of which may be estimated at fifty-three
miles. The country around Tatta, with the exception of
the hill of Mukulee, about three miles to the west, is a perfect
level. These hills, as well as the plain, are covered with
a thick jungle, principally of the tamarisk and a species of
bastard myrtle. The heat, when Colonel Pottinger was at
Tatta, was excessive, the thermometer ranging from 91°
to 102°; but towards the middle of July the atmosphere
was refreshed by copious rains, and by strong southerly
gales, which rendered the air cooler towards the middle of
July. The hill of Mukulee, already mentioned, is covered
with a number of graves and mausoleums, the habitations
of the dead, the only remaining melancholy memorials of
ancient magnificence, greatly exceeding those of the liv¬
ing. The tomb of Mirza Eesa Toorkhan, which is sup¬
posed to have been erected in 1622, is uncommonly mag¬
nificent and well executed. It consists of a large build¬
ing, eighty-five feet square, and two stories high, with
a cupola seventy feet high, partly hid by two balconies,
the fronts of which are supported by pillars. It is enclosed
by a high wall, the stones of which are neatly engraved
and inlaid. The whole is of a yellow freestone; and inside,
under the centre of the dome, is a mound of black stone,
on which are engraved the names of the inmates of this
gloomy dwelling. Several tombs are built of the same
kind of stone; and there are others highly ornamented
with enamelled tiles of beautiful green, purple, and blue
colours; but “the exquisite engraving,” says Pottinger,
“ of chapters of the Koran on the stone door-frames, sur¬
passed every thing else that w7e found worthy of observa¬
tion in these sepulchres.” On the southern side of the hill
there is also dug out of the solid rock a very remarkable
well, with a chamber all round it, about twelve feet below
the surface, to which the descent is by spiral steps. The
water of this well has a strong medicinal taste. On the
banks of the Indus, seven miles above Tatta, is another hill
covered with white mosques and tombs of deceased Mahom-
medans, some of the latter of considerable size. Travel¬
ling distance from Bombay 741 miles, from Calcutta 1602
miles.1 (f.)
TATTERSHALL, an English market-town, in the
hundred of Gartree and division of Lindsey, in the county
of Lincoln, 127 miles from London and fourteen to the
north-west of Boston. It is on the Bain, a river that is
navigable to the Withan, into which it flows in its way to
the sea. The church, which was formerly collegiate, is a
very beautiful and spacious edifice, in the form of a cross;
but has suffered from time, and from the outrages of the
civil wars. The population amounted in 1831 to 599.
TATTOOING, or Tattowing, an operation in use
among the islanders in the South Sea, for marking their bo¬
dies with figures of various kinds, which they consider as or¬
namental. It is performed by puncturing the skin, and rub¬
bing a black colour into the wounds. The instrument used
somewhat resembles a comb, the teeth of which are repeat¬
edly struck into the skin by means of a small mallet. It is
very painful; but the children are forced by their relations
to submit to it.
TAUDA, a river of Asiatic Russia, formed by the junc-
. r'
1 Pottinger’s Journey through Beloochistan and part of Persia. Rennell’s Memoir of a Map of Hindustan. Hamilton’s East Indian
Gazetteer, &e.
1
Tdi -poor
T A U
tion of the Sosva and the Losva, and which falls into the
Tobol, four miles south of Tobolsk.
TAUJEPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bengal, district of Purneah, thirty-six miles east by north
from the town of Purneah. Long. 88.15. E. Eat. 25. 45. N.
TAULLAH Mhokee, a small village of Hindustan,
in the province of Lahore, nine miles north of Nadone, the
principal town of the Kaungrah country. It contains a tem¬
ple highly esteemed by the credulous Hindus, who believe
that a volcanic flame which issues from the side of a moun¬
tain in the neighbourhood is an emanation from the divi¬
nity. Long. 75. 45. E. Lat. 32. 5. N.
TAUMAGO, an island in the Pacific Ocean, discovered
by Quiros in 1606, about twenty-four or twenty-five miles
in circumference. Long. 169. 25. E. Lat. 10. S.
TAUND A, a town of Hindustan, in the nabob of Oude’s
territories, situated on the south side of the Goggrah river,
thirty-five miles south-east from Fyzabad. Long. 82. 38.
E. Lat. 26. 33. N. It is celebrated for its manufacture of
cotton cloths. This is the name of another town of Hin¬
dustan, in the province of Gujerat. Long. 74.29. E. Lat.
22. 55. N.
TAUNTON, a large town of the hundred of its name,
in the county of Somerset, 144 miles from Bristol. It is
finely situated in the rich and fertile valley of Taunton-
Dean, which is watered by the river Tone. It has also water
communication by a canal with the river Parrett and the sea
at Bridgewater. It is a very well built town, with a fine mar¬
ket-place, in which stand both the county and the town hall.
There are two churches, and that of St James is a fine and
large building, with a magnificent tower. It has numerous
places of worship for the several sects of Protestant dissent¬
ers, and a chapel for the Catholics, who have also lately es¬
tablished a female convent. This is an ancient borough,
but it lost its corporate rights by suffering the numbers to
become so low, and not to have a quorum left to fill up the
vacancies. It is now under the jurisdiction of the county
magistrates, and returns two members to parliament. It
was formerly a place for manufacturing cloth goods, but
that trade has greatly declined. In the mean time the trade
of throwing silk has been introduced, and gives employment
to some of the population. Taunton is chiefly inhabited by
families of moderate incomes, wrho are induced to settle there
from its being pleasant, cheap, and healthy. There are
markets on Wednesday and on Saturday, well supplied. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 5794, in 1811 to 6997,
in 1821 to 8534, and in 1831 to 11,139.
TAUNUS Mountains, a district of Germany, in the
dominion of the prince of Nassau. In Germany this range
of mountains was long denominated the Heights of Hom-
burg, and belonged to the duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt
before it came to the house of Nassau, as a portion of the
duchy of Katzerellenbogen. It lies between the Rhine and
the Maine, the former being its western, and the latter its
southern boundary. The face of the country is very irre¬
gular ; it consists almost wholly of hills and valleys, especi¬
ally in the eastern part, where streams and wood present
themselves to the traveller in great variety. The most lofty
points of these hills are the Gros-feld-berg, 2605 feet, and
the Altkonigberge, 2450 feet, in height. In these moun¬
tains are the mineral springs which form the great source
of the wealth of the duchy. The chief of them are at Ems,
Schwalbach, Schlangenbad, and Soden. There is another
spring at Selzers, whose water is not drunk at the well, but
put into stone bottles, of which about 1,500,000 are annu¬
ally distributed over Europe. These mountains contain
abundance of iron ore, which is worked extensively by the
charcoal made from the neighbouring hills. There are also
some mines of lead and of silver, but not productive to any
great extent. Except the making of stone bottles and iron¬
ware, the chief occupation is agriculture, and even on the
T A V
table-land, lofty as it is, good crops of rye are produced.
The only river among these mountains is the Lahn, a
romantic stream falling into the Rhine below the town of
Ems, and navigable by boats in wet weather as high up the
valley as Weilbourg. Over this stream, at Nassau, an iron
suspension bridge has been constructed, being the first erec¬
tion of that kind in Germany.
TAUREE, a town of the province of Bengal, district of
Monghir, ninety-two miles north-north-west from Moorshe-
dabad. Long. 86. 50. E. Lat. 24. 31. N.
TAURIA, a province of Russia in Europe, the most
southern part of that empire. The peninsula known to the
ancients as Chersonesus Taurica, and now known by the
Tartar name of Crem, or Crimea, forms the better portion
of the province. The northern portion is the Steppes of
the Nogay Tartars. The whole extent is 44,903 square
miles. The southern part is a beautiful country, with lofty
hills and delightful valleys between, which, when cultivated,
are extremely fertile; and the climate resembles that of
the best part of Greece. The northern part, or Steppes,
is fertile, but during a portion of the year is burnt up, and
exhibits a bare sandy plain. After rain the grass springs
up with intense rapidity, and the wheat that is sown yields
very abundant crops. The breeding of cattle is, however,
the chief pursuit, and especially that of horses, which are
very numerous; and those crossed by the Arab race are
of great value. The cows and sheep are numerous, but
the wool of the latter is very coarse. When the Russians
obtained possession of this country, it was much more popu¬
lous than it has been since, many of the Mahommedan in¬
habitants having forsaken it. At present it contains about
370,000 inhabitants. They are of various religions, as well
as races, some fixed, but more migratory. It comprehends a
climate frpm 44° 30; to 47° 41' north latitude, and conse¬
quently is adapted to produce the fruits and other vegeta¬
bles of the warm regions, and when well peopled will be¬
come a most important portion of the Russian empire.
TAURIS. See Tabriz.
TAURUS, a celebrated range of mountains, so called by
the ancients, and which were said to extend from the Grecian
Archipelago to the extremities of Asia. By some they were
thought to take their rise in Caria and Pamphylia; and by
others among the more modern geographers, on the coast
of Cilicia, not far from Scanderoon. The range intersects
Asia Minor from east to west, and advancing in a north-east
direction, interrupts the course of the Euphrates, and spreads
itself over the kingdom of Armenia, where it unites itseli
with Mount Caucasus. It then diverges into Persia with
a variety of branches, of which the most conspicuous is that
named Mount Zagros by the ancients. This long and lofty
range formerly divided Media from Assyria, and now forms
the boundary of the Persian and Turkish empires. It runs
parallel with the river Tigris and the Persian Gull, and
almost entirely disappears in the vicinity of Gombroon ;
seems once more to rise in the southern districts of Ker¬
man, and following an easterly course through the centre
of Mekran and Beloochistan, is entirely lost in the deserts of
Sinde.
TAVAI Poenammoo, an island in the South Pacific
Ocean, being the more southerly of the two which form
New Zealand, and separated from the northern island by a
channel called Cook’s Straits, that celebrated navigator hav¬
ing sailed round them both in the year 1769. The island
is about 500 miles in length from south-west to north-east
and from 55 to 140 broad. Long. 184. 45. to 193. 18. W.
Lat. 40. 36. to 47. 20. S. See Zealand, New.
TAVERNIER, John Baptist, a French traveller, was
born in 1605. In the course of forty years he travelled six
times to Turkey, Persia, and the East Indies, and visited
all the countries in Europe, travelling mostly on foot. His
travels have been frequently reprinted in six volumes, 12mo.
93
Tauree
II .
ravernier.
94
TAW
TAW
Tavistock He died, .on his seventh journey to the east, at Moscow, in
_ H. 1686.
TAVISTOCK, an English market and borough town
in the hundred of the same name, in the county of Devon,
206 miles from London and fourteen from Plymouth. It
stands at the foot of the mountains called the Forest of
Dartmoor, by which it is well sheltered from northerly and
easterly winds, and the situation's remarkably salubrious.
The river Tavy passes by the town, but not being naviga¬
ble, a canal has been constructed from Tavistock to the Ta¬
mar at Morwelham quay. A tunnel passes, through a solid
rock for more than 2500 feet, anti riot far from it is an
aqueduct across a vale of considerable extent. The canal
serves for the transport of copper ores and lead from the
mines, and slates from the quarries, in the district, and brings
coals, stone, timber, and other goods, to the town. This is
an ancient town, formerly belonging to the abbey, some
remains of which still exist, which was granted by Henry
the Eighth, at the Reformation, to the family of the Rus-
sells. The refectory of the monks has been converted
into a dissenting place of worship. A very handsome gate¬
house, and two towers, both opening into the vicar’s garden,
are still standing. The trade of the town formerly con¬
sisted for the most part in the manufacture of serges and
coarse woollen cloth, but these have for some years been on
the decline. The mining business in the vicinity gives oc¬
cupation to many of the inhabitants, and the smelting of tin
and a great iron foundery afford some employment to others.
The church is a large ancient building, and, besides some
curious monuments, has a stone coffin, in which are preserv¬
ed some human bones of gigantic size, attributed by tradi¬
tion to a Saxon giant named Adulph. The greater part of
the town belongs to the duke of Bedford. It returns two
members to parliament. There is a well-supphjed market
on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 3420,
in 1811 to 4723, in 1821 to 5483, and in 1831 to 5602.
TAVOY, a town and district of the province of Pegu,
in the Birman empire, which so late as the year 1753 was
the seat of an independent principality. The town is advan¬
tageously situated on the eastern side of a fine bay, formed
by an extensive island of the same name. Tavoy formerly
belonged to the king of Siam, but was taken by the Birmans
in 1785. It was besieged without success by the Siamese
the following year, and remained in possession of the con¬
querors till 1790, when it was surrendered for a bribe to
the Siamese troops. It was retaken by the Birmans in 1792,
and was confirmed to them by the treaty of peace in 1793.
Lons. 98. 20. E. Lat. 13. 20. N. ,
and are scraped stoutly one after another, to get the flesh
off from the fleshy side, with a cutting two-handled instru¬
ment called a knife ; and then they cut off the legs and other
superfluous parts about the extremes. They are afterwards
laid in a vat or pit with a little water, where they are fulled
with wooden pestles for the space of a quarter of an hour;
and then the vat is filled up with water, with which they
are rinsed.
In the next place, they are thrown on a clean pavement
to drain, and afterwards cast into a fresh pit of water, out of
which they rinse them well j and they are again laid on the
wooden leg, six at a time, with the'hair side outermost:
after which they rub a kind of whetstone very briskly, to
soften and fit them to receive four or five more preparations,
given them on the leg both on the flesh side and hair side,
with the knife, after the manner above mentioned. After
this they are put into a pit of water and wheaten bran, and
stirred about in it with wooden poles till the bran is per¬
ceived to stick to them, and then they are left. As they
rise of themselves to the top of the water by a kind of fer¬
mentation, they are plunged down again to the bottom ;
and at the same time fire is set to the liquor, which burns
as easily as if it were brandy, but goes out the moment the
skins are all covered. They repeat this operation as often
as the skins rise above the water; and when they have
done with rising they take them out, lay them on the
wooden leg, the fleshy side outwards, and pass the knife
over them to scrape off the bran.
Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the skins
in a large basket, and load them with huge stones to pro¬
mote the draining; and when they are drained suffici¬
ently, they give them their feeding, which is performed
after the manner following. For 100 of large sheep-skins,
and for smaller in proportion, they take eight pounds of
alum and three of sea-salt, and melt the.whole with water
in a vessel over the fire, pouring the solution out, while
yet lukewarm, into a kind of trough, in which are twenty
pounds of the finest wheat-flour, with the yolks of eight
dozen of eggs; of all which is formed a kind of paste, a
little thicker than children’s pap. This, wffien prepared, is
put into another vessel to be used in the following manner.
They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough in which
the paste was made, mixing two spoonfuls of the paste
with it; to do which they use a wooden spoon that con-
Yawingj
peiago. It has few inhabitants. The other islands are of
various sizes; and some are merely rocky islets.
TAWING, the art of dressing skins in white, so as to render
them fit for divers manufactures, particularly gloves, &c. All
skins may be tawed; but those chiefly used for this purpose
are lamb, sheep, kid, and goat skins* The method of taw¬
ing is this. The skins having been cleared of wool or hair
by means of lime, are laid in a large vat of wood or stone,
set on the ground, full of water, in which quicklime has
been slaked; where they are allowed to lie a month or six
■weeks, according as the weather is more or less hot, or as
the skins are required to be more or less soft and pliant.
While they are in the vat, the water and lime are changed
twice, and the skins are taken out and put in again every
day ; and when they are taken out for the last time, they
are laid all night to soak in a running water, that the greatest
part of the lime may be removed; and in the morning are
laid together by sixes one upon another, upon a wooden leg,
vat, where they are suffered to lie for five or six days, or
more; after which they take them out in fair weather,
and hang them to dry on cords or racks ; and the quicker
they are dried the better ; for if they are too long in drying
the salt and alum within them are apt to make them rise in
a grain, which is an essential fault in this kind of dressing.
When the skins are dry, they are made up into bundles,
and just dipt in fair water, and taken out and drained:
they are then thrown into an empty tub; and after hav¬
ing lain some time are taken out and trampled under foot.
They then drawr them over a flat iron instrument, the top
of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom fixed
into a wooden block, to stretch and open them ; and hav¬
ing been opened, they are hung in the air upon cords to
dry; and being dry, they are opened a second time, by
passing them again over the same instrument. In the last
place, they are laid on a table, pulled out, and laid smooth,
and are then fit for sale.
I
tains just as much as is required for a dozen of skins; ^.nd
when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of the'-alyns^e
plunged into it; but they take care, that b" wP
t«° hot, which would^spoil tl)e paste ai^d burn the^kins.
IAWALLY Isle, one of the Gilblo Islands, in the East- 'Wfteiithey have tain sflfne tim&£n the trouNj^they are t*en
ern Seas. It is thirty-five miles long froim-nof^! to south, om, one after^mother, with the hand, and are stretched
and six in average breadth. Long. 127. 14. E. Lab>0. 21. out. T\is%theyflo twice ; and aftes-^Jiey have given them
lAWEE TAWEE, the chief of a cluster of islands,'* all their paste, they put'them into tfms, and there full them
fifty-six in number, composing part of the Sooloo archi- afresh with wooden pestles. They then put them into a
T C II
1 rlor’a printed books as contained his marginal annotations. Of
■ iles this clause the book-collecting physician is said to have
a llelia ta^en a very illiberal advantage, and to have enforced it
if llsk. with the utmost rigour, so as to include a very large num-
s-t.v^^ber of books which the testator had intended to form a part
of his legacy to Shrewsbury school. (x.)
TAYLOR’S Isles, three small islands on the north coast
of New Holland, between Thistle Island and the shore, from
which they are about two miles distant.
TAYMING, a city of China, of the first rank, in Pe-che-
lee, in a fertile country, 232 miles south-south-west of Pekin.
Long. 114. 49. E. Lat. 36. 20. N.
TAZE, a river of Asiatic Russia, which rises from two
lakes in the government of Tobolsk, and after a considera¬
ble course from south to north, falls into the Tazovskaia
Gulf, in the Frozen Ocean. Long. 80.14. E. Lat. 67. 35. N.
TAZLA, a lake of Asiatic Turkey, thirty-six miles long
and two broad, thirty miles north of Kognieh.
TAZOVSKAIA,a gulf or bayin theObskaia Gulf, about
140 miles in length and three in breadth, formed by the
waters of several rivers in Siberia. Long. 76. to 80. E.
•Eat. 67. 40. to 69. N.
TCHABISCHI, a town of Russia, in the government of
Irkoutsk on the Amur, forty miles north-north-east of Stre-
tensk.
TCHADOBETZ, a river of Asiatic Russia, which flows
I through the governments of Irkoutsk and Tomsk, and after
a course of 250 miles falls into the Tunguska near Yeniseisk.
TCHAGANE, a river of Asiatic Russia, which rises in
the country of the Kirghises, and after a course of 100 miles
falls into the Derkoul, when their united waters flow into
the Oural.
TCHANG-TCHA, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Houquang, on the Heng river, 742 miles south of Pekin.
Long. 112. 25. E. Lat. 28. 11. N.
TCHANG-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank,
in Fokien, the most southerly of the province. It is situat¬
ed on a river, and carries on a considerable trade. It is 950
miles south of Pekin. Long. 117.34. E. Lat. 24. 32. N. This
is the name of another city, two leagues in circumference,
which is the seat of a very extensive trade, and contains
200,000 inhabitants. It is 525 miles south-south-east of
Pekin. Long. 119. 29. E. Lat. 31. 50. N.
TCHANG-TE, a large city of China, of the first rank, in
Houquang. It is situated on a river near the great lake
Tong-Ting, and is 717 miles south-south-west of Pekin.
Long. 111. 2. E. Lat. 29. 2. N.
TCHAN-TE, one of the most northern cities of the pro¬
vince of China, in Honan. It is 255 miles south-south-west
of Pekin. Long. 114. 0. E. Lat. 36. 6. N.
TCHANY, a large lake of Asiatic Russia, situated in the
Barabinski steppe, between the Ob and the Irtysch. It is
about sixty-five miles long and thirty broad, and is 100 miles
west-north-west of Kolivan.
TCHAOKING, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Quang-tong, situated at the confluence of three rivers, one
of which communicates with Canton. It is 1062 miles south-
1 south-west of Pekin. Long. 111. 44. E. Lat. 23. 3. N.
TCHE-KIANG, a province of China, bounded on the
i north and north-west by Kiang-nan, on the east by the sea,
on the south by Fokien, and on the south-west by Kiang-
see; about 200 miles in length from north to south, and
from 120 to 180 broad. This is one of the most consider¬
able provinces in the empire, and contains, according to
Sir George Staunton, 21 millions of inhabitants.
TCHELAO, a town of Persia, in the province of Khoras-
san. Near it is the well-known defile in the mountains, called
by the eastern writers, Hell, from the difficulty of the passage.
TCHELIABINSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Orenburg. It stands on the river Masse,
which falls into the Icette; and is one of the most import-
vol. XXI.
TEA 129
ant fortresses upon this frontier. It contains two churches Tcheng-te
and 500 houses, and is 118 miles east of Oufa. Long. 62. II
4. E. Lat. 54. 50. N. , Tea-
TCHENG-TE, an island in the Eastern Seas, near the " Y_,*v
south coast of Corea, about ten miles long and six broad.
Long. 128. 37. E. Lat. 34. 20. N.
TCHEOU-CHAN, or Chu-san, an island in the Chinese
Sea, near the west coast of China, belonging to the province
of Tche-kiang, about twenty-four miles long, and from four
to ten broad.
TCPIEPETKINA, a river of Asiatic Russia, which runs
into the Kolima, 88 miles north of Verchnei Kovimskoi.
Long. 148. 14. E. Lat. 67. 35. N.
TCHERNIKEH, a town of Asia Minor, in the govern¬
ment of Sivas, anciently a city of Pontus. It is twenty-four
miles north of Amasia. Long. 36. 38. E. Lat. 40. 26. N.
TCHETKINA, one of the Fox Islands, in the North
Pacific Ocean. Long. 184. 44. E. Lat. 53. 30. N.
TCHING-KIANG, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Kiang-nan, on the south side of the river Yang-tse. It is
finely situated for commerce, and is the key of the empire
towards the sea. The walls are thirty feet high, and the
streets ai-e paved with marble.
TCHING-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank,
in Houquang. It is situated on an angle made by two
rivers, and is 765 miles south-south-west of Pekin. Long.
109. 40. E. Lat. 28. 23. N.
TCHING-TING, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Pe-che-lee, about four miles in circumference. It is 137
miles south-south-west of Pekin. Long. 114. 20. E. Lat.
39. 9. N.
TCHING-TOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Sechuen. It was formerly one of the finest cities in the
empire, but was almost entirely destroyed in the civil wars
in 1646, which preceded the last Tartar invasion. It is
810 miles south-west of Pekin. Long. 103. 44. E. Lat.
30. 40. N.
TCHONG-KING, a city of China, of the first rank, in
in Sechuen, and one of the most commercial cities of the
province. It is 750 miles south-west of Pekin. Long. 106.
19. E. Lat. 29. 42. N.
TCHORS, a village of Persia, in the province of Azer-
bijan, inhabited by the Kurds subject to Persia. It is 78
miles west-north-west of Tauris.
TCHOUKTCHES, a people inhabiting the peninsula
which forms the north-east extremity of Asiatic Russia ;
bounded on the one side by the Frozen Ocean, and on the
other by the Gulf of Anadir. They live by hunting and
fishing.
TCHUKOTSKOIE, a cape in the country of the
Tchouktches, forming the north-eastern extremity of Asia.
TCINAN, a large and populous city of China, of the
first rank, in the province of Shang-tung. It is 235 miles
south of Pekin. Long. 116. 46. E. Lat. 36. 46. N.
TCIN-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Shang-tung, 230 miles south-south-east of Pekin. Long.
118. 20. E. Lat. 36. 46. N.
TCITCICAR Hotun, a town of Chinese Tartary, ca¬
pital of a province in the country of the Mantchoos ; the
usual residence of a Tartar general. It is 355 miles north¬
east of Pekin. Long. 123. 30. E. Lat. 47. 25. N.
TEA is produced by different species of thea or camel¬
lia. It has generally been imagined that China was the
only country where the tea-plant would grow, or where it
could be cultivated and manufactured. Recent investiga¬
tions, however, have dissipated this delusion. It has been
found that the Japanese and the Brazilians as well as the
Chinese have cultivated tea with success; and, what is of
the utmost importance to Britain, it has lately been disco¬
vered beyond all doubt that the tea-shrub is indigenous in
our Indian territories of Upper Assam, being found there
R
130
TEA.
Tea. through an extent of country of one month’s march from
~v   Suddya and Beesa to the Chinese frontier province of
Yunnam. For this most important and valuable discovery
we are chiefly indebted to the indefatigable researches of
Captain Jenkins, Lieutenant Charlton, and C. A. Bruce, Esq.
Mr Abel the botanist, who accompanied Lord Amherst
upon his embassy to China, says,—
« The green-tea districts in the province of Keang-nan are em¬
braced between the 29th and 31st degrees of north latitude, and are
situated on the north-western base of a ridge of mountains wnich di¬
vide the provinces of Keang-nan and Keang-see.
“ The black-tea districts in the province of Fo Kien are contained
between the 27th and 28th degrees of north latitude, and are situated
on the S. E. declivities of a ridge of mountains, dividing the pro¬
vince of Fo Kien from that of Keang-nan. Thus the whole range
of the great districts of China from which Europe is supplied with
tea, from the highest to the lowest degree of latitude, is from 31° to
27°. According to the missionaries, the tea-plant thrives in the more
northern provinces, as at Pekin ; and from Kempfer, it would appear
that it is cultivated in Japan as far as 45° north.
“ From every account given of the tea-plant, it succeeds best on
the sides of mountains, where there can be little accumulation of
vegetable mould ; our opportunities of seeing its cultivation were few,
but were all in favour of this conclusion. The plantations were al¬
ways at some elevation above the plains, in a kind of gravelly soil,
formed in some places by disintegrated sandstone, and in others by the
debris of primitive rocks. A large and flourishing plantation of all
the varieties of the tea-plant (brought together by Mr Bell, the prin¬
cipal tea-inspector at Canton) is situated on an island close to Macao,
in a loose, gravelly soil, formed by the disintegration of large grained
granite. Judging from the specimens collected in our route through
the province of Keang-nan, whence the green tea is provided, the
rocks consist chiefly of sandstone, schistus, and granite. As to the
precise nature of the rocks of the black-tea country in the province of
Fo Kien, I have no exact information ; but as the great ridge, sepa¬
rating that province from Keang-see, is a continuation of one sepa¬
rating the latter from Canton, it is perhaps legitimate to conclude,
that their constituent rocks are the same, and that the hills and soil
on the eastern side are the same as we found them on the western
side of the ridge, and that they are covered by a soil like that in
which the camellia flourishes; the vegetation chiefly consists of the
same kind of plants. But the success of the American plantations
proves that the tea-plant will flourish within the tropics ; and that it
will grow vigorously within them, is proved by the fine plants in Sir
IT. Low’s plantations at St Helena.”
In China the hills on which tea is cultivated are not
high, and the plantations where the soil is favourable ex¬
tend over their entire face from the summit to the base.
The difference of the temperature from that of the adjacent
plains is scarcely perceptible ; but it is on the nature of the
soil that the quality of the tea principally depends. Rain
falls in March and April in moderate showers, and the at¬
mosphere is extremely moist; the finest leaves appear at
this time, and are plucked early in April. In May the rain is
very heavy, and the leaves begin to be of inferior quality.
The seeds are put into the ground towards the end of
February, or early in March, and spring up almost immedi¬
ately. The plants stand about three feet and a half distant
from each other. They require scarcely any manure; only at
first a little mud or thick mucilage is applied to each plant.
No other tree is planted among the tea-shrubs, but they
are propped up with bamboos. Seedlings of one year’s
growth, if too thick, are thinned; but their leaves are not
used for two years. After this the leaves of every plant are
gathered three times a year, young and old indiscriminately.
The gatherers and the driers of the tea are quite distinct
classes, the wages of the former being from fivepence to
sevenpence of our money per day, while some of the latter
receive as much as 200 dollars for the season. A man can
gather about fifteen pounds of tea-leaves per day; the
price of labour in India being only from twopence to three¬
pence per day. Should the plantations which have been com¬
menced in that quarter succeed, the teas of Assam should
be procured at one half the cost of those of China.
The districts of India in which the native tea has been
discovered, lie between 94° and 96° of east longitude, and
36° and 28° of north latitude. Muttuck, which is to the
south of the Delree river, is a country that abounds in tea, and
it might be made one extensive beautiful tea-garden; and
were die hills and valleys of Assam all cultivated, they would
be sufficient to supply the immense demand of Britain.
The tea-plant, which is an evergreen, grows in China to
the height of from three to six feet, but seldom more than
three. The plants which have been discovered in Assam
are much taller. Mr Bruce relates, that in going over one
of the low hills behind Jeypore, he came upon a tea-tract
which must have been two or three miles in length, on
which the wild tea trees were as thick as they could grow;
and one of them he found to be three feet in circumfer¬
ence and about sixty feet in height, but this was an extra¬
ordinary instance: and he is of opinion that the effect of
regularly cultivating the plants in tea-gardens, transplanting
and trimming them, and plucking off all the young leaves
from month to month as soon as they appear, will tend to
stunt and shorten the growth, so that they will not gene¬
rally rise higher than in China.
The tea-plants in Assam have in general been found to
thrive best near small rivers and pools of water, and in those
places where, after heavy falls of rain, quantities of water
have accumulated and cut out for themselves numerous
small channels. In Assam the wild tea-plants are never
met with growing in the sun, but invariably under the shade
in thick woods or jungle.
The following extracts are from Mr Bruce’s Report on
the Tea Plantations in Assam.
Tei
“ With respect to the tea-plant being most productive on high or low
ground, I cannot well say, as all our tracts are on the plains ; but
from what little I have seen of the hill tracts, I should suppose they
were not more productive. In China, the hill tracts produce the best
teas, and they may do the same here. Almost all my tracts on the
plains are nearly on the same level, I should think. Nudwa, perhaps,
is a little higher than Tingri, and Tingri a little higher than Kahung;
but I believe they are equally productive, although, if I leaned to¬
wards any side with my limited experience, I should say that the low
land, such as at Kahung, which is not so low as ever to be inundated
by the strongest rise in the river, is the best. The plants seem to
love and court moisture, not from stagnant pools, but running streams.
The Kahung tracts have the water in and around them ; they are all
in heavy tree-jungles, which makes it very expensive to clear them.
An extent of 300 yards by 300 will cost from 200 to 300 rupees
(from L 20 to L.30) j i. e. according to the manner in which the miser¬
able opium-smoking Assamese work....Last season it was with the
greatest difficulty that I could get a sufficient number -of hands to
gather the leaves. The plucking of the leaves may appear to many
a very easy and light employment, but there are not a few of our
coolies who would much rather be employed on any other job. The
standing in one position so many hours occasions swellings in the legs,
as our plants are not like those of China, only three feet high, but
•double that size, so that one must stand upright to gather the leaves.
The Chinese pluck theirs squatting down. We lie under a great disad¬
vantage in not having regular men to pluck the leaves; those that
have been taught to do so, can pluck twice as many as those that have
not; and we can seldom get hold of the same men two seasons run¬
ning. I am of opinion that our trees will become of a smaller and
more convenient size after a few years’ cultivation ; because, trimming
of the plants, and taking all the young leaves as soon as they appear,
month after month, and year after year, and the plants being deprived
of the rich soil they had been living on from time unknown, must soon
tell upon them. Transplanting also helps to stunt and shorten the
growth of these plants. The Chinese declared to me, that the China
plants now at Deenjoy would never have attained to half the perfection
.they now have under ten years in their own country.
“ I may here observe, that the sun has a material effect on the leaves ;
for as soon as the trees that shade the plants are removed, the leaf,
from a fine deep green, begins to turn into a yellowish colour, which
it retains for some months, and then again gradually changes to a
healthy green, but now becomes thicker, and the plant throws out far
.more numerous leaves than when in the shade. The more the leaves
are plucked, the greater number of them are produced. If the leaves
of the first crop were not gathered, you might look in vain for the
’leaves of the second crop. The tea made from the leaves in the
shade is not near so good as that from leaves exposed to the sun ; the
leaves of plants in the sun are much earlier in season than of those in
the shade ; the leaves from the shady tract give out a more watery
liquid when rolled, and those from the sunny a more glutinous sub¬
stance. When the leaves of either are rolled on a sunny day, they
emit less of this liquid than on a rainy day. This juice decreases as
the season advances. The plants in the sun have flowers and fruit
much earlier than those in the shade, and are far more numerous ;
they have flowers and seeds in July, and fruit in November. Nume¬
rous plants are to be seen, that, by some accident, either cold or rain,
have lost all their flowers, and commence throwing out fresh flower-
buds more abundantly than ever. Thus it is not unfrequent to see
some plants in flower so late as March (some of the China plants were
in flower in April), bearing at once the old and the new seeds, flower-
buds, and full-blown flowers,—all at one and the same time. The rain
also greatly affects the leaves, for some sorts of tea cannot be made in a
rainyday; tor instance the Pouchong and Mingehew. The leaves for these
ought to be collected about 10 a. m. on a sunny morning, when the dew
has evaporated. The Pouckong can only be manufactured from the
leaves of the first crop ; but the Mingehew, although it requires the same
care in making as the other, can yet be made from any crop, provided
it is made on a sunny morning. The Chinese dislike gathering leaves
on a rainy day for any description of tea, and never will do so unless
necessity requires it. Some pretend to distinguish the tea made on a
rainy and on a sunny day, much in the same manner as they can dis¬
tinguish the shady from the sunny teas—by their inferiority. If the
large leaves for the black tea were collected on a rainy day, about
seven seers, or fourteen pounds, of green leaves would be required to
make one seer, or two pounds, of tea; but if collected on a sunny day,
about four seers, or eight pounds, of green leaves, would make one
seer, or two pounds, of tea;—so the Chinamen say. I tried the ex¬
periment, and found it to be correct. Our season for tea-making
generally commences about the middle of March, the second crop
in the middle of May, the third crop about the first of July ; but the
time varies according to the rains setting in sooner or later. As
the manufacture of the Sychee and Mingehew black teas has never
been described, I will here attempt to give some idea how it is per¬
formed.
“ Sychee Black Tea.—The leaves of this are the Souchong and Pou-
chong. After they have been gathered and dried in the sun in the
usual way, they are beaten and put away four different times; they
are then put into baskets, pressed down, and a cloth put over them.
When the leaves become of a brownish colour by the heat, they throw
out and have a peculiar smell, and are then ready for the pan, the
bottom of which is made red-hot. This pan is fixed in masonry
breast high, and in a sloping position, forming an angle of forty de¬
grees. Thus the pan being placed on an inclined plane, the leaves
when tossed about in it cannot escape behind, or on the sides, as it
is built high up, but fall out near the edge close to the manufacturer,
and always into his hands, so as to be swept out easily. When the
bottom of this pan has been made red-hot by a wood fire, the ope¬
rator puts a cloth to his mouth, to prevent inhaling any of the hot
vapour. A man on the left of him stands ready with a basket of
prepared leaves ; one or two men stand on his right with dollahs, or
shallow baskets, to receive the leaves from the pan, and another keeps
lifting the hot leaves thrown out of the pan into the dollah, that they
may quickly cool. At a given signal from the Chinaman, the person
with the basket of prepared leaves seizes a handful and dashes it as
quick as thought into the red-hot pan. The Chinaman tosses and
turns the crackling leaves in the pan for half a minute, then draws
them all out by seizing a few leaves in each hand, using them by way
of a brush, not one being left behind. They are all caught by the
man with the dollah or basket, who, with his disengaged hand, con¬
tinues lifting the leaves and letting them fall again, that they may
quickly cool. Should a leaf be left behind in the pan by any accident,
the cloth that is held ready in the mouth is applied to brush it out;
but all this is done as quick as lightning. The man that holds the
basket of leaves watches the process sharply; for no sooner is the last
leaf out of the pan, than he dashes in another handful, so that, to an
observer at a little distance, it appears as if one man was dashing the
leaves in, and the other as fast dashing them out again—so quickly and
dexterously is this managed. As soon as one basket has received about
four handsful of the hot leaves from the pan, it is removed, and another
basket placed to receive the leaves; and so on, until all is finished. A
roaring wood fire is kept up under the pan, to keep the bottom red-
hot, as the succession of fresh leaves tends greatly to cool the pan,
which ought always to be scrubbed and washed out after the process
is over. In China these pans are made of cast iron, and if great care
is not taken, they will crack in the cooling ; to prevent which, one
man keeps tapping the inside of the edge of the pan briskly with a
wet broom, used in the cleaning of the vessel, while another pours cold
water in gently ; thus it cools in a few seconds, and is ready for an¬
other batch of tea. The leaves are rolled and tatched the same as the
other teas, and put into the drying basket for about ten minutes.
y> hen a little dry, people are employed to work and press the leaves
in the hands in small quantities, of about one and half to two rupees’
weight at a time, for about half a minute ; they are then put into
small square pieces of paper, and rolled up ; after this they are put into
the drying basket, and permitted to dry slowly over a gentle fire for
some hours, until the whole is thoroughly dry. This tea is not sold
in the China market; it is used principally as offerings to the priests,
or kept for high days and holidays. It is said to be a very fine tea,
and there is not one man in a hundred who can make it properly.
E A.
The Pouchong tea is made in the same way as the Sychee, with this
exception, that it is not formed into balls.
“ Mingehew Black Tea.—The leaves [Poiichong) are plucked and
dried in the sun, and are then beaten and dried in the shade for half
an hour. This is done three successive times, and the leaves are very
much shaken by a circular motion given to them in a sieve, so as to
keep them rolling and tumbling about in the centre of it. This treat¬
ment continues until they are very soft; they are then allowed to re¬
main for a short time. The contents of the first sieve are then placed
in the centre of a close-worked bamboo basket, with a narrow edge,
and the leaves are divided into four equal parts. The contents of the
second sieve are placed in another bamboo basket like the former,
and this basket is placed on the top of the first, and so on, piling one
basket upon another, until all is finished ;—there may be about two
pounds of leaves in each basket. The red-hot pan is used the same
as in Sychee, only now the men cast in one division of the leaves into
the basket, and this is tumbled and tossed about in the red-hot pan like
a plaything for about thirty seconds, and then swept out; another di¬
vision is cast in, and so on, until all the prepared baskets have been
emptied. The contents of each basket are still kept separate, by
placing the leaves, when they come out of the pan, in separate baskets.
The whole is a brisk and lively scene, and quite methodical, every
one knowing his station, and the part he has to perform. The baskets
are then arranged on shelves to air; the contents are afterwards
tatched the same as our black teas, and fired in the drying baskets,
but with this difference, that each division is placed on paper and
dried. When it is half dry (the same as our teas), it is put away for
the night, and the next morning it is picked, and put into the drying
baskets over gentle deadened fires, and gradually dried there ; it is
then packed hot. This tea is a difficult sort to make.
“ Shung Paho Black Tea.—Pluck the young (Paho) leaf that has
not yet blown or expanded, and has the down on it, and the next one
that has blown, with a part of the stalk ; put it into the sun for half
an hour, then into the shade ; tatch over a gentle fire, and in tatching
roll the leaves occasionally in the pan, and spread them all round the
sides of the same ; again roll them until they begin to have a withered
and soft appearance, then spread them on large sieves, and put them
in the shade to air for the night; next morning pick, and then fire
them well. Some tea-makers do not keep them all night, but manu¬
facture and pack the tea the same day. This tea is valued in China,
as it is very scarce ; but the Chinamen acknowledge that it is not a
good sort. They prefer the teas the leaves of which are come to ma¬
turity.”
“ As the green-tea Chinamen have just commenced operations, I
will try to give some account of this most interesting process. AH
leaves up to the size of the Souchong are taken for the green tea.
About three pounds of the fresh leaves, immediately they are brought
in, are cast into a hot pan (sometimes they are kept overnight when
abundance have been brought in, and we have not been able to work
all up) ; they are then rolled and tossed about in the pan, until they
become too hot for the hand. Two slips of bamboo, each about a
foot long, split at one end so as to form six prongs, are now used
to tumble and toss the leaves about, by running the sticks down the
sides of the pan, and turning the leaves up, first with the right hand,
then with the left, and this as fast as possible ; which keeps the leaves
rolling about in the pan without being burnt: this lasts about three
minutes; the leaves will then admit of being rolled and pressed with¬
out breaking. They are now taken from the pan, and rolled in dol¬
lahs, much the same as the black tea, for about three minutes, in
which process a great quantity of the juice is extracted, if they be fresh
leaves ; but if they have been kept over night, very little juice can be
expressed from them in the morning, on account of its having eva¬
porated. The Chinamen say this does not matter, as it makes no
difference in the tea. The leaves are then pressed hard between both
hands, and turned round and pressed again and again, until they have
taken the shape of a small pyramid. They are now placed in bamboo
baskets or dollahs with a narrow edge, and the dollahs or bamboo
frame-work, where they are exposed to the sun for two or three mi¬
nutes, after which these pyramids of tea are gently opened, and thinly
spread on the dollahs to dry. When the tea has become a little dry
(which will be the case in five or ten minutes if the sun be hot), it
is again rolled, and then placed in the sun as before; this is done
three successive times. But should the weather be rainy, and there is
no hope of its clearing, all this drying is done over the fire in a small
drying basket, the same as with black tea. The green-tea makers
have as great an aversion to drying their tea over the fire as the
black-tea makers. The third time it has been rolled and dried, there
is very little moisture left in the tea. It is now put into a hot pan.
and gently turned over and over, and opened out occasionally, until
all has become well heated; it is then tossed out into a basket, and
while hot, put into a very strong bag, previously prepared for it, about
four feet long, and four spans in circumference. Into this bag the
tea is pressed with great force with the hands and feet; from four¬
teen to twenty pounds being put in at one time, and forced into as
small a compass as possible. With his left hand the man firmly closes
the mouth of the bag immediately above the leaves, while with the
right hand he pommels and beats the bag, every now and then giving
131
Tea.
132
TEA.
Tea. it a turn. Thus he beats, and turns, and works at it, tightening it
by every turn with one band, and holding on with the other, until he
has squeezed the leaves into as small a compass as possible at the end
of the bag. He now makes it fast by turns of the cloth where he held
on, so that it may not open, and then draws the cloth of the bag over
the ball of leaves, thus doubling the bag, the mouth of which is
twisted and made fast. The man then stands up, holding on by a
post or some such thing, and works this ball of leaves under his
feet, at the same time alternately pressing with all his weight, first
with one foot and then the other, turning the ball over and over, and
occasionally opening the bag to tighten it more firmly. When he has
made it almost as hard as a stone, he secures the mouth well, and puts
the bag away for that day. Next morning it is opened out, and the
leaves gently separated and placed on dollahs, then fired and dried
until they are crisp, the same as the black tea, after which they are
packed in boxes or baskets. In China the baskets are made of double
bamboo, with leaves between. The tea may then remain on the spot
for two or three months, or be sent to any other place to receive the
final process. This first part of the green-tea process is so simple,
that the natives of this country readily pick it up in a month or two.
The second process now commences by opening the boxes or baskets,
and exposing the tea on large shallow bamboo baskets or dollahs, until
it has become soft enough to roll, it is then put into cast-iron pans
set in brick fire-places, the same as described in making the Sychee
black tea. The pan is made very hot by a wood fire, and seven pounds
of the leaves are thrown into it and rubbed against the pan, with the
right hand until tired, and then with the left, so as not to make the
process fatiguing. The pan being placed on an inclined plane, the
leaves always come tumbling back towards and near the operator, as
he pushes them up from him, moving his hands backwards and for¬
wards and pressing on the leaves with some force with the palms,
keeping the ends of the fingers up to prevent their coming in contact
with the hot pan. After one hour’s good rubbing, the leaves are
taken out and thrown into a large coarse bamboo sieve, from this into
a finer one, and again still finer one, until three sorts of tea have been
separated. The first, or largest sort, is put into the funnel of the win¬
nowing machine, which has three divisions of small traps below, to let
the tea out. A man turns the wheel with his right hand, and with
the left regulates the quantity of tea that shall fall through the wooden
funnel above, by a wooden slide at the bottom of it. The tea being
thrown from the sieves into the funnel, the man turns the crank of
the wheel, and moves the slide of the funnel gradually, so as to let the
tea fall through gently and in small quantities. The blast from the
fan blows the smaller particles of tea to the end of the machine, where
it is intercepted by a circular moveable board placed there. The dust
and smaller particles are blown against this board, and fall out at an
opening at the bottom into a basket placed there to receive it. The
next highest tea is blown nearly to the end of the machine, and falls
down through a trough on the side into a basket; this tea is called
Young Hyson. The next being a little heavier, is not blown quite so
far; it falls through the same trough, which has a division in the
middle; this of course is near the centre of the machine. A basket is
placed beneath to receive the tea, which is called Hyson. The next,
which is still heavier, falls very near to the end of the fan, this is call¬
ed Gunpowder Tea; it is in small balls. The heaviest tea falls still
closer to the fan, and is called Big Gunpoivder; it is twice or three
times the size of Gunpowder tea, and composed of several young leaves
that adhere firmly together. This sort is afterwards put into a box
and cut with a sharp iron instrument, then sifted and put among the
Gunpowder, which it now resembles. The different sorts of tea are
now put into shallow bamboo baskets, and men, women, and children
are employed to pick out the sticks and bad leaves; this is a most te¬
dious process, as the greatest care is taken not to leave the slightest
particle of any thing but good tea. But to assist and quicken this
tiresome process, beautiful bamboo sieves, very little inferior to our
wire ones, and of various sizes, are employed. The different teas are
thrown into sieves of different sizes, from large gunpowder to dust
tea; they are shaken and tossed, and thrown from one person to ano¬
ther in quick succession, making the scene very animating; in this
way a great portion of the stalks are got rid of. After the tea has
been well sifted and picked, it is again put into the hot pans, and
rubbed and rolled as before, for about one hour ; it is then put into
shallow bamboo baskets, and once more examined, to separate the
different teas that may still remain intermixed, and again put into
the hot pan. Now a mixture of sulphate of lime and indigo, very
finely pulverised and sifted through fine muslin, in the proportion of
three of the former to one of the latter, is added ; to a pan of tea con¬
taining about seven pounds, about half a tea-spoonful of this mixture
is put, and rubbed and rolled along with the tea in the pan for about
an hour, as before described. The tea is then taken hot from the pan
and packed firmly in boxes, both hands and feet being used to press
it down. The above mixture is not put to the tea to improve its fla¬
vour, but merely to give it a uniform colour and appearance, as with¬
out it some of the tea would be light and some dark. The indigo
gives it the colour, and the sulphate of lime fixes it. The Chinese
call the former Youngtin, the latter Acco. Large gunpowder tea they
call Tychtn; little gunpowder, Cheockeu} hyson, Chingcha; young
hyson, Uchin ; skin tea, or old leaves in small bits, Poocha ; the fine
dust or powder tea, Chamoot. v
“ The leaves of the green tea are not plucked the same as the black,
although the tree or plant is one and the same, which has been proved
beyond a shadow of doubt; for I am now plucking leaves for both
green and black from the came tract and from the same plants ; the
difference lies in the manufacture, and nothing else. The green-tea
gatherers are accommodated with a small basket, each having a strap
passed round the neck, so as to let the basket hang on the breast.
With one hand the man holds the branch, and with the other plucks
the leaf, one at a time, taking as high as the Souchong leaf; a little bit
of the lower end of the leaf is left for the young leaf to shoot up close
to it; not a'bit of stalk must be gathered. This is a very slow and
tedious way of gathering. The black-tea maker plucks the tea with
great rapidity with both hands, using only the forefinger and thumb,
and collects them in the hollow of the hand ; when his hand is full
he throws the leaves into a basket under the shade of the tree; and
so quickly does he ply his hands that the eye of a learner cannot fol¬
low them, nor see the proper kind of leaf to be plucked ; all that he
sees is the Chinaman’s hands going right and left, his hands fast fill¬
ing, and the leaves disappearing—Paho black tea leaf would make
green tea, some gunpowder, and some young hyson. Pouchong, al¬
though classed as a second black tea, on account of the high price it
fetches in the market, is a third-rate leaf, for it is rather larger than
the Souchong. Some of it would make young hyson, and some skin
tea. Souchong would make hyson and young hyson. Toychong would
make skin tea. I will here mention the different kinds of black teas,
to make the matter more clear to those who take an interest in the
subject. Thowung-Paho (the Sung fa is the same leaf as this) is the
downy little leaf not expanded, and the one next to it that has just un¬
folded a little. This tea when made appears full of small white leaves,
which are the little downy leaves just mentioned. Twazee Paho is
from the second crop, and nearly the same kind of tea, only a little
older ; the leaf next the small downy one (being a little more expand¬
ed), and the small leaf below this, are taken, making three in all :
this has also numerous white leaves, but not so many as the for¬
mer. Souchong is the next largest leaf; this is well grown, but em¬
braces all the leaves above it. When the upper leaves have grown out
of season for Thowung-Paho and Twazee-Paho, they are all plucked for
the Souchong from the third and fourth of the upper leaves. From
Souchong leaves the Minchong and Sychee teas are made in the first
crop, and no other. Pouchong is the next largest leaf; it is a little
older and larger than the Souchong. From this leaf the Sychee and
Minchong teas can be made in the first crop only. The Pouchong is
never made in the second crop, on account of its not having a good
flavour ; many of the Souchong leaves are mixed up in this tea. The
Toychong leaves are those that are rejected from the Souchong and Pou¬
chong, as being too large and not taking the roll. When the teas are
picked, these leaves are put on one side. The Chinese often put them
into a bag, and give them a twist, something in the green tea way, and
then mix them up with the Souchong to add to the weight. This leaf
(Toychong) becomes worse in the second and third crops ;—it is a
cheap tea and sold to the poor. All the black teas that are damaged
have the flower of what the Chinese call Qui fa, another called Son
fa, mixed up with them. One pound of the flowers is put to each box
of damaged tea. After the teas have been well tatched and mixed up
with other sorts, these leaves give them a pleasant fragrance. The
Son fa plant is about two feet high, and kept in flower-pots; it is
propagated from the roots. The Qui fa plant is from three to four
feet high; one pound of the flowers is put to a box of tea. The
plant was seen in the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta by our Chinese
interpreter. The flowers of this plant are considered finer than those
of the Son fa.”
“ The black-tea makers appear to me to be very arbitrary in their
mode of manufacture; sometimes they will take the leaves of the
Thowung-Paho, or perhaps Twazee-Paho; but if it has been raining,
or there is any want of coolies to pluck the leaves quickly, or from any
other cause, they will let the leaves grow a few days longer, and turn
all into Souchong; which, it must be remembered, takes all the small
leaves above it. If it is the first crop, the Souchong and Pouchong
leaves may all be turned into Souchong tea ; but even if it is the se¬
cond crop, when the Pouchong leaves ought not to be gathered, they
are nevertheless plucked and mixed up with the Souchong leaves.
Almost all our black and all the green teas have just been made from
one garden.. ’When the green-tea makers complained that the leaves
were beginning to get too large for them—that is, they were fast grow¬
ing out of Souchong and running into Pouchong—the black-tea makers
took up the manufacture, plucked all the leaves, and made excellent
Pouchong; so that between the two there is not a leaf lost. When
the black-tea makers have a garden to themselves they are cruel
pluckers, for they almost strip the tree of leaves lor the Souchong, and
are not at all nice, in the plucking; the third and even the fourth leaf
on a tender twig is nipped off in the twinkling of an eye ; they then
look about for more , young leaves, and away go the Pouchong, and
Toychong too, which is the largest leaf of all. But the green-tea men
pluck quietly, one by one, down to Souchong. The black-tea men
separate all their teas into first, second, third, and fourth crop; but
T E A.
the green-tea manufacturers make no distinction; they prepare all
✓ the tea they can, throughout the season, box or basket it up, and
when the season is over, they set off for Canton with their produce ;
at least all those who do not wish to sell their tea on the spot. The
different merchants go in quest of it there. It now indiscriminately
undergoes the second process; that is, the different crops all are
mixed up together. No old leaves can be mixed in the green, as in
the black teas ; for the long rolling in the pan crushes them, and the
fan blows them away, so that only the young leaves are left.”—[Report
on the Manufacture of Tea, and the Tea Plantations in Assam, by C.
A. Bruce, presented to the Tea Committee, 10th June 1839.]
Tea was introduced into Europe in the year lfilO, by
the Dutch East India Company. It is generally said that it
was first imported from Holland into England in 1666, by
the Lords Arlington and Ossory. But that it was used in
coffee-houses before this period, appears from an act of par¬
liament passed in 1660, in which a duty of eightpence was
laid on every gallon of the infusion sold in these places; and
from the following entry which appears in the Diary of Mr
Pepys, secretary to the Admiralty,—“ September 25, 1661 :
1 sent for a cup of tea (a Chinese drink), of which I never
drunk before.” In 1664, the East India Company bought
2 lbs. 2 oz. as a present to his majesty ; and in 1667 they
issued their first order to their agent at Bantam, to send
home 100 lbs. of the best tea he could get. It continued
to be sold in London for 60s. per lb. till 1707, though it
did not cost more than 2s. 6d. or 3s. 6d. at Batavia. In
1689, instead of charging a duty on the decoction from the
leaves, a duty of 5s. per lb. was laid on the tea itself. In
1715 green tea began to be used, and as great quantities
were then imported, the price was proportionally lowered.
In 1790 the quantity of tea retained for home consumption
in Great Britain and Ireland was 1,643,095 lbs., and the
duty amounted to L.580,362. Since that period the trade
in tea has rapidly continued to increase till it has arrived at
its present astonishing magnitude. Till 1833 the East In¬
dia Company enjoyed a monopoly of the trade in tea, but
by the act 3 and 4 William IV., c. 93, the trade was thrown
open.
Sugar and tea are the most productive to the chancellor
of the exchequer, of all the exciseable imports. These two
articles alone yielded in 1836 a net revenue of L.8,858,700.
In 1836 the net revenue from tea was L.4,184,165, and the
quantity retained for home consumption was 49,142,236
pounds ; in 1837 the net revenue was L.3,223,840, and the
quantity retained for home consumption 30,625,206 pounds.
The ease with which it can be levied has always been a
gieat temptation to lay a heavy duty on this commodity ;
and the consequence has been, that this, which may now be Tea.
termed a necessary of life, has been burdened to the utmost ' v-
limit of productiveness, and sometimes considerably beyond
it. Previously to the 1st of July 1837, the duty, wdiich
had varied greatly from time to time, was, for Bohea, Is. 6d.
per pound ; Congou, Twankay, &c. 2s. 2d.; and Souchong,
Hyson, 3s. From that date a uniform duty of 2s. Id. is
charged on all sorts. Thus it appears, from the table of
sales by the East India Company, that the duty on Bohea
is nearly 300 per cent., the price of the pound of Bohea be-
ing 9-njd., and the tax upon it 2s. Id. On the other sorts
the tax is about 100 per cent. It may fairly be anticipat¬
ed, that a considerable reduction of duty on this healthful
beverage would promote the comfort and sobriety of the
community, without diminishing the amount of the revenue,
in consequence of the increase of consumption which would
necessarily follow.
When imported into the United States in American ves¬
sels it is dutyfree; but a duty of ten cents, or 5d. per pound,
is laid on what is imported in foreign vessels.
An Account of the Quantities and Prices of the several sorts
of Tea sold in England by the East India Company, in
the year 1837 {May to December).
Quantity of
each kind
of Tea
Sold.
Company’s
Bohea..
Ditto..,
Congou....
Ditto..
Ditto..
Souchong.
Ditto..
Twankay..
Hyson.
Ditto..,
Ditto..
Total.
Refused..
JUNE SAI.E,
1837.
SEPTESIBEHSALE,, DECEMBER SALE,
1837. 1837.
USS «SS
which
each kind
was Sold.
each kind
of Tea
Sold.
475,0591 10fV
397,179 2 4,-%
573,7001 6tk5
744,0091 0t45
31,893 2 0f%-
8,244|1 3ts5
198,0501 2
2,7423 4
13,489 2 lT?y
60,5401 10/5
2,510,905
1,506,000
34,573
390,348
1,056,735
1,420,495
18,986
11,558
3j238
81,194
46,503
3,063,630
922,000
Price at
which
each kind
was Sold
d.
’ 1 o
7i8o
6t8o
«V5
10*
0*
O*
4-9-
10
4_8
Quantity of
each kind
of Tea
Sold.
ibs.
524,963
467,801
234,823
2,362,232
531,715
29,072
52
3,215
75,110
4,229,043
Average
Price at
which
each kind
was Sold.
s. d.
2 10*'
2 ioTy
3 0
2 0*
1 10*
2 4*
1*
1*
7*
* Duty included.
Table exhibiting the Quantity and Value of the Tea exported from Canton by the East India Company, by private
English I raders, and by the Americans, from 1820 to 1834.
1820-21
1821-22
1822- 23
1823- 24
1824- 25
1825- 26
1826- 27
1827- 28
1828- 29
1829- 30
1830- 31
1831- 32
1832- 33
1833- 34
East India Company.
Quantity, lbs.
28,807,733
26,010,800
27.580.400
29,850,440
28,836,133
27.970.533
40,105,066
33,455,466
29.631.200
30.691.200
30.476.533
31,668,800
31.328.400
30,775,333
Value.
L. 1,677,682
1,555,182
1,644,446
1,777,038
1,690,702
1,541,022
2,109,499
1,858,343
1,686,708
1,647,389
1,692,453
1,699,468
1,747,421
1,681,229
Private Traders.
Quantity, lbs.
Value.
2,592,266
2.776.800
2,121,773
2,246,933
2.331.866
2.563.866
3,535,466
2,142,666
3,329,066
2,986,400
2,748,533
3,196,133
2,915,066
3.870.800
L. 196,204
220,443
159,064
151,572
201,520
185,716
228,204
147,212
185,059
150,044
143,199
160,995
169,014
221,974
Total for Britain.
Quantity, lbs.
31.399.999
28.787.600
29,702,173
25,097,373
31.167.999
30,534,399
43,640,532
35.598.132
32,960,266
33.677.600
33,225,066
34,864,933
34,243,466
34.646.133
L. 1,873,886
1,775,625
1,803,510
1,925,610
1,892,222
1,556,738
2,337,703
2,005,555
1,871,767
1,797,433
1,835,652
1,860,463
1,916,435
1,903,203
Ameiican Trade.
Quantity, lbs.
7.890.267
9.312.267
11,303,733
10,152,26*7
13,741,467
12,750,000
8,577,467
10,416,934
9,851,06*7
8,827,200
7,251,46*7
11,183,334
16,327,6*00
L.447,649
555,164
652,591
683,749
974,235
953,229
452,274
687,569
590,182
530,545
428,061
779,350
1,259,177
134 TEE
Teachers TEACHERS, persons employed in conducting the edu-
II cation of the young. See the articles Schools and Uni-
leeth. ^ VEaslTIES.
' ^ v ^ TEARY, a large village of Hindustan, in the province
of Malwah, with a fort on an adjoining hill. Long. 79. 3. E.
Lat. 24. 46. N.
TEBALA, a town of Arabia, province of the Hedsjas,
128 miles south-south-east of Mecca.
TEBETH, the tenth month of the Jewish ecclesiastical
year, and fourth of the civil. It answers to our month of
December.
TECHNICAL expresses somewhat relating to arts or
sciences : in this sense we say technical terms. It is also
particularly applied to a kind of verses in which are contain¬
ed the rules or precepts of any art, thus digested to help
the memory to retain them. An example may be seen in
the article Memory.
TECRIT, a town of Irak Arabi, in the province of Mo¬
sul, on the western bank of the Tigris. It is thought to be the
Birtha or Vitra of the ancients, described as a very strong
fortress, and said to be founded by Alexander the Great.
It was a considerable town in 1393, when it was taken by
Timur, and now contains 500 or 600 houses, with two
coffee-houses. The ruins are extensive. Long. 42. 37. E.
Lat. 34. 37. N.
TEDDINGTON, a town, or rather a village, in the
hundred of Spelthorne and county of Middlesex, twelve
miles from London. It is delightfully placed on the banks
of the Thames, at the spot where the tide ceases to flow,
from which circumstance the name has been given to the
place. It has a neat parish church ; and within the parish
are many splendid houses and a great number of country
retreats for the inhabitants of the metropolis. Bushy Park,
which adjoins it, is an attractive object, affording pleasing
promenades and rides. The population in 1821 amounted
to 863, and in 1831 to 895.
TE DEUM, the name of a celebrated hymn, used in the
Christian church, and so called because it begins with these
words, Te Deum laudamus, We praise thee, God. It is sung
in the Romish church with great pomp and solemnity upon
the gaining of a victory, or other happy event; and is be¬
lieved to be the composition of St Ambrose, bishop of Milan.
TEDIF, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo,
where is a Jewish synagogue. It is twenty-one miles east
of Aleppo.
TEDZEN, a considerable river of Persia, in the pro¬
vince of Khorassan, and the largest in this part of Asia
next to the Oxus. After a course from east to west, it falls
into the Gulf of Balkan, on the eastern coast of the Caspian.
TEEBAKAN, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
the north coast of Borneo. Long. 117. 39. E. Lat. 7. 52. N.
TEEHEENGAN, a small island in the Eastern Seas,
north of Borneo. Long. 117. 30. E. Lat. 7. 49. N.
TEEKOOL, a small island near the Sooloo archipelago.
Long. 125. 25. E. Lat. 6. 6. N.
TEES, a river which rises on the confines of Cumber¬
land, and running eastward, divides the county of Durham
from Yorkshire, and falls into the German Ocean below
Stockton.
TEESGAON, a town of Hindustan, province of Aurun-
gabad. Long. 74. 53. E. Lat. 19. 13. N.
TEESTA, a considerable river of Bengal, which has its
source in the Himalaya Mountains, and after dividing the
Nepaul country from the dominions of the Deb rajah, enters
the northern region of Rungpoor. It thence takes a north¬
erly course till it joins the Ganges.
TEETGAUM, a town of Hindustan, province of Guje-
rat, district of Neyer, situated about twelve miles south¬
west. from Theraud. Its inhabitants are Hindus of a mili¬
tary tribe. Latitude not ascertained.
TEETH, the bones placed in the jaw's for chewing food,
T E F
that it may be the more easily digested in the stomach.
The anatomical structure of the teeth has been described
under Anatomy.
TEFF, a kind of grain, sown all over Abyssinia, from
which is made the bread commonly used throughout the
country. We have no description of this plant but from
Mr Bruce, who says that it is herbaceous ; and that from a
number of weak leaves surrounding the root proceeds a
stalk of about twenty-eight inches in length, not perfectly
straight, smooth, but jointed or knotted at particular dis¬
tances. This stalk is not much thicker than that of a car¬
nation or julyflower. About eight inches from the top, a
head is formed of a number of small branches, upon which
it carries the fruit and flowers ; the latter of which is small,
of a crimson colour, and scarcely perceptible by the naked
eye but from the opposition of that colour. The pistil is
divided into two, seemingly attached to the germ of the
fruit, and has at each end small capillaments forming a
brush. The stamina are three in number; two on the lower
side of the pistil, and one on the upper. These are each of
them crowned with two oval stigmata, at first green, but af¬
terwards crimson. The first is formed in a capsula, consisting
of two conical hollow leaves, which, when closed, seems to
compose a small conical pod, pointed at the top. The fruit
or seed is oblong, and is not so large as the head of the
smallest pin ; yet it is very prolific, and produces these
seeds in such quantity as to yield a very abundant crop in
the quantity of meal. From the similarity of the names,
Mr Bruce conjectures it to be the tipha mentioned but not
described by Pliny ; but this conjecture he acknowledges
to be unsupported.
TEFLIS, or Tiflis, a city of Asia, and capital of the
kingdom of Georgia, situated on the precipitous banks of
the Kur, at the foot of a line of dark and barren hills, which
overshadow the town, and impart to it a gloomy appear-
This city was visited by Sir R. K. Porter in 1817,
and from his work the following account is chiefly com¬
piled. Teflis has no claim to a very high antiquity, having
been founded in 1063 by the czar Liewang, who was at¬
tracted to the spot by certain warm springs in the neigh¬
bourhood, from which he expected to derive benefit. Be¬
fore that period it could boast of no habitation in the form
of a house, with the exception of a few mud hovels for the
convenience of the occupiers of a small fortress which stood
on an adjacent height, and protected the valley, and of
which the remains are still to be seen on a hill to the south
of the town, at some distance from the station of the more
modern citadel, which is of Turkish origin. The road along
the western bank of the Kur was completely commanded
by this old work of the native czars; and its dark and
frowning towers still seem to threaten the passenger be¬
low. The first aspect of the town appeared to Sir R. K.
Porter peculiarly gloomy ; and though these impressions
were in some degree lessened by greater familiarity, the ef¬
fect of the surrounding scenery always remained the same ;
and the town seemed to be enclosed in a vast prison of
high and beetling rocks, broken into deep clefts, black and
bare, and projecting into a thousand rugged and savage
forms. So confined an abode is far from being desirable ;
and hence the governor-general has chosen his place of re¬
sidence at a short distance from the body of the city, on
the gentle slope of a hill fronting the river, with a fine view
of the Caucasus Mountains. This building, with the arse¬
nal, the hospital, churches, and a few villas in the neighbour¬
hood, is all that bears any resemblance to the architecture
of Europe. The rest is purely Asiatic, in the most unfa¬
vourable sense of the term, being a collection of low, flat-
roofed dwellings, built of dun brick, mingled with stones
and mud ; the doors and windows exceedingly small; the
latter covered with paper instead of glass. The streets are
all narrow, and covered with deep mud or dust, according
T E F
eSis. as the weather is wet or dry. The Russian governor has
begun to remedy this defect by ordering them to be paved.
He has also introduced other improvements, by directing
old and ruinous houses to be pulled down, and others more
handsome and spacious to be erected in their stead. Among
other improvements, the bazaar, or great market-place for
merchants, has undergone important alterations. It has
been totally roofed in, but with open circles left in the raft¬
ers for the admission of air and light. It is united with the
square of the city guard by long colonnades, which place is
also lined with shops, covered from the weather with a fine
range of pillared arcades. The natives themselves begin
to be sensible of these improvements, when they experience
the comfort of shelter for themselves and their merchandise,
from the injurious effects of rain or scorching heat. The
bazaar is a narrow street, long and winding. It is lined on
each side with shops of every description, such as those of
fruiterers, grocers, barbers, cooks, mercers, saddlers, armour¬
ers, and various other traders, who all display their articles
to the best advantage. Notwithstanding the value of the
merchandise here exposed, the place is a free thoroughfare,
not merely to pedestrians, but to horsemen, and asses with
burdens, and even to droves of buffaloes. Hence it is often
both disagreeable and dangerous to foot passengers, though
it is still a bustling scene, full of people from morning till
night. Not far from the bazaar is the public caravanserai,
which is a circular building, three stories in height, with a
sort of gallery running in front of each range of doors, from
which stone-steps descend to conduct passengers above or
below. Here the merchants take up their quarters ; and
here may be seen exposed on the stone or earthen floors of
dark and vaulted apartments, whatever goods the merchants
who inhabit them possess. The owner of each heap sits
cross-legged, in grave attendance, waiting the appearance
of customers, or bargaining with those who arrive. The
centre of the court is filled with the horses and mules of
the merchants in the caravanserai.
Teflis has been long famed for its hot baths, which pos¬
sess valuable medicinal properties, and are frequented by
both sexes for health as well as for luxury and amusement.
These baths are situated at the extremity of the bazaar,
where is a small bridge over a deep ravine, in which flows
a mountain stream, pure and cold at its fountain head, but,
mingling with the hot springs, which take their rise in the
adjacent heights, it becomes warm. It is over this steam¬
ing flood that the baths are erected. On one side of the
bridge stand those appropriated to the men, and on the
other, immediately under the gloomy walks of the citadel,
those allotted to the women. The water which supplies
these baths is strongly impregnated with sulphur, having
the usual offensive smell of such springs. Its heat may be
reckoned at from 15 to 36 degrees of Reaumur in the seve¬
ral basins; and at the source the heat is 42 degrees. The
basins are excavated in the solid rock, over whose surface
the water had originally flowed ; and these are divided, un¬
der one immense vaulted roof, into different apartments,
from which the day-light is entirely excluded, and where
total darkness is only dispelled by the faint glimmering of
a few lamps twinkling amid the vapours from the steam.
I hese baths are open to all ranks indiscriminately, and are
in a state of the greatest disorder and filth. There is not
a place where a bather could lay down his clothes without
having them drenched in wet, and dirtied. In journeying
farther into the interior of these boiling caverns, Sir R. K.
Porter found an accumulation of every thing that can dis¬
gust the senses. All sorts of people were huddled together,
scrubbing, scraping, rubbing, shaving, &c.; these offices be¬
ing done in each case by the companions of the bather, or
by the persons of the bath in attendance. He also visited
the baths appropriated to the females, into w'hich he was
admitted w ithout the least scruple.
T E F 135
The citadel is situated on the summit of a very high pro- Tefli«.
montory, w’hich forms the termination of the mountain thatv—
overshadows the town on its south-western side. This for¬
tress was erected in 1576, when the Turks took possession
of Georgia, to overawe the conquered province. About two
centuries afterwards it was dismantled by the Persians when
they overran the country, and was left gradually to decay. It
exhibits a mass of ruins, which however are still grand and
imposing; and the situation in which they are placed in¬
creases the wdldness and majesty of these eastern tow’ers.
Within the old battlements may still be seen the remains of
the mosque mentioned by Chardin, and which is now used
as a prison for malefactors, under an officer and guard. Be¬
sides this fortress, the Turks, for greater security, enclosed
the town on every side with a range of towers and walls;
but these ancient bulwarks, like the citadel itself, are now,
with the exception of the wall facing the river, nearly level¬
led with the ground. There are several fine churches in
Teflis, of different Christian persuasions. That which is de¬
dicated to the Catholic mode of worship is the most beauti¬
ful. The great Armenian church, the cathedral of Holy
Zion, is more extensive, but is not equal to the other either
in richness or grace of architecture; yet its more advan¬
tageous situation adding the majesty of nature to the holy
sanctity of the place, seems fully to bear out the propriety of
its appellation. The noble waters of the Kur roll past its base,
increasing in rapidity and sound as they pour onward through
the bold cliffs, which, narrowing, contract the rapid stream.
Here a bridge of a single arch connects the town with a con¬
siderable suburb called Avlabar. It is chiefly inhabited by
a colony of Armenians who fled from the neighbourhood
of Erivan during the late wars between Russia and Persia.
Here are also the ruins of an ancient fort, church, and
houses; and about two miles farther from this side of the
city stand the remains of another sacred and ancient edifice,
on the summit of a hill so high that it commands the most
extensive view in the vicinity of Teflis ; embracing on one
side the city, with its citadel, churches, and gardens; on the
other, to the north, the windings of the Kur through the
varied shores of the valley and the plain ; with the whole
chain of mountains from the province of Kahetia to Kasi-
beck, and their tremendous summits, pile above pile as far
as the eye can reach to the north-west, the snowy summit
of Elborus towering in the distance to the height, accord¬
ing to the calculation of a Russian officer, of 16,700 feet
above the level of the sea.
From their intercourse with the Russians, the higher
classes of the inhabitants have gradually lost much of their
Asiatic manners; and such changes not being well under¬
stood by those who adopt them, are not in many cases fa¬
vourable to the improvement of the people. In this case
the Asiatics, set free from the restraints imposed by their
own manners, have not adopted those of Europe; and have
thus become more licentious than before. The women,
having broken through the restraint that concealed their
faces from all but their husbands, have also thrown off other
restraints. They were at first extremely offended and dis¬
gusted when the Russian troops were quartered in their
houses, and when they were first obliged to appear before
them ; but custom at last rendering them familiar to this in¬
tercourse, a great change has, within the last twenty years,
been effected in the conduct of the female Georgians.
Among the lower classes this effect of foreign intercourse
has been even more decided. When they go abroad, they
still retain the chadre, or veil, in which they are enveloped
from head to foot; but when they are seen standing at their
doors without this safeguard, they, from old custom, retreat
hastily into the house from the gaze of strangers. They have
been long celebrated for their beauty, having fine large dark
eyes, regular features, and a pleasing and mild expression of
countenance. Before its capture in 1757 by Aga Mahom-
136
Tegadoo
Bay
II
Teheran.
TEH
xned Khan, it contained 4000 houses, and 22,000 inhabitants.
The population does not now exceed 15,000, though it is
on the increase since the country came into the possession
of the Russians, whose vigorous government gives protec¬
tion to life and property. It is well situated for an entrepot
of trade ; and Fraser mentions that it is fast rising from the
ruinous condition in which the Russians received it, to be
a thriving commercial place. The government gives every
encouragement to industry: the port is declared free to all
goods upon payment of an ad valorem duty ot five per cent,
at the Russian custom-house; and no internal duties are
levied at toll-houses within their dominions. The distance
from Redoubt Kaleh, on the Black Sea, to Teflis, is 230 miles.
The Russian authorities are at present improving the road,
and there are regular caravans from Teflis to Tabriz, which
travel the journey in eighteen or twenty days, through a safe
country. A trade has already commenced in such commo¬
dities as woollen cloths, cottons, plain and printed goods,
hardware articles, silk and cotton manufactures of Lyon, em¬
broideries, cloths, &c.; several cargoes of European goods
having already reached Teflis from the Black Sea, and been
sold with a large profit. This trade, it is probable, will gra¬
dually increase under the patronage of the Russian govern¬
ment, and hence Teflis bids fair to become, like Odessa, a
commercial mart for an extensive district. From Peters¬
burg it is distant 1752 English miles. Long. 62. 40^. E.
Lat. according to the observation of Captain Monteith of
the Madras engineers, 41. 43. N.
TEGADOO Bay, on the east coast of the most northern
islands of New Zealand, discovered by Captain Cook in 1769.
Long. 181. 14. W. Lat. 38. 10. S.
TEHAMA, a large belt of sand, which stretches along the
eastern shore of the Red Sea, and extends as far as the
mountains in the interior. It is entirely barren, presenting
an unvarying picture of desolation. It bears every mark of
having been anciently a part of the bed of the sea. It is
increased by the blowing of the moving sands, which appear
in this place to be continually making encroachments on
the limit of the Red Sea. It contains large strata of salt,
which in some places even rise into hills; and on the shore
the banks of coral are perpetually increasing, so as every day
more and more to augment the danger of navigating the
gulf.
TEHERAN or Tehran, a large city of Persia, and dur¬
ing the last two reigns the residence of the sovereign, and
hence considered to be the capital of the empire. It is si¬
tuated on a very low tract of ground, near to the foot of the
Elburz Mountains, in the province of Ajem. It is between
four and five miles in circumference, and is surrounded by
a strong wall, flanked by numerous towers and a broad dry
ditch, with a glacis between it and tbe wall. It has, ac¬
cording to Sir R. K. Porter, four gates, though Morier says
They are inlaid with coloured bricks, and with figures
of tigers and other animals in rude mosaic. The streets,
like those of all the other Persian towns, are narrow, and full
of mud or dust according as the season is wet or dry. The
plan in most of the eastern towns seems to have been to com¬
press a numerous population within a small space ; and
hence the narrow streets and wretched alleys of which they
consist, the heat, the crowd, and odious smell, which are fully
as obnoxious to a European as the solar rays, against which
the narrowness of the streets is supposed to be a defence.
There is also another inconvenience, that when a khan or
great personage goes out on horseback, as is generally the
case, with a train of thirty or forty ill-appointed followers on
foot, and when, besides, loaded camels, mules, asses, and not
unfrequently one or two of the royal elephants, happen, as
they often do, to be passing, they completely jam up the
streets, to the evident hazard of life and limbs both to man
and beast. Teheran is about the size of Shiraz. In sum¬
mer, when the king quits it in order to pitch his tent in the
T E K
plains of Sultania or Unjan, and when most of the inhabi- Tehinchi
tants follow the royal camp, no more than 10,000 are left II .Lv
in the city ; while in winter it contains between 60,000 and ^Koa'
70,000. The public edifices are not so numerous as in
Shiraz; and as the city itself is built of bricks baked in
the sun, it has a mud-like appearance. Of the mosques,
the principal is the Mesjid, a structure not yet finished.
There are six others, small and insignificant, and thiee or
four colleges. The caravanserais are said to amount to
150, and there are 150hummums or baths. There are two
maidans or squares, one in the town, the othei within the
ark, a square fortified palace, which contains all the esta¬
blishments of the king, is surrounded by a wall and ditch,
and is entered by two gates. Flalf a century back, T. ehe-
ran, the present metropolis of Persia, would hardly have
been thought a town of sufficient importance for the capi¬
tal of a province. It continued an obscure spot until Aga
Mahommed Khan, uncle to the present shah, selected it
for his residence. It had been destroyed by the Afghans
at the beginning of the century, and afterwards rebuilt by
Kurreen Khan: it was now improved by Mahommed Khan,
and still further enlarged and embellished by his successor.
As a central point of general surveillance for the safety of
the empire, between the provinces to the north-west, which
border on Georgia, and those to the east, which are subject
to invasions from the Toorkomans, and their restless allies
of Afghanistan, it is well chosen ; but it is far from being
a pleasant residence, being situated among swamps occa¬
sioned by the numerous spring torrents pouring from the
adjacent heights, and saturating the low' grounds about the
town, from which the summer’s sun exhales vapour and
damp, so as to render this the most unhealthy season of the
year. But the aspect of the place is far from disagreeable.
The very humidity of the soil produces early verdure, and
clothes the gardens with a more abundant shade; while
the ranges of the Elburz Mountains stretch eastward behind
the town, and in a direct line northward towers the peak
of Demewand. Teheran is not known as one of the ancient
cities of Persia. The first notices of its existence are in
the fourteenth century. A Persian writer of that period
remarks it as a large village, with productive gardens, in the
vicinity of the city of Rey; and mentions that the inha¬
bitants had their dwellings under ground, to avoid the ex¬
cessive heats of summer, and also the attacks of their pre¬
datory neighbours. Teheran, according to observations of
British officers lately resident in the city, is in Long. 50.
52. E. Lat. 35. 37. N.
TEHINCHIEN, a river of Hindustan, in the province
of Bootan, which runs past Tassisudon, the capital; and
being augmented by the tributary streams of the Hatchieu
and Patcheiu, forces a passage through the mountains,
whence it is precipitated into tremendous cataracts, and
rushing with a rapid torrent between the high cliff's and
vast rocks which oppose its progress, it pursues its course
into the open plains near Buxedwar, and finally joins the
Brahmapootra.
TEIGNMOUTH, West, a town of the hundred of
Exminster, in the county of Devon, 187 miles from Lon¬
don. It stands on the sea-shore on Torbay, and adjoining
to it, but on the opposite side of the river Teign, is East
Teignmouth, a smaller and not a market-town. Both
united form one of the most favourite resorts for sea-bathers
on this coast, and it is frequently inhabited during the winter
by persons afflicted with or apprehensive of pulmonary com¬
plaints. They are separate parishes, each having its church;
and West Teignmouth has a good market on Saturdays. The
country around is healthy and picturesque, and provisions
are cheap. The population of West Teignmouth amounted
in 1821 to 2514, and in 1831 to 2878; that of the other
town in 1821 to 1466, and in 1831 to 1810.
TEKOA, a village of Palestine, on the site of which was
TEL
plljresiasanciently built a considerable town, of which the ruins are
Jill still visible. It is nine miles south of Bethlehem.
Te :raph. TEL Aresias, a village of Diarbekir, in Asiatic Tur-
key, on the Euphrates, five miles west-north-west of Diar-
bekir.
TELACH, an island of Asiatic Pussia, in the Penzinskoi
Gulf. Long. 159. 14. E. Lat. 61. 35. N.
TEL 137
TELANADING Islands, three small islands, lying Telanading
east and west, near the north-west coast of the island of Elands
Gilolo. Long. 127. 30. E. Lat. 2. 18. N. m i 11 l
TELARUSE, a river of Asia, in the peninsula of Ma-. ^ e^raP '
lacca, which forms the northern boundary of the kingdom
of Queda, and separates it from Lower Siam. It falls into
the Eastern Seas. Long. 99. 42. E. Lat. 6. 55. N.
TELEGRAPH.
Telegraph, so named from two Greek words, rsAos, end
or distance, and I write, is a machine so construct¬
ed as to enable two persons to converse with each other at
a distance, either by sentences, words, or letters, according
to a convention previously agreed upon by the parties.
Such a mode of communicating ideas beyond the reach of
hearing is not, however, confined to any particular ma¬
chine ; the fingers of the human hand are quite sufficient,
as every young boarding-school lady knows, for the purpose ;
and, when so applied, may be called a telegraph. Thus
also the signal-flags used on board ships to communicate
with each other, by making them represent letters or
numbers, or both, constitute a telegraph ; as may also the
sending up of sky-rockets, blue lights, the suspension of
lanterns, the making of fires on beacons, high hills, &c. be
considered as telegraphic communications.
In imitation of the French, however, w'e have almost in¬
discriminately adopted the use of the word semaphore for
the telegraph, which is perhaps of more extensive appli¬
cation, being derived from a sign, and fiegu, I hear ;
and may consequently be applied universally to whatever
means may be used to communicate intelligence by signs
or signals. Thus the firing of guns a certain number of
times at certain intervals,—the notes of a trumpet, bugle,
French horn, or other wind instrument,—the strokes on a
drum,—may be used to convey information to a limited ex¬
tent. The troops and marines which landed on the coast
of America in the last war, when scouring the woods in
detached parties, were regulated by the notes of the bugle,
which were so clearly understood that no false movements
were ever made. The immense number of barges and
boats which crowd the Imperial Canal of China are directed
in their movements, both by night and day, by the sound
of the gong. The Indians of America convey intelligence
from hill to hill by throwing out their arms with or without
staves in them; by spreading their cloaks, holding up
skins, &c.; and even the savage Hottentots, called Bosjeis-
mans, the lowest probably in the scale of human beings,
communicate with each other by arranging fires on the
side of the hills in certain positions.
It is rather surprising that an art so simple as that of
conveying ideas by means of signals, so well understood in
remote antiquity, and practised even by savages, should
have made so little progress in its improvement, that it
may be said to have remained in its original rude state
nearly down to our own times, when it has almost at once
been brought to that state of perfection of which it appears
to be capable.
One of the arguments usually adopted to prove that the
art of conveying intelligence by signals was known in the
early ages of Greece, is deduced from the opening of the
Agamemnon of iEschylus, where the man on the watch-
tower at the top of the palace announces the fire-signals
having communicated the fall of Troy, long before any of
the Greeks had returned from the siege; and Clytemnestra
afterwards relates the stations; but this event of the burn¬
ing of Troy, supposed thus to have been known in Greece
soon after it happened, proves nothing more than that the
use of signals was known to the poet, who wrote eight or
VOL. XXI.
nine hundred years after the event. Mention, however, is
made by Jeremiah (ch. vi. v. 1), who w7as at least 200
years before iEscbylus, of “ setting up a sign of fire in
Beth-hacceremand such signals are often alluded to by
the prophets, as notices of the approach of an enemy.
The earliest decisive proof of telegraphic communica¬
tions, except those by fires (‘mgo'g/a/), being in use among
the Greeks, is found in the methods described by Polybius.
The Romans had their vexillarii, and used flags and other
contrivances for regulating the movements of their armies ;
and they had hollow tubes constructed in the walls of their
cities, by which they could communicate with the several
ports or works by sound, as is done in our times in some
manufactories by means of pipes or trumpets. Wherever
the Romans pitched their camp, an elevated spot was select¬
ed for the signal station, to convey intelligence to the fo¬
raging parties or detachments ; but it is nowhere stated to
what extent this was carried. Vegetius alludes to some¬
thing like a beam in the air, on the same principle perhaps
as our semaphore.
In modern times, Kircher, who had more learning and
less sense than any man of his day, and has written on al¬
most every subject, gives an idea of telegraphic commu¬
nication ; and so does the ingenious Marquis of Worces¬
ter, in his Century of Inventions; but so vague as to
convey no notion of the means he was to employ, except
the use of colour ; for the “ discourse” to be held is stated
to be “ as far as eye can discover black from white.”
He also throws out a hint for a night telegraph, by which
the same may be done, “ though as dark as pitch is
black.” But almost every modern invention is supposed
to exist in the mysterious “ scantlings” of the Marquis of
Worcester.
The first telegraph on record in modern times, applica¬
ble to universal purposes, is that of Dr Hooke, described
in the Philosophical Transactions of the year 1684. He
minutely details the mode in which the stations should be
selected, their height and intermediate ground, so that the
refraction of the air may not disturb the clear appearance
of the object; the telescopes to be used ; the characters to
represent the alphabet, which, he says, may be varied ten
thousand ways, and “ none but the two extreme corre¬
spondents shall be able to discover the information con¬
veyed and so convinced is he of the practical efficiency
of his telegraph, as to leave no doubt on his mind, “ that
the same character may be seen at Paris within a minute
after it hath been exposed in London.” His method con¬
sisted in exposing in succession as many different shaped
figures, or signs, at least, as the alphabet consists of letters.
If used in the day-time, they
might be squares, circles, tri¬
angles, &c. made of deals; if at
night, torches or other lights dis¬
posed in a certain order. These
characters or signs were to be
brought forth from behind a
screen on rods, as they might be
wanted, and exposed to view.
The accompanying figure, where A is the screen, and
138
Telegraph.
TELEGRAPH.
it! one of the signs exhibited, will convey an idea of Dr
Hooke’s telegraph.
Monsieur Amantons, of the Royal Academy of Paris,
made an experiment to convey intelligence, which was
highly approved of by the other members, and several per¬
sons of distinction belonging to the court. By the descrip¬
tion given of the machine, it seems to have differed very
little from that of Hooke already published in the Phi¬
losophical Transactions; the signals being either large let¬
ters of the alphabet, or figures of various shapes to re¬
present them ; the latter being the more valuable, as, by
a change of key, the nature of the communication might
be kept a secret from those actually employed in making
the signals.
It has been supposed that electricity might be the means
of conveying intelligence, by passing given numbers of
sparks through an insulated wire in given spaces of time.
A gentleman of the name of Ronalds has written a small
treatise on the subject; and several persons on the Conti¬
nent and in England have made experiments on Galvanic
or Voltaic telegraphs, by passing the stream through wires
in metal pipes to the two extremities or stations, into phials
of water; but there is reason to think that, ingenious as the
experiments are, they are not likely ever to become practi¬
cally useful. Since this was written, Professor Wheatstone
has succeeded in contriving a Galvanic telegraph that works
admirably, and will no doubt be applied to all the great
lines of rail-road in the kingdom. It is simple in its con¬
struction, not liable to error, very portable, and carries
round the margin of a circle the letters of the whole alpha¬
bet in rapid succession, so that each word is speedily con-
•veyed to any distance.
Necessity is said to be the mother of invention ; she is
also frequently the foster-mother, who calls forth into ac¬
tion, and displays the utility of, inventions abandoned by
their natural parent. Both Hooke’s invention and Aman-
tons’ modification were published all over Europe, the for¬
mer as early as 1684; yet they were not practically applied
to any useful purpose till the year 1794, when Citizen Bar-
rere, in a report made to the Convention, ascribed the in¬
vention then in use to Citizen Chappe.
Chappe’s telegraph consists of a beam of wood, moveable
on a pivot at the summit of an upright
post. At each of the extremities of this
beam is a moveable arm, as in the figure.
The different positions in which both
the beam and its two arms may be
placed at angles of 45° give to this tele¬
graph considerable powers; but it is too
complicated a machine not to be liable
to many mistakes, unless worked by long-
experienced operators.
In the year 1784, Mr Lovell Edgeworth produced his
plan of a numerical telegraph, claiming, at the same time,
the merit of having invented a mode of distant communi¬
cation as far back as 1767, by employing a common wind¬
mill, and arranging the various positions of its arms and
sails so as to represent a certain number of signals arranged
in numerical order.
Mr Edgeworth’s telegraph consisted of four wedges or
cones, moveable on four upright posts, as under, which, by
their different positions, might
be used either numerically or
alphabetically.
In the year 1795, when the
advantages had been made evi¬
dent which the French derived
from M. Chappe’s telegraph, the inventive faculties of our
countrymen were called into action. Among other pro¬
posals, the Rev. J. Gamble produced two plans of a tele¬
graph ; the one consisting of five boards, one above the
©
other, which, by opening and shutting singly,
or according to all the combinations of
which they were capable, gave a certain num¬
ber of distinct signals, representing either
numbers or letters, as might be deemed
most expedient. The arrangement of the
shutters was as in this figure. The other
plan was that of five beams of wood, turn¬
ing on the summit of a post, so as to form five radii of a
semicircle at equal angles of 45° with each
other, as in the annexed figure.
Among other projects about this time,
was that of dividing a large circle into
twenty-four parts, to represent the letters
of the alphabet, round which a move-
able radius was to traverse ; then, by
placing corresponding divisions, by means
of wires, before the object-glass of the telescope, the co¬
incidence of the two radii would mark out the letter meant
to be designated. Of this kind, a plan by Mr Garnet ap¬
proached nearest to efficiency; but, at best, could only be
applied to very short distances.
In the same year (1795) Lord George Murray present¬
ed his plan of a six-shutter telegraph to
the Admiralty, which was the one adopted
and made use of during the whole war, and
until the year 1816, when it was changed
for a simplified semaphore, which will be
noticed hereafter. The annexed figure re¬
presents that of Lord George Murray.
On the same principle as the radiated
telegraph of Mr Gamble, but differently ar¬
ranged, the French, on the commencement of the second
war in 1803, erected signal-posts along the coast, to which
they gave the name of semaphores, being two or three
beams of wood on the same post, but turning on different
pivots.
In 1807, Captain (now Colonel) Pasley published his
Polygrammatic Telegraph, which differed only from the
French semaphore in having two beams turning on one
pivot on the same post, and multiplying the number of
posts ; which he afterwards (in 1810) changed so far as to
place three sets of beams or arms, two in each set, on one
post, and thus approaching still nearer to the French se¬
maphore.
First Polygrammatic Telegraph.
H
' ■ T\
Second Polygrammatic Telegraph.
T E L E G R A P XL
139
rrnph. In the year 1816, Sir Home Popham, who had already
introduced a new code of signals into the navy, which was
admitted on all hands as a great improvement on the old
system, both as regarding the number, the arrangement,
and the shape of the flags, now turned his attention to the
land semaphore, and proposed one on a construction of the
same nature with those of M. Chappe
and Colonel Pasley, but much simpli¬
fied. It was, in fact, nothing more than
two moveable arms on separate pivots
on the same mast, as in the annexed
figure.
This machine, on account of its sim¬
plicity, had obviously the advantage
over all others that had been proposed ;
and being found of sufficient power and
efficiency for all required purposes, itwas
adopted by the Admiralty, instead of
the shutter-telegraph, which had been
in use since the year 1795.
Colonel Pasley, however, in 1822, still further simplified
this useful machine, at the expense
of sacrificing a small portion of its
powers, by making the two arms
revolve on the same pivot, as in this
figure, to which he has given the
name of the “ universal telegraph.”
The last, but by far the most
persevering and voluminous writer
on telegraphs, is Lieutenant-Co¬
lonel Macdonald, who, in 1808,
published what he deems improve¬
ments in the system of telegraphic communications, both
as they regard the machine itself, and the dictionary to be
used with it. He not only gives the preference, but is so
much attached, to the shutter machine, that he is quite in¬
dignant at its being supplanted by the semaphore ; and so
far from being satisfied with the
powers of which a six-shutter tele¬
graph is capable, he has extended his
to no less than thirteen different
boards, as in the annexed figure,
by which he certainly gains power
enough, but not without producing
confusion and perplexity.
As the use of telegraphs is chiefly
confined to public purposes, and more
especially to convey speedy informa¬
tion respecting naval and military armaments and opera¬
tions, the machine to be adopted, and the system of work-
ing it, ought to possess 'power, certainty, simplicity, cele¬
rity, and secrecy. The power of the machine, or the num¬
ber of distinct combinations of its moveable parts, should
be equal to the conveyance of every possible order or in¬
formation, either by numbers representing the letters of
the alphabet, or words, or sentences. To insure certainty,
the moveable parts or signs should be so well and clearly
defined, so wholly within the field of the telescope, and so
completely removed from all ambiguity, as not to be liable
to the mistaking of one signal for another ; hence the ad¬
vantage of the simplicity of the machine. And as one of
the main uses of the telegraph is to convey instructions or
intelligence in a speedier way than the intermediate dis¬
tance can be travelled over, it is evident that celerity is an
important quality of telegraphic communication. It is
equally obvious, that if such instructions or intelligence
could not be conveyed in secrecy from him who sent it to
him who was to receive it, such a system would be highly
defective and objectionable.
Bearing these observations in mind, we shall not have
much difficulty in determining on the merits of the several
telegraphic machines above mentioned. The choice, in-Telegraph,
deed, appears to lie between the six-shutter telegraph, so ^
long used at the Admiralty, to communicate with the se¬
veral ports; the semaphore of Sir Home Popham, which
superseded it, and is now in use; and the universal tele¬
graph of Colonel Pasley. Colonel Macdonald, who con¬
ceives the shutter telegraph as the perfection of the art,
boldly asserts that “ the semaphore arm of proper dimen¬
sions is not to be seen in clear weather so well as the com¬
mon sized boards, and in cloudy weather by no means so
welland consequently that, “ for this climate, the board¬
ed telegraph is in all respects more advantageous.” This
would be important if correct; but it is evident that the
colonel is not aware of the discussion which took place on
this very important part of the subject, on the first adop¬
tion of the hoarded telegraph. Had he read the clear and
decisive observations of Mr Gamble, he would scarcely have
ventured upon such an assertion.
“ It is a theorem in optics,” says Mr Gamble, “ that the
apparent magnitude of an object varies nearly in the in¬
verse ratio of its distance. Hence it follows, that the larger
its dimensions, to the greater distance will it be visible.
But the nature of our atmosphere, even in its most trans¬
parent state, is such as to render any calculation, grounded
on this principle, extremely erroneous; and in general its
density so obstructs, and its refracting powers cause such
confusion in, the rays issuing from those surfaces which are
not placed sufficiently distant to be distinct, that their
image falling upon the retina is frequently so ill defined, as
to render it difficult to determine either their figure or po¬
sition ; for which reasons, that which I shall term insula¬
tion is generally a quality more requisite to give distinct¬
ness to an object, than magnitude of superficial dimen¬
sions.”
This is unquestionably true ; but Mr Gamble illustrates
his position thus: “ An example of this distinctness arising
from insulation cannot be more readily obtained than by
taking a page of printed paper, and fixing the eye on some
particular letter (as I); then retiring from it, the letter will
be so confused with the surrounding ones, as not to be
easily distinguished. But if the same letter (I) be printed
on a plain sheet of paper, standing by itself (or insulated),
the eye will then not only discern it at a much greater dis¬
tance, but the image falling single and unencumbered upon
the retina, we shall be able to determine whether it be in¬
clined to the right or to the left, or whether it be placed
horizontally on the paper.”
The shutter telegraph is the printed page, and the arm of
the semaphore is the letter (I) on a plain sheet of paper.
But actual experiment has completely proved the fallacy
of Colonel Macdonald’s assertion, and the justice of Mr
Gamble’s theory. Every officer serving on the line of te¬
legraphs has stated, that at all times, and more especially
in cloudy weather, the arms of the semaphore are seen
much better than the boards of the telegraph ever were.
Lieutenant Pace, who for many years superintended the
Admiralty station, declared, that on the first day after the
West Square semaphore was erected, he could clearly dis¬
tinguish the positions of the arms witlmit a telescope, and
accurately take down any signals that could be made, which
he had never been able to do, under any circumstance what¬
ever, with the shutter telegraph. He also stated that he
had frequently an open communication with the semaphore
at West Square, while St Paul’s was capt by a fog, which
was at all times considered by him and his assistant as the
conclusive sign that the boarded telegraph could not be
worked. But in order to set the matter entirely at rest,
the shutter telegraph on Nunhead, near Newcross, was left
standing on the same hill with the new semaphore, in order
to try their comparative distinctness, for a whole winter.
The result was, that the semaphore was frequently dis*
140
TELEGRAPH.
Telegraph, tinctly visible when the boarded telegraph was so much en-
  v—"’ veloped in mist or fog, that the particular boards, shut or
thrown open, could not be distinguished; and it appeared
by a journal kept by this officer, that in the course of the
winter, the days on which the semaphore was visible ex¬
ceeded those on which the shutters could be seen by fully
one third. If, then, this be the case with a six-boarded te¬
legraph, how much more objectionable must one of twelve
shutters be, which must necessarily be placed so near to
each other as to make it at all times a matter of difficulty
to discern at once how many, and which of them, are closed,
and which open? Even in the six-shutter telegraph, one
board has frequently been mistaken for the other; for it
may be remarked, that such a mass of timber as is required
for a shutter-telegraph is seldom free from haze.
It will probably be urged, that the arms of the sema¬
phore, having to describe a larger circle, must be slower in
their operations ; but this increased slowness is so amply
compensated by the ease and certainty of reading off the
signals as to render any such objection of little or no weight:
it may make the difference of one second in each signal,
while the machinery by which the semaphore is worked is
as simple and as little liable to be out of order as that of
the boarded telegraph.
The six-shutter telegraph, it is true, has greater powers
than the two-armed semaphore, and much greater than the
universal semaphore of Colonel Pasley; that is to say, the
number of combinations which it is capable of making
without using the step-signal (or signal which separates one
wrord or one sentence from another), is much greater than
in either of the other two ; but all of them have sufficient
powers, and a sufficient number of combinations, to convey
with facility and despatch any communication whatsoever,
and in any language, either by letters, words, or sentences.
Their respective powers may be seen by the following tables
of their positions.
Admiralty Six-shutter Telegraph.
No. of Signal, Signi-
or of Shutters fica-
Closed. tion.
1
2
3
4
5
6
12
13
14
15
16
23
24
25
26
34
35
36
45
46
56
A
Z
X
W
B
F
L
O
V
U
H
Q,u
R
T
S
P
N
I
O
K
M
No. of Signal,
or of Shutters
Closed.
Signi-
fica- j
tion.
123
124
125
126
134
135
136
145
146
156
234
235
236
245
246
256
345
346
356
456
1234
No. of Signal,
or of Shutters
Closed.
Signi.
fi ca¬
tion.
1235
1236
1245
1246
1256
1345
1346
1356
1456
2345
2346
2356
2456
3456
12345
12346
12356
12456
13456
23456
123456
the rest, as in the table, may be applied to numbers ; and Telegra f
what still remains may be made to represent words that are
most commonly in use ; as, for instance, admiral, captain,
ship of the line, frigate, arrived, sailed, harbour, &c. in the
navy ; or, if military, general, regiment, camp, &c.
Admiralty Semaphore now in use.
In all, forty-eight separate
and distinct signals, being the
whole which the two arms are
capable of making, as in the
annexed figure; in wdiich the
two arms actually exhibited
(in black lines) represent the
number 16 or H, according
to the table or hey, as above ar¬
ranged.
We have here, in addition
to the alphabet and the nume¬
ral digits, thirteen signs over,
applicable to the names of sta¬
tions, preparative, finish, stop-
signals, &c.
Colonel Pasley’s Universal Telegraph.
No. of
Signals.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
12
13
14
Significa¬
tion.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
No. of
Signals.
15
16
17
23
24
25
26
27
34
35
Significa¬
tion.
No. of
Signals.
L
M
N
O
P
Qu
R
S
T
U
36
37
45
46
47
56
57
67
Significa¬
tion.
V
w
X
Y
Z
In all, sixty-two separate and distinct signals, which may
be made consecutively in any order, without requiring any
step-signal when applied to spelling. The letters of the
alphabet opposite to the signals, and the numbers from l to
0, may be changed in every possible way.
When spelling is intended to be used, the number of
changes need not, of course, exceed that of the alphabet;
In all, twenty-eight separate and distinct signals; con¬
taining a sufficient number for expressing the letters of the
alphabet, and, consequently, for spelling any message; but
not a sufficient number left to express the numeral digits
by single signs. The signal No. 4 is, besides, as Colonel
Pasley is aware, liable to be mistaken, it being a mere elon¬
gation of the mast, which, at a great distance, and owing
TELEGRAPH. 141
Uegraph. to the refractive power of the atmosphere, will always be
^ ambiguous when exhibited as a single signal. But Colonel
Pasley has added a short arm, which he calls an indicator,
as below at A ; and which, when made moveable, more
than compensates for this defect.
It was with a different view, however, that he has added
this indicator. It was suggested to
him by a captain in the navy, who
had experienced the greatest incon¬
venience, in using Sir Home Pop-
ham’s ship-semaphores, from the sig¬
nal-men confounding the positions of
the arms when seen in reverse. We
apprehend no experienced signal-men
could possibly make any mistake in
merely changing the right hand for
the left.
The respective powers of the three
telegraphs, in making single, or w'hat may be called pri¬
mary signals, are, as appears from the tables, 62, 42, and
28. In making two changes, with a stop between them
(that is, three signals), to represent a word or sentence, their
powers will be as 3844, 1764, and 784; in making three
changes (or, v/ith the stop, four signals), as 238,328-74,088-
21,952. Now, as the telegraphic dictionary of Sir Home
Popham, which has been, and still is, used in the navy, does
not exceed 13,000 words and sentences, and has never been
found deficient in any of its divisions of subjects, it is evi¬
dent that even the lowest power of the three is more than
sufficient for all useful purposes; and that those compilers
who have swelled out their telegraphic dictionaries to upwards
of 100,000 (one mentioned by Colonel Pasley has extended
his labours to 140,000), have made them nearly useless, by
the difficulty and loss of time in finding the required phrase
or sentence. We have actually seen in one telegraphic
dictionary 126 pages, of three columns in each page, and
sixty sentences in each column, containing upwards of
20,000 sentences (about one third of the number of words
in Johnson’s Dictionary), and each of these sentences be¬
ginning with the personal pronoun HE, twenty pages with
IF, &c. Compared with the use of such a dictionary,
spelling the sentences is infinitely preferable as to certainty,
and in many cases as to celerity. Indeed we should say
that the abbreviated nature of communications made by
telegraph renders spelling by far the most eligible mode.
In clear weather, the rapidity of working single signals, the
short compass within which any message may be condensed,
the impossibility of committing any mistake that cannot be
immediately rectified, more than compensates for the dif¬
ference of a few minutes which the use of sentences may
probably save. In cloudy or foggy weather, the latter me¬
thod will always be liable to mistake. If experience may
be assumed as a guide, the practice at the Admiralty, of
spelling all sentences, for the last thirty years, must decide
in favour of that system.
In making use of the alphabetical table, much time may
be saved by condensing the message into the briefest form
possible, leaving out of the sentences such words as may
not alter the sense, and generally the vowels of words. For
instance, “ Order the Agamemnon out of harbour, and direct
her to proceed to Spithead” To convey this message alpha¬
betically, it would be quite enough to say, “ Agmemn to
Spthed.” If from Spithead into harbour, “ Agmemn nto
hrbr.” In spelling, too, it is very desirable, especially in
our foggy climate, that the intelligence to be conveyed
should be compressed as much as possible into the early
part of the message. By not observing this rule, a curious
mistake is said to have been made in the course of the Pen¬
insular war. The admiral at Plymouth endeavoured to send
up a message, but a fog coming on, part of it only on that
day reached London. It began thus: “ Wellington de¬
feated”—and the rest was stopped by the fog : the anxiety Telegraph,
for the remainder may readily be conceived ; it came, how- '
ever, complete towards the evening, and conveyed the in¬
telligence, that “ Wellington defeated the French,” &c.
Had the message been thus framed, “ French defeated at,”
&c. (the word Wellington being quite superfluous), the
anxiety for the. particulars would have been of a very dif¬
ferent kind. Much therefore depends, as far as celerity
and certainty is concerned, on the construction of the sen¬
tence containing the intelligence to be conveyed.
The methods suggested for making use of telegraphic
communications by night have not been less numerous than
those for the day, though on land there are very few occa¬
sions on which they can be of the least possible use. A
regiment might perhaps be ordered to move, at a moment’s
notice, in order to reach a particular point at a given time;
or, as an extreme case, the enemy’s fleet might be seen to¬
wards the close of the day in a particular quarter, which
would make it desirable to have the intelligence conveyed
in various directions ; but no naval movement could take
place during the night at any of the ports. So little useful,
indeed, does a night telegraph for the navy appear to have
been considered, that, with all the facility of applying lamps
to the shutter-telegraph at the Admiralty, no attempt was ever
made for carrying such a purpose into execution. Colonel
Pasley’s description of the application of his Universal Te¬
legraph to night-signals will suffice to show one method (as
good as any other, perhaps) of adapting the machine to this
purpose.
“ For night-signals, one lantern, called the centre-light, is
fixed to the top of the post; and
one lantern (I), as an indicator, is
fixed to a light crane or derrick SK\
attached to the post, by night on¬
ly, as under.
“ These lanterns are stationary, 1
and appear on the same level. Two
other lanterns are suspended to
the ends of the arms, upon fixing
which a couple of weights are
added to counterpoise them. Each
of the two arms by day, and each of the two moveable lights
by night, is capable of exhibiting the seven positions, be¬
sides position O pointing vertically downwards. The indi¬
cator serves to distinguish the low numbers 1, 2, 3, from
the high numbers 7, 6, 5, in whatever direction the tele¬
graph may be viewed.”
The use of telegraphic communication, important as it
may be on land, is far more so in the management of a fleet
at sea. On the unfortunate result of Admiral Keppel’s en¬
gagement, Dr Beatson, in his Memoirs, thus expresses him¬
self : “ The defects or impropriety of the signals having
thus appeared clearly to be the true and sole cause of the
miscarriage which disappointed the reasonable hopes of
Britain on this critical and weighty occasion, we may be
justified in observing, that if an admiral cannot command
all the necessary movements of his ships by signal on the
day of battle, he is not upon a footing with an enemy who
possesses that advantage ; and even with better ships and
better men, and more experienced commanders, he may be
foiled in his expectations of victory, if not defeated, from
his want of the means to direct and to perform the neces¬
sary evolutions of his fleet.”
In the Fighting and Sailing Instructions of the Duke of
York (afterwards James II.), a certain number of signals
are established for certain movements and manoeuvres of
the fleet, each flag having its respective object. LArt des
Armies Navales of le P. 1’Hoste, published at Lyon in 1697,
contains something like a system of signals, but so awkward
and clumsy as to be of a very limited use. Indeed the best
signals made use of, down to the American war, could only
142 T E L
Telescope, be considered as expedients; the numerical plan hav-
ing never once been attempted, though Dr Hooke, De
la Bourdonnois, and some others, had long before sug¬
gested it. '
In 1798 a new signal-book was issued by the Admiralty,
containing about four hundred sentences, for which flags
were appropriated numerically, expressive of certain opera¬
tions of a fleet, which were sufficiently useful as far as these
sentences went; but when it became necessary to issue any
order not to be found among them, the communication was
obliged to be made by boats, and “ a boat from each ship”
was ordered. The state of the weather did not always ren¬
der this practicable ; and when it was, men’s lives were fre¬
quently exposed to imminent risk. To remedy this incon¬
venience, Sir Home Popham printed at Calcutta a numeri¬
cal code of naval signals, which was reprinted in England
in 1803. He afterwards extended the code very consider¬
ably, which, by a recommendation of a committee of naval
officers, has been adopted, and is now in general use in the
navy. The only objection to this code, which more or less
applies to all that have subsequently been proposed, is the
TEL
great number of flags, &c., required for making numerical Telescor;
signals to the extent as laid down in the code in question ;
and which consists of nine flags, five cornettes, five tri¬
angles, and five pendants. With such a number it is next
to impossible to make out, in calm weather, the figure and
the colour of the flags; and equally so when in situations
where, though expanded by the wind, they present only an
edge to the eye of the observer, when the distance is not
too great, so as to sink the hull of the ship behind the cur¬
vature of the earth. The semaphore or sea-telegraph of
Sir Home Popham comes in aid of, and indeed entirely
removes, those difficulties. It consists of two posts, with a
moveable arm to each (see the article Navy), and may be
removed to any part of the deck; but we are not sure,
simple as it is, that the Universal Telegraph of Colonel
Pasley, consisting of one post and two arms, might not be
adopted with advantage as a sea-telegraph. The former
exhibits eight, the latter seven positions. (m.)
TELEMACPIUS, the son of Ulysses and Penelope.
His character and adventures belong more to poetry than
to history.
TELESCOPE.1
Telescope, an optical instrument for viewing distant
objects ; so named by compounding the Greek words rJjXj,
far off, and axofteu, I look at or contemplate. This name is
commonly appropriated to the larger sizes of the instrument,
while the smaller are called perspective glasses, spy-glasses,
opera-glasses. A particular kind, which is thought to be
much brighter than the rest, is called a night-glass.
The history of the invention of the telescope has been
given in our article Optics. The theory of the Astronomi¬
cal Telescope will be found in Astronomy (part iv. chap. 4),
where two particular constructions of the instrument, viz.
that of Professor Barlow and Mr Rogers, are described;
and also the Dorpat telescope, of which a figure is there
given. At the time that article was written, this was the
most powerful instrument of the kind that had ever been
directed to the heavens, its object-glass being 9^ inches
in diameter, and focal length about 14 feet. Now, how¬
ever, the University of Cambridge possesses an instrument
still more powerful, the Northumberland Equatorial, so call¬
ed in honour of the noble duke by whom it was presented
to the university in the year 1838. The object-glass of this
magnificent telescope is 11-g clear inches in diameter, and
its focal length 19^ feet. A particular description of it has
been given in the eleventh volume of the Cambridge Astro¬
nomical Observations. There is another telescope of still
larger dimensions in the possession of an amateur astrono¬
mer, Mr Cooper of Sligo. The diameter of the object-glass
is 13’3 inches, and the focal length 21 feet 3 inches.
The general aim in the construction of a telescope is, to
form, by means of mirrors or lenses, an image of the dis¬
tant object, as large, as bright, and as extensive as is pos¬
sible, consistently with distinctness ; and then to view the
image with a magnifying glass in any convenient manner.
This gives us an arrangement of our subject. We shall
first show the principles of construction of the object-glass
or mirror, so that it shall form an image of the distant
object with these qualities; and then show how to construct
the magnifying glass or eye-piece, so as to preserve them
unimpaired.
This indistinctness which we wish to avoid arises from
two causes ; the spherical figures of the refracting and re¬
flecting surfaces, and the different refrangibility of the dif¬
ferently coloured rays of light. The first may be called the
spherical and the second the chromatic indistinctness ; and
the deviations from the foci may be called the spherical
and the chromatic aberrations.
The limits of a work like this will not permit us to give
any more of the doctrine of aberrations than is absolutely
necessary for the construction of achromatic telescopes ;
and we must refer the reader for a general view of the whole
to Euler’s Dioptrics, also to Dr Smith’s Optics. We shall
begin with the aberration of colour.
Let white or compounded light fall perpendicularly on
the flat side PQ.
(fig. l)ofapla- -Fig-
no-convex lens
PVQ, whose
axis is CV and
vertex V. The
white ray pV
falling on the '
extremity of c
the lens is dis¬
persed by re- ? —
fraction at the
point P of the
spherical sur¬
face, and the
red ray goes to the point r of the axis, and the violet ray
to the point v. In like manner, the white ray is dis¬
persed by refraction at Q, the red ray going to r, and the
violet to v. I he red ray Pr crosses the violet ray Q,v in a
point D, and Qr crosses P« in a point E ; and the whole
light refracted and dispersed by the circumference whose
diameter is PQ, passes through the circular area, whose dia¬
meter is DE. Supposing that the lens is of such a form that
it would collect red rays, refracted by its whole surface in
the point r, and violet in the point v ; then it is evident
that the whole light which occupies the surface of the lens
will pass through this little circle, whose diameter is DE.
I herefore white light issuing from a point so distant that
the rays may be considered as parallel, will not be collected
1 Though this subject has already been partly discussed under the articles Achromatic Glasses and Optics it could not be viewed as
fully Illustrated w.thout a separate treatise ; and the editor gladly avails himself of the late Professor Robison’s article on the Telescope which
iorms one of the valuable series of contributions by him to the third edition of this work. Ule ieIescoPei wincn
TELESCOPE. 143
'Mx'ope. in another point or focus, but will be dispersed over the
surface of that little circle, which is therefore called the
circle of chromatic dispersion ; and the radiant point will be
represented by this circle. The neighbouring points are in
like manner represented by circles ; and these circles, en¬
croaching on and mixing with each other, must occasion
haziness or confusion, and render the picture indistinct.
This indistinctness will be greater in the proportion of the
number of circles which are in this manner mixed to¬
gether. This will be in the proportion of the room that is
for them ; that is, in proportion to the area of the circle, or
in the duplicate proportion of its diameter. Our first busi¬
ness therefore is to obtain measures of this diameter, and
to mark the connection between it and the aperture and
focal distance of the lens.
Let i be to r as the sine of incidence in glass to the sine
of refraction of the red rays; and let i be to v as the sine
of incidence to the sine of refraction of the violet rays.
Then we say, that when the aperture PQ is moderate,
v — r:v + r — 2i = DE : PQ, very nearly.
For let DE, which is evidently perpendicular to W, meet
the parallel incident rays in K and L and the radii of the
spherical surface in G and H. It is plain that GPK is
equal to the angle of incidence on the posterior or spherical
surface of the lens ; and GPr and GPtf are the angles of
the refraction of the red and the violet rays ; and that GK,
GD, and GE, are very nearly as the sines of those angles,
because the angles are supposed to be small. Therefore
DE : KD — V — r : r — i ; and, by doubling the conse¬
quents, DE : 2KD ■=: v — r : 2r — 2i. Also DE : 2KD
+ DE = v — r : 2r — 2i v — r — v — r : r + v — 2i.
But 2KD + DE is equal to KL or PQ. Therefore we
have DE : PQ — v — r \ r v — 2i. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. Sir Isaac Newton found, that in common glass
the sines of refraction of the red and violet rays were 77 and
78 where the sine of incidence was 50. Hence v — r is to
v r — 2i as 1 to 55 ; and the diameter of the smallest
circle of dispersion is j^th part of that of the lens.
2. In like manner may be determined the circle of disper¬
sion that will comprehend the rays of any particular colour
or set of colours. Thus all the orange and yellow will pass
through a circle whose diameter is ^^th of that of the
lens.
3. In different surfaces, or plano-convex lenses, the angles
of aberration rYv are as the breadth PQ directly, and as
the focal distance VF inversely; because any angle DPE
is as its subtense DE directly and radius DP inversely.
—We call VF the focal distance, because at this distance,
or at the point F, the light is most of all constipated. If
we examine the focal distance by holding the lens to the
sun, we judge it to be where the light is drawn into the
smallest spot.
When we reflect that a lens of 5^ inches in diameter has
a circle of dispersion °f an inch in diameter, we are
surprised that it produces any picture of an object that can
be distinguished. We should not expect greater distinct¬
ness from such a lens than would be produced in a camera
obscura without a lens, by simply admitting the light through
a hole of -^yth of an inch in diameter. This, we know,
would be very hazy and confused. But when we remark
the superior vivacity of the yellow and orange light in com¬
parison with the rest, we may believe that the effect pro¬
duced by the confusion of the other colours will be much
less sensible. But a stronger reason is, that the light is
much denser in the middle of the circle of dispersion, and is
exceedingly faint towards the margin. This, however, must
not be taken for granted ; and we must know distinctly the
manner in which the light of different colours is distributed
over the circle of chromatic dispersion, before we pretend
to pronounce on the immense difference between the indis¬
tinctness arising from colour and that arising from the sphe¬
rical figure. We think this the more necessary, seeing that Telescope,
the illustrious discoverer of the chromatic aberration has^
made a great mistake in the comparison, because he did
not consider the distribution of the light in the circle of
spherical dispersion. It is therefore proper to investigate
the chromatic distribution of the light, and we shall then
see that the superiority of the reflecting telescope is in¬
comparably less than Newton imagined it to be.
Therefore let EB (fig. 2) represent a plano-convex lens,
of which C is the cen¬
tre and O the axis.
Let us suppose it to
have no spherical aber¬
ration, but to collect
rays occupying its
whole surface to single
points in the axis. Let
a beam of white or
compounded light fall
perpendicularly on its
plane surface. The
rays will be so refract¬
ed by its curved sur¬
face, that the extreme
red rays will be col¬
lected at r, the ex¬
treme violet rays at w,
and those of interme¬
diate refrangibility at
intermediate points o,
y, g, b,p, v, of the line
no, which is nearly
^th of rC. The ex¬
treme red and violet
rays will cross each
other at A and D ;
and AD will be a sec¬
tion or diameter of the
circle of chromatic dis¬
persion, and will be
about ^yth of EB. We
may suppose wr to be
bisected in b, because
wb is to br very nearly in the ratio of equality (for rb : /’C
— bA. : cE = bA : cB — wb : wC). The line rw will be
a kind of prismatic spectrum, red from r to o, orange-co¬
loured from o to y, yellow from y to <7, green from g to b,
blue from b to p, purple from p to v, and violet from v to w.
The light in its compound state must be supposed uni¬
formly dense as it falls upon the lens ; and the same must
be said of the rays of any particular colour. Newton sup¬
poses also, that when a white ray, such as cE, is dispersed
into its component coloured rays by refraction at E, it is
uniformly spread over the angle DEA. This supposition
is indeed gratuitous ; but we have no argument to the con¬
trary, and may therefore consider it as just. The conse¬
quence is, that each point w, v, p, b, &c. of the spectrum is
not only equally luminous, but also illuminates uniformly
its corresponding portion of AD ; that is to say, the coat¬
ing (so to term it) of any particular colour, such as purple,
from the point p, is uniformly dense in every part of AD
on which it falls. In like manner, the colouring of yellow,
intercepted by a part of AD in its passage to the point y,
is uniformly dense in all its parts. But the density of the
different colours in AD is extremely different; for, since the
radiation in w is equally dense with that in p, the density of
the violet colouring, which radiates from w, and is spread
over the whole of AD, must be much less than the density of
the purple colouring, which radiates from p, and occupies
only a part of AD round the circle b. These densities must
be very nearly in the inverse proportion of wbi1 to pU1.
Fig. 2.
144
TELESCOPE.
Telescope. Hence we see that the central point b will be very in-
tensely illuminated by the blue radiating from and the
green intercepted from bg. It will be more faintly illumi¬
nated by the purple radiating from vp, and the yellow in¬
tercepted from gy ; and still more faintly by the violet from
wvy and the orange and red intercepted from yr. The whole
colouring will be a white, tending a little to yellowness.
The accurate proportion of these colourings may be com¬
puted from our knowledge of the position of the points o,
y, g, &c. But this is of little moment. It is of more con¬
sequence to be able to determine the proportion of the
total intensity of the light in b to its intensity in any other
point I.
For this purpose draw rlR, IwW, meeting the lens in
R and W. The point I receives none of the light which
passes through the space RW ; for it is evident that
bl : CR = bA : CE = 1 : 55, and that CR = CW; and
therefore, since all the light incident on EB passes through
AD, all the light incident on RW passes through li (bi be¬
ing made = 51). Draw oIO, ylY, <?IG, IjoP, I»V. It is
plain that I receives red light from RO, orange from OY,
yellow from YG, green from GE, a little blue from BP,
purple from PY, and violet from VW. It therefore wants
some of the green and of the blue.
That we may judge of the intensity of these colours at I,
suppose the lens covered with paper pierced with a small
hole at G. The green light only will pass through I; the
other colours will pass between I and b, or between I and
A, according as they are more or less refrangible than the
particular green at I. This particular colour converges to
g, and therefore will illuminate a small spot round I, where
it will be as much denser than it is at G as this spot is
smaller than the hole at G. The natural density at G,
therefore, will be to the increased density at I, as gll to
#G2, or as gl? to ^C2, or as 5P to CG2. In like manner,
the natural density of the purple coming to I through an
equal hole at P will be to the increased density at I as bl~
to CP2. And thus it appears, that the intensity of the dif¬
ferently coloured illuminations of any point of the circle of
dispersion, is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the centre of the lens to the point of its sur¬
face through which the colouring light comes to this point
of the circle of dispersion. This circumstance will give us
a very easy, and, we think, an elegant solution of the
question.
Bisect CE in F, and draw FL perpendicular to CE,
making it equal to CF. Through the point L describe the
hyperbola KLN of the second order, that is, having the
ordinates EK, FL, RN, &c. inversely proportional to the
squares of the abscissae CE, CF, CR, &c.; so that FL : RN
= Qp2: > or = dP : CF2, &c. It is evident that
these ordinates are proportional to the densities of the se¬
verally coloured lights which go from them to any points
whatever of the circle of dispersion.
Now the total density of the light at I depends both on
the density of each particular colour and on the number of
colours which fall on it. The ordinates-of this hyperbola
determine the first; and the space ER measures the num¬
ber of colours which fall on I, because it receives light from
the whole of ER, and of its equal B W. Therefore, if or¬
dinates be drawn from any point of ER, their sum will be
as the whole light which goes to I; that is, the total den¬
sity of the light at I will be proportional to the area NREK.
Now it is known that CE • EK is equal to the infinitely ex¬
tended area lying beyond EK; and CR • RN is equal to the
infinitely extended area lying beyond RN. Therefore the
area NREK is equal to CR • RN — CE • EK. But RN
CF3 CF3
and EK are respectively equal to-—— and r-.
CR2 CE2
Therefore
the density at I is proportional to CF3 •
= CF3'(cr—ce) = CF3 *
CE—CR ER
CE-CR CE-CR
CF3 ER
CE ’ CR'
CF3 CF3
But because CF is \ of CE, — is = --—-
i Cr
CF2
— —a constant quantity. Therefore the density of the
, T- ER AI L .
light at I is proportional to or to —, because the points
R and I are similarly situated in EC and Ab.
Farther, if the semi-aperture CE of the lens be called 1,
CF2
AI
and the density at I is =:
8 51
Here it is proper to observe, that since the point R has
the same situation in the diameter EB that the point I has in
the diameter AD of the circle of dispersion, the circle de¬
scribed on EB may be conceived as the magnified repre¬
sentation of the circle of dispersion. The point F, for in¬
stance, represents the point f in the circle of dispersion,
which bisects the radius 5A; and f receives no light from
any part of the lens which is nearer the centre than F,
being illuminated only by the light which comes through
EF, and its opposite BF'. The same may be said of every
other point.
In like manner, the density of the light in f, the middle
between 5 and A, is measured by which is = ^?,orl.
Cr Er
This makes the density at this point a proper standard of
comparison. The density there is to the density at I as 1
AI
to > or as 1° AI» an(I this is the simplest mode of
comparison. The density half way from the centre of the
circle of dispersion, is to the density at any point I as 51
to AI.
Lastly, through L describe the common rectangular hy¬
perbola 5L», meeting the ordinates of the former in 5, L,
and n ; and draw kh parallel to EC, cutting the ordinates
in g,f r, &c. Then CR : CE =: E5 : lin, and CR : CE —
CR = E/i: Rw—E5, or CR : RE = E5 : rn, and 51 : IA —
E5 : rn. And thus we have a very simple expression of
the density in any point of the circle of dispersion. Let
the point be anywhere, as at I. Divide the lens in R as
AD is divided in I, and then rn is as the density in I.
These two measures were given by Newton ; the first
in his treatise de Mundi Systemate, and the last in his
Optics, but both without demonstration.
If the hyperbola kLn be made to revolve round the axis
CQ, it will generate a solid spindle, which will measure
the whole quantity of light which passes through different
portions of the circle of dispersion. Thus the solid pro¬
duced by the revolution of hkf will measure all the light
which occupies the outer part of the circle of dispersion
lying without the middle of the radius. This space is fths
of the whole circle; but the quantity of light is but £th of
the whole.
A fully more simple expression of the whole quantity of
light passing through different portions of the circle of chro¬
matic dispersion may now be obtained as follows:
It has been demonstrated, that the density of the light
, T . AI ER „
at 1 is as or as buppose the figure to turn round
the axis : the points I and R describe circumferences of cir¬
cles ; and the whole light passing through this circumference
is as the circumference, or as the radius and as the density
TELESCOPE.
145
cope.
jointly.
It is therefore as
ER
Cli
CR, that is, as ER. Draw
any straight line Em, cutting RN in s, and any other ordi¬
nate FL in a;Rs. The whole light which illuminates the
circumference described by I is to the whole light which
illuminates the centre b as ER to EC, or as Rs to Cm. In
like manner, the whole light which illuminates the circum¬
ference described by the point/in the circle of dispersion,
is to the whole light which illuminates the centre b as Fa:
to Cm. The lines Cm, Rs, Fa?, are therefore proportional
to the whole light which illuminates the corresponding cir¬
cumferences in the circle of dispersion. Therefore the
whole light which falls on the circle whose radius is M,
will be represented by the trapezium in CRs; and the
w'hole light which falls on the ring described by IA, will
be represented by the triangle EsR; and so of any other
portions.
By considering the figure, we see that the distribution of
the light is exceedingly unequal. Round the margin it has
no sensible density; while its density in the very centre is
incomparably greater than in any other point, being ex¬
pressed by the asymptote of a hyperbola. Also the circle
described with the radius
Ab
2
contains |ths of the whole
light. No wonder, then, that the confusion caused by the
mixture of these circles of dispersion is less than one should
expect; besides, it is evident that the most lively or im¬
pressive colours occupy the middle of the spectrum, and
are there much denser than the rest. The margin is
covered with an illumination of deep red and violet, neither
of which colours is brilliant. The margin will be of a
dark claret colour. The centre revives all the colours, but
in a proportion of intensity greatly different from that in
the common prismatic spectrum, because the radiant points
L, p, b, g, &c. by which it is illuminated, are at such dif¬
ferent distances from it. It will be white; but, we appre¬
hend, not a pure white, being greatly overcharged with the
middle colours.
These considerations show that the coloured fringes
which are observed to border very luminous objects seen
on a dark ground through optical instruments, do not pro¬
ceed from the object-glass of a telescope or microscope, but
from an improper construction of the eye-glasses. The
chromatic dispersions would produce fringes of a different
colour when they produce any at all, and the colours would
be differently disposed. But this dispersion by the object-
glass can hardly produce any fringes: its effect is a general
and almost uniform mixture of circles all over the field,
which produces an uniform haziness, as if the object were
viewed at an improper distance, or out of its focus, as we
vulgarly express it.
We may at present form a good guess at the limit w hich
this cause puts to the performance of a telescope. A point
of a very distant object is represented, in the picture formed
by the object-glass, by a little circle, whose diameter is at
least yjjoth of the aperture of the object-glass, making a
very full allowance for the superior brilliancy and density
of the central light. We look at this picture with a mag¬
nifying eye-glass. This magnifies the picture of the point.
If it amplify it to such a degree as to make it an object in¬
dividually distinguishable, the confusion is then sensible.
Now this can be computed. An object subtending one
minute of a degree is distinguished by the dullest eye, even
although it be a dark object on a bright ground. Let us
therefore suppose a telescope, the object-glass of which is
of six feet focal distance, and one inch aperture. The dia¬
meter of the circle of chromatic dispersion will be ^^th of
an inch, which subtends at the centre of the object-glass
an angle of about nine seconds and a half. This, when
magnified six times by an eye-glass, would become a dis-
VOL. XXI.
tinguishable object; and a telescope of this length would Telescope,
be indistinct if it magnified more than six times, if a point
were thus spread out into a spot of uniform intensity. But
the spot is much less intense about its margin. It is found
experimentally that a piece of engraving, having fine cross
hatches, is not sensibly indistinct till brought so far from
the limits of perfectly distinct vision, that this indistinctness
amounts to 6' or 5' in breadth. Therefore such a telescope
wall be sensibly distinct when it magnifies thirty-six times ;
and this is very agreeable to experience.
We come, in the second place, to the more arduous task
of ascertaining the error arising from the spherical figure
of the surfaces employed in optical instruments. Suffice it
to say, before we begin, that although geometers have ex¬
hibited other forms of lenses which are totally exempt from
this error, they cannot be executed by the artist; and we
are therefore restricted to the employment of spherical
surfaces. We shall set out w ith Dr Smith’s fundamental
theorem.
1. In Reflections.
Let AVB (fig 3) be a concave spherical mirror, of w hich
C is the centre, V the vertex,
CV the axis, and F the focus of Fig. 3.
an infinitely slender pencil of
parallel rays passing through the
centre. Let the ray a A, paral¬
lel to the axis, be reflected in
AG, crossing the central ray CV
in f. Let AP be the sine of
the semi-aperture AV, AD its
tangent, and CD its secant.
The aberration F/ from the principal focus of central
rays is equal to ^ VD, the excess of the secant above the
radius, or very nearly equal to ^ of VP, the versed sine of
the semi-aperture.
For, because AD is perpendicular to CA, the points C,
A, D, are in a circle, of which CD is the diameter ; and be¬
cause Af is equal to C/, by reason of the equality of the
angles /AC, /CA, and CAo, / is the centre of the circle
through C, A, D, and/D is = | CD. But FC is ^ CV.
Therefore I/is ^ of VD.
But because DV : VP = DC : VC, and DC is very little
greater than VC when the aperture AB is moderate, DV is
very little greater than VP, and F/is very nearly equal to
4 of VP.
AV2
Cor. 1. The longitudinal aberration 1/ is — fi')r
AV2
PV is very nearly =:
AV3
Cor. 2. The lateral aberration FG is =
2CW
For
FG : F/ = AP : Yf — AV : ^ CV nearly, and therefore
_ AV3 2 _ AV3
1 ^ - 4CV ’ CV “2CV2*
2. In Refractions.
Let AVB (fig. 4 or 5) be a spherical surface separating
Fig. 4.
It
T
TELESCOPE.
Fig. 5.
two refracting substances, C the centre, V the vertex, AV
the semi-aperture, AP its sine, PV its versed sine, and F
the focus of parallel rays infinitely near to the axis. Let
the extreme ray a A., parallel to the axis, be refracted into
AG, crossing CF in f, which is therefore the focus of ex¬
treme parallel rays.
The rectangle of the sine of incidence, hy the difference of
the sines of incidence and rfraction, is to the square of the
sine of refraction, as the versed sine of the semi-aperture is
to the longitudinal aberration of the extreme rays.
Call the sine of incidence i, the sine of refraction r, and
their difference d.
Join CA, and about the centre f describe the arch AD.
The angle ACV is equal to the angle of incidence, and
CA/is the angle of refraction. Then, since the sine of in¬
cidence is to the sine of refraction as VF to CF, or as Af
to Cf, that is, as D/' to Of, we have
CF : FV = Cf: /D,
by conversion CF : CV = Cf: CD,
altern. conver. CF —C/: CV —CD= CF : CV
or F/: VD = CF : CV = r : d.
Now PV= _APL = ^ nearly, and PD AI>2
CP+CV ~ 2CV
nearly, = nearly.
-
“ 2/V  •7’ - 2FV
= FV : CV, and DV : PV = CF :
We had above F/’ : VD — r : d,
and now VD : PV = CF : FV =
therefore F/ : PV =: r2 : eft,
/P+/V
Therefore PV : PD
FV nearly.
PV. Q. E. D.
The aberration will be different according as the refrac¬
tion is made towards or from the perpendicular; that is,
according as r is less or greater than i. They are in the
ratio of -rr to -7-, or of r3 to P.
di dr
The aberration therefore
is always much diminished when the refraction is made
from a rare into a dense medium. The proportion of the
sines for air and glass is nearly that of 3 to 2. When the
light is refracted into the glass, the aberration is nearly
of PV; and when the light passes out of glass into air, it is
about § of P V.
Cor. 1. If =
di
AP2
nearly, and it is also =
2CV
AP2 AP2
* 'Spy’ ^ecause PV — 2CY nearly> anc^ *: ^ — PV: CV
Cor. 2. Because /P : PA = Ff: FG
or FV: AV = Ff: FG nearly,
we have FG, the lateral aberration, = Ff X
rz AV3 _ r2 AV3
(P‘ *
AV
FV
2FV2
2CV2*
Cor. 3. Because the angle FA/ is proportional to
very nearly, we have the angular aberration
x AV3 _ r2 . AV2
* 2FV3 ~ P * 2CV3’
FG
FV
FA/ = ^
In general, the longitudinal aberrations from the focus of Telesiop{
central parallel rays are as the squares of the apertures di- N—^ 1
rectly, and as the focal distances inversely; and the lateral
aberrations are as the cubes of the apertures directly, and
the squares of the focal distances inversely ; and the angu¬
lar aberrations are as the cubes of the aperture directly,
and the cubes of the focal distances inversely.
The reader must have observed, that to simplify the in¬
vestigation, some small errors are admitted. PV and PD
are not in the exact proportion that we assumed them, nor
is D/equal to FV. But in the small apertures which suf¬
fice for optical instruments, these errors may be disre¬
garded.
This spherical aberration produces an indistinctness of
vision, in the same manner as the chromatic aberration
does, viz. by spreading out every mathematical point of the
object into a little spot in its picture; which spots, by
mixing with each other, confuse the whole. We must now
determine the diameter of the circle of diffusion, as we did
in the case of chromatic dispersion.
Let a ray (3a (fig. 6) be refracted on the other side of
Fig. 6.
the axis, into aHp, cutting afG in H, and draw the perpen¬
dicular EH. Put AV = a, aV — a, Vf (or VF or V<p,
which in this comparison may be taken as equal) — f
Ff — b, and fF — x.
AV2 : aV2 = Ff:F<p (already demonstrated), and Fp
= and F/-
■ F<p (orf<p) = b-
b =
a2b — a9b
(a2— a2) = —(af-a) (a — a). Also iy:PA=/E:EH,
„ ux T^TT
or/: a — x:~ — EH.
And Pt : Pp
ax
1
-p- : — = Ep. Therefore fp = — +
EH : Fp or a :f
ax + ax
— (a -j- a). Therefore-
(a + a) = — (a + a) (a—a),
t), and x — —a(a — a). Therefore x
j x b /
and - — -—(a.
a a1
is greatest when a (a—a) is greatest; that is, when az=.^a.
Therefore EH is greatest when Per is equal to the half of
AP. When this is the case, we have at the same time
l> b
— • a(a — a) — — • 1 a2, and x = ^ b, or EH = \ FG.
1 hat is, the diameter of the circle of aberration through
which the whole of the refracted light must pass, is { of the
diameter of the circle of aberration at the focus of parallel
central rays. In the chromatic aberration it was ^; so that
in this respect the spherical aberration does not create so
great confusion as the chromatic.
We are now able to compare them, since we have the
measure of both the circles of aberration.
It has not been found possible to give more than four
inches of aperture to an object-glass of 100 feet focal dis¬
tance, so as to preserve sufficient distinctness. If we com¬
pute the diameter of the circle EH corresponding to this
TELESCOPE.
147
Ttytcope^ aperture) we s]ian £n{] it not much to exceed JatfoGO
inch. If we restrict the circle of chromatic dispersion to
of the aperture, which is hardly the fifth part of the
of an
5TT)
whole dispersion in it, it is of an inch, and is about 1900
times greater than the other.
The circle of spherical aberration of a plano-convex lens,
with the plane side next the distant object, is equal to the
circle of chromatic dispersion when the semi-aperture is
about 15°; for we saw formerly that EH is \ of FG, and
7'^ A A P^
that FG is = 75 an^ therefore EG — — • ■, , This
8AC2
ap=y
’8AAC2
55rs
, which is
T2 2AC2’
AP
being made = gives us
AC
nearly —and corresponds to an aperture of 30° diameter,
if r be to i as 3 to 2.
Sir Isaac Newton was therefore well entitled to say, that
it was quite needless to attempt figures which should have
less aberration than spherical ones, while the confusion pro¬
duced by the chromatic dispersion remained uncorrected.
Since the indistinctness is as the squares of the diameters
of the circles of aberration, the disproportion is quite beyond
our imagination, even when Newton has made such a liberal
allowance to the chromatic dispersion. But it must be ac¬
knowledged, that he has not attended to the distribution of
the light in the circle of spherical aberration, and has has¬
tily supposed it to be like the distribution of the coloured
light, indefinitely rare in the margin, and denser in the
centre.
Boscovich has shown that the light in the margin of the
circle of spherical aberration, instead of being incompara¬
bly rarer than in the spaces between it and the centre, is
incomparably denser. The indistinctness therefore pro¬
duced by the intersection of these luminous circumferences
is vastly great, and increases the whole indistinctness ex¬
ceedingly. By a gross calculation which we made, it ap¬
pears to be increased at least 500 times. The proportional
indistinctness, therefore, instead of being 19002 to 1, is only
19002
-, or nearly 7220 to 1; a proportion still sufficiently
great to warrant Newton’s preference of the reflecting tele¬
scope of his invention. And we may now observe, that the
reflecting telescope has even a great advantage over a re¬
fracting one of the same focal distance, with respect to its
spherical aberration: For we have seen (Cor. 2) that the
. . r2 A Vs
lateral aberration is — This for a plano-convex glass
. 9 AV3
is nearly j
4 2CV2’
and the diameter of the circle of aber-
9 AV3
ration is one fourth of this, or J(j * ~2("V2 ‘ manner>
AY3
2CV2
; and the
the lateral aberration of a concave mirror is
diameter of the circle of dispersion is and therefore,
if the surfaces were portions of the same sphere, the diame¬
ter of the circle of aberration of refracted rays would be to
that of the circle of aberration of reflected rays as -fy to
or as 9 to 4. But when the refracting and reflecting sur¬
faces, in the position here considered, have the same focal
distance, the radius of the refracting surface is four times
that of the reflecting surface. The proportion of the dia¬
meters of the circles of spherical aberration is that of 9 x 42
to 4, or of 144 to 4, or 36 to I. The distinctness therefore
of the reflector is 36 X 36, or 1296 times greater than that Telescope,
of a plano-convex lens (placed with the plane side next the
distant object) of the same breadth and focal distance, and
will therefore admit of a much greater magnifying power.
This comparison is indeed made in circumstances most
favourable to the reflector, because this is the very worst
position of a plano-convex lens. But we have not as yet
learned the aberration in any other position. In another
position the refraction and consequent aberration of both
surfaces are complicated.
Before we proceed to the consideration of this very dif¬
ficult subject, we may deduce, from what has been already
demonstrated, several general rules and maxims iri the con¬
struction of telescopes, which will explain (to such readers
as do not wish to enter more deeply into the subject) and
justify the proportion which long practice of the best artists
has sanctioned.
Indistinctness proceeds from the commixture of the cir¬
cles of aberration on the retina of the eye: for any one
sensible point of the retina, being the centre of a circle of
aberration, will at once be affected by the admixture of the
rays of as many different pencils of light as there are sen¬
sible points in the area of that circle, and will convey to the
mind a mixed sensation of as many visible points of the
object. This number will be as the area of the circle of
aberrations, whatever be the size of a sensible point of the
retina. Now in vision with telescopes the diameter of the
circje of aberration on the retina is as the apparent magni¬
tude of the diameter of the corresponding circle in the focus
of the eye-glass; that is, as the angle subtended by this
diameter at the centre of the eye-glass; that is, as the dia¬
meter itself directly, and as the focal distance of the eye¬
glass inversely. And the area of that circle on the retina
is as the area of the circle on the focus of the eye-glass
directly, and as the square of the focal distance of the eye¬
glass inversely. And this is the measure of the apparent
indistinctness.
Cor. In all sorts of telescopes, and also in compound
microscopes, an object is seen equally distinct when the
focal distances of the eye-glasses are proportional to the
diameters of the circles of aberration in the focus of the
object-glass.
Here we do not consider the trifling alteration which well-
constructed eye-glasses may add to the indistinctness of the
first image.
In refracting telescopes, the apparent indistinctness is as
the area of the object-glass directly, and as the square of
the focal distance of the eye-glass inversely. For it has
been shown, that the area of the circle of dispersion is as
the area of the object-glass, and that the spherical aberra¬
tion is insignificant when compared with this.
Therefore, to make reflecting telescopes equally distinct,
the diameter of the object-glass must be proportional to the
focal distance of the eye-glass.
But in reflecting telescopes, the indistinctness is as the
sixth power of the aperture of the object-glass directly, and
as the fourth power of the focal distance of the object-glass
and square of the focal distance of the eye-glass inversely.
This is evident from the dimensions of the circle of aberra-
AV3
tion, which was found proportional to
Therefore, to have them equally distinct, the cubes of the
apertures must be proportional to the squares of the focal
distance multiplied by the focal distance of the eye-glass.
By these rules, and a standard telescope of approved
goodness, an artist can always proportion the parts of any
instrument he wishes to construct. Huyghens made one,
of which the object-glass had 30 feet focal distance, and
three inches diameter; the eye-glass had 3*3 inches focal
distance; and its performance was found superior to any
which he had seen. Nor did this appear owing to any
Fig. 7.
148
TELESCOPE.
Telescope, chance goodness of the object-glass, because he found others
equally good which were constructed on similar proportions.
This has therefore been adopted as a standard.
It does not at first appear how there can be any difficulty
in this matter, because we can always diminish the aperture
of the object-glass or speculum, till the circle of aberra¬
tion is as small as we please. But by diminishing this aper¬
ture, we diminish the light in the duplicate ratio of the
aperture. Whatever be the aperture, the brightness is
diminished by the magnifying power, which spreads the
light over a greater surface in the bottom of the eye. The
apparent brightness must be as the square of the aperture
of the telescope directly, and the square of the amplifica¬
tion of the diameter of an object inversely. Objects there¬
fore will be seen equally bright if the apertures of the tele¬
scopes be as the focal distances of the object-glasses di¬
rectly, and the focal distances of the single eye-glass (or
eye-glass equivalent to the eye-piece) inversely. There¬
fore, to have telescopes equally distinct and equally bright,
we must combine these proportions with the former. It is
needless to go farther into this subject, because the con¬
struction of refracting telescopes has been so materially
changed by the correction of the chromatic aberration, that
there can hardly be given any proportion between the ob¬
ject-glass and eye-glasses. Every thing now depends on
the degree in which we can correct the aberrations of the
object-glass. We have been able so far to diminish the
chromatic aberration, that we can give very great apertures
without its becoming sensible. But this is attended with
so great an increase of the aberration of figure, that this
last becomes a sensible quality. A lens which has 30° for
its semi-aperture, has a circle of aberration equal to its
chromatic aberration. Fortunately we can derive from the
very method of contrary refractions, which we employ for
removing the chromatic aberrations, a correction of the
other. For this contrivance we are also indebted to the
illustrious Newton.
We call this Newton’s contrivance, because he was the
first who proposed a construction of an object-glass in which
the aberration was corrected by the contrary aberrations of
glass and water.
Huyghens had indeed supposed, that our all-wise Crea¬
tor had employed in the eyes of animals many refractions
in place of one, in order to make the vision more distinct;
and the invidious detractors from Newton’s fame have
catched at this vague conjecture as an indication of his
knowledge of the possibility of destroying the aberration of
figure by contrary refractions. But this is very ill found¬
ed. Huyghens has acquired sufficient reputation by his
theory of aberrations. The scope of his writing in the
passage alluded to, is to show that, by dividing any intend¬
ed refraction into parts, and producing a certain conver¬
gence to or divergence from the axis of an optical instru¬
ment, by means of twm or three lenses instead of one, we
diminish the aberrations four or nine times. This conjec¬
ture about the eye was therefore in the natural train of his
thoughts. But he did not think of destroying the aberra¬
tion altogether by opposite refractions. Newton, in 1669,
says that opticians need not trouble themselves about giv-
ing figures to their glasses other than spherical. If this
figure were all the obstacle to the improvement of tele¬
scopes, he could show them a construction of an object-
glass having spherical surfaces where the aberration is de¬
stroyed ; and accordingly he gives the construction of one
composed of glass and water, in which this is done com¬
pletely by means of contrary refractions.
The general principle is this. When the radiant point
^ (fig* ^)> or focus of incident rays, and its conjugate focus
h of refracted central rays, are on opposite sides of the re¬
tracting surface or lens V, the conjugate focus /'of marginal
rays is nearer to R than F is. But when the focus of in-
R
cident rays R' lies on the same side with its conjugate fo¬
cus F' for central rays, R'f is greater than R' F\
Fig. 8.
Now fig. 8 represents the contrivance for destroying the
colour produced at F, the principal focus of the convex
lens V, of crown glass, by means of the contrary refraction
of the concave lens v of flint glass. The incident parallel
rays are made to converge to F by the first lens. This
convergence is diminished, but not entirely destroyed, by
the concave lens v, and the focus is formed in F’. F and
F' therefore are conjugate foci of the concave lens. If F
be the focus of V for central rays, the marginal rays will be
collected at some point/ nearer to the lens. If F be now
considered as the focus of light incident on the centre of r,
and F' be the conjugate focus, the marginal ray p F' w ould
be refracted to some point f' lying beyond F'. Therefore
the marginal ray pf may be refracted to F, if the aberra¬
tion of the concave be properly adjusted to that of the con¬
vex.
This brings us to the most difficult part of our subject,
the compounded aberrations of different surfaces. Our limits
will not admit of our treating this in the same elemen¬
tary and perspicuous manner that we employed for a single
surface. We must try to do it in a compendious way,
which will admit at once the different surfaces, and the dif¬
ferent refractive powers of different substances. This must
naturally render the process more complicated; but we hope
to treat the subject in a way easily comprehended bv any
person moderately acquainted with common algebra. *
Lemma 1. In the right-angled triangle MXS (fig. 9), of
Fig. 9.
which one side MX is very small in comparison of either of
the others, the excess of the hypothenuse MS above the
side XS is very nearly equal to or to For if
about the centre S, with the radius SM, we describe the
semicircle AMO, we have AX * XO = MX2. Now AX
— MS — SX, and XO is nearly equal to 2MS or 2XS ; on
the other hand, MS is nearly equal to XS +
MX2
2XS
; and in
like manner MG is nearly equal to -f XG, and MH is
/CA.VJT
nearly equal to + XH.
Prop. I. Let the ray mM, incident on the spherical sur¬
face AM, converge to G ; that is, let G be the focus of in-
cident rays. It is required to find the focus H of refract-
ed rays.
Let m express the ratio of the sine of incidence and re-
fi action ; that is, let m be to 1 as the sine of incidence to
the sine of refraction in the substance of the sphere.
TELESCOPE.
Te^cope. Then MG : GS = sin. MSH : sin. SMG,
and rn ‘ \ — sin. SMG : sin. SMH;
therefore m • MG : GS = sin. MSH : sin. SMH.
Now S, MSH : S, SMH = MH : HS. Therefore, finally,
m- MG : GS = MH : HS.
Now, let MS, the radius of the refracting surface, be
called a. Let AG, the distance of the focus of incident
rays from the surface, be called r. And let AH, the focal
distance of refracted rays, be called x. Lastly, let the sine
MX of the semi-aperture be called e. Observe, too, that
a, r, x, are to be considered as positive quantities, when
AS, AG, AH, lie from the surface in the direction in which
the light is supposed to move. If therefore the refracting
surface be concave, that is, having the centre on that side
from which the light comes ; or if the incident rays are di¬
vergent, or the refracted rays are divergent; then a, r, x,
are negative quantities.
It is plain that HS = a? — a; GS = r — a; also AX
kf?" JlfP'
+ 2^ - 2^’ 0r The anal°gy now be
149
Telescope.
h?
2 m
mke2
: ark. Hence we ob¬
tain the linear equation mrx
mkeix
mkae2
mra -}  —
zr arkx ■
ark? e
2m
; from which we finally deduce
mra — ^ make2 ■
ark?e%
2m
mr — ark — A mke
=snear!y-
HX — x — —.
2a
GX:
• jr—• Now add
2a
to HX and to GH their differences from MH and MG,
We get MH — x
which (by the Lemmaj are —and
2x
2r
pi pi p
~fc + 2i’a"dMG = '-2
1
In order to shorten
+ 27'
This will make MG = r
We may simplify this greatly by attending to the ele-
oc I dx
mentary theorem in fluxions, that the fraction —r dh-
y + dy
fers from the fraction - by the quantity
y y
, . „ . rX rr.1 n X + dx X lldx + xdy
being the fluxion of -. Therefore —■—— =z —I-   ^—-.
y y + dyy y2
Now the preceding formula is nearly in this situation. It
may be written thus:
/, 7 „ ark-e2\
mra— ( imake1 4-   }
\“ 2m J
mr — ark — mke1
_. Here the last terms of the nu-
our notation, make k —
U '/*
ke2,
~T‘
Now substitute these values in the analogy MH: HS
mefator and denominator are very small in comparison with
the first, and may be considered as the dx and dy, while
mra is the x, and mr — ark is the y. Treating it in this
way, it may be stated thus:
= m • MG : GS; it becomes x-
e2 e2
2a 2x
ak
a — mr
’, and ark = r
 : r — a (or ark), because k —   
2 K J ar
— a. Now multiply the extreme and mean terms of this
analogy. It is evident that it must give us an equation
which will give us a value of x or AH, the quantity sought.
But this equation is quadratic. We may avoid the so¬
lution by an approximation which is sufficiently accurate,
e2
by substituting for x in the fraction (which is very small
in all cases of optical instruments) an approximate value very
easily obtained, and very near the truth. This is the focal
distance of an infinitely slender pencil of rays converging
to G. This we know by the common optical theorem to
amr
be/ ,-r . Let this be called © ; if we substi-
\m—1) r z±z a r
nm
tute k in place of- , this value of <p becomes —
{mra) mk — (mr — ark) Imka -j — J
r2 (m — ak)2
ie2.
The first term
■ak
is evidently ~ <p, the focal dis¬
tance of an infinitely slender pencil. Therefore the aber¬
ration is expressed by the second term, which we must en¬
deavour to simplify.
Now the numerator of the small fraction, by multiplica¬
tion, may be expressed thus:
2 2 (r^
m2a~ { 
\ m
r1!? rWX
+ ZT -e2.
m~a ' mz) 2
The denominator was r-2 (m — ah)2, and the fraction now
k2 k2 . k?'
m — ati
This gives us, by the by, an easily-remembered expression
(and beautifully simple) of the refracted focus of an infi¬
nitely slender pencil, corresponding to any distance r of
the radiant point. For since p zz
JKIZ(XZ / ft/* \
becomes ; ^ ( — 4   ) ke9-, which is evident-
{m — aky \mr nr a 1 my 1
(k- k2 k3\ e"
 2~ + —5) n* recollect that k —
mr m~a ndj 2
i_i Thereforei!_i:/I_L_il_
a r' m~ m2\a r) rrda i
/f2   fci
fore, instead of — —r-, write —r-
m1
1
- must be
©
m — ah’
We may even ex
There-
■ -5-, and we get the
rn^r 0
mk?
__ m — ak _ m ak 1 k
am am am a m
press it more simply, by expanding k, and it becomes
1 __ 1___1 1
<p a ma mr
Now put this value of ^ in place of - in the analogy em¬
ployed above. The first term of the analogy becomes
r z / k3 k3 k2 k2 \ e2 / k3 m¥
fraction <p~ ( —^ 5   -4 )-z=©2[— — —
r \ m3 m2 m2r ‘ mr J 2 ^ \m3 m3
mk2 m2k2\e2 l—m/ mk2\e2
- ^ j 2’which is eiiuai tor— y -—y,
and finally to — ^ f/fi — e--.
r nr \ r ) 2
Therefore the focal distance of refracted rays is
x = p — p-
a3'
mk2\ e2
~) 2'
This consists of two parts. The first, p, is the focal dis-
150
TELESCOPE.
Telescope, tance of an infinitely slender pencil of central rays, and the
m— 1 mk1\et
r
other, — p2
- (k*-
is the aberration arising
m.'1 \ r J 2’
from the spherical figure of the refracting surface.
Thus our formula has at last assumed a very simple form,
and is vastly preferable to Dr Smith’s for practice.
This aberration is evidently proportional to the square
of the semi-aperture, and to the square of the distance <p;
but in order to obtain this simplicity, several quantities
were neglected. The assumption of the equality of AX to
($■
— is the first source of error. A much more accurate
2a
value of it would have been .--0 —-, for it is really
4a2 + e2 J
— "Tv' If f°r AX we substitute its approximated value
2a ■
■, we should have AX —
2a —
2ae2‘
e2 4a2 — 2
2a
To have
used this value would not much have complicated the cal¬
culus ; but it did not occur to us till we had finished the
investigation, and it would have required the whole to be
changed. The operation in page 149, col. 2, par. 1, is an¬
other source of error. But these errors are very inconsi¬
derable when the aperture is moderate. They increase for
the most part with an increase of aperture, but not in the
proportion of any regular function of it; so that we cannot
improve the formula by any manageable process, and must
be contented with it. The errors are precisely the same
with those of Dr Smith’s theorem, and indeed with those
of any that we have seen, which are not vastly more com¬
plicated.
As this is to be frequently combined with subsequent
operations, we shorten the expression by putting to for
 yj~2' Then <fQ will express the aberra¬
tion of the first refraction from the focal distance of an in¬
finitely slender pencil; and now the focal distance of re¬
fracted rays is/— <p — ft to.
If the incident rays are parallel, r becomes infinite, and
m — 1
mz
m— 1
via
y— 1
P —
k 2'
, and y
But in this case k becomes = and
r
and ftto becomes
1
e~
Xl-:=
O — i)2
This is the aber-
(2w —■ 1) md
ration of extreme parallel rays.
We must now add the refraction of another surface.
Lemma 2. If the focal distance AG be changed by a
small quantity G#, the focal distance AH will also be chang¬
ed by a small quantity HA, and we shall have
^ * AG2: AH2 — Gg : HA.
Draw M<7, MA, and the perpendiculars Gi, HA. Then, be¬
cause the sines of the angles of incidence are in a constant
ratio to the sines of the angles of refraction, and the incre¬
ments of these small angles are proportional to the incre¬
ments of the sines, these increments of the angles are in the
same constant ratio. Therefore
we have the angle Gl% to HMA as m to 1.
Now Gg: G* = AG: AM,
and Gf : AA — m • AG : HA,
and AA : HA = MA : AH ;
therefore Gg : HA = m • AG2: AH2.
The easiest and most perspicuous method for obtaining
the aberration of rays twice refracted, will be to consider
the first refraction as not having any aberration, and deter¬
mine the aberration of the second refraction. Then con¬
ceive the focus of the first refraction as shifted by the aber- Telescop,
ration. This will produce a change in the focal distance
of the second refraction, which may be determined by this
Lemma.
Prop. II. Let AM, BN (fig. 10) be two spherical sur-
Fig. 10.
faces, including a refracting substance, and having their
centres C and c in the line AG. Let the ray «A pass
through the centres, which it will do without refraction.
Let another ray mM, tending to G, be refracted by the first
surface into MH, cutting the second surface in N, where it
is farther refracted into Nl. It is required to determine
the focal distance BI.
It is plain that the sine of incidence on the second sur¬
face is to the sine of refraction into the surrounding air as
1 to m. Also BI may be determined in relation to BH,
by means of BH, Na?, Be, and -L in the same wav that
7n
AH was determined in relation to AG, by means of AG,
MX, AC, and in.
Let the radius of the second surface be b, and let e still
express the semi-aperture (because it hardly differs from
Na’). Also let a be the thickness of the lens. Then ob¬
serve, that the focal distance of the rays refracted by the
first surface (neglecting the thickness of the lens and the
aberration of the first surface), is the distance of the radiant
point for the second refraction, or is the focal distance of
rays incident on the second surface. In place of r there¬
fore we must take a; and as we made A = - — -, in order
a r
to abbreviate the calculus, let us now make / = ; and
b <p
make r
/ b
■ mb as we made - =   —. Lastly,
cp a m J
* I Azi wA2\e2 , /l \
~r~~)fmakerf'=(w-1)’
\ vnpj 2 m \
place of 0 =
P
mpj Z m\ p )2‘
Ihus we have got an expression similar to the other;
and the focal distance BI, after two refractions, becomes
BI =/—-/2 9.
But this is on the supposition that BH is equal to p,
whereas it is really <p — ft2- to — a. This must occasion a
change in the value just now obtained of BI. The source
of the change is twofold.
1st, Because in the value v —
b ft
1
we must put ■
l
?■
and because we must do the
same in the fraction
ftto — a
: /2
In the second place, when the
?>
value of BH is diminished by the quantity ftto -j- a, BI will
suiter a change in the proportion determined by the second
Lemma. 1 he first difference may safely be neglected, be¬
cause the value of to is very small, by reason of the co-effici-
e2
ent — being very small, and also because the variation
beaxs a very small ratio to the quantity itself, when the true
value of <p differs but little from that of the quantity for
which it is employed. The chief change in BI is that which
is determined by the Lemma. Therefore take from BI the
tope
mBI2
✓ variation of BH, multiplied by which is very nearly
= ^4. The product of this multiplication is mf2 d + —
This being taken from/, leaves us for the value of BI,
f^ma
TELESCOPE.
m — 1
r
-/2 (mQ + ff).
+
mr
and l — t
o
S = I-I!andi = i-
a r (pa ma
I — - 4. — —. Now for 7 — - write — and we get
b a ma mr o a n
Therefore ^ ^ ^ construc-
m
1 I
ma mr n
tion, page 150, Prop. II.) becomes rr ^ —
m— 1 1
 p _
r
m 1 1  
n r n
n
1
1
comes
P
for 4 becomes = - + -.
/ P r
isosceles, that is, a — b; then n = - . Now the second
a a
a is negative if the first be positive, or positive if the first
be negative.
.P1 1 1 a b
1 herefore - — - — ——
a b a-
12, a
- = -, and n—-.
no! 2
m — 1
is
n
valent.
■j and so is that of the other, and they are equi-
had 0
In this value /is the focal distance of an infinitely slen¬
der pencil of rays twice refracted by a lens having no thick-
ness, a is the shortening occasioned by the thickness,
and/2 (m & 6') is the effect of the two aberrationsarising
from the aperture.
It will be convenient, for several collateral purposes, to
exterminate from these formulae the quantities k, l, and <p.
For this purpose, make ^ We have already
this gives us another very simple and useful measure of f;
These equations, 7 = —   -f
/nr’
fP e2
\m r) 2
(k3 ~ ~) I'- Therefore m d =
And 8' was:
i(-
m3 l3 -j-
m~P\
Therefore f~(md + 6% the aberration (neglecting the thick-
m2i~\ e2
? / 2
ness of the lens), is/1 ^^  — — m3 Z3 +
J m \m r
If we now write for k, Z, and <p, their values as deter¬
mined above, performing all the necessary multiplications,
and arrange the terms in such a manner as to collect in one
sum the co-efficients of a, n, and r, we shall find four terms
for the value of md, and ten for the value of O'. The four
are destroyed by as many with contrary signs in the value
of 8', and there remain six terms to express the value of
md + 8’, which we shall express by one symbol q ; and the
equation stands thus:
 m— 1 fm3 2m2 m m -\-2 , Sm- + m 4m + 4
^ m \ r3 ""2 '■2"
. 3m + 2>
;\ e/
7 2’
This last value of j, (tlie reciprocal of the focus of a slen¬
der pencil twice refracted), viz. ^^ -p 4 is the simplest
that can be imagined, and makes w as a substitute for
i ~; a most useful symbol, as we shall frequently find in
the sequel. It also gives a very simple expression of the
focal distance of parallel rays, which we may call the prin¬
cipal focal distance of the lens, and distinguish it in future
by the symbol p ; for the expression ~ ^^ + - be-
7
when the incident light is parallel. And
- — — 4 and 4— ~ + -> deserve therefore to be made
P n J P r
very familiar to the mind.
We may also take notice of another property of n. It is
half the radius of an isosceles lens, which is equivalent to
the lens whose radii are a and b; for suppose the lens to be
« + a 2
 r- =-, and
a2 a
Now the focal distance of this lens
But, to proceed with our investigation, recollect that we
The focal distance therefore of rays twice refracted,
reckoned from the last surface, or BI, corrected for aber-
7710b
ration, and for the thickness of the lens, is / —/ ——■/ q,
consisting of three parts, viz./, the focal distance of central
rays; / ^4*, the correction for the thickness of the lens;
and /2 q, the aberration.
The preceding formula appears very complex, but is of
very easy management, requiring only the preparation of
the simple numbers which form the numerators of the frac¬
tions included in the parenthesis. When the incident rays
are parallel, the terms vanish which have r in the denomi¬
nator, so that only the first three terms are used.
We might here point out the cases which reduce the
aberration expressed in the formula last referred to, to no¬
thing ; but as they can scarcely occur in the object-glass of
a telescope, w7e omit it for the present, and proceed to the
combination of two or more lenses.
Lemma 3. If AG be changed by a small quantity G#;
BI suffers a change li, and Gg: li = AG2 : BI2. For it is
well known that the small angles GM^ and IN* are equal;
and therefore their subtenses GZ*, In are proportional to
MG, NI, or to AG, AI nearly, when the aperture is mo¬
derate. Therefore we have (nearly)
Gk : In : AG : BI,
In : li = AM : BI,
Gg : Gk— AG : AM,
Therefore Gg : li — AG2 : BF.
Prop. III. To determine the focal distance of rays re¬
fracted by two lenses placed near to each other on a com¬
mon axis.
Let AM, BN (fig. 11) be the surfaces of the first lens,
and CO, DP be the surfaces of the second, and let /3 be
the thickness of the
second lens, and 5 Fig. 11.
the interval between
them. Let the ra¬
dius of the anterior
surface of the se¬
cond lens be a', and
the radius of its posterior surface be br. Let mr be to 1 as
the sine of incidence to the sine of refraction in the sub¬
stance of the second lens. Lastly, let p' be the principal
focal distance of the second lens. Let the extreme or mar¬
ginal ray meet the axis in L after passing through both
152
TELESCOPE.
Telescope, lenses, so that DL is the ultimate focal distance, reckoned
from the last surface.
It is plain that DL may be determined by means of a',
U, m’, p\ and Cl in the same manner that BI was deter¬
mined by means of a, b, m, p, and AG.
f2
The value of BI is f— ma ~ —/2 q.
Take from this
the interval d, and we have CI=f —
r
p
f
- ^ -P 9-
8 — Pqbe neglected for
As we formed
Let the small part —
r
the present, and let Cl be supposed =
<p, f, and q, by means of a, b, m, n, and r, let us now form
and q’, for the second lens, by means of a!, b', in’, n'
(— — — L, and r’; then <p’ will be the focal distance of a
\ a! o I
slender pencil refracted by the first surface,/' will be the focal
distance of this pencil after two refractions, and q' will be
the co-efficient of the aberration, neglecting the thickness
and interval of the lenses.
f'2
Proceeding in this way, DL will be =:/'— mfS —pq’-
P
But because Cl is really less than /, by the quantity ma —
+ 3 + /y, we must (by Lemma 3) subtract the product
DL fn\
of this quantity, multiplied by ^ (which is nearlyfrom
By this process we shall have
DL=/W^+;i + f)-/*(? + ?')■
The first term /' of this value of DI is the focal dis¬
tance of a slender pencil of central rays refracted by both
lenses, neglecting their thickness and distance ; the second
(mu d , mfl3\ . .
term, —~r -jq ~r 18 t*16 correction necessary
for these circumstances ; and the third term, —P(q + q'),
is the correction for the aperture 2e. And it is evident that
/ is a formula precisely similar to q, containing the same
number of terms, and differing only by the mf, a', n', and P,
employed in place of m, a, n, and r.
It is also evident, that if there be a third lens, we shall
obtain its focal distance by a process precisely similar to
that by which we obtained DL ; and so on for any number
of lenses.
Thus have we obtained formulae by which the foci of rays
are determined in the most general terms, and in such a
manner as shall point out the connection of the curvatures,
thicknesses, and distances of the lenses, with their spherical
aberrations, and with the final aberration of the compound
lens, and give the aberrations in separate symbols, so that
we can treat them by themselves, and subject them to any
conditions which may enable us to correct one of them by
another.
We also see in general, that the corrections for the thick¬
ness and distance of the lenses are exhibited in terms which
involve only the focal distances of central rays, and have
very little influence on the aberrations, and still less on the
ratio of the aberrations, of the different lenses. This is a
most convenient circumstance; for we may neglect them
while we are determining q and q', and in determining the
ratio of the focal distances of the several lenses, on which
the correction of the chromatic aberration chiefly depends.
Therefore, in the construction of a compound lens for unit¬
ing the different colours, we may neglect this correction for
the thickness and distance till the end of the process. W hen Telesi
we apply it, we shall find that it chiefly affects the final focal
distance, making it somewhat longer, but has hardly any
influence either on the chromatic or spherical aberration.
We do not hesitate to say, that the final formulae here given
are abundantly accurate, while they are vastly more ma¬
nageable than" those employed by Euler or D’Alembert.
We have calculated trigonometrically the progress of the
rays through one of the glasses, which will be given as an
example, giving it a very extravagant aperture, that the er¬
rors of the formulae might be very remarkable. We found
the real aberration exceed the aberration assigned by the
formula by no more than ^Jgth part, a difference which is
quite insignificant. The process here given derives its sim¬
plicity from the frequent occurrence of harmonic proportions
in all optical theorems. This enabled M. Clairaut to em¬
ploy the reciprocals of the radii and distances with so much
simplicity and generality.
We consider it as another advantage of M. Clairaut’s me¬
thod, that it gives, by the way, formulae for the more ordi¬
nary questions in optics, which are of wonderful simplicity,
and most easily remembered. The chief problems in the
elementary construction of optical instruments relate to the
focal distances of central rays. This determines the focal
distances and arrangement of the glasses. All the rest may
be called the refinement of optics; teaching us how to avoid
or correct the indistinctness, the colours, and the distortions,
which are produced in the images formed by these simple
constructions.
Let m be to 1 as the sine of incidence to the sine of re¬
fraction ; let a and b be the radii of the anterior and pos¬
terior surfaces of a lens; let r be the distance of the ra¬
diant point, or the focus of incident central rays, and/ the
distance of the conjugate focus ; and let p be the principal
focal distance of the lens, or the focal distance of parallel
rays. Make - equal to - ■
J n 1 a
j\ let the same letters a', b\
r*, &c. express the same things for a second lens ; and a", b'\
r", &c. express them for a third; and so on. Then w e have
1 m —11 1 _ra/—l 1 1 __m"—1 1
f n r ’ f n' r' ’ J" n" r"' C’
Therefore, when the incident light is parallel, and r infinite,
we have -
P
1 m— 1 1
1 1
1
&c.
n p u p" n
And when several lenses are contiguous, so that their in¬
tervals may be neglected, and therefore^, belonging to the
first lens, becomes —, belonging to the second, wre have
1 1 m— 1 1
1. ~ — —, — 
r j n r
9 1 _ I  m! — 1m
rn /' n!
1 1
p+ r’
-1 1 1,1.1
— + - = - + - +
n r p’ p r
m"
-1 m'—1 , rn—1
1 1,111
- — —[- —u — -|—
r p' p' p r
Nothing can be more easily remembered than these for¬
mulae, howr numerous soever the glasses may be.
Having thus obtained the necessary analysis and formula,
it now remains to apply them to the construction of achro¬
matic lenses, in which it fortunately happens that the em¬
ployment of several surfaces, in order to produce the union
of the differently refrangible rays, enables us at the same
time to employ them for correcting each other’s spherical
aberration.
A white or compounded ray is separated by refraction
into its component coloured rays, and they are diffused over
a small angular space. Thus it appears, that the glass used
TELESCOPE.
153
Feleiope.by Sir Isaac Newton in his experiments diffused a white
ray, which was incident on its posterior surface in an angle
of 30°, in such a manner that the extreme red ray emerged
into air, making an angle of 50° 214-' with the perpendicu¬
lar ; the extreme violet ray emerged in an angle of 51°
15|-'; and the ray which was in the confines of green and
blue, emerged in an angle of 50° 48^'. If the sine of the
angle 30° of incidence be called 0-3, which it really is, the
sine of the emergence of the red ray will be 0*77, that of
the violet ray will be CWS, and that of the intermediate ray
will be 0’77^, an exact mean between the two extremes.
This ray may therefore be called the mean refrangible ray,
and the ratio of 77^ to 50, or of 1*55 to 1, will very pro¬
perly express the mean refraction of this glass; and we
have for this glass m — 1*55. The sine of refraction, being
measured on a scale of which the sine of incidence occu¬
pies 100 parts, will be 154 for the red ray, 155 for the mean
ray, and 156 for the violet ray. This number, or its ratio
to unity, is commonly taken to represent the refractive
power of the glass. There is some impropriety in this, un¬
less we consider ratios as measured by their logarithms; for
if /n be I, the substance does not refract at all. The refrac¬
tive power can be properly measured only by the refraction
which it produces; that is, by the change which it makes
in the dwection of the light, or the angle contained be¬
tween the incident and refracted rays. If two substances
produce such deviations always in one proportion, we should
then say that their refractive powers ai'e in that proportion.
This is not true in any substances; but the sines of the
angles contained between the refracted ray and the per¬
pendicular, are always in one proportion when the angle of
incidence in both substances is the same. This being a
cognisable function of the real refraction, has therefore been
assumed as the only convenient measure of the refractive
powers. Although it is not strictly just, it answers ex¬
tremely well in the most usual cases in optical instruments.
The refractions are moderate, and the sines are very nearly
as the angles contained between the rays and the perpen¬
dicular ; and the real angles of refraction, or deflections of
the rays, are almost exactly proportional to m — 1. The
most natural and obvious measure of the refractive powers
would therefore hem— 1. But this would embarrass some
very frequent calculations; and we therefore find it best,
on the whole, to take m itself for the measure of the refrac¬
tive power.
The separation of the red, violet, and intervening rays,
has been called dispersion ; and although this arises merely
from a difference of the refractive power in respect of the
different rays, it is convenient to distinguish this particular
modification of the refractive power by a name, and we call
it the dispersive power of the refracting substance.
It is susceptible of degrees; for a piece of flint-glass will
refract the light, so that when the sine of refraction of the
red ray is 77, the sine of the refraction of the violet ray is
nearly 78i; or if the sine of refraction of the red ray, mea¬
sured on a particular scale, is 1’54, the sine of refraction of
the violet ray is \‘bl. The dispersion of this substance,
being measured by the difference of the extreme sines of
refraction, is greater than the dispersion of the other glass,
in the proportion of three to two.
But this alone is not a sufficient measure of the absolute
dispersive power of a substance. Although the ratio of
1‘54 to l-56 remains constant, whatever the real magnitude
of the refractions of common glass may be, and though we
therefore say that its dispersive power is constant, we know
, that by increasing the incidence and the refraction, the
absolute dispersion is also increased. Another substance
shows the same properties, and in a particular case may
produce the same dispersion; yet it has not for this sole
reason the same dispersive power. If indeed the incidence
and the refraction of the mean ray be also the same, the
VOL. XXI.
dispersive power cannot be said to differ ; but if the inci-Telescope,
dence and the refraction of the mean ray be less, the dis- "-v——
persive power must be considered as greater, though the
actual dispersion be the same ; because if we increase the
incidence till it becomes equal to that in the common glass,
the dispersion will now be increased. The proper way of
conceiving the dispersion therefore is, to consider it as a
portion of the whole refraction ; and if we find a substance
making the same dispersion with half the general refraction,
we must say that the dispersive quality is double, because
by making the refraction equal, the dispersion will really be
double.
If therefore we take dm as a symbol of the separation of
the extreme rays from the middle ray, -~ m j is the natural
measure of the dispersive power.
It is not unusual for optical writers to take the whole
separation of the red and violet rays for the measure of the
dispersive power, and to compare this with the refracting
power with respect to one of the extreme rays. But it is
surely better to consider the mean refraction as the mea¬
sure of the refracting power ; and the deviation of either of
the extremes from this mean is a proper enough measure of
the dispersion, being always half of it. It is attended with
this convenience, that being introduced into our computa¬
tions as a quantity infinitely small, and treated as such for
the ease of computation, while it is really a quantity of sen¬
sible ^magnitude, the errors arising from this supposition
are diminished greatly by taking one half of the deviation
and comparing it with the mean refraction. This method
has, however, this inconvenience, that it does not exhibit
at once the refractive power in all substances respecting
any particular colour of light; for it is not the ray of any
particular colour that suffers the mean refraction. In com¬
mon glass it is the ray which is in the confines of the yel¬
low and blue, in flint-glass it is nearly the middle blue ray,
and in other substances it is a different ray. These cir¬
cumstances appear plainly in the different proportions of
the colours of the prismatic spectrum exhibited by differ¬
ent substances. This will be considered afterwards, being
a great bar to the perfection of achromatic instruments.
The way in which an achromatic lens is constructed is,
to make use of a contrary refraction of a second lens to
destroy the dispersion or spherical aberration of the first.
dm
The first purpose will be answered if — be equal to
(lm*
 yj-. For, in order that the different coloured rays may
be collected into one point by two lenses, it is only neces¬
sary that^.-, the reciprocal of the focal distance of rays re¬
fracted by both, may be the same for the extreme and
, . , m Jf dm — 1 mf 4- dm' — 1
mean rays, that is, that   j   
1. ... . . , m — 1 m' —1,1
-1 be of the same value with 1  k —,
r n n r
which must happen if — -f- ^ be — 0, or — = —
n ill n
-—•. This may be seen in another way, more comprehensible
by such as are not versant in these discussions. In order
that the extreme colours which are separated by the first
lens may be rendered parallel by the second, we have
shown already that n and n! are proportional to the radii
of the equivalent isosceles lenses, being the halves of these
radii. In these small refractions they are therefore in¬
versely proportional to the angles formed by the surfaces
u
154
TELESCOPE.
by the opposite refraction of the other prism dm' x n.
Therefore dm x n’ — dm' X n, or — = — ^. In like
dm
m, m', or m", by applying them properly to the terms within
the parenthesis, and expunging them from the denominator
of the general factors m \ m . This does
manner, this effect will be produced by three lenses if —
dm' , dm'' . ^ .
+ -7 + be = °’ &c*
m m
not alter the values of q, q\ and q". In the second place,
the whole equations may afterwards be divided by m' — 1.
q q'
Lastly, the errors arising from the spherical figure, which
we expressed by — R2 (<7 q'), will be corrected if <7 + <7'
This will give the values of
-, and —— ’
1 m — 1
be = 0. We are therefore to discover the adjustments of a‘
711' — 1 ’ rn'
which will still be equal to nothing if <7 §r" be equal
the quantities employed in the preceding formulae, which will
insure these conditions. It will render the process more
perspicuous if we collect into one view the significations of
our various symbols, and the principal equations which we
are to employ.
1. The ratios to unity of the sines of mean
incidence in the different media are  m, m', m".
2. The ratio of the differences of the sines
This division reduces the general factor
of q' to
^7 And in the equation for q we obtain, in place of the
general factor
m — 1
the factor
m — 1
or c. This will
of the extremes.
dm
dm'
3. The ratio
in — 1
m' — 1
4. The radii of the surfaces a, b ; a\b'; a", b".
5. The principal focal distances, or the focal
distances of parallel central rays p,p', />"•
6. The focal distance of the compound lens  P.
7. The distance of the radiant point, or of
the focus of incident rays on each lens  r, r', r".
8. The focal distance of the rays refracted
by each lens ff'if"-
9. The focal distance of rays refracted by
the compound lens  p.
10. The half breadth of the lens  e.
Also the following subsidiary values :
1. i_ I_2. J__ J 1
b ’ n' a' b' ’ n" a
m m'— l’
also be the factor of the value of q" when the third lens is
of the same substance with the first, as is generally the
case. And, in the third place, since the rays incident on
the first lens are parallel, all the terms vanish from the
value of q in which — is found, and there remain only the
first three, viz.
2 m
m m 2
an1 dln
Performing these operations, we have
—c[
m' — 1 V
<7' _ (m
'^1 “ [n
2m 1 to -}- 2
n
2to'4- 1
anz
to' 4. 2
ma*n
3to'4- 1
)el
) 2’
(4to'4- 1)
an ma~n
3'to 4- 2 ’
rV2
+
2\ e2
7~) 2’
1.1=1.
n a
TO 1 /;
2. q = (
TO \
4 (to 4-1)
+
n
3 to 4- 2
2 to2 4- to , to 4- 2
b"
3 TO2 4- TO
+
q" _ fm2
3to 4- 2\ e2
) 2‘
m'rrin'
2to 4- 1 to 4. 2
3to 4- 1 (4to 4- 1)
m'd *n'
r"n,n
TO"aW
\ $
) ~2' '^'n^ ^ an(^ mus*' be formed
Let us now apply this investigation to the construction
of an object-glass ; and we shall begin with a double lens.
Construction of a Double Achromatic Object-glass.
Here we have to determine four radii, a, b, a', and b'.
Make n =z 1. This greatly simplifies the calculus, by ex¬
terminating n from all the denominators. This gives for
mtely great, the last term I in all the values of^, the equation ~+ ~ - 0, the equation dm + ~ = 0,
(lm' 1_  dm
n' an «' ~~ dff—
am ■ r~n
in the same manner from to', a', ri, r'; and from to", a",
n", r", as q is formed from to, a, n, r.
3. Also because in the case of an object-glass, r is infi-
, will vanish, and we shall also have F =: P.
or dm —
dm'
n'
Also we have
Therefore in a double object-glass -L = m'~ 1 t m~
P n' ~ '1
1 1
: —I” —i*
P P
r, the^ focal distance of the light incident on the second
fens, the same with the principal focal distance p of the
first lens (neglecting the interval, if any). Now —-m~1,
p' n
And in a triple object-glass — = 1 _i_
P n" ‘
to — 1
p'
11
m a doub]e object-glass, the correction of spherical
aberration requires q + q'= v. 1
And a triple object-glass requires q q' q" ^
_ 1_ J_ 1
n" p'
p
which in the present case is — to 
{m'~ 1), and 1 - to — 1 _ « (m'_ 1) - lL
Make these substitutions in the values of
Also - is r= — u
P
and
q'
v. to'— I
■, and vve obtain the following equation.
Telescope, at the edges of the lenses: n' may therefore be taken for For the whole error is multiplied by h, and by J- e2; andTelesd^rt
the angle of the first lens, and n for that of the second, therefore the equation which corrects this error may be di-
Now the small refraction by a prism wdiose angle (also vided by F2 e2.
small) is is (to—\)n. The dispersive power being The equation in the 14th line from the bottom of the
now substituted for the refractive power, we have for this column, giving the value of q, q', q\ may be much simpli-
refraction of the prism dm X n'. This must be destroyed fied as follows: In the first place, they may be divided by
TELESCOPE.
155
releiope.
c(2m+0 , c(m-f-2)
mdl
, - v . / 1 /2 W2(2»/ + 1)
+ —   — wm*    —-
a ma*- a'
u(m'+2) . .. . 4m(w'+1)(ot—1)
- +“’(iW+1)('"-I>+ M 
u (3w/ + 2) (m — l)2 _ ^
in'
Arrange these terms in order, according as they are fac-
,.1111
tors of —, or independent quantities. It puts on
a cl ci ci
this form :
In this case - = j = - — 1. For because - = - — - Telescope.
aba nab ^
and 7i — 1, we have 1 + T = and v = - — 1. There-
b a b a
112
fore^ — ~2 — ~ + ^ Therefore, in our final equation,
1 2 , . . „1 1 , . , „ 1
put — + 1 m place or —, and I in place of -
a2 a ' 1 a12 a r a'’
and it becomes
A
B + D — 2C
r (m + 2) l , x 1 a (m' +2) 1
-——— ' - — c (2/n + 1) • i■ -
m a1 ^ ' a m! a'
— < u2(2?n' 4- 1) — -———/v   >•--{- cm2 + u
(_ m' ) a'
/Q . 3/2 w(3m' + 2)(m—1)2
(3»i 1) (m — 1) — v?m'z ^   = 0.
a* a
Thus have we arrived at a quadratic equation, where
_|_E + D—C=0.
1
Let A be the co-efficient of-0, B that of-, C that of ^
a1 a a1
a
D that of —, and E the sum of the independent quantity ;
i -i * i c(m + 2) „ „ u(m'4-2)
that is, let A be ——T_zj V> — c(2m + 1), C= ——7—^,
is the unknown quantity. It has the form px~ -j- yj? -f- r — 0,
where p — A — C, q = 2C — B — D, r = E-f-D — C
and * rr -.
a
Divide the equation by p, and we have a?2 + ^ a; + “
n ir
— 0. Make s — — and t — and we have a;2 4- sa? 4- t—Q.
p p
This gives us finally -, or a? = — ^;
vl
D ~ m2 (2m' + 2) —
4m (771' + 1)(t?* — 1)
m’
and E — end
-j- m2 (3m' -{- 1) (m — l) — M3m'2
u (3m' 2) (m — 1 )2
m'
Our final equation becomes
A P_CL
dl a a!9-
D
a'
+ E 0.
The co-efficients of this equation, and the independent
quantity, are all known, from our knowledge of m, m', dm,
dm'; and we are to find the values of a and a’, and from
them, and m = 1, to find the values of b and b'.
But it is evidently an indeterminate equation, because
there are two unknown quantities, so that there may be an
infinity of solutions. It must be rendered determinate by
means of some other conditions to which it may be sub-
iected. These conditions must depend on some other cir¬
cumstances, which may direct our choice.
One circumstance occurs to us which we think of very
great consequence. In the passage of light from one sub¬
stance to another, there is always a considerable portion
reflected from the posterior surface of the first and from
the anterior surface of the last; and this reflection is more
copious in proportion to the refraction. This loss of light
will therefore be diminished by making the internal sur¬
faces of the lenses to coincide, that is, by making b a'.
This will be attended with another advantage. If we put
between the glasses a substance of nearly the same refract¬
ing power, we shall not only completely prevent this loss
of light, but we shall greatly diminish the errors which
arise from an imperfect polish of the surfaces. We have
tried this, and find the effect very surprising. The lens
being polished immediately after the figure has been given
it, and while it was almost impervious to light by reason of
its roughness, which was still sensible to the naked eye,
performed as well as when finished in the finest manner.
This condition, by taking away one refraction, obliges
us to increase those which remain, and therefore increases
the spherical aberrations. And since our formulae do not
fully remove those (by reason of the small quantities ne¬
glected in the process), it is uncertain whether this condi¬
tion be the most eligible. We have, however, no direct
argument to the contrary.
Let us see what determination this gives us.
This value of - is taken from a scale of which the unit is
> a
half the radius of the isosceles lens which is equivalent to
the first lens, or has the same focal distance with it. We
must then find (on the same scale) the value of b, viz. i— 1,
which is also the value of a'. Having obtained d, we must
find b' by means of the equation ^ and therefore
^ n' a' b'
1 1 1 "R t 1 rpi r 1 1 . 1
Y —  ,• But - — m. 1 hereiore - rr - 4- m ~ -
b a' m n b a' a
u — 1.
Thus is our object-glass constructed; and we must de¬
termine its focal distance, or its reciprocal This is
— 771  1 U (m'  1).
All these radii and distances are measured on a scale of
which n is the unit. But it is more convenient to mea¬
sure every thing by the focal distance of the compound ob¬
ject-glass. This gives us the proportion which all the dis¬
tances bear to it. Therefore, calling P unity, in order to
obtain - on this scale, we have only to state the analogy
to — 1 — u (to'— 1) : 1 =r —: -jp and A is the radius of
Cl xx
our first surface measured on a scale of which P is the unit.
If, in the formula which expresses the final equation for
-, the value of t should be positive, and greater than ^ s2,
the equation has imaginary roots; and it is not possible,
with the glasses employed and the conditions assumed, to
correct both the chromatic and spherical aberrations.
If t is negative and equal to Js2, the radical part of the
value is := 0, and - — — ^5. But if it be negative or po¬
sitive, but less than |s2, the equation has two real roots,
which will give two constructions. That is to be preferred
which gives the smallest curvature of the surfaces; be¬
cause, since in our formulae which determine the spherical
aberration, some quantities are neglected, these are always
greater when a large arch (that is, an arch of many de-
156
TELESCOPE.
Telescope, grees) is employed. No radius should be admitted which
is much less than one third of the focal distance.
This process will be made plain by an example.
Experiments have shown, that in common crown-glass
the sine of incidence is to the sine of refraction as 1-526 is
to 1, and that in the generality of flint-glass it is as T604
to 1. Also that = 0-6054 = u.
am'
= 0-526 ; m'— 1 = 0-604 ; c =
Therefore m — 1
- = 0-87086. By
m — r
these numbers we can compute the co-efficients of our final
equation. We shall find them as follows :
A = 2-012, B= 3-529, C = 1-360, D = — 0 526, E= 1-8659.
The general equation (p. 155, col. 1, line 16), when sub¬
jected to the assumed coincidence of the internal surfaces,
. A —C B + D —2C r .
is   -1—   4-E 4-D — C ~ 0. A—C is
d~ o
— 0-652, B -h D — 2C is = 0-283, and E -f D — C is
— — 0 020 ; and the equation with numerical co-efficients
is ^ — 0-020 =r 0, which corresponds to the
equation px1 qx r,
0-283
0.
0-4959
1 1
To obtain b, use the equation = 1, which gives
b
b~
n ,n r, = 1-9837.
0-5041
1
is the same with b, and - —
a
0-5041.
To obtain V, use the equation — 4.
1/ a' 1
u — 0-6054, and
•1013
= 0-2383.
Therefore a —
b -
1-9837
6-2363
9-872
0-31798,
= _ 0-31798,
We must now make s ~<—
P
_ ^ = 0-434, and t-- ~ = 0-0307. This
0-652 °‘652
1 0-434
gives us the final quadratic equation —   0-0307
— 0. To solve this, we have -— = 0-217, and |s2
— — 0-0471. From this take t, which is = — 0-0307 (that
is, to 0-0471 add 0-0307), and we obtain 0-0778, the square
root of which is = 0-2789. Therefore, finally, -rr 0*2170
a
=±= 0-2789, which is either 0-4959 or — 0-0619. It is plain
that the first must be preferred, because the second gives a
negative radius, or makes the first surface of the crown-
glass concave. Now as the convergence of the rays is to
be produced by the crown-glass, the other surface must be¬
come very convex, and occasion great errors in the com¬
puted aberration. We therefore retain 0-4959 for the
value of -, and a — ^ ^ ^ — 2-0166.
i= — 0-5041, and therefore a convex surface. Therefore
1
Now
0-5041. The sum of these is
0*1013 ; and since it is positive, the surface is concave.
b = = 9-872.
1) = 0-1603, and P
Lastly, — = m — 1 — u (m!
1
~ (M603
Now to obtain all the measures in terms of the focal dis¬
tance P, we have only to divide the measures already found
by 6-2383, and the quotients are the measures wanted,
2-0166
6-2383 ~ 0'323‘?5>
b'= - 1-5825,
6-2383
P= -- = 1*
If it be intended that the focal distance of the object-
glass shall be any number n of inches or feet, we have only
to multiply each of the above radii by n, and we have their
lengths in inches or feet.
Thus we have completed the investigation of the con¬
struction of a double object-glass. Although this was in¬
tricate, the final result is abundantly simple for practice,
especially with the assistance of logarithms. The only
troublesome thing is the preparation of the numerical co-ef¬
ficients A, B, C, D, E of the final equation. Strict atten¬
tion must also be paid to the positive and negative signs of
the quantities employed.
We might propose other conditions. Thus it is natural
to prefer for the first or crown-glass lens such a form as shall
give it the smallest possible aberration. This w ill require
a small aberration of the flint-glass to correct it. But a
little reflection will convince us that this form will not be
good. The focal distance of the crown-glass must not ex¬
ceed one third of that of the compound glass ; these two
being nearly in the proportion of dm’ — dm to dm’. There¬
fore if this form be adopted, and a be made about ^th of b,
it will not exceed ^th of P. Therefore, although we may
produce a most accurate union of the central and marginal
rays by opposite aberrations, there will be a considerable
aberration of some rays which are between the centre and
the margin.
It is absolutely impossible to collect into one point the
w-hole rays (though the very remotest rays are united with
the central rays), except in a very particular case, which
cannot obtain in an object-glass ; and the small quantities
which are neglected in the formula which we have given
for the spherical aberration, produce errors which do not
follow any proportion of the aperture that can be ex¬
pressed by an equation of a manageable form. When the
aperture is very large, it is better not to correct the aberra¬
tion for the whole aperture, but for about |4hs of it. When
the rays corresponding to this distance are made to coincide
with the central rays by means of opposite aberrations, the
rays which are beyond this distance will be united with
some of those which are nearer to the centre, and the whole
diffusion will be considerably diminished. Dr Smith has
illustrated this in a very perspicuous manner in his theory
of his Catoptric Microscope.
But although we cannot adopt this form of an object-glass,
there may be other considerations which may lead us to
prefer some particular form of the crown-glass, or of the
flint-glass. We shall therefore adopt our general equation
A B C D . ^
-5 rr ; + E = 0to this condition.
a1 a a12 a'
Therefore let h express this selected ratio of the two radii
of the crown-glass, making ^ =: A (remembering always that
a is positive and b negative in the case of a double convex,
and /i is a negative number).
With this condition we have 4 = —. But when we make
b a
n the unit of our formula of aberration, -7 = -—1. There-
b a
Now substitute this for
P \ h 1 1
tore 1 = , and - —   
a a a I — h
1
- in the general equation, and change all the signs (which
still preserves it = 0), and wre obtain
Te'scope,
TELESCOPE
157
P TT A B n
U'*+ a' (1 —4)2 + l_/i-°'
By this equation we are to find or the radius of the
anterior surface of the flint-glass. The equation is of
this form px2 + qx -{■ r — 0, and we must again make
s = ]>and 1 ~ J; Therefore 5 and ^ x (i~h
~~ /ty ~ E)- Tlien» finally,
It may be worth while to take a particular case of this
condition. Suppose the crown-glass to be of equal con¬
vexities on both sides. This has some advantages: vre can
tell with precision whether the curvatures are precisely
equal, by measuring the focal distance of rays reflected back
from its posterior surface. These distances will be precisely
equal. Now it is of the utmost importance in the construc¬
tion of an object-glass which is to correct the spherical
aberration, that the forms be precisely such as are required
by our formulae.
In this case of a lens equally convex on both sides - is
a
— — 2‘ Substitute this value for — in the general
A B C D , ^ AA
equation , — + E = 0, and then £ = £ ;
— becomes Now change all the signs, and we have
+ — E — ^ + g ^ by which we are to find a'. This
. T360 0*526 0*596
in numbers is —— —0*6044=0. Then/?————_
a « 1-360
= °‘3867> and * = —^qq44, = — 0*4444. Then — l s
= 0*1933 ; ^ s2 = 0*0374 ; and v^S-—1 = z±z 0*6941;
so that — = 0*1933 0*6941. This gives two real roots,
viz. 0*8874, and — 0*5008. If we take the first, we shall
have a convex anterior surface for the flint-glass, and con¬
sequently a very deep concave for the posterior surface.
We therefore take the second or negative root — 0*5008.
We find as before, by the equation i = -1 4. M —
0*1046, which will give a large value of b'.
We had - =
a 2
and — is the same as in the former case, viz. 0*1603.
Having all these reciprocals, we may find a, 4. a’, b\ and
r; and then dividing them by P, we obtain finally
a = 0*3206,
b ~ ~ 0.3206,
a! — ~ 0*3201,
V = 1*533,
P= 1*
By compaiing this object-glass with the former, we may
remark, that diminishing a a little increases 4, and in this
respect improves the lens. It indeed has diminished 4',
nut tins being already considerable, no inconvenience at¬
tends the diminution. But we learn, at the same time, Telescope,
that the advantage must be very small; for we cannot di-
minish a much more, without making it as small as the
smallest radius of the object-glass. This proportion is
therefore very near the maximum, or best possible; and
we know that in such cases even considerable changes in
the radii will make but small changes in the result: for
these reasons we are disposed to give a strong preference
to the first construction, on account of the other advantages
which we showed to attend it.
As another example, we may take a case which is very
nearly the general practice of the London artists. The
radius of curvature for the anterior surface of the convex
crown-glass is |-ths of the radius of the posterior surface, so
that h = This being introduced into the determinate
equation, gives
a = 0*2938, a' — — 0*3443,
4 = — 0*3526, 4 = 1*1474.
As another condition, we may suppose that the second
or flint-glass is of a determined form.
This case is solved much in the same manner as the
former. Taking h to represent the ratio of a' and h\ we
have = ■ * 7. This value being substituted in the
a! \ — h 0
. . A B
general equation —   
<r a
C D
a!2 a'
-(- E = 0, gives us
/-i 2 „ T- ^
D
(1-A)2 1
= 0.
B
the final equation x2 -{■ sx -{■ t — 0, s = —,
This gives for
and t — ~
A
X(E ( 1 —hf l_/i)’and« s~ — t.
We might here take the particular case of the flint-glass
being equally concave on both sides. Then, because -
w
o 1
 u, and in the case of equal concavities - = —
a' n'
— u, it is sufficient to put — £ m for ^. This being done,
the equation becomes — —, — + E = 0.
This gives 5 = E , and * = -1 • 4. e^.
We imagine that these cases are sufficient for showing
the management of the general equation ; and the ex¬
ample of the numerical solution of the first case affords
instances of the only niceties which occur in the process,
viz. the proper employment of the positive and negative
quantities.
We have oftener than once observed, that the formula
is not perfectly accurate, and that in very large apertures
errors will remain. It is proper, therefore, when we have
obtained the form of a compound object-glass, to calculate
trigonometrically the progress of the light through it; and
if we find a considerable aberration, either chromatic or
spherical, remaining, w*e must make such changes in the
curvatures as will correct it. We have done this for the
first example; and we find, that if the focal distance of
the compound object-glass be 100 inches, there remains
of the spherical aberration nearly Xjth of an inch, and the
aberration of colour is over corrected above ^th of an inch.
The first aberration has been diminished about six times,
and the other about thirty times. Both of the remaining
errors will be diminished by increasing the radius of the
inner surfaces. This will diminish the aberration of the
crown-glass, and will diminish the dispersion of the flint
158
Telescope, more than that of the crown. But indeed the remaining
error is hardly worth our notice.
It is evident to any person conversant with optical dis-
. cussions that we shall improve the correction of the spheri¬
cal aberration by diminishing the refractions. If we em¬
ploy two lenses for producing the convergency of the rays
to a real focus, we shall reduce the aberration to ^th.
Therefore a better achromatic glass will be formed of three
lenses, two of which are convex and of crown-glass. I he
refraction being thus divided between them, the aberrations
are lessened. There is no occasion to employ two concave
lenses of flint-glass; there is even an advantage in using
one. The aberration being considerable, less of it will
serve for correcting the aberration of the crown-glass, and
therefore such a form may be selected as has little aberra¬
tion. Some light is indeed lost by these two additional
surfaces; but this is much more than compensated by the
greater apertures which we can venture to give when the
curvature of the surface is so much diminished. We pro¬
ceed therefore to
The Construction of a Triple Achromatic Object-glass.
It is plain that there are more conditions to be assumed
before we can render this a determinate problem, and that
the investigation must be more intricate. At the same
time it must give us a much greater variety of construc¬
tions, in consequence of our having more conditions neces¬
sary for giving the equation this determinate form. Our
limits will not allow us to give a full. account of all that
may be done in this method. We shall therefore content
ourselves with giving one case, which will sufficiently point
out the method of proceeding. We shall then give the
results in some other eligible cases, as rules to artists by
which they may construct such glasses.
Let the first and second glasses be of equal curvatures
on both sides; the first being a double convex of crown-
glass, and the second a double concave of flint-glass.
Still making n the unit of our calculus, we have in the
first place a — — b ~ — a! — b’. Therefore —,—— —
f)
TELESCOPE.
2(m! + 1) (m
1) (3»/ + 2)0—l)2
Telescoci
m!
(- — 4), or —t- —- = — 1. Therefore the equation
a b) n n ^
dm! dm"
-f- — + —— — 0 becomes u ■
• ni nv
Let us call this value u!.
^ u n 1 1
1 + — = 0,or——
ft ft' u
1
1
Also — — m
r
1
1; — -m — \
3. cu' 3m2 —
cu'2 (2m + I) cu' (m + 2) _ ^
a!' ma'n
. 4ccV(w+l) cd'zu'(3m + 2)
(3« + 1) +  +     °-
Now, arrange these quantities according as they are co¬
efficients ofand of —7, or independent quantities. Let
the co-efficient of -4r, be A, that of — be B, and the inde-
au a"
pendent quantity be C, we have
. cMY/ft + 2) k, /0 , i\ kcc'u'(m + 1) .
A — —  !—B — cu'2 {2m +1)   !—and
C = cm2 + + I i2m' + !) + + 1) O
+ cu'^nd +
4/ft
ccnu'{3m -f- 2)
2(/ft,-{- !)(///■
/ft
1)
\c(2m -f- 1)
(3/ft' + 2)(/ft—l)2
1)
/ftr + 2
4/ft
cc'u'2(3m + O*
Jr
We have-~»j—1;
p p'
_j—-4. — /ft — /ft' 4- ft' (/ft — 1). And if we
Y p p' p' 1 v y
make m' — m — C, we shall have -77 — — C -f- (/ft — 1).
(/ft' — 1) /ft — m!
- — C.
The equality of the two curvatures of each lens gives
i = ~. Thereforei = _i=_ 1 = ^ = 1; and
b" a" ft" a" W'
Substituting these values in the equation (page 154, col. 2,
paragraph 4), we obtain the three formulae,
1. cm2 _ lo (2/ft + 1) 4- ^ + 21
* K 1 1 4/ft
2. — m* 4- 1 (2/ft' 4. 1) 4.(3/ft'4.I)(m_l)
m' m'
A B , „
Our equation now becomes —— — -t- L — 0.
1 a"1 a'
This reduced to numbers, by computing the values of the
^ . . 1-312 1-207'
co-efficients, is ——   0-325 / — 0.
a'u a'
This, divided by T312, gives s — — 0-92, and t — —
0-2482, — y s = 0-46, £ s2 = 0-2116, and VTlF~ t
= z±z 0-6781.
And, finally, = 0-46 =d= 0-6781.
This has two roots, viz. 0-2181 and— T1381. The last
would give a small radius, and is therefore rejected.
Now, proceeding with this value of and the —,we get
a" ft' °
the other radius b’’, and then, by means of ft', we get the
other radius which is common to the four surfaces. Then,
by -p- = — — d, we get the value of P.
The radii being all on the scale of which u is the unit,
they must be divided by P to obtain their value on the
scale which has P for its unit. This will give us
a ~—h~—a' — b' - 0-530,
«"= 1-215,
b" = _ 0-3046,
P= 1-
This is not a very good form, because the last surface
has too great curvature.
We thought it worth while to compute the curvatures
for a case where the internal surfaces of the lenses coincide,
in order to obtain the advantages mentioned on a former
occasion. The form is as follows :
Ihe middle lens is a double concave of flint-glass ; the
last lens^ is of crown-glass, and has equal curvatures on both
sides. 1 he following table contains the dimensions of the
glasses for a variety of focal distances. The first column
contains the focal distances in inches; the second contains
the radii of the first surface in inches ; the third contains
the radii of the posterior surface of the first lens, and an¬
terior surface of the second; and the fourth column has the
radii of the three remaining surfaces.
P- b, a'. b', a", b".
12 9-25 6-17 12-75
24 18-33 12-25 25-5
36 27-33 18-25 38-17
48 36-42 24-33 50-92
TELESCOPE.
159
p.
60
72
84
96
108
120
a.
45-42
54-5
63-5
72-6
81-7
90-7
5, a’.
30-33
36-42
42-5
48-5
54-58
60-58
V, a", b".
63-58
76-33
89-
101-75
114-42
127-17
We have had an opportunity of trying glasses of this con¬
struction, and found them equal to any of the same length,
although executed by an artist by no means excellent in
his profession as a glass-grinder. This very circumstance
gave us the opportunity of seeing the good effects of inter¬
posing a transparent substance between the glasses. We
put some clear turpentine varnish between them, which
completely prevented all reflection from the internal sur¬
faces. Accordingly these telescopes were surprisingly bright;
and although the roughness left by the first grinding was
very perceptible by the naked eye before the glasses were
put together, yet when joined in this manner it entirely
disappeared, even when the glasses were viewed with a
deep magnifier.
The aperture of an object-glass of this construction, of
30 inches focal distance, was S^th inches, which is con¬
siderably more than any of Mr Dollond’s that we have seen.
If we should think it of advantage to make all the three
lenses isosceles, that is, equally curved on both surfaces,
the general equation will give the following radii:
a= + 0-639 a' = — 0-5285 a" = + 0-6413
b = — 0-639 6' = + 0-5285 b" = — 0 6413.
This seems a good form, having large radii.
Should we choose to have the two crown-glass lenses
isosceles and equal, we must make
a =r + 0-6412 .a' — 0-5227 a" = + 0-6412
5 = _0-6412 6'= + 0-5367 6" = —0-6412.
This form hardly differs from the last.
Our readers will recollect that all these forms proceed
on certain measures of the refractive and dispersive powers
of the substances employed, which are expressed by m, m',
dm, and dm'; and we may be assured that the formulae
are sufficiently exact, by the comparison (which we have
made in one of the cases) of the result of the formulae and
the trigonometrical calculation of the progress of the rays.
The error was but g^th of the whole, ten times less than
another error, which unavoidably remains, and will be con¬
sidered presently. These measures of refraction and dis¬
persion were carefully taken ; but there is great diversity,
particularly in the flint-glass. We are well informed that
the manufacture of this article has considerably changed of
late years, and that it is in general less refractive and less
dispersive than formerly. This must evidently make a
change in the forms of achromatic glasses. The proportion
of the focal distance of the crowm-glasses to that of the flint
must be increased, and this will occasion a change in the
curvatures, which shall correct the spherical aberration.
We examined with great care a parcel of flint-glass which
an artist of this city got lately for the purpose of making
achromatic object-glasses, and also some very white crown-
glass made in Leith ; and we obtained the following mea¬
sures :
m = 1-529 dm _ 14*2 _
m! — 1"578 dm' ~ 219 ~ ’ 4‘
We computed some forms for triple object-glasses made
of these glasses, which we shall subjoin as a specimen of
the variations which this change of data will occasion.
If all the three lenses are made isosceles, we have
a = + 0-796 a' — — 0-474 a" = + 0-502
5 = — 0-796 b' = + 0-474 b" = — 0-502
or
a = 0-504 a' = — 0-475 a" = + 0-793
b = — 0-504 b' — 0-475 6" = — 0-793.
If the middle lens be isosceles, the two crown-glass lenses Telescope,
may be made of the same form and focal distance, and' v _l
placed the same way. This will give us
a = + 0-705 a' = — 0-475 a" = + 0-705
b = — 0-547 V = + 0-475 b" = — 0-547.
This construction allows a much better form, if the mea¬
sures of refraction and dispersion are the same that we used
formerly. For we shall have
a = + 0-628 a! = — 0-579 a" = + 0-628
b ~ — 0-749 6' = + 0-579 b" = — 0-749.
And this is pretty near the practice of the London opti¬
cians.
We may here observe, upon the whole, that an amateur
has little chance of succeeding in these attempts. The di¬
versity of glasses, and the uncertainty of the workman’s
producing the very curvatures which he intends, are so great,
that the object-glass turns out different from our expecta¬
tion. The artist who makes great numbers acquires a
pretty certain guess at the remaining error; and having
many lenses intended to be of one form, but unavoidably
differing a little from it, he tries several of them with the
other two, and finding one better than the rest, he makes
use of it to complete the set.
The great difficulty in the construction is to find the
exact proportion of the dispersive powers of the crown and
flint glass. The crown is pretty constant; but there are
hardly two pots of flint-glass which have the same disper¬
sive ^ power. Even if constant, it is difficult to measure it
accurately ; and an error in this greatly affects the instru¬
ment, because the focal distances of the lenses must be
nearly as their dispersive powers. The method of examin¬
ing this circumstance, which we found most accurate, was
as follows:
The sun’s light, or that of a brilliant lamp, passed through
a small hole in a board, and fell on another board pierced
also with a small hole. Behind this was placed a fine prism
A (fig. 12), which formed a spectrum RoV on a screen
Fig. 12.
pierced with a small hole. Behind this was placed a prism
B of the substance under examination. The ray which was
refracted by it fell on the wall at D, and the distance of its
illumination from that point to C, on which an unrefracted
ray would have fallen, was carefully measured. This
showed the refraction of that colour. Then, in order that
we might be certain that we always compared the refrac¬
tion of the same precise colour by the different prisms
placed at B, we marked the precise position of the prism A
w hen the ray of a particular colour fell on the prism B.
This wras done by an index AG attached to A, and turn¬
ing with it, when we caused the different colours of the
spectrum formed by A to fall on B. Having examined one
prism B with respect to all the colours in the spectrum
formed by A, we put another B in its place. Then bring¬
ing A to all its former positions successively, by means of
a graduated arch HGK, we were certain, that when the in¬
dex was at the same division of the arch, it was the very
ray which had been made to pass through the first prism
B in a former experiment. We did not solicitously endea¬
vour to find the very extreme red and violet rays ; because,
although we did not learn the whole dispersions of the two
prisms, we learned their proportions, which is the circum¬
stance wanted in the construction of achromatic glasses. It
ISO
TELESCOPE.
Teles ope. is in vain to attempt this by measuring the spectrums them-
selves ; for we cannot be certain of selecting the very same
colours for the comparison, because they succeed in an in¬
sensible gradation.
The intelligent reader will readily observe that we have
hitherto proceeded on the supposition that when, by means
of contrary refractions, we have united the extreme red and
violet rays, we have also united all the others. But this is
quite gratuitous. Sir Isaac Newton would however have
made the same supposition ; for he imagined that the differ¬
ent colours divided the spectrum formed by all substances
in the proportions of a musical canon. This is a mistake.
When a spectrum is formed by a prism of crown-glass, and
another of precisely the same length is formed by the side
of it by a prism of flint-glass, the confine between the green
and blue will be found precisely in the middle of the first
spectrum, but in the second it will be considerably nearer
to the red extremity. In short, different substances do not
disperse the colours in the same proportion.
The effect of this irrationality (so to call it) of disper¬
sion, will appear plainly in the following manner: Let A
(fig. 13) represent a spot of white solar light falling per-
Fig. 13.
  R^oV^s n -v- ^ g'
 k 0 y clr I* v a
  tt o y
Let us now suppose that, instead of a white spot at A, Telescope,
we have a prismatic spectrum AB (fig. 14), and that the '
Fig. 14.
prism of common glass is applied, as before, immediately
behind the prism which forms the spectrum AB. We
know that this will be refracted sidewise, and will make a
spectrum ROYGBPC, inclined to the plane of refraction
in an angle of 45° ; so that drawing the perpendicular RC',
we have RC' = C'C.
We also know that the prism of flint-glass would refract
the spectrum formed by the first prism on EHF, in such a
manner that the red ray will go to R, the violet to C, and
the intermediate rays to points o, y, g, b, p) v, so situated
that O'o is zr R'O' of the other figure, Yy is = R'Y' of that
figure, Gg — R'G', &c. These points must therefore lie
in a curve RoygbpvC, which is convex towards the axis
R'C'. In like manner, we may be assured that Dr Blair’s
fluid will form a spectrum Ho'y'g'b'p'v'C, concave toward
R'C.
pendicularly on a wall. Suppose a prism of common glass
placed behind the hole through which the light is admitted,
with its refracting angle facing the left hand. It will re¬
fract the beam of light to the right, and will at the same
time disperse this heterogeneous light into its component
rays, carrying the extreme red ray from A to R, the extreme
orange from A to O, the extreme yellow from A to Y, &c.
and will form the usual prismatic spectrum ROYGBPVC.
If the whole length RC be divided into 1000 parts, we
shall have (when the whole refraction AR is small) RO
very nearly 125, RY = 200, RG = 333, RB — 500,
RP = 667, RV = 778, and RC = 1000; this being the
proportion observed in the differences of the sines of re¬
fraction by Sir Isaac Newton.
Perhaps a refracting medium may be found such, that
a prism made of it would refract the white light from A',
in the upper line of this figure, in such a manner that a
spectrum R'O'YG'BP'V'C' shall be formed at the same
distance from A', and of the same length, but divided in a
different proportion. We do not know that such a medium
has been found; but we know that a prism of flint-glass has
its refractive and dispersive powers so constituted, that if
A'H be taken about one third of AR, a spot of white light,
formed by rays falling perpendicularly at H', will be so re¬
fracted and dispersed that the extreme red ray will be car¬
ried from H' to R', and the extreme violet from H' to C',
and the intermediate colours to intermediate points, form¬
ing a spectrum resembling the other, but having the colours
more constipated towards R', and more dilated towards C ;
so that the ray which the common glass carried to the mid¬
dle point B of the spectrum RC is now in a point B' of the
spectrum R'C', considerably nearer to R'.
Dr R. Blair found, on the other hand, that certain
fluids, particularly such as contain the muriatic acid, when
formed into a prism, will refract the light from H" (in the
lower line) so as to form a spectrum R"C" equal to RC,
and as far removed from A" as RC is from A, but having
the colours more dilated toward R", and more constipat¬
ed toward C, than is observed in RC; so that the ray
which was carried by the prism of common glass to the
middle point B, is carried to a point B", considerably near¬
er to C".
Let it be observed, by the way, that this is a very good
method for discovering whether a medium disperses the
light in the same proportion with the prism which is em¬
ployed for forming the first spectrum AB or EF. It dis¬
perses in the same or in a different proportion, according
as the oblique spectrum is straight *or crooked; and the
exact proportion corresponding to each colour is found by
measuring the ordinates of the curves R6C or Rb'C.
Having formed the oblique spectrum RBC by a prism
of common glass, we know that an equal prism of the same
glass, placed in a contrary position, will bring back all the
rays from the spectrum RBC to the spectrum AB, laying
each colour on its former place.
In like manner, having formed the oblique spectrum
R5C by a prism of flint-glass, we know that another prism
of flint-glass, placed in the opposite direction, will bring all
the rays back to the spectrum EHF.
But having formed the oblique spectrum RBC by a prism
of common glass, if we place the flint-glass prism in the
contrary position, it will bring the colour R back to E, and
the colour C to F; but it will not bring the colour B to H,
but to a point A, such that BA is equal to AH, and AB to
AH. In like manner, the other colours will not be brought
back to the straight line EHF, but to a curve EAF, form¬
ing a crooked spectrum.
In like manner, the fluids discovered by Dr Blair, when
employed to bring back the oblique spectrum RBC formed
by common glass, will bring its extremities back to E and
F, and form the crooked spectrum EA'F lying beyond EHF.
This experiment evidently gives us another method for
examining the proportionality of the dispersion of different
substances.
Having, by common glass, brought back the oblique
spectrum formed by common glass to its natural place
AB, suppose the original spectrum at AB to contract gra¬
dually (as Newton has made it to do by means of a lens),
it is plain that the oblique spectrum will also contract, and
so will the second spectrum at AB; and it will at last co¬
alesce into a white spot. The effect will be equivalent
to a gradual compression of the whole figure, by which
the parallel lines AR and BC gradually approach, and at
last unite.
In like manner, when the oblique spectrum formed by
TELESCOPE.
161
(tope, flint-glass is brought back to EHF by a flint-glass prism,
''and the figure compressed in the same gradual manner, all
the colours will coalesce into a white spot.
But when flint-glass is employed to bring back the oblique
spectrum formed by common glass, it forms the crooked
spectrum E^F. Now let the figure be compressed. The
curve EAF will be doubled down on the line HA, and there
will be formed a compound spectrum HA, quite unlike the
common spectrum, being purple or claret coloured at H by
the mixture of the extreme red and violet, and green edged
with blue at A by the mixture of the green and blue. The
fluid prisms would in like manner form a spectrum of the
same kind on the other side of H.
This is precisely what is observed in achromatic object-
glasses made of crown-glass and flint: for the refraction
from A to R corresponds to the refraction of the convex
crown-glass ; and the contrary refraction from R to E cor¬
responds to the contrary refraction of the concave flint-
glass, which still leaves a part of the first refraction, pro¬
ducing a convergence to the axis of the telescope. It is
found to give a purple or wine-coloured focus, and within
this a green one, and between these an imperfect white.
Dr Blair found, that when the eye-glass was drawn out be¬
yond its proper distance, a star was surrounded by a green
fringe, by the rays of the green end of the spectrum,
which crossed each other within the focus; and when the
eye-glass was too near the object-glass, the star had a wine-
coloured fringe. The green rays were ultimately most re¬
fracted. We should expect the fringe to be of a blue
colour rather than a green. But this is easily explained.
The extreme violet rays are very faint, so as hardly to be
sensible; therefore, when a compound glass is made as
achromatic as possible to our senses, in all probability (nay
certainly) these almost insensible violet rays are left out,
and perhaps the extreme colours which are united are the
red and the middle violet rays. This makes the green to
be the mean ray, and therefore the most outstanding when
the dispersions are not proportional.
Dr Blair very properly calls these spectrums, HA and
HA', secondary spectrums, and seems to think that he is the
first who has taken notice of them as indispensably neces¬
sary. But this subject was touched by Clairaut, and fully
discussed by Boscovich.
The most essential service which the public has received
at the hands of Dr Blair, is the discovery of fluid mediums
of proper dispersive power. By composing the lenses of
such substances, we are at once freed from the irregula¬
rities in the refraction and dispersion of flint-glass, from
which the chemists have not been able to free it. In what¬
ever way this glass is made, it consists of parts which dif¬
fer both in refractive and dispersive power ; and when
taken up from the pot, these parts mix in threads, which
may be disseminated through the mass in any degree of
fineness. But they still retain their properties ; and when
a piece of flint-glass has been formed into a lens, the eye,
placed in its focus, sees the whole surface occupied by glis¬
tening threads or broader veins running across it. Great
rewards have been offered for removing this defect, but
hitherto to no purpose. We beg leave to propose the fol¬
lowing method. Let the glass be reduced to powder, and
then melted with a great proportion of alkaline salt, so as
to make a liquor silicum. When precipitated from this by
an acid, it must be in a state of very uniform composition.
If again melted into glass, we should hope that it would be
tree from this defect; if not, the case seems to be desperate.
But by using a fluid medium, Dr Blair was released from
all this embarrassment; and he acquired another immense
advantage, that of adjusting at pleasure both the refractive
and dispersive powers of his lenses. In solid lenses, we
do not know whether we have taken the curvatures suited
to the refractions till our glass is finished ; and if we have
VOL. XXI.
mistaken the proportions, all our labour is lost. But when Telescope,
fluids are used, it is enough that we know nearly the re- y"*** '
fractions. We suit our focal distances to these, and then
select our curvature, so as to remove the aberration of
figure, preserving the focal distances. Thus, by properly
tempering the fluid mediums, we bring the lens to agree
precisely with the theory, perfectly achromatic, and the
aberration of figure as much corrected as is possible.
Dr Blair examined the refractive and dispersive powers
of a great variety of substances, and found great varieties
in their actions on the different colours. This is indeed
what every well-informed naturalist would expect. There
is no doubt now among naturalists about the mechanical
connection of the phenomena of nature; and all are agreed
that the chemical actions of the particles of matter are per¬
fectly like in kind to the action of gravitating bodies; that
all these phenomena are the effects of forces like those
which we call attractions and repulsions, and which we ob¬
serve in magnets and electrified bodies; that light is re¬
fracted by forces of the same kind, but differing chiefly in
the small extent of their sphere of activity. We cannot
derive much knowledge from what he has already publish¬
ed, because it was chiefly with the intention of giving a
popular, though not an accurate, view of the subject. The
constructions which are there mentioned are not those which
he found most effectual, but those which would be most
easily understood, or demonstrated by the slight theory
which is contained in the dissertation ; besides, the manner
of expressing the difference of refrangibility, perhaps chosen
for its paradoxial appearance, does not give us a clear no¬
tion of the characteristic differences of the substances ex¬
amined. Those rays which are ultimately most deflected
from their direction, are said to have become the most re¬
frangible by the combination of different substances, al¬
though in all the particular refractions by which this effect
is produced, they are less refracted than the violet light.
We can just gather this much, that common glass disperses
the rays in such a manner that the ray which is in the con¬
fine of the green and blue occupies the middle of the
prismatic spectrum; but in glasses, and many other sub¬
stances which are more dispersive, this ray is nearer to the
ruddy extremity of the spectrum. While therefore the
straight line RC' (fig. 14) terminates the ordinates On',
YY', G</, &c., which represent the dispersion of common
glass, the ordinates which express the dispersions of these
substances are terminated by a curve passing through R and
C', but lying below the line RC'. When therefore parallel
heterogeneous light is made to converge to the axis of a
convex lens of common glass, as happens at F (in fig. 8)
the light is dispersed, and the violet rays have a shorter
focal distance. If we now apply a concave lens of greater
dispersive power, the red and violet rays are brought to
one focus F; but the green rays, not being so much re¬
fracted away from F, are left behind at <p, and have now a
shorter focal distance. But Dr Blair afterwards found that
this was not the case with the muriate acid, and some solu¬
tions in it. He found that the ray which common glass
caused to occupy the middle of the spectrum, was much
nearer to the blue extremity when refracted by these fluids.
Therefore a concave lens formed of such fluids which
united the red and violet rays in F', refracted the green
rays to f.
Having observed this, it was an obvious conjecture, that
a mixture of some of these fluids might produce a medium,
whose action on the intermediate rays should have the
same proportion that is observed on common glass; or that
two of them might be found which formed spectra similarly
divided, and yet differing sufficiently in dispersive power
to enable us to destroy the dispersion by contrary refrac¬
tions, without destroying the whole refraction. Dr Blair
accordingly found a mixture of ammoniacal and mercurial
162
Telescope, salts, and also some other substances, which produced dis-
' v-*'-" persions proportional to that of glass, with respect to the
different colours.
And thus did the result of this intricate and laborious
investigation correspond to his utmost wishes. He pro¬
duced achromatic telescopes which seem as perfect as the
thing will admit of; for he was able to give them such
apertures, that the incorrigible aberration arising from the
spherical surfaces becomes a sensible quantity, so as to
preclude farther amplification of the eye-glasses. e have
examined one of his telescopes. The focal distance of the
object-glass did not exceed 17 inches, and the aperture
was fully 3^- inches. We viewed some single and double
stars, and some common objects, with this telescope and
found, that in magnifying power, brightness, and distinct¬
ness, it was manifestly superior to one of Mr Dollond’s of
42 inches focal length. It also gave us an opportunity of
admiring the dexterity of the London artists, who could
work the glasses with such accuracy. We had most dis¬
tinct vision of a star when using an erecting eye-piece,
which made this telescope magnify more than a hundred
times; and we found the field of vision as uniformly dis¬
tinct as with Dollond’s 42-inch telescope magnifying forty-
six times. The intelligent reader must admire the nice
figuring and centring of the very deep eye-glasses which
are necessary for this amplification.
We now proceed to consider the eye-pieces or glasses of
telescopes. The proper construction of an eye-piece is not
less essential than that of the object-glass. But our limits
will not allow us to treat this subject in the same detail.
Our readers will find abundant information in Dr Smith’s
Optics concerning the eye-glasses, chiefly deduced from
Huyghens’s fine theory of aberration. At the same time,
we ’must again pay Mr Dollond the merited compliment of
saying, that he was the first who made any scientific appli¬
cation of this theory to the compound eye-piece for erect¬
ing the object. His eye-pieces of five and six glasses are
very ingenious reduplications of Huyghens’s eye-pieces of
two glasses, and would probably have superseded all others,
had not his discovery of achromatic object-glasses caused
opticians to consider the chromatic dispersion with more
attention, and pointed out methods of correcting it in the
eye-piece without any compound eye-glasses. They have
found that this may be more conveniently done with four
eye-glasses, without sensibly diminishing the advantages
which Huyghens showed to result from employing many
small refractions instead of a lesser number of great ones.
As this is a curious subject, we shall add what may be suf¬
ficient for making our readers fully acquainted with it, and
content ourselves with merely mentioning the principles of
the other rules for constructing an eye-piece.
Such readers as are less familiarly acquainted with opti¬
cal discussions will do well to keep in mind the following
consequences of the genei'al focal theorem.
If AB (fig. 15) be a lens, It a radiant point or focus of
incident rays, and a the
TELESCOPE.
ment that we need not employ any time in illustrating its Telescop*
Figr. 15.
focus of parallel rays
coming from the oppo¬
site side; then,
J. Draw the perpen¬
dicular ao! to the axis,
meeting the incident ray
in a\ and a’A to the centre of the lens,
rav BF is parallel to a'A ; for Ra' : a'A
='RB: BF (
performance. .
The simple astronomical telescope is represented in fig.
16. The beam of parallel rays, inclined to the axis, is
T
Fig. 16.
made to converge to a point G, where it forms an image of
the lowest point of a very distant object. These rays de¬
cussating from G fall on the eye-glass; the ray from the
lowest point B of the object-glass falls on the eye-glass at
b; and the ray from A falls on a; and the ray from the
centre O falls on o. These rays are rendered parallel, or
nearly so, by refraction through the eye-glass, and take the
direction bi', ol, ai. If the eye be placed so that this pencil
of parallel rays may enter it, they converge to a point of
the retina, and give distinct vision to the lowest point of
the object. It appears inverted, because the rays by which
we see its lowest point come in the direction which in
simple vision is connected with the upper point of an ob¬
ject. They come from above, and therefore are thought to
proceed from above. We see the point as if situated in
the direction lo. In like manner, the eye placed at I sees
the upper point of the object in the direction IP, and its
middle in the direction IE. The proper place for the eye
is I; if brought much nearer the glass, or removed much
farther from it, some or the whole of this extreme pencil
of rays will not enter the pupil. It is therefore of import¬
ance to determine this point. Because the eye requires
parallel rays for distinct vision, it is plain that F must be
the principal focus of the eye-glass. Therefore, by the
common focal theorem, OF : OE = OE : 01, or OF : FE
= OE:EL
The magnifying power being measured by the magni¬
tude of the visual angle, compared with the magnitude of
, , . , , , , , o\p oIF
the visual angle with the naked eye, we have or
for the measure of the magnifying power. This is very
, OE OF
nearly=_r 0r
The refracted
(= Ra : a A)
RA : AF), which is the focal theorem.
2. An oblique pencil BP6 proceeding from any point P
which is not in the axis, is collected to the point f, where
the refracted ray BF cuts the line P.A/ drawn from P
through the centre of the lens: for Pa' : a'A = PB : Byj
which is also the focal theorem.
The Galilean telescope is susceptible of so little improve-
As the line OE, joining the centres of the lenses, and
perpendicular to their surfaces, is called the axis of the
telescope, so the ray OG is called the axis of the oblique
pencil, being really the axis of the cone of light which has
the object-glass for its base. This ray is through its whole
course the axis of the oblique pencil; and when its course
is determined, the amplification, the field of vision, the
apertures of the glasses, are all determined. For this pur¬
pose we have only to consider the centre of the object-glass
as a radical point, and trace the process of a ray from this
point through the other glasses: this will be the axis of
some oblique pencil.
It is evident, therefore, that the field of vision depends
on the breadth of the eye-glass. Should we increase this,
the extreme pencil will pass through I, because O and I
are still the conjugate foci of the eye-glass. On the other
hand, the angle resolved on for the extent or field of vision
gives the breadth of the eye-glass.
We may here observe, by the way, that for all optical in¬
struments there must be two optical figures considered.
The first shows the progress of a pencil of rays coming
from one point of the object. The various focuses of this
pencil show the places of the different images, real or vir¬
tual. Such a figure is formed by the three rays AG«f,
4
TELESCOPE.
Fig. 17.
to
i
±:
'elesppe. OGoI, BGfc. The second shows the progress of the axes
—of the different pencils proceeding through the centre of
the object-glass. The focuses of this pencil of axes show
the places where an image of the object-glass is formed;
and this field determines the field of vision, the apertures
of the lenses, and the amplification or magnifying power.
The three rays OGoI, OFEI, OHPI, form this figure.
See also fig. 24, where the progress of both sets of pen¬
cils is more diversified.
f he perfection of a telescope is to represent an object
in its proper shape, distinctly magnified, with a great field
of vision, and sufficiently bright. But there are limits to
all these qualities; and an increase of one of them, for the
most part, diminishes the rest. The brightness depends on
the aperture of the object-glass, and will increase in the
same proportion (because u' will always be to AB in the
proportion of EF to FO), till the diameter of the emergent
pencil is equal to that of the pupil of the eye. Increasing
the object-glass any more, can send no more light into the
eye. But we cannot make the emergent pencil nearly so
large as this when the telescope magnifies much ; for the
j great aperture of the object-glass produces an indistinct
image at GF, and its indistinctness is magnified by the eye¬
glass.
A great field of vision is incompatible with the true shape
of the object; for it is not strictly true that all rays flowing
from O are refracted to I. Those rays which go to the
margin of the eye-glass cross the axis between E and I;
and therefore they cross it at a greater angle than if they
passed through I. Now had they really
passed through I, the object would have
been represented in its due proportions.
Therefore, since the angles of the marginal
parts are enlarged by the aberration of
the eye-glass, the marginal parts them¬
selves will appear enlarged, or the object
appear distorted. Thus a chess-board
viewed through a reading glass appears
drawn out at the corners, and the straight lines are all
changed into curves, as is represented in fig. 17.
The circumstance which most peremptorily limits the
extent of field is the necessary distinctness. If the vision
be indistinct, it is useless, and no other quality can com¬
pensate this defect. The distortion is very inconsiderable
in much larger angles of vision than we can admit, and is
unworthy of the attention paid to it by optical writers.
They have been induced to take notice of it, because the
means of correcting it in a considerable degree are attain¬
able, and afford an opportunity of exhibiting their know¬
ledge; whereas the indistinctness which accompanies a large
field is a subject of most difficult discussion, and has hither¬
to baffled all their efforts to express it by any intelligible or
manageable formulae.
Ibis subject must hoivever be considered. The image
at GF of a very remote object is not a plain surface per¬
pendicular to the axis of the telescope, but is nearly sphe¬
rical, having O for its centre. If a number of pencils of
parallel rays crossing each other in I fall on the eye-glass,
they will form a picture on the opposite side, in the focus
h. But this picture will by no means be flat, nor nearly
so, but very concave towards E. Its exact form is of most
difficult investigation. The elements of it are given by Dr
Barrow; and we have given the chief of them in the article
Optics, when considering the foci of infinitely slender
pencils of oblique rays. Therefore it is impossible that the
picture formed by the object-glass can be seen distinctly
in all its parts by the eye-glass. Even if it were flat, the
points G and II (fig. 16) are too far from the eye-glass
when the middle F is at the proper distance for distinct
vision. When, therefore, the telescope is so adjusted that
we have distinct vision of the middle of the field, in order
163
Fig. 18.
to see the margin distinctly we must push in the eye-glass: Telescope,
and having so done, the middle of the field becomes indis- ’
tinct. When the field of vision exceeds twelve or fifteen
degrees, it is not possible by any contrivance to make it
tolerably distinct all over; and we must turn the telescope
successively to the different parts of the field that we may
see them agreeably.
The cause of this indistinctness is, as we have already
said, the shortness of the lateral foci of lateral and oblique
pencils refracted by the eye-glass. The oblique pencil
bGa, by which an eye placed at I sees the point G of the
image, is a cone of light, having a circular base on the eye¬
glass, of which circle ad is one of the diameters. There is
a diameter perpendicular to this, which, in this figure, is
represented by the point o. Fig. 18 represents the base of
the cone as seen by an eye placed in the
axis of the telescope, with the object-
glass as appearing behind it. The point
6 is formed by a ray which comes from
the lowest point B of the object-glass,
and the point a is illuminated by a ray
from A. The point c at the right hand
of the circular base of this cone of light
came from the point C on the left side of
the object-glass; and the light comes to
d from D. Now the laws of optics demonstrate, that the
rays which come through the points c and d are more con¬
vergent after refraction than the rays which come through
a and d. The analogies, therefore, which ascertain the foci
of rays lying in planes passing through the axis, do not de¬
termine the foci of the others. Of this we may be sensible
by looking through a lens to a figure on which are drawn
concentric circles crossed by radii. When the telescope is
so adjusted that we see distinctly the extremity of one of
the radii, wre shall not see distinctly the circumference
which crosses the extremity with equal distinctness, and
rice versa. This difference, however, between the foci of
the rays which come through a and d, and those which
come through c and d, is not considerable in the fields of
vision which are otherwise admissible. But the same dif¬
ference of foci obtains also with respect to the dispersion
of light, and is more remarkable. Both D’Alembert and
Euler have attempted to introduce it into their formulae;
but they have made them useless for any practical purpose
by their inextricable complication.
This must serve as a general indication of the difficul¬
ties which occur in the construction of telescopes, even al¬
though the object-glass were perfect, forming an image
without the smallest confusion or distortion.
There is yet another difficulty or imperfection. The rays
of the pencil aGd (fig. 16), when refracted through the eye¬
glass, are also separated into their component colours. The
edge of the lens must evidently perform the office of a
prism, and the white ray Gd will be so dispersed, that if di
be the path of its red ray, the violet ray, which makes an¬
other part of it, will take such a course dn that the angle
i'dn will be nearly ^ th of G'di'. The ray Ga passing through
a part of the lens whose surfaces are less inclined to each
other, will be less refracted, and will be less dispersed in
the same proportion very nearly. Therefore the two violet
rays will be very nearly parallel when the two red rays are
rendered parallel.
Hence it must happen that the object will appear bor¬
dered with coloured fringes. A black line seen near the
margin on a white ground, will have a ruddy and orange
border on the outside, and a blue border within: and this
confusion is altogether independent on the object-glass, and
is so much the greater as the visual angle ME is greater.
&uch are the difficulties. They would be unsurmount-
able, were it not that some of them are so connected that,
to a certain extent, the diminution of one is accompanied
164
TELESCOPE.
Telescope, bv a diminution of the other. What are called the caustic serving the same distinctness at the edge. On this account Tele*,
i-^ZiTare the geometrical loci of the foci of infinitely slen- the glass HD is common y called Ihefieli-g ass
der pencils; consequently the point G is very nearly m It must be observed lieie, however, t at ™eli 1'ie
the caustic formed by a beam of light consisting of rays distortion of the object ,s lessened there is a real distortion
parallel to lo, and occupying the whole surface of the eye- produced in the image/y. But this, when magnified by
vlass, because the pencil of rays which are collected at G the glass e, is smaller than the distortion produced by the
fs very small. Any thing therefore that diminishes the mu- glass E, of greater aperture and shorter focus on the un-
tual inclination of the adjoining rays, puts their concourse distorted image GF. But because there is a distortion in
farther off. Now this is precisely what we want; for the the second image/b, this construction cannot be used for
point G of the image formed bv the object-glass is already the telescopes of astronomical quadrants, and other gradu-
* - - - - ’ ' - i j— :i ateci instruments, because then equal divisions of the micro-
bevond the focus of the oblique slender pencil of parallel . . - , ,
ravs ia and i'b; and therefore, if we could make this focus meter would not correspond to equal angles,
e-o a little farther from a and b, we shall bring it nearer to But the same construction will answer m this case by
G and obtain more distinct vision of this point of the ob- taking the point Don that side of F which is remote from
ject. Now let it be recollected, that in moderate refrac- O (fig. 20). r™
Fig. 20.
This is the form now employed in the tele-
tlons through"prisms, two rays which are inclined to each scopes of all graduated instruments,
other in a small angle are, after refraction, inclined to each
other in the same angle. Therefore, if we can diminish
the aberration of the ray ai, or ol, or bi\ we diminish theii
mutual inclination, and consequently the mutual inclina¬
tion of the rays Ga, Go, GU, and therefore lengthen the
focus, and get more distinct vision of the point G. There¬
fore we at once correct the distortion and the indistinct¬
ness ; and this is the aim of Mr Huyghens’s great principle
of dividing the refractions.
The general method is as follows. Let O be the object
Fig. 19.
The exact proportion in which the distortion and the in¬
distinctness at the edges of the field are diminished by this
 construction, depends on the proportion in which the angle
glass (fig. 19) and E the eye-glass of a telescope, and F BGE is divided by GC, and is of pretty difficult investiga¬
tion. But it never deviates far (never one eighth in opti¬
cal instruments) from the proportion of the squares of the
angles. We may, without any sensible error, suppose it in
this proportion. This gives us a practical rule of easy re¬
collection, and of most extensive use. When we would di¬
minish an aberration by dividing the whole refraction into
two parts, we shall do it most effectually by making them
equal. In like manner, if we divide it into three parts by
means of two additional glasses, we must make each — \
their common focus, and FG the image formed by the ob- of the whole, and so on for a greater number,
iect-glass. The proportion of their focal distances is sup- This useful problem, even when limited, as we have done,
posed to be such as gives as great a magnifying power as to equal refractions, is as yet indeterminate; that is, sus-
the perfection of the object-glass will admit. Let BI be ceptible of an infinity of solutions ; for the point D, where
the axis of the emergent pencil. It is known by the focal the field-glass is placed, was taken at pleasure; yet theie
theorem that GE is parallel to BI: therefore BGE is the must be situations more proper than others. The aberra-
whole refraction or deflection of the ray OHB from its tions which produce distortion, and those which produce
former direction. Let it be proposed to diminish the aber- indistinctness, do not follow the same proportions. To cor-
rations by dividing this into two parts by means of two rect the indistinctness, we should not select such positions
glasses D’and e, so as to make the ultimate angle of vision of the lens HD as will give a small focal distance to be;
bic equal to BIE, and thus retain the same magnifying that is, we should not remove it very far from F. Huy-
power and visible field. Let it be proposed to divide it ghens recommends the proportion of three to one for that
into the parts BGC and CGE. of the focal distances of the lens HD and eb, and says that
From G draw any line GD to the axis towards O ; and the distance De should be = 2Fe. This will make ei = ^
draw the perpendicular DH, cutting OG in H ; draw He eF, and will divide the whole refraction into two equal
parallel to GC, cutting GD in g ; draw gf perpendicular to parts, as any one will readily see by constructing the com-
the axis, and ge parallel to GE ; draw eb perpendicular to mon optical figure. Mr Short, the celebrated improver of
the axis; draw DS parallel to GC, and db perpendicular to reflecting telescopes, generally employed this proportion ;
the axis. Then if there be placed at D a lens whose focal and we shall presently see that it is a very good one.
distance is De?, and another at e whose focal distance is ef, It has already been observed that the great refractions
the thing is done. The ray OH will be refracted into H6, which take place on the eye-glasses, occasion very consi-
and this into bi, parallel to BI.
The demonstration of this construction is so evident by
means of the common focal theorem, that we need not re¬
peat it, nor the reasons for its advantages. We have the
same magnifying power, and the same field of vision; we
have less aberration, and therefore less distortion and in-
derable dispersions, and disturb the vision by fringing every
thing with colours. To remedy this, achromatic eye¬
glasses may be employed, constructed by the rules already
delivered. This construction, however, is incomparably
more intricate than that of object-glasses ; for the equations
must involve the distance of the radiant point, and be more
distinctness ; and this is brought about by a lens HD of a complicated ; and this complication is immensely increased
smaller aperture and a greater focal distance than BE.
Consequently, if wTe are contented with the distinctness of
the margin of the field with a single eye-glass, we may
greatly increase the field of vision ; for if we increase DH
to the size of EB, we-shall have a greater field, and much
greater distinctness in the margin ; because HD is of a
longer focal distance, and will bear a greater aperture, pre-
on account of the great obliquity of the pencils.
Most fortunately the Huyghenian construction of an eye¬
piece enables us to correct this dispersion to a great degree
of exactness. A heterogeneous ray is dispersed at H, and
the red ray belonging to it falls on the lens be, at a greater
distance from the centre than the violet ray coming from
H. It will therefore be less refracted, cceieris paribus, by
TELESCOPE.
Te'jcope. the lens be ; and it is possible that the difference may be
W—' such that the red and violet rays dispersed at H may be
rendered parallel at b, or even a little divergent, so as to
unite accurately with the red ray at the bottom of the eye.
How this may be effected by a proper selection of the
places and figures of the lenses, will appear by the following
proposition, which we imagine is new, and not inelegant.
Let the compound ray OP (fig. 21) be dispersed by the
Fig. 21.
fu ; fg —tan. <7:1;
then GF :fg — tan.# : m tan. G ;
then GF —fg : GF — tan. g — m tan. G :
or Gg -f- F/: GF == tan. g — m tan. G
tan. g
165
Telescope.
tan. g,
tan. g.
GF = G-? -f FG
7, and is there-
lens PC, and let PV, PR be its violet and red rays, cut¬
ting the axis in g and G. It is required to place another
lens RD in their way, so that the emergent rays Rr, Vv,
shall be parallel.
Produce the incident ray OP to Z. The angles ZPR,
/ ZPR\
ZPV, are given Lnd RPV is nearly — ■ j, and the in¬
and     T , .
tan. g — m tan. G
fore given, and the place of F is determined; and since
FD is given by supposition, D is determined.
The application of this problem to our purpose is dif¬
ficult, if we take it in the most general terms ; but the na¬
ture of the thing makes such limitations that it becomes
very easy. In the case of the dispersion of light, the angle
GP^ is so small that MK may be drawn parallel to PG
without any sensible error. If the ray OP were parallel to
CG, then G would be the focus of the lens PC, and the
point M would fall on C ; because the focal distance of red
rays is to that of violet rays in the same proportion for
every lens, and therefore CG : Cg = DF : D/. Now, in
a telescope which magnifies considerably, the angle at the
object-glass is very small, and CG hardly exceeds the fo¬
cal distance; and CG is to Cg very nearly in the same
proportion of 28 to 27. We may therefore draw through
C (fig. 22) a line CK parallel to PG ; then draw GK' per-
Fig. 22.
tersections G and g with the axis. Let F be the focus of
parallel red light coming through the lens RD in the op¬
posite direction. Then (by the common optical theorem)
the perpendicular Fg will cut PR in such a point g, that
gF will be parallel to the emergent ray Rr, and to Vv.
Therefore if gD cut PV in u, and vf be drawn perpendi¬
cular to the axis, we shall have (also by the common theo¬
rem) the point f for the focus of violet rays, and DF : D/
= Dg:D« = 28:27 nearly, or in a given ratio.
The problem is therefore reduced to this, “ to draw from
a point D in. the line CG a line Dg, which shall be cut by
the lines PR and PV in the given ratio.”
The following construction naturally offers itself. Make
GM: in the given ratio, and draw MK parallel to Vg.
Through any point D of CG draw the straight line PDK,
cutting MK in K. Join GK, and draw Dg parallel to KG.
This will solve the problem; and, drawing gF perpendi¬
cular to the axis, we shall have F for the focus of the lens
RD for parallel red rays.
The demonstration is evident; for MK being parallel to
P?, we have GM : gM = GK : HK = g D : mD =FD/D,
in the ratio required.
This problem admits of an infinity of solutions, because
the point D may be taken anywhere in the line CG. It
may therefore be subjected to such conditions as may pro¬
duce other advantages.
1. It may be restricted by the magnifying power, or by
the division which we choose to make of the whole refrac¬
tion which produces this magnifying power. Thus, if we
have resolved to diminish the aberrations by making the
two refractions equal, we have determined the angle RrD.
Therefore draw GK, making the angle MGK equal to that
which the emergent pencil must make with the axis, in or¬
der to produce this magnifying power. Then draw MK
parallel to Vg, meeting GK in K. Then draw PK, cutting
the axis in D, and Dg parallel to GK, and gF perpendi¬
cular to the axis. D is the place and DF the focal dis¬
tance of the eye-glass.
2. Particular circumstances may cause us to fix on a
particular place D, and we only want the focal distance.
In this case the first construction suffices.
3. We may have determined on a certain focal distance
DF, and the place must be determined. In this case let
GF : Fg = 1 : tan. G,
Fg : fu = 1 : m, m being =
pendicular to the axis of the lenses, and join PK'; draw
K'BE parallel to CG, cutting PK in B ; draw BHI pa¬
rallel to GK, cutting GK' in H. Join HD and PK. It
is evident that CG is bisected in F', and that K'B = 2F'D;
also K'H : HG = K'B : BE = CD : DG. Therefore DH
is parallel to CK' or to PG. But because PF' =F'K', PD
is = DB, and IH = HB. Therefore gD = HB, and FD
= K'B = 2F'D; and FD is bisected in F'. Therefore
CD = CG + FD.
That is, in order that the eye-glass RD may correct the
dispersion of the field-glass PC, the distance between them
must be equal to the half sum of their focal distances very
nearly. More exactly, the distance between them must be equal
to the half sum of the focal distance of the eye-glass, and the
distance at which the field-glass would form an image of the
object-glass. For the point G is the focus to which a ray
coming from the centre of the object-glass is refracted by
the field-glass.
This is a very simple solution of an important problem.
Huyghens’s eye-piece corresponds with it exactly. If indeed
the dispersion at P is not entirely produced by the refrac¬
tion, but perhaps combined with some previous dispersion,
the point M (fig. 21) will not coincide with C (fig. 22),
and we shall have GC to GM as the natural dispersion at
P to the dispersion which really obtains there. This may
destroy the equation CD =
CG + FD
2
Thus, in a manner rather unexpected, have we freed the
eye-glasses from the greatest part of the effect of disper¬
sion. We may do it entirely by pushing the eye-glass a
little nearer to the field-glass. This will render the violet
rays a little divergent from the x’ed, so as to produce a
perfect picture at the bottom of the eye. But by doing so
we have hurt the distinctness of the whole picture, be¬
cause F is not in the focus of RD. We remedy this by
166
TELESCOPE.
Telescope, drawing both glasses out a little, and the telescope is made
'     perfect.
This improvement cannot be applied to the construction
of quadrant telescopes, such as fig. 20. Mr Ramsden has
attempted it, however, in a very ingenious way, which
merits a place here, and is also instructive in another respect.
The field-glass HD is a plano-convex, with its plane side
next the image GF. It is placed very near this image.
The consequence of this disposition is, that the image GF
produces a vertical image gf which is much less convex
towards the glass. He then places a lens on the point C,
where the red ray would cross the axis. The violet ray
will pass on the other side of it. If the focal distance of
this glass be fc, the vision will be distinct and free from
colour. It has, however, the inconvenience of obliging the
eye to be close to the glass, which is very troublesome.
This would be a good construction for a magic lanthorn,
or for the object-glass of a solar microscope, or indeed of
any compound microscope.
We may presume that the reader is now pretty familiar
with the different circumstances which must be considered
in the construction of an eye-piece, and proceed to consi¬
der those which must be employed to erect the object.
This may be done by placing the lens which receives the
light from the object-glass in such a manner that a second
image (inverted with respect to the first) may be formed
beyond it, and this may be viewed by an eye-glass. Such
a construction is represented in fig. 23. But, besides many
Fig. 23.
other defects, it tinges the object prodigiously
with colour. The ray od is dispersed at d
into the red ray dr and the violet dv, v be¬
ing farther from the centre than r ; the re¬
fracted ray vv' crosses rd, both by reason of
spherical aberration and its greater refrangi-
bility.
But the common day-telescope, invented
by F. Rheita, has in this respect greatly the
advantage of the one now described. The
rays of compound light are dispersed at two
points. The violet ray in its course falls with¬
out the red ray, but is accurately collected
with it at a common focus, as wre shall de¬
monstrate by and by. Since they cross each
other in the focus, the violet ray must fall
within the red ray, and be less refracted than
if it had fallen on the same point with the
red ray. Had it fallen there, it would have
separated from it; but by a proper diminu¬
tion of its refraction, it is kept parallel to it,
or nearly so. And this is one excellence of
this telescope; when constructed with three
eye-glasses perfectly equal, the colour is sen¬
sibly diminished, and by using an eye-glass
somewhat smaller it may be removed entire¬
ly. We say no more of it at present, be¬
cause we shall find its construction included
in another, which is still more perfect.
It is evident at first sight that this telescope
may be improved by substituting for the eye¬
glass the Huyghenian double eye-glass, or
field-glass and eye-glass represented in figs.
19 and 20, and that the first of these may be
improved and rendered achromatic. This will
require the two glasses to be increased from
their present dimensions to the size of a .
field-glass suited to the magnifying power of tfm tele¬
scope, supposing it an astronomical telescope. Thus we
shall have a telescope of four eye-glasses. The first three
will be of a considerable focal distance, and two of them
will have a common focus at b. But this is considerably
used, and are far better. We are indebted for them to Mr Telescope,
Dollond, who was a mathematician as well as an artist, and '"“"V'w
in the course of his research discovered resources which
had not been thought of. He had not then discovered the
achromatic object-glass, and was busy in improving the
eye-glasses by diminishing their spherical aberration. His
first thought was to make the Huyghenian addition at both
the images of the day-telescope. This suggested to him
the following eye-piece of five glasses.
Fig. 21 represents this eye-piece, but there is not room
for the object-glass at its
proper distance. A pencil
of rays coming from the
upper point of the object
is made to converge (by
Fig. 24.
the object-glass) to G,
where it would form a pic¬
ture of that part of the ob¬
ject. But it is intercepted
by the lens Aa, and its
axis is bent towards the
axis of the telescope in the
direction ab. At the same
time, the rays which con¬
verged to G converge to g,
and there is formed an in¬
verted picture of the ob¬
ject at gf. The axis of the
pencil is again refracted at
b, crosses the axis of the
telescope in H, is refracted
again at c, at d, and at e,
and at last crosses the axis
in I. The rays of this pen¬
cil, diverging from g, are
made less diverging, and
proceed as if they came
from g', in the line ¥>gg'.
The lens cC causes them
to converge to g', in the
line G"Cg’. The lens e?D
makes them converge still
more to G", and there they
form an erect picture
G"F"; diverging from G",
they are rendered parallel
by the refraction at e.
At H the rays are nearly
parallel. Had the glass hb
been a little farther from
A, they would have been
accurately so, and the ob¬
ject-glass, with the glasses
A and B, would have form¬
ed an astronomical tele¬
scope with the Huyghenian
eye-piece. The glasses
different from the eye-pieces of four glasses which are now
C, D, and E, are intended merely for bending the rays back
again till they again cross the axis in I. The glass C tends
chiefly to diminish the great angle BH6; and then the two
glasses D and E are another Huyghenian eye-piece.
The art in this construction lies in the proper adjustment
of the glasses, so as to divide the whole bending of the pen¬
cil pretty equally among them, and to form the last image
in the focus oi the eye-glass, and at a proper distance from
the other glass. Bringing B nearer to A would bend the
pencil more to the axis. Placing C farther from B would
do the same thing; but this would be accompanied with
more aberration, because the rays would fall at a greater
distance from the centres of the lenses. The greatest bend¬
ing is made at the field-glass D; and we imagine that the
Tel®ope.
TELESCOPE.
167
telescope would be improved, and made more distinct at
the edges of the field, by employing another glass of great
focal distance between C and D.
There is an image formed at H of the object-glasses, and
the whole light passes through a small circle in this place.
It is usual to put a plate here pierced with a hole which
has the diameter of this image. A second image of the
object-glass is formed at I, and indeed wherever the pencils
cross the axis. A lens placed at H makes no change in
any of the angles, nor in the magnifying power, and affects
only the place where the images are formed. And, on the
other hand, a lens placed alf or F", where a real image is
formed, makes no change in the places of the images, but
affects the mutual inclination of the pencils. This affords
a resource to the artist, by which he may combine proper¬
ties which seem incompatible. The aperture of A deter¬
mines the visible field and all the other apertures.
We must avoid forming a real image, such as fg, or
F"G", on or very near any glass; for we cannot see this
image without seeing along with it every particle of dust
and every scratch on the glass. We see them as making
part of the object when the image is exactly on the glass,
and we see them confusedly, and so as to confuse the object,
when the image is near it. For when the image is on or
very near any glass, the pencil of light occupies a very small
part of its surface, and a particle of dust intercepts a great
proportion of it.
It is plain that this construction will not do for the tele¬
scope of graduated instruments, because the micrometer
cannot be applied to the second image j^, on account of its
being a little distorted, as has been observed of the Huy-
ghenian eye-piece. Also the interposition of the glass C
makes it difficult to correct the dispersion.
By proper reasoning from the correction in the Huyghe-
nian eye-piece, we are led to the best construction of one
with three glasses, which we shall now consider, taking it
in a particular form, which shall make the discussion easy,
and make us fully masters of the principles which lead to a
better form. Therefore let PA (fig. 25) be the glass which
Fis;. 25.
first receives the light proceeding from the image formed
by the object-glass, and let OP be the axis of the extreme
pencil. This is refracted into PR, which is again refracted
into Rr by the next lens Br. Let b be the focus of parallel
rays of the second lens. Draw PBr. We know that Ab :
ftB = PB : Br, and that rays of one kind diverging from P
will be collected at r. But if PR, PV be a red and a violet
ray, the violet ray will be more refracted at V, and will
cross the red ray in some intermediate point g of the line
Rr. If therefore the first image had been formed precisely
on the lens PA, we should have a second image at^ free
from all coloured fringes.
It the refractions at P and R are equal (as in the com¬
mon day-telescope), the dispersion at V must be equal to
that at P, or the angle v\r — VPR. But we have ulti¬
mately RPV : RrV — BC : AB (=Bb: Ab by the focal
theorem). Therefore qYr-.qrV (or qr:qY, or
- Bb : Ab, and AB : Ab = Rr : Rg.
This shows, by the way, the advantage of the common
day-telescope. In this AB = 2Ab, and thereforeyis the
place of the last image which is free from coloured fringes.
But this image will not be seen free from coloured fringes
through the eye-glass Cr if f be its focus: for had gr, gv Telescope,
been both red rays, they would have been parallel after re- "'Y'"'
fraction ; bvit gv being a violet ray, will be more refracted.
It will not indeed be so much deflected from parallelism as
the violet ray, which naturally accompanies the red ray to
r, because it falls nearer the centre. By computation its
dispersion is diminished about ^th.
In order that gv may be made parallel to gr after refrac¬
tion, the refraction at r must be such that the dispersion
corresponding to it may be of a proper magnitude. How
to determine this is the question. Let the dispersion at g
be to the dispersion produced by the refraction at r (which
is required for producing the intended magnifying power)
as 1 to 9. Make 9 : 1 — ff' if'C — : CD, and draw
the perpendicular DP meeting the refracted ray rr' in r'.
Then we know by the common focal theorem, that iff' be
the focus of the lens Cr, red rays diverging from g will be
united in r'. But the violet ray gv will be refracted into
vv' parallel to rr'. For the angle vr’r : vgr — (ultimately)
f C : CD =9:1. Therefore the angle vfr is equal to the
dispersion produced at r, and therefore equal to r'vv', and
vv' is parallel to rr'.
But by this we have destroyed the distinct vision of the
image formed dX fg, because it is no longer at the focus of
the eye-glass. But distinct vision will be restored by push¬
ing the glasses nearer to the object-glass. This makes the
rays of each particular pencil more divergent after refrac¬
tion through A, but scarcely makes any change in the di¬
rections of the pencils themselves. Thus the image comes
to the focusf, and makes no sensible change in the dis¬
persions.
In the common day-telescope, the first image is formed
in the anterior focus of the first eye-glass, and the second
image is at the anterior focus of the last eye-glass. If we
change this last for one of half the focal distance, and push
in the eye-piece till the image formed by the object-glass
is half way between the first eye-glass and its focus, the
last image will be formed at the focus of the new eye-glass,
and the eye-piece will be achromatic. This is easily seen
by making the usual computations by the focal theorem.
But the visible field is diminished, because we cannot give
the same aperture as before to the new eye-glass; but we
can substitute for it two eye-glasses like the former, placed
close together. This will have the same focal distance
with the new one, and will allow the same aperture that we
had before.
On these principles may be demonstrated the correction
of colour in eye-pieces with three glasses of the following
construction.
Let the glasses A and B be placed so that the posterior
focus of the first nearly coincides with the anterior focus
of the second, or rather so that the anterior focus of B may
be at the place where the image of the object-glass is form¬
ed, by which situation the aperture necessary for transmit¬
ting the whole light will be the smallest possible. Place
the third, C, at a distance from the second, which exceeds
the sum of their focal distances by a space which is a third
proportional to the distance of the first and second, and the
focal distance of the second. The distance of the first eye¬
glass from the object-glass must be equal to the product of
the focal distance of the first and second divided by their
sum.
Let Oo, A a, B(>, Cc, the focal distances of the glasses,
be O, a, b, c. Then make AB = a -f- 5 nearly ; BC = b
be
c ; OA = j—j—. The amplification or magni¬
b c
ob
fying power will be = —, the equivalent eye-glass = —,
and the field of vision zr 3438' X
aperture of A
tbc. dist. ob. gl."
168
TELESCOPE.
Telescope. These eye-pieces will admit the use of a micrometer at
the place of the first image, because it has no distortion.
Mr Dollond was anxious to combine this achromatism of
the eye-pieces with the advantages which he had found in
the eye-pieces with five glasses. The eye-piece of three
glasses necessarily has a very great refraction at the glass
B, where the pencil which has come from the other side
of the axis must be rendered again convergent, or at least
parallel to it. This occasions considerable aberrations,
which may be avoided by giving part of this refraction to a
glass put between the first and second, in the same way
as was done by the glass B put between A and C in his
five-glass eye-piece. But this deranges the whole process.
His ingenuity, however, surmounted the difficulty, and he
made eye-pieces of four glasses, which seem as perfect as
>■ can be desired. He did not publish his ingenious inves¬
tigation ; we imagine therefore that it will be an acceptable
thing to the artists to have precise instructions how to pro¬
ceed.
It is evident, that if we make the rays of different colours
unite on the surface of the last eye-glass but one, commonly
called the Jield-glass, the thing will be done, because the
dispersion from this point of union will then unite with the
dispersion produced by this glass alone ; and this increased
dispersion may be corrected by the last eye-glass in the way
already shown.
Therefore let A, B (fig. 26) be the stations which we
Fis. 26.
have fixed on for the first and second eye-glasses, in order
to give a proper portion of the whole refraction to the se¬
cond glass. Let b be the anterior focus of B. Draw PBr
through the centre of B. Make A6 : AB = AB : BK.
Draw the perpendicular Kr, meeting the refracted ray in r.
We know by the focal theorem, that red rays diverging
from P will converge to r ; but the violet ray PV, being
more refracted, will cross Hr in some point g. Drawing
the perpendicular fg, we get f for the proper place of the
field-glass. Let the refracted ray R?’, produced backward,
meet the ray OP coming from the centre of the object-
glass in O. Let the angle of dispersion RPV be called/?,
and the angle of dispersion at V, that is, rNv, be v, and
the angle VrR be r.
It is evident that OR : OP = : v, because the disper¬
sions are proportional to the sines of the refractions, which
in this case are very nearly as the refractions themselves.
also p
pB
r =r BK : AB = &B
— ^ be made m. Then v — mp ;
Kb, and r — p or mak-
. Kb
11,gBi
r — np; therefore v : r = m
_ pB Kb
Z bB: M
pB : Kb.
The angle R^V = gYr + grV = p (m + n) ; and %V
= Rr : R^, and Rp —
: Rrz? — Rr : Rg, or m n
7X
Rr —-—. But Rr is ultimately
rn n 3
therefore Rg
bB AB
BK = AB — -
AB
n m-\-n vi-\-ri
I his value of Bf is evidently = bB •
Kb
and Bf—
 AB
pB Kb'
AB
m -(- n
Now
bB being a constant quantity while the glass B is the same, Telescope,
AB T,, _ ' v-~
the place of union vanes with ^ it we remove B
a little farther from A, we increase AB, and pB, and Kb,
each by the same quantity. This evidently diminishes B/’.
On the other hand, bringing B nearer to A increases Bf.
If we keep the distance between the glasses the same, but
increase the focal distance bB, w’e augment B/’, because
this change augments the numerator and diminishes the de¬
nominator of the fraction
6B • AB
pB + Kb’
In this manner we can unite the colours at what distance
we please, and consequently can unite them in the place of
the intended field-glass, from which they will diverge with
an increased dispersion, viz. with the dispersion competent to
the refraction produced there, and the dispersion p(m + n)
conjoined.
It only remains to determine the proper focal distances
of the field-glass and eye-glass, and the place of the eye¬
glass, so that this dispersion may be finally corrected.
This is an indeterminate problem, admitting of an infinity
of solutions. We shall limit it by an equal division of the
two remaining refractions, which are necessary in order to
produce the intended magnifying power. This construc¬
tion has the advantage of diminishing the aberration. Thus
we know the two refractions, and the dispersion competent
to each ; it being nearly ^-th of the refraction. Call this
q. The whole dispersion at the field-glass consists of q,
and of the angle KpV of fig. 19, which we also know to be
— p(m ri). Call their sum s.
Let fig. 27 represent this addition to the eye-piece. Cg
Fig. 27.
is the field-glass coming in the place of fg of fig. 26, and
Rpw is the red ray coming from the glass BR. Draw gs
parallel to the intended emergent pencil from the eye-glass ;
that is, making the angle Cs^ with the axis correspond to
the intended magnifying power. Bisect this angle by the
line gK. Make sg : gq — s i q, and draw /K, cutting Cg
in t. Draw ffiD, cutting gk in b, and the axis in D. Draw
M and Dr perpendicular to the axis. Then a lens placed
in D, having the focal distance Dc?, will destroy the dis¬
persion at the lens gc, which refracts the ray gw into gr.
Let gv be the violet ray, making the angle vgr — s. It
is plain, by the common optical theorem, that gr will be re¬
fracted^ into rr' parallel to SD. Draw ^Dr; meeting rr', and
join vr. By the focal theorem, two red rays gr, gv will be
united in r*. But the violet ray gv will be more refracted,
and will take the path vv\ making the angle of dispersion
r'vv — q very nearly, because the dispersion at v does not
sensibly differ from that at r. Now, in the small angles of
refraction which obtain in optical instruments, the angles
rr v, rgv are very nearly as gr and rr', or as #D and Dr', or
as CD and Dl ; which, by the focal theorem, are as Cd
and dD ; that is, Dd : dc = rgv : rr'v. But Dd : dC = D5
. bt — sg : gq — s : q. But rgv — s ; therefore rr'v — q
— rvv, and vv' is parallel to rr1, and the whole dispersion
at g is corrected by the lens Dr. The focal distance Cc of
C^ is had by drawing Cx parallel to Rig, meeting Ro in x,
and drawing xc perpendicular to the axis.
TELESCOPE.
169
Tulfope. It is easy to see that this (not inelegant) construction is
-••——''not limited to the equality of the refractions wgr, Krr'. In
whatever proportion the whole refraction wgs is divided, we
always can tell the proportion of the dispersions which the
two refractions occasion at g and r, and can therefore find
the values of s and q. Indeed this solution includes the
problem in p. 167, col. 2, par. 2; but it had not occurred
to us till the present occasion. Our readers will not be dis¬
pleased with this variety of resource.
The intelligent reader will see that in this solution some
quantities and ratios are assumed as equal which are not
strictly so, in the same manner as in all the elementary op¬
tical theorems. The parallelism, how¬
ever, of vv/ and rr' may be made accu- Fig. 28.
rate by pushing the lens Dr nearer to l
C<7, or retiring it from it. We may also,
by pushing it still nearer, induce a small
divergency of the violet ray, so as to pro¬
duce accurate vision in the eye, and may
thus make the vision through a telescope
more perfect than with the naked eye,
where dispersion is by no means avoid¬
ed. It would therefore be an improve¬
ment to have the eye-glass in a sliding
tube for adjustment. Bring the telescope
to distinct vision ; and if any colour be
visible about the edges of the field, shift
the eye-glass till this colour is removed.
The vision may now become indistinct;
but this is corrected by shifting the place1
of the whole eye-piece.
Wehave examined trigonometrically the
progress of a red and a violet ray through
many eye-pieces of Dollond’s and Ilams-
den’s best telescopes, and we have found
in all of them that the colours are unit¬
ed on or very near the field-glass; so
that we presume that a theory somewhat
analogous to ours has directed the inge¬
nious inventors. We meet with many
made by other artists, and even some of
theirs, where a considerable degree of
colour remains, sometimes in the natural
order, and often in the contrary order.
This must happen in the hands of mere
imitators, ignorant of principle. We pre¬
sume that we have now made this prin¬
ciple sufficiently plain.
Fig. 28 represents the eye-piece of a t
very fine spy-glass by Mr Ramsden ; the
focal length of its object-glass is 84 inches,
with l^th of aperture, 2° 05' of visible
field, and 15‘4 magnifying power. The
distances and focal lengths are of their
proper dimensions, but the apertures are
4 larger, that the progress of a lateral pen-
cil might be more distinctly drawn. The dimensions are as
follow:
Foc.lengthsAa — 0*775, r: T025, Cc= 1*01,Dd= 0*79.
Distances AB= 1*18, BC =1*83, CD — 1*105.
It is perfectly achromatic, and the colours are united, not
precisely at the lens Cg, but about ^th of an inch nearer
the eye-glass.
It is obvious that this combination of glasses may be used
as a microscope ; for if, instead of the image formed by the
object-glass at FG, we substitute a small object, illuminated
from behind, as in compound microscopes, and if we draw
the eye-piece a very small way from this object, the pencils
of parallel rays emergent from the eye-glass D will become
convergent to very distant points, and will there form an
inverted and enlarged picture of the object, which may be
VOL. XXI.
viewed by a Huyghenian eye-piece ; and we may thus get Telescope,
high magnifying powers without using very deep glasses.~y—^
We tried the eye-piece of which we have given the dimen¬
sions in this way, and found that it might be made to mag¬
nify 180 times with very great distinctness. When used
as the magnifier of a solar microscope, it infinitely surpasses
every thing we have ever seen. The picture formed by a
solar microscope is generally so indistinct, that it is fit only
for amusing ladies; but with this magnifier it seemed per¬
fectly sharp. We therefore recommend this to the artists
as a valuable article of their trade.
The only thing which remains to be considered in the
theory of refracting telescopes, is the forms of the different
lenses. Hitherto we have had no occasion to consider any
thing but their focal distances; but their aberrations de¬
pend greatly on the adjustment of their forms to their si¬
tuations. When the conjugate focuses of a lens are de¬
termined by the services which it is to perform, there is a
certain form or proportion between the curvatures of their
anterior and posterior surfaces, which will make their aber¬
rations the smallest possible.
It is evident that this proportion is to be obtained by
making the fluxion of the quantity within the parenthesis
in the formula at the top of col. 2, p. 151, equal to nothing.
When this is done, we obtain this formula for a, the radius
of curvature for the anterior surface of a lens; - = m
a 2m 4- 4
4m -j- 4
+
where m is the ratio of the sine of inci-
2 (m 4) r
dence to the sine of refraction, and r is the distance of the
focus of incident rays, positive or negative, according as
they converge or diverge, all measured on a scale of which
the unit is n, — half of the radius of the equivalent isos¬
celes lens.
It will be sufficiently exact for our purpose to suppose
3 .u u *. • , 31 T . 16
m — though it is more nearly
“F
10
7r
1
6r 4. 10
7r
1-
Therefore a —
In this case, - = •=
a 7
7r , I
erqno’ and *
As an example, let it be required to give the radii of
curvature in inches for the eye-glass be of page 164, col. 1,
par. 2, which we shall suppose of 1£ inch focal distance,
and that ec (— r) is 3^th inches.
The radius of curvature for the equivalent isosceles lens
34
is T5, and its half is 0*75. Therefore r = ~ ,4 ■ = 5; and
our formula is a :
7X5
6 X 5 4- 10
l—o 0*125
and b —
0*875
35
"40
0*75
0*875 ; and
b~ a ~ 0*875’ 0*125
These values are parts of a scale of which the unit is
0*75 inch. Therefore
o, in inches, := 0*875 X 0'75 rr 0*65525,
b, in inches, rr 7 X 0*75 rr 5*25.
And here we must observe that the posterior surface is
concave; for 5 is a positive quantity, because 1 — o is a
positive quantity as w ell as a ; therefore the centre of sphe¬
ricity of both surfaces lies beyond the lens.
And this determination is not very different from the
usual practice, which commonly makes this lens a plane
convex with its flat side next the eye: and there will not
be much difference in the performance of these two lenses;
for in all cases of maxima and minima, even a pretty con¬
siderable change of the best dimensions does not make a
sensible change in the result.
170 TEL
Teletzkoi The same consideration leads to a rule which is very
J! simple, and sufficiently exact for ordinary situations. This
- rcl'°r - *s t0 rna^e the curvatures such, that the incident and emer¬
gent pencils may be nearly equally inclined to the surfaces
of the lens. Thus in the eye-piece with five glasses, A and
B should be most convex on their anterior sides; C should
be most convex on the posterior side ; D should be nearly
isosceles ; and E nearly plano-convex.
But this is not so easy a matter as appears at first sight.
The lenses of an eye-piece have not only to bend the seve¬
ral pencils of light to and from the axis of the telescope ;
they have also to form images on the axes of these pencils.
These offices frequently require opposite forms, as mention¬
ed in par. 3, col. 2, p. 162. Thus the glass A, fig. 28,
should be most convex on the side next the object, that it
may produce little distortion of the pencils. But it should
be most convex next the eye, that it may produce distinct
vision of the image FG, which is very near it. This image
should have its concavity turned towards A, whereas it is
towards the object-glass. We must therefore endeavour
to make the vertical image _/// flatter, or even convex. This
requires a glass very flat before and convex behind. For
similar reasons the object-glass of a microscope and the
simple eye-glass of an astronomical telescope should be
formed in the same way.
This is a subject of most difficult discussion, and requires
a theory for which our limits do not afford room. The
TEL
artists are obliged to grope their way. The proper method Telford,
of experiment would be, to make eye-pieces of large di-
mensions, with extravagant apertures to increase the aber¬
rations, and to provide for each station A, B, C, and D, a
number of lenses of the same focal distance, but of different
forms ; and we would advise making the trial in the way of
a solar microscope, and to have two eye-pieces on trial at
Their pictures can be formed on the same screen,
and accurately compared ; whereas it is difficult to keep in
remembrance the performance of one eye-piece, and com¬
pare it with another.
We cannot add any thing to what Dr Smith has delivered
on the theory of reflecting telescopes. There appears to be
the same possibility of correcting the aberration of the great
speculum by the contrary aberration of a convex small spe¬
culum, that we have practised in the compound object-glass
of an achromatic refracting telescope. But this cannot be,
unless we make the radius of the convex speculum exceed¬
ingly large, which destroys the magnifying power and the
brightness. This therefore must be given up. Indeed
their performance, when well executed, does already surpass
all imagination. Dr Herschel found great advantages in
what he called the front view, not using a plane mirror to
throw the pencils to one side. But this cannot be prac¬
tised in any but telescopes so large that the loss of light
occasioned by the interposition of the observer’s head may
be disregarded. (b. b. b.)
TELETZKOI, a lake of Siberia, in the government of
Kolivan, extending about fifty-two miles from north to
south, and ten from east to west. It is supplied by a river
which rises in Chinese Tartary, and is bordered by a lofty
chain of mountains connected with the Altai.
TELFORD, Thomas, a very able and distinguished
engineer, was born in the parish of Westerkirk and county
of Dumfries, on the 9th of August 1757. His father, who
followed the occupation of a shepherd, died before the close
of that year ; and the orphan boy was thus left to the sole
care of his mother, whose maiden name was Janet Jack-
son. She survived till the year 1791, and had the high
satisfaction of seeing him already entered upon a very pros¬
perous career. In his correspondence with her, he is said
to have written all his letters in printed characters, that she
might be able to read them without assistance. His very
limited education he received at Westerkirk school; and,
during the summer season, was employed by his uncle as a
shepherd boy. This occupation left him abundant leisure
for reading ; and his early and eager love of knowledge he
was enabled to gratify by the kindness of some individuals,
who accommodated him with the loan of books. At an
early age, he quitted Westerkirk school and the care of his
uncle’s flock, in order to learn the trade of a mason in the
neighbouring town of Langholm. After the completion of
his apprenticeship, he continued for some time to work as
a journeyman. Langholm bridge, over the river Esk, was
partly reared by hands which were destined for more scien¬
tific occupations.
At this early period of his life, he was remarkable for his
elastic spirits and gay humour. In his native district of
Eskdale, he was long remembered as “ laughing Tom.” His
favourite pursuits were not yet scientific, but literary, and
he even aspired at the reputation of a poet. He was a con¬
tributor to the Weekly Magazine ; and one of his composi¬
tions, entitled Eskdale, a Poem, appeared with the name of
the author in a provincial miscellany.1 It is an imitation
of Pope’s Windsor Forest, and at least displays some com¬
mand of poetical language and imagery. He subsequently
wrote many verses; and from a poetical epistle which he
had addressed to Burns, some extracts were printed by Dr
Currie.
Telford at length quitted Eskdale, and sought for better
employment in Edinburgh, where he is said to have con¬
tinued, with unremitting application, to study architecture
on scientific principles. In the mean time, however, he
must have earned his daily bread by the labour of his hands.
Here he remained till the year 1782, when he was embold¬
ened to try his fortune in London. He had now reached
the age of twenty-five, and seems to have acquired new
confidence in the resources of his own talents. In his de¬
scriptive poem, two Eskdale families have each received
their mead of praise; and to two individuals belonging to
those families he owed many obligations.
Who has not heard of Johnstone’s sounding name.
Or Pasley’s, shining in the rolls of fame ?
Mr John Pasley, a wealthy merchant, was the brother of
Sir Ihomas Pasley, and the uncle of Sir John Malcolm. He
was remarkable, even in a proverbial degree, for his anxi¬
ous attention to the welfare of the Eskdale youth who re-
„ ,.T,he Poctlca(1 M“s®um > con?almnK SoJngs and Poems on almost every subject, mostly from periodical Publications. Hawick, 1784, 12mo.
Eskdale occurs at p. 267, where it is introduced with this notice of the author : “ Thomas Telford, author of the following Poem, was bred a
mason at the village of Langho m, on the banks of the Esk ; a young man of no education but common reading, assisted by some few books lent
him by the neighbouring gentlemen. Langholm, it is to be remarked, is not a village, but a market-town, containing about 2000 inhabi-
.A" ln?Pr0JLed edlt‘0I\°f tlle„P°.em Yas Printed at Shrewsbury. It is inserted in the appendix to the Life of Telford, p. 655. An
Epistle to Mr Walter Ruddiman, signed ^sMa/e Tam, and dated at Langholm, is subjoined to “ Two Scots Poems ; the Silver Gun, in
three cantos, and Hallow-E en. By John Main ” Glasgow, 1783, 4to. This epistle, which is commendatory of the Dumfries poet, was
first printed ,n the year 1779 in the Weekly Magazine, vol. xl.v. p. 151. Telford acknowledged himself to be the author. In the last
emtion ofthe principal poem, be is mentioned with commendation as a poet as well as engineer. See Mavne’s Siller Gun, p. 78, 227.
.Lona. tooo, loto. ' '
TEL
TEL
171
Jrd
paired to the metropolis.1 * This ingenious young man, then
' a journeyman mason, he received with his habitual kind¬
ness, and not only treated him with hospitality, but, we have
every reason to believe, rendered him very important ser¬
vices, and greatly contributed to his subsequent advance¬
ment. In his account of his own life, it is observable that
Telford makes not the slightest allusion to his benefactor.
As to his occupation, he states that he was fortunate in be¬
ing employed at the quadrangle of Somerset-place, where
he acquired much practical information, both in the useful
and ornamental branches of architecture. After a resi¬
dence of two years in London, he was engaged in superin¬
tending the building of a house in the dock-yard at Ports¬
mouth, intended for the resident commissioner. For this
appointment we suppose him to have been indebted to the
influence of Mr Pasley, exercised through his brother the
admiral. “ During the three years,” he remarks, “ that I
attended the building of the commissioner’s house, and of a
new chapel for the dock-yard, I had an opportunity of ob¬
serving the various operations necessary in the foundations
and construction of graving docks, wharf-walls, and similar
works, which afterwards became my chief occupation.”
Having terminated his engagement at Portsmouth in
1787, he was employed by Sir William Pulteney to super¬
intend some alterations in Shrewsbury Castle, which he
wished to fit up as a temporary residence. This baronet
likewise belonged to Westerkirk, being a younger son of
Sir James Johnstone of Westerhall. For several years he
practised at the Scotish bar, but by his marriage with
Frances Pulteney, niece to the earl of Bath, he acquired a
princely fortune; and being a man of penurious habits, he
continued till the end of his life to accumulate riches,
which his only child, created countess of Bath, was miser¬
ably incapable of enjoying. It is more than probable that
Telford had been recommended to him by Mr Pasley; and
to this new connexion he was indebted for a very favour¬
able opening of his career as a civil engineer. He was ap¬
pointed surveyor of the public works in the rich and exten¬
sive county of Salop; and this office he retained till the
time of his death. His chief attention was thus devoted
to building and repairing bridges ; but, as an architect, he
was likewise employed in superintending the erection of
churches and other edifices. His politics did not coincide
with those of his patron. “ Telford in his youth,” says Mr
Rickman, “ is known to have been tinctured with the then
fashionable doctrines of democracy, while the strong mind
of his patron derided and detested the flimsy tissue, as might
be expected from his penetration and experience. A dan¬
gerous rupture was once likely to ensue, when Telford
rather improperly transmitted some of the political trash of
the day under his patron’s frank ;5 but the latter pardoned
him, after due animadversion.”
Telford's progress in his professional career, though not
uncommonly rapid, was steady and certain ; and every new
opportunity of exerting his talents contributed to extend a
reputation which at length became unrivalled. In 1790 he
was employed by the British Fishery Society to inspect the Telford,
harbours at their several stations, and to devise a plan for—v'-—
an extensive establishment in the county of Caithness; and
after an interval of three years he was intrusted with the
management of the Ellesmere Canal. In 1803 the par¬
liamentary commissioners for making roads and building
bridges in the Highlands, as well as the commissioners for
the Caledonian Canal, appointed him their engineer. Un¬
der the former board, eleven hundred and seventeen bridges
were erected, and nine hundred and twenty miles of new
roads were made ; and under the latter board was completed
the Caledonian Canal, a work of great labour and expense.
Under the road commissioners on the Carlisle, Glasgow, and
Lanarkshire roads, thirty bridges were erected ; one of them
having a span of a hundred and fifty feet, and another being
a hundred and twenty-two feet high. In both parts of the
kingdom, he afterwards conducted a great variety of public
operations; and in 1808 he was employed by the Swedish
government to execute a regular survey, and lay down cor¬
rect plans and sections of the country between Lake We-
nern and the shore of the Baltic, near Soderkoping, and to
make a detailed Report on the subject, with the view of con¬
necting the great fresh-water lakes, and forming a direct
communication between the North Sea and the Baltic.
Having completed this service, he embarked at Gottenburg
early in October. In August 1813 he again visited Sweden,
and inspected all the works then commenced, which chiefly
consisted of excavations. The king bestowed upon him a
Swedish order of knighthood, but his good sense prevented
him from assuming the title. In our days, such honours
“ be good cheap.” Asa further mark of the royal appro¬
bation, he received the king’s portrait set in valuable dia¬
monds.
He continued for many years to be engaged in a great
variety of similar undertakings, indeed in all the most impor¬
tant undertakings that were then in progress; and a simple
enumeration of his roads, bridges, canals, and harbours,
would itself occupy a very considerable space. “ It has been
said, and no doubt truly, that Mr Telford was inclined to
set a higher value on the success which attended his exer¬
tions for improving the great communication from London
to Holyhead, the alterations of the line of road, its smooth¬
ness, and the excellence of the bridges, than on that of any
other work he executed. The Menai Bridge will unques¬
tionably be the most imperishable monument of Mr Tel¬
ford’s fame. This bridge over the Bangor ferry, connect¬
ing the counties of Carnarvon and Anglesea, partly of stone
and partly of iron, on the suspension principle, consists of
seven stone arches, exceeding in magnitude every work of
the kind in the world.”3
Telford was possessed of a robust frame, and till he
reached the age of seventy, he had never been visited with
any serious illness. While at Cambridge in the year 1827,
he was afflicted with a severe and dangerous disorder; and
although he gradually recovered a certain degree of health,
he never recovered his former vigour. He became sub-
1 The son of an unprosperous farmer had been recommended to him by his kind-hearted relations at Burnfoot; and as the young man had
not been trained to business of any kind, he thought the best way of serving him was to procure him a clerkship in a man of war. He ac¬
cordingly lost no time in writing to his brother Admiral Pasley; but the admiral informed him that he had no employment for any such per¬
son. The application was immediately renewed. An answer was returned, that he really had no employment for the young man, and could
not make employment for him. Even this answer was not received as final. One letter followred another so rapidly, that at length the ad¬
miral wrote to this effect: “For God’s sake, send me S. L., and let me see if any thing can be done for him.” This young man speedily
became a purser; and at the termination of the first French war, retired from the service in very prosperous circumstances.
* It was most probably addressed to his intimate friend Andrew Little, who kept a private and very small school at Langholm, and who
completely agreed with him in his political creed. Telford did not neglect to send him a copy of Paine’s Rights of Man; and as he was to¬
tally blind, he employed one of his scholars to read it in the evenings. Mr Little had received an academical education before he lost his
sight; and, aided by a memory of uncommon powers, he taught the classics, and particularly the Greek classics, with much higher reputation
than any other schoolmaster within a pretty extensive circuit. Twro of his pupils read all the Iliad, and all or the greater part of Sophocles.
After hearing a long sentence of Greek or Latin distinctly recited, he could generally construe and translate it with little or no hesitation.
He was always much gratified by Telford’s visits, which were not infrequent, to his native district.
3 Annual Biography and Obituary, vol. six. p. 208.
172
TEL
TEL
Tell.
Telingana ject to bilious derangements in an alarming degree; and
these recurring in the spring and autumn of 1832 and 1833,
and again in the spring of the ensuing year, greatly im¬
paired his strength. On the 23d of August 1834 he expe¬
rienced an attack, which, after affording some delusive ex¬
pectations of his recovery, reached its fatal termination on
the second of September, after he had completed the se¬
venty-seventh year of his age. He died at his house in
Abingdon Street, Westminster, and his remains were de¬
posited in the Abbey.
He bequeathed legacies to the amount of L.l6,600, but
his own relations were entirely overlooked. “ After his
mother’s death,” we are instructed, “ Telford had few fa¬
mily connections to provide for; and although he was ready
to help these, when occasionally in want of pecuniary as¬
sistance, yet he did not divide his property amongst them,
having from experience formed a strong opinion against
the removal of any man from his station in life.” Telford’s
original station was that of a journeyman mason at Lang¬
holm ; and was it for him to appeal to his own experience,
and to form a strong opinion against the removal of any
man from his station in life ? He had a cousin named
James Jackson, whose labours as a mason had rounded his
ample shoulders almost to deformity ; and being no longer
fit for hard work, he endeavoured to earn a livelihood by
teaching a very humble school in Westerkirk. If he re¬
ceived any pecuniary assistance from his more fortunate
relation, it must to all appearance have come in very scanty
portions. The moral philosophy of this engineer and his
editor is by no means suited to our unrefined taste. To
Colonel Pasley, the nephew of his early benefactor, he be¬
queathed a legacy of five hundred pounds. We likewise
mention to his credit that he bequeathed a thousand pounds
to the subscription library of Westerkirk, and the same
amount to that of Langholm. In the last days of a length¬
ened life, he had not utterly forgotten
Thy pleasant banks, O Esk, and verdant groves,
The seat of innocence, and purest loves.
The defects of his early education he had endeavoured
to remedy by his own unaided exertions in his mature
years. We are informed that he had taught himself Latin,
French, and German, and could read those languages with
facility, and converse freely in French. He is likewise
said to have been well acquainted with algebra, but to have
placed more reliance on experiment than on mathematical
investigation. A combination of science with experiment
he doubtless understood and practised, as the best method
of proceeding in his more difficult undertakings. He
was a lover of literature, and was fond of miscellaneous
reading. His relish for poetry never deserted him ; and
two poets, Campbell and Southey, were remembered in
his will. To the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia he contributed
the articles Architecture, Bridge-building, and Canal-mak-
ing. His account of his own life is however the most last¬
ing monument of his professional talents. Of his personal
history, the details are very meagre and unsatisfactory;
but the record of his proceedings, and the result of his ex¬
perience, as an engineer who had been engaged in such
important and multifarious operations, constitute it a work
of great interest in its own department.1 (x.)
TELINGANA, an ancient kingdom of Hindustan, inter¬
sected by the river Godavery. It is now possessed by the
British and the nizam.
TELL, William, an illustrious Swiss patriot, chief in¬
strument of the revolution which delivered the Swiss can¬
tons from the German yoke in 1307. Grisler, the gover¬
nor of these provinces for the emperor Albert, having or- Teller
dered him, under pain of death, to shoot at an apple placed , fl
on the head of one of his children, he had the dexterity, remes'!v
though the distance was very considerable, to strike it off ^’'v'
without hitting the child. The tyrant, perceiving he had
another arrow concealed under his cloak, asked him for
what purpose ? To which he boldly replied, “ To have
shot you through the heart, if I had had the misfortune to
kill my son.” The enraged governor now ordered him to
be hanged; but his fellow-citizens, animated by his forti¬
tude and patriotism, flew to arms, attacked and vanquish¬
ed Grisler, who was shot to death by Tell; and the associ¬
ation for the independency took place that instant.
TELLER, an officer of the exchequer, in ancient records
called tallier. There were four of these officers, whose duty
it was to receive all sums due to the king, and to give the
clerk of the pells a bill to charge him therewith. They
likewise paid all money due from the king, by warrant from
the auditor of the receipt; and made weekly and yearly
books both of their receipts and payments, which they de¬
livered to the lord-treasurer.
TELLICHERRY, a seaport in the south of India, on the
coast of Malabar, and long the chief settlement of the Eng¬
lish. But the East India Company’s commerce having in
1800 been transferred to Mahe, it has since declined, though
it is still inhabited by a number of rich merchants, and is a
principal mart for sandal-wood and cardamums. The in¬
habitants are more civilized than in the adjoining districts.
Ships of considerable burden may anchor opposite the town
in six fathoms water. Long. 75. 36. E. Lat. 11. 44. N.
TELLO, a town of Celebes, and formerly the capital of
an independent principality. Long. 119. 30. E. Lat. 5. 5. S.
TEMBLEQUE, a town of Spain, in the province of
Toledo and the partido of Alcazar de St Juan. It stands
in a pleasant and beautiful part of the province ; and here
large markets are held, especially for sheep, of wffiich vast
numbers are sold. It contains 900 houses, with 4400 in¬
habitants. There is a large establishment for refining
saltpetre, which is found in the vicinity. Long. 3. 37. 4.
W. Lat. 39. 41. 5.N.
TEMESWAR, an extensive palatinate in the Austrian
kingdom of Hungary. It is bounded on the north by Arad,
on the east by Krassova, on the south by the Turkish do¬
minions, and on the west by Torontal. It extends over
2254 square miles, and comprises one city, six market-towns,
and 180 villages, besides hamlets, containing 43,270 houses,
wdth 268,400 inhabitants, the majority of whom are Greeks,
Walachians, or Servians, but having among them several
German and Maygaren colonists of their several religions
and languages. One half of the cultivated land is devoted
to the growth of corn, about one fortieth part is planted
with vines, and the rest is allotted to pastures and wood. The
country is generally level, and is well watered by the streams
of the Maros, the Temes, and the Vega. The climate is hot,
moist, and not very healthy. The soil is fertile, producing,
when well cultivated, abundant crops of wheat, maize, and
rice. 1 he produce also of hemp, flax, tobacco, and safron,
is copious, and occasions a considerable trade to other dis¬
tricts. Wine is very good in some parts, in others but in¬
different. Both red and w hite wines are made. The rivers
are well stored with fish of all kinds, and the fields abound
in game. I he whole trade centres in the capital city, of
tne same name as the palatinate. This country belonged to
the lurks till the year 1716, when it wras a mere military
occupation of the Austrians, and was overrun with wild people
from the surrounding countries. In 1772 a civil government
was formed, since which it has gradually become orderly, and
Atl^of Knf"ecr’written by himsf1lf’ containing a descriptive Narrative of his Professional Labours: with a folio
1833 4to y IllCkman’ 0ne 0f hls Executors; with a preface, supplement, annotations, and index. Lond.
T E M
war the condition of society has much improved. Under the
old name it formed a part of the Bannat, which was divid-
■ra* ed in 1779 into three sections, Torontal, Temeswar, and
, Krassova.
Temeswar, a city of the kingdom of Hungary, in the
province of the Farther Theiss, and in the county of its own
name, of which it is the capital. It stands near the river
Vega, to which a canal leads. It is one of the best built
places of the kingdom, and is most strongly fortified, as one of
the chief barriers towards Turkey. It is the seat of the staff
of the military colonies, and the see of a bishop both of the Ca¬
tholic and of the Greek church. The former has a fine Gothic
cathedral, and the latter an elegant modern building. It
is a place of considerable trade, making oil, tobacco, paper,
iron wares, with silk and woollen cloths. Wine and silk
are raised in the neighbourhood. It contains 1360 houses,
with 12,600 inhabitants, of various nations and languages.
Long. 21. 35. 7. E. Lat. 45. 22. 27. N.
TEMPE, a spot in Greece, of great celebrity for its
beauty among the ancient Greeks. It is a valley about
seven miles long, and varying in breadth from 100 to 2000
feet, being the passage between the mountains of Ossa and
Olympus, leading from Thessaly to Macedonia. Accord¬
ing to tradition, this opening was made by an earthquake.
The river Peneus flows through it on its way to Salonica,
where it empties its waters into the sea. A modern visi¬
tor says, “ the scenery of this valley fully gratified our ex¬
pectations. In some places it is sylvan, calm, and harmo¬
nious, and the sound of the waters of the Peneus accords
with the grace of the surrounding landscape ; in others it
is savage, terrific, and abrupt, and the river roars with vio¬
lence, darkened by the frown of stupendous precipices.”
TEMPERAMENT, among physicians, the same with
constitution, or a certain disposition of the solids and fluids
of the human body, by which it may be properly denomi¬
nated strong, wTeak, lax, &c.
In every person there are appearances of a temperament
peculiar to himself, though the ancients only took notice of
four, and some have imagined these were deduced from the
theories of the four humours or four cardinal qualities; but
it is more probable that they were first founded on obser¬
vation, and afterwards adapted to those theories, since we
find that they have a real existence, and are capable of re¬
ceiving an explanation. The two that are most distinctly
marked are the sanguineous and melancholic, viz. the tem¬
peraments of youth and age.
1. Sanguineous. This is accompanied by laxity of so¬
lids, discoverable by the softness of hair, and succulency ;
large system of arteries, redundancy of fluids, florid com-
plexion ; sensibility of the nervous power, especially to
pleasing objects ; irritability from the plethora; mobility
and levity from lax solids. These characters are distinctly
marked, and are proved by the diseases incident to this
age, as haemorrhages, fevers, &c.; but these, as they pro¬
ceed from a lax system, are more easily cured.
2. Melancholic Habit. Here greater rigidity of solids
occurs, discoverable by the hardness and crispature of the
hair; small proportion of the fluids, hence dryness and
leanness; small arteries, hence pale colour ; venous ple¬
thora, hence turgescency of these, and lividity ; sensibility,
frequently exquisite; moderate irritability, with remark¬
able tenacity of impressions; steadiness in action and slow¬
ness of motion, with great strength ; for excess of this con¬
stitution in maniacs gives the most extraordinary instance
of human strength we know'. This temperament is most
distinctly marked in old age and in males. The sangui¬
neous temperament of youth prevents us from distinguishing
the melancholic till the decline of life, when it is very evi¬
dent, from diseases of the veins, haemorrhoids, apoplexy, ca¬
chexy, obstructions of the viscera, particularly of the liver,
dropsies, affections of the alimentary canal, chiefly from
T E M 173
weaker influence of the nervous powrer. So much for the Tempera-
sanguineous and melancholic temperaments; the other two ment ?f
are not so easily explained. The choleric temperament theg^lcal
takes place between youth and manhood. In the ^ ,
3. Choleric, the distribution of the fluids is more ex¬
actly balanced; there is less sensibility, and less obesity,
with more irritability, proceeding from greater tension, less
mobility and levity, and more steadiness in the strength of
the nervous power.
4. Phlegmatic. This temperament cannot be distin¬
guished by any characters of age or sex. It agrees with the
sanguineous in laxity and succulency. It differs from that
temperament and the melancholic, by the more exact dis¬
tribution of the fluids. Again, it differs from the sangui¬
neous, by having less sensibility, irritability, mobility, and
perhaps strength, though sometimes indeed this last is found
to be great.
These are the ancient temperaments. The tempera¬
ments, indeed, are much more various, and very far from
being easily marked and reduced to their genera and spe¬
cies, from the great variety which is observable in the con¬
stitutions of different men.
Temperament of the Musical Scale. “ In the modern
system, called tempered? says a German writer on music,
“ all the intervals are not employed in their original per¬
fection, as the nature of the harmonic scale presents them,
but lose, sometimes in this interval, sometimes in that other,
something of their acuteness or gravity. In fact, expe¬
rience shows that, in tuning the major and minor thirds,
the fifths, and the fourths, in their original perfection, when
we reach a certain term, we meet with a fault of too great
excess or too great deficiency; and from this faultiness
arises the necessity of tempering this or that sound, in or¬
der to combine reciprocally the intervals of one mode with
those of another, the result of which is called temperament?
The nature and the principle of temperament, as applied to
musical instruments of fixed sounds, may be understood by
perusing pp. 610, 611, of vol. xv., article Music, and p. 533
of vol. xvi., article Organ. We shall here content ourselves
with giving a very few additional remarks, and with indicat¬
ing some works whence further information maybe derived,
seeing that the subject of musical temperament is not of
sufficient importance to occupy much room in a w ork like
this. The various systems of temperament that have been
proposed for such instruments as the organ, the harpsi¬
chord, the piano-forte, &c. offer only a choice in the distri¬
bution of the imperfections of false intonation. The un¬
equal temperament is that usually adopted; but it must be
observed, that tuners in general proceed more by rule
of routine and an indifferent ear, than according to any
scientific principle of temperament. Hence the great dif¬
ferences found among instruments tuned by different tuners.
It is a common error to suppose that “ a person who sings
in tune, tempers without knowing it.” Even Chladni, fol¬
lowing the lead, has asserted this; while the truth is, that
there is no temperament in the voice of a singer whose into¬
nation is perfect, unless his voice and ear happen to be mis¬
guided by the accompaniment of a tempered instrument,
that is, an instrument out of tune. When left to itself, the
voice of such a singer, in executing the most intricate mo¬
dulations, forms the sounds in thek true ratios to the dif¬
ferent tonics or key-notes that occur, and, in the wonder¬
ful subtlety of the intonations of that only perfect musical
instrument, the human voice, possesses all the intonations
that are necessary to form these sounds exactly. Nearly
the same thing occurs in the case of such a violin-player as
a Viotti or a Paganini when he plays alone, and undis¬
turbed by the false intonations of any accompanying in¬
strument. This was actually proved in Paris about thirty
years ago, by the experiments made by M. Charles and the
celebrated violinist Viotti. We may here remark, that it
174 T E M T E M
Temper- is of great detriment to the just intonation of a singer, to hear the holy office every day, or that, when their mi- Templars,
ance learn to sing by the guidance of an instrument such as the litary duties should prevent this, they should supply it^ ““
II piano-forte, as is the common practice ; for a habit of mal- by a certain number of pater nosters; that they should ab-
^empars. intonation is then inevitably acquired. The same remark stain from flesh four days in tne week, and on hridays
applies to singers taught with the accompaniment of those from eggs and milk-meats ; that eaen knight might have
instruments with fretted finger-boards, such as the guitar, three horses, and one esquire; and that they should neither
of which the intonation is also imperfect. As to the im- hunt nor fowl. After tne luin of the kingdom of Je-
perfections of the common guitar, the reader may con- rusalem about 1188, they spread themselves through Ger-
sult the lively and ingenious work entitled Instructions to many and other countries of Europe, to which they were in-
my Daughter, for playing on the Enharmonic Guitar, Lon- vited by the liberality oi the Chiistians. In the year 1*4,28,
don, 1829. The celebrated singer Madame Mara used to this order acquired stability by being confirmed in the coun-
gr^y every singer ought to learn to play the violin, in cil of Iroyes, and subjected to a lule of discipline drawn up
order to acquire a knowledge of just intonation. Lertainly by fet Bernai d. In eveiy nation they had a paiticular go-
that instrument, and others of the violin kind, are the only vernor, called master of the Temple, or of the militia of the
ones we have that are capable of the nearest approach to Temple. Their grand-master had his residence at Paris,
perfect intonation, making allowances for the mechanical The order of Templars flourished for some time, and, by
imperfections of their strings, as we have already hinted the valour of its knights, acquired immense riches, and an
in the article Music. But still the human voice is the only eminent degree of military renown ; but as their prosperity
perfect musical instrument. It has been a prevalent opi- increased, their vices were multiplied, and their arrogance,
nion among musicians and writers upon music, that the an- luxury, and cruelty rose at last to such a monstrous height,
cient Greeks were ignorant of many of our musical inter- that their privileges were revoked, and their order sup-
vals, and possessed no instruments capable of executing our pressed with the most terrible circumstances of infamy and
modern musical scales. But it is more than probable that severity. Their accusers were two of their own body, and
the knowledge of the ratios of musical intervals, and of per- their chief prosecutor Philip the Fair of France, who ad-
fect intonation in a variety of scales, was much more exact dressed his complaints to Clement V. The pope, though
among the ancient Indians, Arabians, and Greeks, than is at first unwilling to proceed against them, was under the
generally supposed, or than the scanty, imperfect, and cor- necessity of complying with the king’s desire; so that, in
rupted Greek relics of works on music, and the very limit- the year 1307, upon an appointed day, and for some time
ed examination of Indian and Arabian manuscripts, have afterwards, all the knights, who were dispersed throughout
hitherto been able to show. The reader may consult, on Europe, were seized and imprisoned, and many of them,
the subject of musical temperament, the following works, after trials for capital crimes, were convicted and put to
Among these, one of the best is Professor Robison’s, for death. In 1312 the whole order was suppressed by the
clearness, as well as useful suggestions. Chapter 13, et seq, council of Vienne. A part of the rich revenues which they
of the third book of Salinas de Musica, Salamanca, 1577. possessed was bestowed upon other orders, especially on the
Dr Smith’s Harmonics, second edition, 1759. Dr Thomas knights of St John, and the rest confiscated to the respec-
Young’s Papers in the Philosophical Transactions, and in tive treasuries of the sovereign princes in whose domi-
Nicholson’s Journal; also vol. ii. of his Lectures on Na- nions their possessions lay. In order to justify the severity
tural Philosophy. Cavallo’s Paper in the 78th vol. of Phi- with which they were treated, the Knights Templars were
Joseph. Trans. Vol. iv. of Professor Robison’s System of charged with apostasy to the Saracens, and holding cor-
Mechanical Philosophy, edited by Dr Brewster in 1822, respondence with them, with insulting the majesty of God,
pp. 376-451. Instructions for Playing on the Enharmonic turning into derision the gospel of Christ, and trampling
Guitar, London, 1829. (g. f. g.) upon the obligation of all laws human and divine. Candi-
TEMPERANCE, that virtue which a man is said to dates, it is said, upon admission to this order, were com-
possess who moderates and restrains his sensual appetites, manded to spit, in token of contempt, upon an image of
It is often, however, used in a much nfbre general sense, Christ, and after admission, to worship either a cat or a
as synonymous with moderation, and is then applied indis- wooden head crowned with gold. It is further affirmed,
criminately to all the passions. that, among them, the odious and unnatural act of sodomy
TEMPERING, in the mechanic arts, the preparing of was a matter of obligation; and they are charged with other
steel and iron, so as to render them more compact, hard, crimes too horrible to be mentioned, or even imagined,
and firm, or even more soft and pliant, according to their Although there may be reason to believe that in this or-
respective occasions. der, as well as others of the same period, there were shock-
TEMPIO, a city of the island of Sardinia, the capital of ing examples of impiety and profligacy, yet it is altogether
the province Gqllura. It stands in an Alpine district, and in incredible that the whole order was thus enormously cor-
a very salubrious situation. It is about twenty-five miles from rupt. The pope, indeed, though he acted with severity,
the sea, is filled with antique buildings, some of the very acted with justice. He sent two cardinals to Paris, who,
extensive belonging to the nobility ol the island. It is the publishing his bull against the order, condemned those
seat oi a bishop, whose cathedral is a large, heavy, uncom- I emplars who had made the voluntary confession to be
pleted building, with decorations tawdry and ill executed, burnt by a slow fire. The criminals recanted their former
I he city is well built, has a college, two monasteries, and confessions, but acknowledged themselves worthy of death,
a nunnery, and 5820 inhabitants. I here is some industry because they had unjustly accused the order of crimes of
employed in making guns and linen cloth, and some trade which they were innocent. Several authors of those times
in preparing cheese, hams, bacon, and other salted meats. wrote in defence of the order; and Boccaccio avers, that
I EMPLARS, I emplers, or Knights of the Temple, a its extirpation was owing to the avarice of the king of
leligious order instituted at Jerusalem in the beginning of France, who coveted the rich possessions which the Tem-
the twelfth century, for the defence of the holy sepulchre, plars then enjoyed in that country.
and the protection of Christian pilgrims. They were first The king of Aragon was much pressed to treat the Tem-
called The Poov of the lioly City, and afterwards assumed plars in his kingdom as they had been treated in France;
the appellation of Templars, because their house was near but his constant answer was, “ We must first be convinced
the temple. The order was founded by Baldwin II., then of their guilt, and it will then be time enough to talk of their
king of Jerusalem, with the concurrence of the pope ; and punishment.” The people, however, were in general so pro-
the pi incipal articles of their xule weie, that they should voked against them, that they were compelled to shut them-
T E M
T E M
175
!iple, selves up In the fortresses belonging to their order, to pre-
*Vril- vent their being torn in pieces; and this precaution was re-
ri'i_ , presented to the king of Aragon as an act of rebellion. He
marched with a body of troops against one of these for¬
tresses. The knight who commanded surrendered imme¬
diate!}7, and told the king the truth, assuring him that they
desired nothing but a fair trial. With this declaration the
king was extremely moved, took the whole order into his
protection, and forbade any to abuse or insult them under
the heaviest penalties. 'At the same time he declared him¬
self ready to receive any informations against them that were
supported by proofs; but he threatened the informers with
punishment if they should fail to support their accusation.
These facts plead strongly for the innocence of the Tem¬
plars, or at least they prove that their guilt must have been
exaggerated; and many of the accusations advanced against
them flatly contradict each other, and many members of this
unfortunate order solemnly avowed their innocence while
languishing under the severest tortures, and even with their
‘ dying breath. It therefore seems highly probable that King
Philip set on foot this bloody tragedy with a view to gra¬
tify his avarice, and glut his resentment against the Tem¬
plars, and especially against their grand-master, who had
highly offended him. The principal cause of his invincible
hatred against them was, that in his quarrel with Boniface
VIII. the knights espoused the cause of the pope, and fur¬
nished him with money to carry on the war.—They origi¬
nally wore a white habit, with red crosses sewed upon their
cloaks as a mark of distinction.
1EMPLE, Sm William, was born in London in the
year 1628. I he family from which he sprung was ancient,
and is said to have assumed its surname from the manor of
Temple, in the hundred of Sparken Hall, in Leicestershire.
He was first sent to school at Penshurst, in Kent, under
the care of his uncle, the celebrated E)r Elammond, then
minister of that parish ; but at the age of ten he was remov¬
ed to a school at Bishop-Stortford, in Hertfordshire. When
he had acquired a sufficient knowledge of Greek and Latin,
he returned home at the age of fifteen ; and two years
afterwards he went to Cambridge, where he was placed
under the tuition of the learned Dr Cudworth, then fellow
of Emanuel College. His father, Sir John Temple, being
a statesman, seems to have designed him for the same mode
of life; and on this account, after residing at Cambridge
two years, which were principally spent in acquiring a com¬
petency ol Lrench and Spanish, both languages exceedingly
useful for his intended pursuits, he was sent abroad to finish
his education.
He began his travels by visiting France in 1648. As he
chose to pass through the Isle of Wight, where his majesty
was detained a prisoner, he there accidentally met with the
second daughter of Sir Peter Osborne of Chicksand, in Bed¬
fordshire, then governor of Guernsey for the king ; and his
lady being on a journey with her brother to St Haloes,
where their father then was, the young traveller joined their
paity. 1 his gave rise to an honourable attachment, which,
nt the end of seven years, concluded in a happy marriage.
Having resided two years in France, and perfectly learned
the French language, Temple made a tour through Holland,
I’ landers, and Germany, during which he became completely
master of the Spanish. In 1654 he returned from the con¬
tinent, and, marrying Miss Osborne, passed his time in re¬
tirement with his father, his two brothers, and a sister, then
in Ireland, happy in that perfect harmony which has been
so olten remarked in their family. As he rejected all offers
of employment under Cromwell, the five years which he
hved in Ireland were spent chiefly in improving himself in
history and philosophy; but at the restoration, in 1660, be¬
ing there chosen a member of the convention, while others
were trying to make their court to the king, Mr Temple
opposed the poll-bill with so much spirit, that his conduct
soon attracted the attention of the public, and brought him
into notice. In the succeeding parliament, in 1661, he was
elected with his father for the county of Carlow; and in the
year following he was chosen one of the commissioners to
be sent from that parliament to the king, which gave him
an opportunity of waiting on the duke of Ormond, the new
lord lieutenant, then at London. He soon afterwards re¬
turned to Ii eland, but with a resolution ofquitting that kin,'j-
dom, and of removing with his family to England.
On his return he met with a very favourable reception
from the duke of Ormond; and soon acquired such a share
in his esteem, that the duke complained of him as the only
man in Ireland that had never asked any thing from him.
W hen he mentioned his design of carrying his family to
England, his grace said, that he hoped he would,at least
give him leave to write in his favour to the two great mi¬
nisters, Clarendon, then lord chancellor, and the earl of
Arlington, who was secretary of state. This the duke did
in such strong terms, as procured him the friendship of these
two noblemen, as well as the good opinion of the king.
Temple, however, made no other use of this advantage than
to tell Lord Arlington, that if his majesty had any employ¬
ment abroad, which he was fit for, he should be happy to
undertake it; but, at the same time, he requested that he
might not be sent into any of the northern climates, to which
he had a very great aversion. The secretary replied, he
was very sorry he had made such an objection, as there was
no other employment then undisposed of except that of
going envoy to Sweden. However, in 1665, about the be¬
ginning of the first Dutch war, Arlington sent a messenger
to acquaint him that he must immediately come to his 1101^.
He found that his lordship’s business was to tell him, that
the king had occasion to send some person abroad upon an
affair of the utmost importance, and that he had resolved
to make him the first offer ; but that he must know, without
delay, and without telling him what it was, whether he would
accept of it, and that he must be ready to set out in two or
three days, without mentioning it to any of his friends. After
a little consideration, Temple told his lordship, that as he
took him to be his friend, and as he had advised him not to
refuse, as it would be an entrance into his majesty’s service,
he should consult no further. This business was to carry
a secret commission to the bishop of Munster, He accord¬
ingly set out on the second of August, and executed it so
much to the satisfaction of Charles II. that, on his return
to Brussels, his majesty appointed him resident there, and
created him a baronet. As Brussels was a place where he
had long wished to reside, he sent for his family in April
1666; but before their arrival, he had again been obliged
to depart upon business to the prelate’s court. The bishop
having listened to terms of accommodation with France,
Sir William wrote two letters to dissuade him from that
alliance; and these not having the desired effect, he went
in disguise to Munster, where, though he arrived too late
to secure the prince in his first engagement, yet he prevail¬
ed on him to permit five or six thousand of his best troops
to enter into the Spanish service. In this journey he pass¬
ed foi a Spanish envoy, having twenty Spanish guards to
attend him. In this manner he first went to Dusseldorp,
where the duke of Neuburg, though in the French interest,
gave him a guard to Dortmund ; but when he reached that
place, finding the gates shut, he was forced to proceed to
a village at the distance of a league, which being full of
Brandenburg troops,-he was under the necessity oflodging
in a barn, upon a straw bed, with his page for a pillow7.
Next day he was entertained at a castle belonging to the
bishop of Munster, by one Gorges, a Scotish lieutenant-
general in that prelate’s service, with what he calls a very
episcopal way of drinking. The general coming to the large
hall, in which stood a great many flaggons ready charged,
called for w’ine to drink the king’s health. A silver bell.
Temple,
Sir Wil¬
liam.
176
Temple,
Sir Wil¬
liam.
T E M
which might hold about two quarts, was presented to him ;
and, as soon as he received it, he pulled out the clapper,
and giving it to Sir William, to whom he intended to drink,
ordered the bell to be tilled. He drank oft’ the contents to
his majesty’s health ; and asking Sir William for the clapper,
put it on, and turning down the bell, rang it, to show that
he had drunk fair, and left nothing in it. He then took
out the clapper, desired Sir William to give it to whom¬
soever he pleased; and, ordering the bell to be filled again,
presented it to Sir William: but as the latter seldom used
to drink, he had generally some gentleman with him to sup¬
ply his place in this respect whenever it might be necessa¬
ry. Having finished his business at Munster, he returned
to Brussels, where he passed a year w ith great pleasure and
satisfaction.
Two months after the conclusion of the peace with the
Dutch at Breda, Sir William’s sister, who resided with him
at Brussels, being very desirous of seeing Holland, he went
thither incognito to gratify her desire ; but while he was at
the Hague, he paid a private visit to De Witt, in which he
laid the foundation of that close intimacy which afterwards
subsisted between them. In the spring of 1667, a new war
breaking out between France and Spain, which exposed
Brussels to the danger of falling into the hands of the for¬
mer, Sir William sent his lady and family to England ; but
he himself remained there with his sister till the Christmas
following, when he was ordered by the king to come over
privately to London. Taking the Hague in his way, he
paid another visit to De Witt, and, pursuant to his instruc¬
tions, proposed those overtures to him which produced the
triple alliance. Soon after his arrival at the British court,
he returned, on the 16th of January 1668, with the charac¬
ter of envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Holland;
where a conference being opened, he brought that treaty
to a perfect conclusion in the short space of five days. The
i-atifications of this alliance being exchanged on the 15th of
February, he repaired to Brussels ; and a treaty being set
on foot between France and Spain at Aix-la-Chapelle, he
proceeded for that place on the 24th of April in quality of his
majesty’s ambassador extraordinary and mediator. Here
he arrived on the 27th; and it was chiefly owing to his as¬
sistance that the Spaniards w’ere brought to sign the articles
of that peace on the second of May. This service being
completed, he returned to Brussels, with a view of remaining
there in his former station of resident; but he received
letters from the earl of Arlington, with the king’s order to
continue as ambassador, and to serve his country in that
quality in Holland, as, on account of the late alliances, his
majesty was resolved to renew a character which the crown
of England had discontinued there since the time of King
James. Sir William being now left at liberty to return to
England, embraced the opportunity; and upon his arrival at
London he was received with every possible demonstration
of favour, both by the king and the court.
Setting out again for Holland, with his new character of
the king’s ambassador, he arrived at the Hague in the end
of August 1668. Here he enjoyed the confidence of that
great minister De Witt, and lived in great intimacy with
the prince of Orange, who was then only eighteen years of
age ; but, in September 1669, he was hurried back to Eng¬
land by Lord Arlington, wTho ordered him to put his foot
in the stirrup as soon as he should receive his letter. When
Sir William waited on the earl, he found that he had not
one word to say to him ; for, after making him attend a
long time, he only asked a few indifferent questions respect¬
ing his journey. Next day he was received as coolly by
the king; but the secret soon came out, and he was urged
to return to the Hague, and pave the way for a war with
Holland. In this, however, he excused himself from having
any concern; which so much provoked the lord-treasurer
Clifford, that he refused to him an arrear of two thousand
T E M
pounds due from his embassy. Disgusted with Arlington’s Temple,
behaviour, which was so unlike the friendship he had for- s‘r %\-
merly professed, Sir William now retired to his house at. laM'
Sheen, near Richmond, in Surrey ; and in his retreat, when
free from the hurry of business, he wrote his Observations
on the United Provinces, and one part of his Miscellanies,
in the time of the second Dutch war. But about the
end of summer 1673, the king wishing to put an end to
the war, sent for Sir William, and desired him to go to Hol¬
land to negociate a peace ; but powers having been sent
from thence at this time to the Marquis de Fresno, the
Spanish ambassador at London, Sir William was ordered
to confer with him ; and a treaty was accordingly conclud¬
ed in three days, and the point carried respecting the su¬
periority of the British flag, which had been so long con¬
tested. In June 1674 he was again sent ambassador to
Holland to offer the king’s mediation between France and
the confederates, then at war, and it was accepted not long
after ; Lord Berkeley, Sir William Temple, and Sir Leoline
Jenkins, being declared ambassadors and mediators. Ni-
meguen, which Sir William had proposed, was at length
agreed upon by all parties to be the place of treaty. Dur¬
ing his stay at the Hague, the prince of Orange, who was
fond of the English language, and of the plain English way
of eating, constantly dined and supped once or twice a
w'eek at his house; and by this familiarity he so much gained
the prince’s confidence and esteem, that he had a consider¬
able hand in his marriage with the princess Mary, daugh¬
ter of James II.
In July 1676 he removed his family to Nimeguen, where
he spent the remainder of that year without making any
progress in the treaty ; and the year following his son was
sent over with letters from the lord-treasurer, ordering him
to return, and succeed Mr Coventry as secretary of state.
In consequence of this order, Sir William came over to
England in the spring of 1677; and though the affair of the
secretary’s place wras dropped at his desire, he did not re¬
turn to Nimeguen that year. About this time, the prince
having the king’s leave ’to come over, he soon after married
the princess Mary; and this gave occasion for a new cool¬
ness between Lord Arlington and Sir William, as he and
the lord-treasurer Osborne, who was related to Sir Wil¬
liam’s lady, were only privy to that affair. After the prince
and princess were gone to Holland, as the court always
seemed inclined to favour France, the king wished to en¬
gage Sir William in some negociations with that crown ;
but he was so ill satisfied with this proposal, that he offered
to give up all pretensions to the office of secretary; and
desiring the lord-treasurer to acquaint his majesty.with
his intentions, retired to Sheen, in hopes of being taken at
his word. Upon a discovery, however, of the French de¬
signs not to evacuate the Spanish towms agreed by the
treaty to be delivered up, the king commanded him to un¬
dertake a third embassy to the states. With them he con¬
cluded a treaty, by which England engaged, in case France
refused to evacuate the towns in forty days, to declare war
immediately against that nation ; but before half that time
was elapsed, one Du Cros was sent from the English court
to Holland upon a business which there damped all the
good humour excited by the treaty, and which produced
such sudden and astonishing changes in this country, as
gave Sir William a distaste for all public employments.
In 1679 he returned to Nimeguen, where the French
delayed to sign the treaty till the last hour; but having
concluded it,he returned to the Hague, whence he was soon
after sent for to enter upon the secretary’s office, which Mr
Coventry at length resolved to resign. He accordingly
came over, and went to court, as all his friends hoped, with
a full intention of assuming his office ; but he started some
difficulty, because he had not a seat in the House of Com¬
mons, thinking that, by his not being a member, the public
T E M
>le, business would suffer at such a critical time, when the con-
h- tests between the two parties ran so high, that the king
thought fit to send the duke of York into Flanders, and
the parliament to commit the lord-treasurer Danby to the
Tower. After this his majesty still pressed Sir William to
be secretary of state; using as an argument for his com¬
pliance, that he had nobody to consult with at a time when
he had the greatest need of the best advice. Notwith¬
standing all this, Sir William declined the king’s offer, ad¬
vising him to choose a council in whom he coidd confide,
and upon whose abilities he could depend. This advice
the king followed ; and the choice of the persons being con¬
certed between his majesty and Sir William, the old coun¬
cil was dissolved four days after, and the new one esta¬
blished, of which the latter was a member.
In 1680 the councils began again to be changed, on the
king’s illness, at the end of summer, and the duke of York’s
return to court. At this juncture Sir William, endeavour¬
ing to bring to the king’s favour and business some per¬
sons to whom his majesty had taken a dislike, if not an aver¬
sion, he met with such treatment from them as gave him a
fresh distaste to the court, at which he seldom made his ap¬
pearance ; so that he resided principally at Sheen. Soon
after this the king sent for him again ; and having proposed
that he should go as ambassador into Spain, Sir William
consented ; but when his equipage was almost ready, and
part of the money paid down for it, the king changed his
mind, and told him that he would have him defer his jour¬
ney till the end of the session of parliament, in which he
was chosen a member for the university of Cambridge. In
this session the spirit of party ran so high that it was im¬
possible to bring the house to any kind of temper. The
duke was sent into Scotland; but this would not satisfy
them, nor any thing but a bill of exclusion, which Sir Wil¬
liam strenuously opposed, saying that “ his endeavour ever
should be to unite the royal family, and that he would never
enter into any councils to divide them.” Not long after
this period, the parliament being dissolved by his majesty,
without the advice of his privy council, and contrary to what
he had promised, Sir William made a bold speech against
that measure; for which he was very ill used by some of
those friends who had been most earnest in promoting the
last change in the ministry. Upon this he grew quite tired
ot public business, declined the offer he had of again serv¬
ing for the university in the next parliament, which was soon
after called, and met at Oxford ; and seeing his majesty re¬
solved to govern without his parliament, and to supply his
treasury through another channel, he retired to Sheen a few
days after, whence he sent word by his son, that “ he would
pass the rest of his days like a good subject, but would never
more meddle with public affairs.” From that time Sir Wil¬
liam lived at this place till the end of that reign and for
some time in the next; when, having purchased a small seat
called Moor Park, near Farnham in Surrey, for which he
conceived a great fondness, on account of its solitude and
retirement, and its healthy and pleasant situation, and be¬
ing much afflicted with the gout, and broken with age and
infirmities, he resolved to spend the remainder of his life in
this agreeable retreat. In his way thither he waited on
King James, who was then at Windsor, and begged his fa¬
vour and protection to one “ that would always live as a
good subject, but, whatever might happen, never again enter
upon any public employmentdesiring his majesty to give
no credit to any thing he might hear to the contrary. The
king, who used to say that Sir William Temple’s character
was always to be believed, promised him whatever he de-
sired, gently reproached him for not entering into his ser¬
vice, which, he said, was his own fault; and kept his word
as faithfully to Sir William as Sir William did to his majes¬
ty, during the surprising turn of affairs that soon after fol¬
lowed by the arrival of the prince of Orange. At the time
Vf L. XXI.
T E M 177
of this happy revolution, in 1688, Moor Park becoming un- Temple,
safe, as it lay in the way of both armies, he retired to the - v
house at Sheen, which he had given up to his son ; to whom
he refused leave, though importunately begged, to go and
meet the prince of Orange at his landing; but after King
James’s abdication, when the prince reached Windsor, he
went thither to wait upon his highness, and carried his son
along with him. The prince pressed him to enter into his
service, and to be secretary of state ; but his age and infir¬
mities confirming him in the resolution which he had made
not to meddle any more with public affairs, he was satisfied
that his son alone should enjoy his majesty’s favour. Mr
John Temple was upon this appointed secretary at war; but
he had hardly been a week in that office, when he resolved
to put an end to his own life. This resolution he car¬
ried into effect on the 14th of April 1689, by throwing him¬
self out of a boat, hired for that purpose, in shooting Lon¬
don bridge; having first put stones into his pocket to make
him sink speedily.
In 1694 Sir William had the additional affliction to lose
his lady, who was a very extraordinary woman, as well as
an affectionate wife. He was then considerably turned of
sixty ; at which age he practised what he had so often de¬
clared to be his opinion, that “ an old man ought then to
consider himself of no farther use in the world, except to
himself and his friends.” After this he lived four years very
much afflicted with the gout; and his strength and spirits
being worn out, he expired in the month of January 1698,
in the seventieth year of his age. He died at Moor
Park, where his heart was buried in a silver box under the
sun-dial in his garden, opposite to a window from which he
used to contemplate and admire the works of nature, with
his sister, the ingenious Lady Gifford. This was according
to his will, in pursuance of which his body was privately
interred in Westminster Abbey. There a marble monu¬
ment was erected in 1722, after the death of his sister Lady
Gifford. She resembled him in genius as well as in person,
and left behind her the character of one of the best and
most constant friends.
Sir William Temple’s principal works are, 1. Memoirs
from 1672 to 1691. They are very useful for those who
wish to be acquainted with the affairs of that period. 2.
Remarks upon the State of the United Provinces. 3. An
Introduction to the History of England. 4. Letters written
during his last embassies. 5. Miscellanies. He is a pleasing
and popular writer; and his style was long regarded as a
model of grace and elegance.
Temple, Templum, a public building erected in honour
of some deity, either true or false; and in which the people
meet for the purpose of religious worship. The word is
formed from the Latin templum, which some derive from
the Greek rsixmz, signifying the same thing. The word
templum, in its primary sense among the old Romans, sig¬
nified nothing more than a place set apart and consecrated
by the augurs, whether enclosed or open, in the city or
in the fields. Clemens Alexandrinus and Eusebius refer
the origin of temples to the sepulchres built for the dead.
This notion has been illustrated and confirmed by a va¬
riety of testimonies by Mr Farmer in his Treatise on the
Worship of Human Spirits, p. 373, &c. Herodotus and
Strabo represent the Egyptians as the first who built tem¬
ples to the gods. The first erected in Greece is ascrib¬
ed to Deucalion, by Apollonius,' Argonaut, lib. iii. Some
ancient people performed their sacrifices in all places indif¬
ferently, from a persuasion that the whole world is the temple
of God, and that he required no other. This was the doc¬
trine of the magi, followed by the Persians, the Scythians,
the Numidians, and many other nations mentioned by Hero¬
dotus, lib. i., Strabo, lib. xv.,and Cicero in his second oration
against Yerres. The Persians, who worshipped the sun, be¬
lieved it would wrong his power to enclose him within the
£
178
T E M
Temple, walls of a temple, who had the whole world for his habita-
 v--—tion ; and hence, when Xerxes ravaged Greece, the magi
exhorted him to destroy all the temples he met with. The
Sicyonians would build no temple to their goddess Coronis ;
nor the Athenians, for the like reason, erect any statue to
Clemency, who, they said, was to live in the hearts ot men,
not within stone walls. The Bithynians had no temples
but the mountains ; nor had the ancient Germans any other
but the woods. Even some philosophers have blamed the
use and building of temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno,
and his followers the Stoics. But it may be said, that it
God has no need of temples, men have need of places to
meet in for the public offices of religion; and accordingly
temples may be traced back even into the remotest anti¬
quity. See Hospinian De Origine Templorum.
The Romans had several kinds of temples. Those built
by the kings, &c. consecrated by the augurs, and in which
the exercise of religion was regularly performed, were
called, by way of eminence, templa. Those that were not
consecrated were called aides. The little temples that
were covered or roofed they called ctdiculce / those open,
sacella. Some other edifices, consecrated to particular
mysteries of religion, they called fanct and delubra. All
these kinds of temples, Vitruvius tells us, had other parti¬
cular denominations, according to the form and manner of
their construction. The Romans indeed surpassed all na¬
tions with regard to temples: they not only built temples
to their gods, to their virtues, to their diseases, &c., but
also to their emperors, and that in their life-time. . These
particulars are sufficiently ascertained from medals, inscrip¬
tions, and other monuments. Horace compliments Augus¬
tus, and sets him above Hercules and all the heroes of fable;
because those were only admitted into temples after their
death, whereas Augustus had his temples and altars while
living. Epist.
ad Aug.
' Prossenti tibi maturos largimur honores,
Jurandasque tuum per nomen ponimus aras.
Suetonius gives an instance of the modesty of that emperor,
who would allow of no temples being erected to him in the
city ; and who, even in the provinces, where he knew it
was usual to raise temples to the very proconsuls, refused
any but those erected in the name of Rome as well as his
own. The most celebrated temples among the Romans
were the Capitol and Pantheon. The temple of Saturn
served for the public treasury.
The temple at Jerusalem was similar in its plan to the
Tabernacle. The first temple was begun by Solomon
about the year of the world 2992, and before Christ 1012
according to some chronologers, and finished in eight years.
Great mistakes have been committed respecting the dimen¬
sions of this temple, by confounding the emblematical de¬
scription of Ezekiel with the plain account of it in the
books of King and Chronicles. It consisted of the holy of
holies, the sanctuary, and a portico. The holy of holies
was a square room of twenty cubits ; the sanctuary, or holy
place, was forty cubits long and twenty broad, consequently
the length of both these together was sixty cubits. The
portico, which stood before the sanctuary, was twenty cu¬
bits long and ten cubits broad. Whether the portico was
separated by a wall from the rest of the temple is not men¬
tioned in Scripture. If it was, the whole length of the
temple, computing the cubit at twenty-two inches, did not
exceed 110 feet in length and thirty-six feet eight inches
in breadth. In the portico stood the two brazen pillars
called Jackin and Boaz; which, upon comparing and re¬
conciling the seemingly different accounts in different
places, appear to have been forty cubits high, and about
four cubits diameter. The court probably at first extended
all round the temple. We are informed that the court
about the tabernacle was 100 cubits long and fifty broad;
TEN
and as Solomon made every part of the temple about twice Temp]es
as large as the corresponding part in the tabernacle, we l!
have reason to conclude that the court around the temple
was 200 cubits long and 100 broad. According to this
description, which is taken from the Scripture history, the
temple of Solomon was by no means so large as it is com¬
monly represented. Still, however, it was very magnifi¬
cent in size and splendid in ornament. It was plundered
of its treasures in the reign of Rehoboam, and repaired by
Joash: it was again spoiled in the time of Ahaz and of
Hezekiah ; and after being restored by Josiab, was demo¬
lished by Nebuchadnezzar in the year of the world 3416,
after it had stood 476 according to Josephus, and accord¬
ing to Usher 428 years.
The second temple was built by the Jews, after their re¬
turn from the Babylonish captivity, under the direction and
influence of Zerubbabel their governor, and of Joshua the
high priest, with the leave and encouragement of Cyrus the
Persian emperor, to whom Judea had now become a tribu¬
tary kingdom. According to the Jews, this temple was
destitute of five remarkable appendages, which were the
chief glory of the first temple; the ark and mercy-seat,
the Shechinah, the holy fire on the altar, which had been
first kindled from heaven, the urim and thummim, and the
spirit of prophecy. This temple was plundered and pro¬
faned by Antiochus Epiphanes, who also caused the public
worship in it to cease. It was afterwards purified by Judas
Maccabseus, who restored the divine worship; and after
having stood 500 years, was rebuilt by Herod, with a magni¬
ficence approaching to that of Solomon’s. Tacitus calls
it “ immensae opulentiae templum and Josephus states that
it was the most astonishing structure he had ever seen, as
well on account of its architecture as its magnitude, and like¬
wise the richness and magnificence of its various parts, and
the reputation of its sacred appurtenances. This temple,
which Herod began to build about sixteen years before
the birth of Christ, and so far completed in nine years and
a half as to be fit for divine service, was at length destroyed
by the Romans on the same month and day of the month
on which Solomon’s temple was destroyed by the Babylo¬
nians.
Temples among us denote two inns of court in London,
thus called because anciently the dwelling-house of the
knights templars. At the suppression of that order, they
were purchased by the professors of the common law, and
converted into hospitia or inns. They are called the Inner
and Middle Temple, in relation to Essex-house; which
was also a part of the house of the templars, and called the
Outer Temple, because situated without Temple-Bar.
TEMPORALITIES of Bishops, are the revenues,
lands, tenements, and lay-fees, belonging to bishops, as
they are barons and lords of parliament.
TENASSERIM, a town and district of the Birman em¬
pire. The district extends along the sea-coast, from the
eleventh to the fourteenth degrees of north latitude. A con¬
nected barrier of islands, extending 135 miles from north
to south, with a strait between them and the mainland from
fifteen to thirty miles broad, protects the west coast from
the south-west monsoon. The capital of the province is of
the same name. It was taken in 1759 from the Siamese, by
Alompra, and was then large and populous; but is now al¬
most a heap of ruins. Long. 98. 50. E. Lat. 11. 42. N.
TENBURY, a market-town of the county of Worcester,
in the hundred of Doddingtree, 134 miles from London,
and fourteen from the city of Worcester. It stands on the
river Teme, which here forms the boundary between the
counties of Salop and Worcester. The situation is low;
and from having a small but rapid stream joining the river
Teme at the upper end of the town, Tenbury is sometimes
liable to be flooded, from the effects of which the old Go¬
thic church has more than once suffered. It has a good
TEN
>y corn-market, some trade in hops, cider, and perry, and a
little in tanning leather and in making gloves. The popu-
,rs^ lation amounted in 1821 to 1668, and in 1831 to 1768.
TENBY, a town of South Wales, in the county of Pem¬
broke, 250 miles from London. It stands on the sea-shore,
on a peninsula formed by the river Severn. It was in an¬
cient times a place of strength and importance, having been
protected by fortifications, and flanked with batteries, the
remains of which are still standing. It has no other em¬
ployment for its inhabitants but the fisheries, and the ex¬
port of coal and culm. It has of late years become a well-
frequented bathing place, and has been provided with the
appropriate institutions for that purpose. It is a borough,
and, jointly with Pembroke, Milford, and Weston, returns
one member to parliament. Its municipal government con¬
sists of a mayor, four aldermen, and eleven councillors.
There is a market on Wednesday and Saturday. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1801 to 984, in 1811 to 1176, in
1821 to 1554, and in 1831 to 2128.
TENCE, a city of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire, and in the arrondissement of Issengeaux. It
stands on the river Lignon, where the Serigoul falls into
it. The country around it is mountainous and thinly peopled,
nor are there any large towns near it. There are some
coal-mines worked in the neighbourhood. In 1836 the
city contained 5730 inhabitants, some of whom find em¬
ployment in making linen goods, silk goods, and lace.
There are also manufactures of leather and iron ware.
TENCH’S Island, a small island in the Pacific Ocean,
about two miles in circumference. Long. 150. 31. E. Lat.
1. 39. S.
TENEDOS, in Ancient Geography, an island on the
coast of Troas, at the distance of forty stadia from the con¬
tinent, and eighty in compass ; with a cognominal iEolian
town, and a temple of Apollo Smintheus. Its origin is de¬
rived from Tennes or Tenes, who being exposed in a coffer
or bog by his father Cygnus the Thracian, at the instiga¬
tion of the mother-in-law, was by fate carried to this island,
made king of it, and at length worshipped as a god on ac¬
count of his virtues.
TENEIIIFFE, one of the Canary Islands, situated off
the western coast of Africa. Long. 17. W. Lat. 28. 20. N.
See Canaries.
TENGALLE, a seaport of Ceylon, situated near the
south extremity of the island, containing 300 inhabitants,
many of whom are fishermen. Long. 80. 48. E. Lat. 6.
3. N.
TENIERS, David, the elder, a Flemish painter, born
at Antwerp in 1582, received the first rudiments of his art
from the famous Rubens, who highly esteemed him for his
promising genius, and with great satisfaction examined and
commended his designs. From the school of that cele¬
brated painter Teniers went to finish his studies at Rome.
He attached himself to Adam Elsheimer for six years; and
from the instructions of two such incomparable masters, he
♦formed to himself a peculiar style, which his son afterwards
cultivated so happily as to bring it to the utmost perfec¬
tion. His pictures were small; and his subjects usually
shops, laboratories, humorous conversations, and rural fes¬
tivities. 1 he demand for his pieces was universal; and
even his master Rubens thought them an ornament to his
cabinet. He died at Antwerp in 1640.
Teniers, David, the younger, also an admirable painter,
was the son of the former, and was born at Antwerp in
1610. He obtained the name ol Ape of Painting, from his
imitating the manner of different painters with such exact¬
ness as to deceive even the nicest judges. He greatly im-
pioved under his father, and obtained such reputation as
introduced him to the favour of the great. The archduke
Leopold William made him gentleman of his bed-chamber;
and all the pictures of his gallery were copied by Teniers,
ten 179
and engraved by his direction. The king of Spain and Tenison
Don Juan of Austria set so high a value on his pictures, It
that they built a gallery to receive them. WTilliam prince Tennant*
of Orange honoured him with his friendship ; and Rubens W~'y
not only esteemed his works, but assisted him with his ad¬
vice. His principal talent lay in landscapes adorned with
small figures. He also painted men drinking and smoking,
chemists’ laboratories, country fairs, and the like. His
small figures are superior to his large ones. He died in
1694. Abraham, another son of the elder David Teniers,
was equal, if not superior, to his father and brother in the
expression of his characters, and his understanding the
chiaroscuro; though he was inferior in the sprightliness of
his touch, and the lightness of his pencil.
TENISON, 1 homas, archbishop of Canterbury, was
born at Cottenham, in Cambridgeshire, on the 29th of Sep¬
tember 1636; and studied at Corpus Christi College in
Cambridge. In his youth he applied himself to physic ; but
afterward went into orders, and was some time minister of
St Andrew’s church, Cambridge; where he attended the
sick during the plague in 1665, which his parishioners ac¬
knowledged by the present of a piece of plate. He showed
himself very active against the growth of Popery, by his
writings both in King Charles’s and in King James’s reigns.
In 1680 he was presented to the vicarage of St Martin’s in
the I ields, London, to which parish he made several dona¬
tions. He endowed a free school, and built a handsome
library, which he furnished with useful books. King Wil¬
liam and Queen Mary, in 1689, presented him to the arch¬
deaconry of London ; in 1691, he was nominated to the see
of Lincoln, and in 1694 he succeeded Dr Tiliotson as arch¬
bishop of Canterbury. He performed all the duties of a
good primate for twenty years, and died on the 14th of De¬
cember 1715.
TENNANT, Smithson, a distinguished chemist, born
at Selby in Yorkshire, 30th November 1761, was the only
child of the Rev. Calvert Tennant, younger son of a re¬
spectable family in Wensley Dale, near Richmond, and vicar
of Selby. His mother was Mary Daunt, daughter of a sur¬
geon of that town. His father had been a fellow of St John’s
College, Cambridge, and began to teach his son Greek
when he was only five years old. He had the misfortune
to lose him four years after; and before he grew up, his
mother also, while he was riding with her, was thrown from
her horse and killed on the spot. He was sent, after his
father s death, to different schools, at Scerton, Tadcaster,
and Beverley. In these he was remembered as a boy re¬
tired in his manners, and somewhat melancholy, and indo¬
lent with respect to puerile amusements. He learned but
little at school, and may be considered as in a great measure
self-educated ; having been fond, almost as a child, of read¬
ing books of science, and of amusing himself with little ex¬
periments which he found described in them ; and while he
was at school at I adcaster, he took great delight in attend¬
ing a course of Walker’s lectures on experimental philoso¬
phy which were given there. At Beverley he was under
the care of Dr G. Croft, who had made himself known to
the public by some controversial writings. Here he never
entered much into the pursuits of his contemporaries, but
profited by a good library belonging to the school; and
among other books which he read with avidity was Sir Isaac
Newton’s Treatise on Optics.
He had entertained a great desire to complete his che¬
mical studies under the immediate instruction of Dr Priest¬
ley, who was then enjoying deserved reputation for his re¬
cent experimental discoveries; but Dr Priestley’s occupa¬
tions did not permit him to undertake the task of directing
his education, however agreeable it might have been to him
to have assisted such a pupil. In the mean time he had
not neglected his classics, but had acquired a sufficient
knowledge of the learned languages to appreciate with cor-
180 TENNANT.
Tennant, rect taste the beauties of the great writers of antiquity,
''■“■‘■'v'-"*’' Notwithstanding his admiration for Dr Priestley, he was
an early convert to the antiphlogistic theory of chemistry ;
which, with all its errors, was still a material step in the
advancement of science.
In 1781 he went to Edinburgh, with the view of quali¬
fying himself for the profession of physic, and he had the
advantage of attending Dr Black’s lectures, which were
then in great reputation. In October 1782, he entered as
a pensioner of Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he be¬
came intimately acquainted with the late Professor Har¬
wood, who had been first a surgeon in India, but having
lost, by the misconduct of an agent, the fortune which he
had there acquired, submitted cheerfully to the toil of re¬
commencing his career as a physician, though already past
the middle age. His talents for conversation were such as
were extremely likely to captivate a young man of superior
discernment; and he formed a friendship with Tennant
which continued uninterrupted throughout their lives. At
Cambridge he studied a little of the mathematics in the
works of Newton, but much more of chemistry and botany :
he already began to exercise his inventive powers in an at¬
tempt to economize the consumption of fuel in distillation,
which he did not make public until twenty years after,
though he mentioned it at the time to some of his friends.
He also occupied himself incessantly in general, and espe¬
cially in political reading, though he was far from having
the air of a student; but his rooms were always in confu¬
sion, from the mixture of heterogeneous materials that were
accumulated in them. His residence at Cambridge was
perhaps the happiest time of his life; his spirits unwearied,
his health unbroken, his feelings acute, and his conversa¬
tion brilliant though simple and unaffected.
In the summer of 1784 he paid a visit to Denmark, to
Sweden, and to Scheele, whose acquaintance extremely de¬
lighted him, and most of all from the simplicity of the ap¬
paratus that he employed in his researches. A year or two
afterwards he went to France, and being taken ill at Paris,
he was joined there by his friend Harwood, with whom he
returned through Holland and the Netherlands, at the
time when the bigoted people of the Low Countries were
in insurrection against a philosophical despot, while Holland
remained free and prosperous.
He was particularly intimate with Dr Milner, the master
of Queen's College, and was recommended by his signature,
together with those of Waring, Maskelyne, Jebb, and Wat¬
son, as a fellow of the Royal Society, into which he was
admitted in January 1785. He removed, together with
his friend Harwood, in December 1786, from Christ’s Col¬
lege to Emanuel, and in 1788 he took the degree of ba¬
chelor of physic. In 1791 he communicated to the Royal
Society his very interesting discovery of a mode of obtain¬
ing carbon from the carbonic acid. Having observed that
charcoal did not decompose the phosphate of lime, he con¬
cluded that phosphorus ought to decompose the carbonate of
lime; and the result fully justified his manner of reasoning.
He paid a third visit to the Continent in 1792, intending
to pass through France into Italy, and arrived at Paris not
long before the 10th of August; but he saw some indica¬
tions of an impending convulsion, and was fortunate enough
to quit Paris on the 9th. He visited Gibbon at Lausanne,
and was much interested in the sagacity which this eminent
writer displayed in his conversation.” He proceeded to
Rome and Florence, where he was fully impressed with all
the admiration that he had been taught to anticipate for
the treasures of ancient and modern art possessed by those
cities; and in his return through Germany, he was greatly
amused by the mixture of knowledge and credulity which
he observed among the studious of that country. At Paris
in 1793 he found everything enveloped in gloom and over¬
whelmed with terror. His friend Lametherie was alarmed
by the visit which he paid him ; but he had the integrity Tenmut
to preserve for him entire some property of considerable
value, with which he had intrusted him.
Upon his arrival in London, Mr Tennant took chambers
in the Temple, and was in the habit of living much with
some of his early acquaintance, who had adopted the law
as their profession ; to his own he was in great mea¬
sure indifferent, neither seeking to practise it, nor being
well calculated to succeed greatly in it with the public,
though he studied it with attention, and took pains to
make himself master of its history and philosophy, being a
particular admirer of Sydenham, when considered in rela¬
tion to the age in which he lived. He took his degree of
doctor of physic in 1796 ; and in the same year he gave
the Royal Society a paper on the quantity of carbonic acid
afforded by the diamond, which he measured by heating it
with nitre, and obtaining a precipitate by the addition of
muriate of lime; and he found that the diamond afforded
no more carbonic acid than an equal weight of charcoal.
A subsequent communication contained the result of his
observations on the action of heated nitre on gold and
platina.
The love of travelling appeared to be his predominant
passion. In his travels, he studied not only the natural
and political history of the countries which he saw, but also
their languages, and the philosophy of their etymologies.
He likewise observed the peculiarities of their agriculture;
and, in 1797, he determined, after visiting an agricultural
friend in Lincolnshire, to devote his attention to practical
farming as a serious pursuit. He purchased some allot¬
ments of unenclosed land in that neighbourhood, but he
left the management of them chiefly to his friend, and after¬
wards made considerable additions to the property by further
purchases. In 1798 or 1799, he bought a tract of newly
enclosed land on the Mendip Hills, near Chedder, where he
built a house, and resided for some months every summer
through the remainder of his life. These speculations,
though their results were at first doubtful, yet succeeded
remarkably well on the whole; more especially consider¬
ing the benefit which his health derived from the travel¬
ling and the exercise that they rendered necessary; but they
occupied too much of his attention, and of that time which
might have been employed so much more to the advantage
of the public, and to his own ultimate satisfaction.
In 1799 he gave the Royal Society a paper on the mag¬
nesian limestone, or dolomite, which he considers as rather
a combination than an accidental mixture; and the forms
of the crystals, as they have been determined by later ob¬
servers, together with the laws of definite proportions, have
tended to confirm this conjecture. Fie found that grain
will scarcely germinate, and soon perishes, when sown in
the neutral carbonate of magnesia. In 1802 he published
his paper on emery, which he showed to be a substance
similar to the corundum or adamantine spar of China, and
not an ore of iron, as had been commonly supposed. In
the month of July he was making some experiments on
crude platina, when he discovered in it a singular dark
powder, which was left undissolved by the nitro-muriatic
acid, and which was also observed the next year by Messrs
Descotils and Vauquelin. In 1804 Dr Tennant showed
that the powder contained two new metals, which he named
iridium and osmium ; and he received the Copleian medal
from the Royal Society in November, as an acknowledg¬
ment of the merit of his various chemical discoveries. In
1805 and 1806 he paid two successive visits to Ireland,
by way of Scotland, one of them in company with Browne
the traveller, for whom he had a high esteem, and to whom
he suggested the observation of the temperature of boiling
water as a mode of determining the heights of mountains;
a method, however, which had been long before recom¬
mended by Achard and others.
T E N N x\ N T.
181
Tenant. He became latterly more fond of general society than he
 / had been in his earlier years, and he used to receive miscel¬
laneous parties at his chambers, and to show them prints,
and minerals, and novelties of various kinds. In 1812 he was
persuaded to convert these mixed exhibitions into a more
regular course of lectures, principally upon mineralogy,
calculated especially for the ladies of his acquaintance, and
which highly delighted all his audience : “ Their attention
was perpetually kept alive by the spirit and variety with
which every topic was discussed, by anecdotes and quota¬
tions happily introduced, by the ornaments of a powerful
but chastised imagination, and, above all, by a peculiar
vein of pleasantry, at once original and delicate, with which
he could animate and embellish the most unpromising sub¬
jects a circumstance which, though not of much imme¬
diate importance to the public, yet probably led him the
more readily to accept the professorship at Cambridge, and
would thus, if he had survived longer, have greatly ex¬
tended the sphere of his utility.
In 1813 he delivered a lecture on mineralogy to the
Geological Society, and gave them also an account of his
analysis of a volcanic substance from the Lipari Islands,
containing the boracic acid, which has since been examin¬
ed on the spot by Dr Holland. In the month of May he
was elected professor of chemistry in the university of
Cambridge, all opposition having been withdrawn before
the election. The following spring he gave his first and
last course of lectures there. His introductory lecture still
exists in manuscript, and is said to contain a masterly sketch
of the history of the science. He communicated to the
Royal Society, in 1814, a paper on the easiest mode of
procuring potassium, and another on the economy of heat
in distillation, proposing to heat a second boiler by the con¬
densation of the steam of the first. In the spring and sum¬
mer of this year he was occupied in searching for the origin
of iodine, and he succeeded in detecting this substance in
sea-water, by the test of its tarnishing the surface of leaf
silver. One of the last services that he rendered the Royal
Society, was in the capacity of a member of a committee
which was formed in order to investigate, at the request of
the government, the degree of danger that might attend
the general introduction of gas-lights into the metropolis.
He undertook, together with his friend Dr Wollaston, to
make some experiments upon the inflammation of the gas,
and they discovered conjointly the very important fact, that
the gas contained in a small tube will not communicate the
flame; a fact which, in the hands of Sir Humphry Davy,
has been rendered productive of consequences so important
to the public safety; although Sir Humphry having been
abroad at the time of tins investigation, and the report of
the committee not having been then published, he had to
rediscover this truth, and many more, in his most ingenious
and successful researches.
It was early in the month of September that Dr Ten¬
nant went for the last time to France, being impatient to
observe the changes which an eventful interval of twenty
years had produced in that highly interesting country. He
was greatly delighted with Lyon and Marseille; and, re¬
turning to Paris in November, he lingered there till Fe¬
bruary 1815. On the 15th of that month he arrived at
Calais; on the 20th he went to Boulogne with Baron Bulow,
in order to embark there. They did embark on the 22d,
but were forced back by the wind, and meant to try again
in the evening. In the mean time they took horses and
went to see Bonaparte’s Pillar, about a league off; and go-
| ing off the road on their return, to look at a small fort, of
which the drawbridge wanted a bolt, they were both thrown,
with their horses, into the ditch.' Bulow was only stunned,
but Tennant’s skull was so severely fractured, that he died
an hour after.
His papers published in the Philosophical Transactions
w7ere eight in number. 1. On the Decomposition of Fixed Tennant.
Air, 1791, p. 182. 2. On the Nature of the Diamond,
1797, p. 123. 3. On the Action of Nitre upon Gold and
Platina, p. 219. 4. On the different sorts of Lime used in
Agriculture, 1799, p. 305. 5. On the Composition of
Emery, 1802, p. 398. 6. On two Metals found in the
Black Powder remaining after the Solution of Platina,
1804, p. 411. 7. On an easier Mode of procuring Potas¬
sium than that which is now adopted, 1814, p. 578. 8.
On the Means of producing a double Distillation by the
same Heat, p. 587.
9. The analysis of a Volcanic Substance containing the
Boracic Acid appeared in the Transactions of the Geolo¬
gical Society, vol. i. 1811.
Dr Tennant was tall and slight in his person ; his face was
thin and his complexion light; he resembled a little the por¬
traits of Locke; he was generally negligent in his dress, but,
on the whole, agreeable in his appearance. He was distin¬
guished for good sense, for quickness of perception, and for
penetration ; but, as his friend and biographer Mr Whishawr
observes, in the admirably energetic sketch which he has
given of his character, he was one of those who, to use the
words of Dr Johnson, “ without much labour have obtained
a high reputation, and are mentioned with reverence rather
for the possession than the exertion of uncommon abili¬
ties.” “ His curiosity and activity were incessant; he had
a vigilance of observation which suffered nothing to escape
him, and was continually gaining new information from a
variety of interesting sources. But although the knowledge
thus acquired was remarkable for its correctness, and com¬
plete for the purposes of its possessor, yet the industry and
perseverance, by which it ought to have been embodied
and made permanent for the benefit of others, were too
often altogether wanting. The ardour and energy ot Dr
Tennant’s mind co-operated unfortunately, in this respect,
with his want of method and of systematic habits ot applica¬
tion ; since he was constantly pressing on to new discoveries,
instead of arranging and bringing to perfection those which
he had already made. His memory was a great storehouse
of discoveries, and hints for discovery, of ascertained facts,
probable conjectures, and ingenious trains of reasoning
relative to the various important subjects upon which he
had at any time been engaged. These he was continually
treasuring up, with the intention of reducing them to order,
and preparing them for use at a more convenient season.
But that period rarely arrived. In the carelessness of in¬
tellectual wealth, he neglected those stores of knowledge
which he had accumulated, and suffered them to remain
useless and unproductive, till his attention was recalled to
them, perhaps after a long course ot years, by some new
fact or discovery, some remark in conversation, or other
accidental occurrence.”
The effect of his peculiar cast of humour was heightened
by a perfect gravity of countenance, a quiet familiar man¬
ner, and a characteristic simplicity of language. He was
firmly attached to the general principles of freedom, being
fully convinced “of their influence in promoting the wealth
and happiness of nations; a due regard to these principles
he considered as the only solid foundation ot the most im¬
portant blessings of social life, and as the peculiar cause of
that distinguished superiority which our own country so
happily enjoys among the nations of Europe.” “ The
cheerful activity of a populous town, the improvements in
the steam-engine, the great Galvanic experiments, and
above all the novelty and extent of the prospects afforded
by that revolution in chemical science which has illustrated
our own age and country; these magnificent objects, when
presented to Dr Tennant’s mind, excited in him the liveliest
emotions, and called for the most animated expressions of
admiration and delight.” “ He thought himself passionate
and irascible; and certainly his feelings were quick, but
182
TEN
TEN
Tennessee, they were transitory.” He possessed a strong sense of
     high honour, as well as of duty; and his liberality and hu¬
manity were evinced by some practical occurrences in
which he had occasion to exercise them : his steward had
defrauded him, and when the day of reckoning came, had
destroyed himself: he not only forgave the debt, but pro¬
vided also for the widow and her family.
“ His amiable temper and unaftected desire of giving
pleasure, no less than his superior knowledge and talents,
had rendered him highly acceptable to a numerous and
distinguished circle of society, by whom he was justly va¬
lued, and by whom his premature death was sincerely la¬
mented. But the real extent of his private worth, the
genuine simplicity and virtuous independence of his cha¬
racter, and the sincerity, warmth, and constancy of his
friendship, can only be felt and estimated by those to whom
he was long and intimately known, and to whom the recol¬
lection of his talents and virtues must always remain a
pleasing though melancholy bond of union.”1 (l. l.)
TENNESSEE, one of the principal states in the North
American union, extends from 81° 40' to 90° 15' west
longitude, and from 35° to 36° 40' north latitude, being
about 110 miles in width, and about 400 miles in length in
the northern part, and 300 in the southern, and includes an
area of 45,000 square miles. It has Virginia and Ken¬
tucky on the north; North Carolina on the east; Georgia,
Alabama, and Mississippi on the south; and Missouri and
Arkansas on the west. The eastern part of the state is
mountainous. The Kittatinny range, forming its eastern
boundary, rises in some points to the height of about 5000
feet, or about 3000 feet above its base. To the west of this
are several parallel ridges, separated by deep valleys, in
which the great branches of the river Tennessee take a
southerly course. These are prolongations of the Alleghany
and Chestnut ridges of Virginia and Pennsylvania. The
Cumberland Mountains are a prolongation of the Laurel
ridge, the summits of which do not probably exceed 2000
feet in height: they are for the most part wooded to the
top, but in some places are too rocky and rugged for
cultivation. West of these mountains is Middle Tennes¬
see, which is generally of a moderate hilly, and agreeably
diversified surface. West Tennessee, beyond the river
Tennessee, is a level or slightly undulating plain.
Rivers. Tennessee is amply supplied with noble rivers and pure
streams. The Mississippi washes the western border for a
distance of 160 miles ; and although its banks are generally
low, and liable to inundation, the high grounds approach to
its bed at several points, affording some of the most valuable
sites for commercial marts to be found in its long course.
These high banks, here called bluffs, have received the
name of the first, second, third, and fourth Chickasaw
Bluffs, from the Indian nations to whom this tract once be¬
longed. Western Tennessee sends most of its waters directly
into the Mississippi; the Obion, Forked Deer, Hatchy or
Hatchee, Wolf, and Nonconnoch, empty themselves into
that river. The Wolf is a rapid and broken torrent, but
the others are navigable streams. All the rest of the state
is drained by two great trunks into the Ohio. The Cum¬
berland River has its sources and its termination in Ken¬
tucky, but runs for about 250 miles, with a circular sweep,
in Tennessee, preserving throughout a remarkable parallel¬
ism with the lennessee River. There is no obstacle to its
navigation below Nashville, 200 miles from its mouth, and
during a great part of the year steam-boats go up to Car¬
thage ; but there are several shoals between these places,
which interrupt the navigation in low stages of the water.
During floods, steam-boats ascend to Burkesville in Ken¬
tucky, and they have even ascended to the mouth of the
South Fork. South Fork, Cancy Fork, and Stone’s Rivers,
its principal tributaries in Tennessee, are navigable streams. Tenney
The Tennessee, which has but part of its course in thiss—y'*
state, is the principal tributary of the Ohio, and is not in¬
ferior to that river in length and volume of water. It is
formed by the junction of the Clinch and Holston at King¬
ston, about 600 miles by its windings from its mouth. It
is navigable by large steam-boats to Florence, 300 miles;
but higher up, shoals and masses of rock render the navi¬
gation difficult and dangerous even for keel-boats. The
sources of the Clinch and Holston are in Western Virginia,
in the valleys between Kittatinny and Cumberland Moun¬
tains, and they flow nearly parallel to each other. The
Watoga, the French Broad River, and its branches the
Nolichucky and Big Pigeon, the Little Tennessee, and the
Hiwassee, all traverse the mountain ridges at right angles
to their course.
The eastern part of Tennessee contains indications of Mineral,
gold, lead, copper, and zinc, but has not been sufficiently
examined to determine whether these metals exist in work¬
able quantities. The gold occurs only in deposit mines, or
in masses of quartz rock out of place. Iron ore is also found,
and there are several furnaces in Carter and Rhea counties.
The rock-formations of this section, between the Kittatinny
and Cumberland Mountains, have generally been referred
by geologists to the grauwacke or transition series, but are
perhaps of a more recent age. They comprise argillaceous
slates, fossiliferous limestones, red sandstones, and conglo¬
merates. West of this is the great coal-field of Tennessee,
which is co-extensive with the Cumberland Mountains,
whose summit is occupied by the coal-measures. It ex¬
tends into Kentucky across the Cumberland, and perhaps
across the Kentucky River, and into Alabama across the
Tennessee. The coal crops out at numerous points on the
declivities of the mountains, and is worked in Fentress,
where it is sent down the Obey River to the Cumberland;
in Morgan, where Emery’s River affords facilities for trans¬
porting it to the Tennessee ; and in the Sequatchee valley.
From these points, and from the banks of the Cumberland
in Kentucky, it is carried down the rivers in flat boats as
far as New Orleans. The supposed coal of Hawkins and
Carter counties, and of Williamson, Davidson, and Maury
counties, is, according to Professor Troost, aluminous slate,
slightly impregnated with bitumen. Beneath the coal-
measures is an alternation of different strata of limestone,
some black, and others gray, sometimes compact, sometimes
granular, and sometimes of an oolitic structure, in which
are found extensive caves. One of these, on the borders of
White and W arren counties, has received the name of the
Big Bone Cave, from its containing bones of the mastodon
and megalonyx. Wrest of the Cumberland Mountains, the
rocky strata are, in a descending series, a silico-calcareous
deposit, a fetid encrinitic limestone, aluminous slate with¬
out animal remains, and limestone containing spirifers, pro-
ducti, orthoceratites, &c. The silico-calcareous stratum in¬
cludes the rich deposits of hydrate of iron, which is largely
worked in Tennessee ; the ore is abundant, and yields a
metal of excellent quality. In 1836 there were twenty-
seven furnaces, making about 30,000 tons of iron in a year.
Agriculture forms almost the sole occupation of the in- Product
habitants of Tennessee. A large proportion of the land is industry,
productive, and many of the valleys of East Tennessee, and
much of the middle and western sections, are eminently
fertile. Indian corn and cotton are the staples of the state,
and a good deal of tobacco, hemp, and wheat are raised.
Cotton thrives in almost every part except in the north¬
eastern triangular section, and the crop is about 150,000
bales; but the climate of Tennessee is not so well adapted
for this plant as that of the states south of the thirty-fifth
parallel of latitude. rlhe new lands of the western part have,
t ir’
•f
ifcc'
1 [Wishaw in] Thomson’s Annals, vol. vi. 1815, p. 1. 80,
TEN
TEN
183
e. however, been chiefly devoted to this culture. The tobacco
" crop is about 5000 hogsheads. In East Tennessee, grazing
is much attended to, and great numbers of live stock are
driven out of the state to the eastern markets. The pine
forests of this section of the country also afford tar, spirits
of turpentine, rosin, and lamp-black. Whiskey, coarse lin¬
ens, cotton bagging, live stock, pork, butter, saltpetre, gun¬
powder, flour, coal, and fruits, with cotton, maize, and tobac¬
co, constitute the exports of Tennessee. The value of the
exports is estimated at 8,000,000 dollars. The estimated
value of real property in the state is 150,000,000 dollars,
n. The population of Tennessee is inconsiderable when viewr-
ed with reference to the extent and productive capacities
of the state, but its amount is surprising when wre consider
that it occupies a region which about half a century ago
was an uninhabited wilderness. The current of immigra¬
tion began to set steadily into Tennessee soon after the
peace of 1783, chiefly from the eastern part of North Ca¬
rolina; and during the forty years from 1790 to 1830 the
rate of increase was 1805 per cent. Of late years Ten¬
nessee has sent forth thousands of planters with their forces
to the south-western and western states ; but it is yet ca¬
pable of supporting seven times its actual population, which
is only fifteen to the square mile. Slavery, that dark stain
upon the American character, has existed here from the
tirst settlement of the state, and the slaves form rather more
than one fifth of the whole population.
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830
Population at different Periods.
Whites.
32,013
91,709
215,875
339,727
535,746
Slaves. Free Coloured. Total.
3,417
13,584
44,535
80,107
141,603
361
309
1,317
2,979
4,555
35,791
105,602
261,727
422,813
681,904
The elevated valleys of East Tennessee belong to the great
Alleghany table-land of the United States, and are from
1000 to 1200 feet above the level of the sea, although from
1000 to 1500 feet below the mountain crests which rise be¬
tween them. The first settlements by the whites were made
in these valleys, but there is no large town in this section.
Knoxville, the most important, has a population of about
2000 souls, and is a place of considerable trade. The town
was the capital of the territory south-west of the Ohio, and
of the state, till 1802, and it contains three or four churches,
the halls of East Tennessee College, a female academy,
court-house, &c. The other villages of East Tennessee,
such as Blountville and Rogersville in the valley of the
Holston, Clinton and Kingston on the Clinch, Jonesboro
on a branch of the Nolichucky, and Calhoun on the
lliwassee, have only from 500 to 800 inhabitants.
Middle Tennessee, although settled at a later period, is
more populous than East Tennessee, but it contains no con¬
siderable town except Nashville. Winchester, Fayette¬
ville, and Pulaski, are thriving little villages in the south,
in the valley of the Elk. The last named has about 1200
inhabitants, the two others about 800; Fayetteville is at
the head of the navigation on the river. Columbia, on Duck
River, is a flourishing town with 1500 inhabitants, and is the
seat of Jackson College. To the north is Franklin, a busy,
growing town, on the Harpeth, with a population equal to
that of Columbia. Murfreesbm-o, with a population of 1000,
was at one time the capital of the state. Carthage, on the
Cumberland River, at the mouth of the Cancy Fork, has
800 inhabitants. On the higher branches of the Fork are
the villages of Sparta and Macminnville.
The city of Nashville, the capital of the state, and its
commercial emporium, is advantageously and pleasantly si¬
tuated on the left bank of the Cumberland, in a highly fer¬
tile and picturesque region. The navigation of the river
below the city is only interrupted for a short time, and the
products of an extensive tract are brought down on its bo- Tennessee.
som. The trade and business are extensive ; there are"n-  
about fifteen steam-boats employed on the river, besides
great numbers of keel-boats. Among the manufacturing
establishments are several brass and iron founderies, rolling
mills, tanneries, &c. The town was founded in 1784, but.
the site had been occupied as a trading post by the French
in the middle of the century; and in 1779 it was occupied
by a body of Americans, by whom it was called the Fx*ench
Lick. In 1830 the population was 5566, including 2000
slaves; and in 1836 it amounted to about 8000. Nash¬
ville is the seat of a university, and its other educational
institutions are numerous and well supported. The Her¬
mitage, the plantation of ex-president Jackson, is about
twelve miles above Nashville. Gallatin, higher up the val¬
ley of the Cumberland, and Clarksville, on the river below,
are flourishing villages.
West Tennessee, lying between the Tennessee and Mis¬
sissippi Rivers, received its first white settlers in 1819, a few
years before which time this tract had been ceded to the
United States by the Chickasaws. At present it contains
a population of about 100,000 souls, and has several flou¬
rishing towns. The soil is light and sandy, and well adapt¬
ed to the raising of cotton. In this division of the state,
several towns have been founded ; and among these are
Jackson, on the Forked Deer River, with 1000 inhabitants ;
Bolivar, a busy and growing town, at the head of navigation
on the Big Hatchee ; Lagrange, on the Wolf River ; Ash-
port, on the first Chickasaw Bluff, below the mouth of the
Forked Deer; Randolph on the second Chickasaw, below
the mouth of the Big Hatchee, with a good harbour for
steam-boats in all stages of the w'ater. Memphis, which is
the most important town of this tract, stands at the mouth
of the Wolf River, on the fourth Chickasaw Bluff, which is
thirty feet above the highest floods, and seventy-five feet
above low water. At some future day, this is doubtless des¬
tined to be one of the great commercial emporiums of this
vast valley. Its population at present exceeds 2000, and is
rapidly increasing with its growing business. It possesses
a safe and commodious harbour, and its site is admirably
adapted for a large commercial town. Three miles below,
at the lower end of the Bluff, the city of Girard has lately
been founded on the site of Fort Pickering. The Chicka¬
saw Bluffs, or elevated districts, are four in number, and are
the only points where the river-banks are above the reach
of inundation in this state.
A constitution for Tennessee was first adopted by a con- Gov-ern-
vention held at Knoxville in 1796, and was afterwards revised ment.
and adopted, with considerable modifications, by a conven¬
tion assembled in Nashville in 1834. The supreme exe¬
cutive power is vested in a governor, who is chosen by the
people for the term of two years, and has the power of
granting reprieves and pardons. He is also commander-in¬
chief of the army and navy of the state, but has no official
patronage or voice in legislation. The legislature, styled
the General Assembly, consists of a senate of twenty-five
members, and a house of representatives of seventy-five,
chosen for the term of two years. The former are appor¬
tioned among the senatorial districts, and the latter among
the counties, in the ratio of the number of voters in each.
The pay of the senators and representatives is four dollars
per day. The judiciary power is vested in a supreme court
and inferior courts, and the judges are elected by joint bal¬
lot of the two houses of the legislature; the superior judges
holding office for twelve years, and the inferior judges for
eight. Sheriffs and coroners are appointed by the county
courts. Every free white male citizen who has resided in
the county in which he offers to vote during the six months
immediately preceding an election, has the right of suffrage,
and all elections are by ballot.
The state has a large school fund, arising chiefly from Education.
184 T E O
Tennis the proceeds of the sales of public lands, amounting in 1837^
li to about 800,001) dollars, in addition to a large quantity of
r"’eos- land not then sold. The income of this fund is distributed,
by the common-school commissioners of each county, among
such school districts as have provided school-houses, in pro¬
portion to the number of white children between the ages of
six and eighteen years in each. There are at present about
1000 free or common schools in the state, and efforts are
making to render the system more complete and efficient.
There are sixty-two academies in the state, one having
been endowed in each county by grants of public land; but
many of these are not in actual operation. The collegiate
institutions are, the university of Nashville, Greenville Col¬
lege at Greenville, Washington College in Washington
county, East Tennessee College at Knoxville, and Jackson
College at Columbia. There is also a Presbyterian theo¬
logical seminary at Maryville. In 1839, fifty newspapers
wTere published in this state.
Religious The constitution of Tennessee declares that all men have
sects. a natural and indefeasible right to worship Almighty God
according to the dictates of their own conscience ; that no
preference shall be given by law to any religious estab¬
lishments or modes of worship; and that no religious test
shall ever be required as a qualification for any office or pub¬
lic trust; but it also provides that no person who denies the
being of God, or a future state of rewards and punishments,
shall hold any office in the civil department of the state.
The Methodists and Baptists are the most numerous sects,
the former numbering about 30,000, and the latter about
20,000 communicants. The Presbyterians have 120 churches
and 10,000 communicants, exclusive of the Cumberland
Presbyterians, who are also numerous. 1 he Episcopalians
have one bishop and twelve ministers; and there are Ro¬
man Catholics, Lutherans, Friends, &c.
TENNIS, a play at which a ball is driven by a racket.
TENSE, in Grammar, an inflection of verbs, by which
they are made to signify or distinguish the circumstance of
time in what they affirm.
TENT, in War, a pavilion or portable house. Tents are
made of canvass, for officers and soldiers to lie under when
in the field.
TENTERDEN, a town in the hundred of the same
name, and the lathe of Scray, in the county of Kent, thirty-
seven miles from London. It stands on a hill, and the lofty
steeple of its church is distinguished from every part of the
extensive district by which it is surrounded, and was for¬
merly used as a beacon. At the first introduction of the
woollen manufacture, it was an industrious place; but that
occupation has long ceased. It is an ancient borough, and
is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and eleven coun¬
cillors. There is a market held on Friday. The inhabi¬
tants amounted in 1821 to 3259, and in 1831 to 3177.
TENURE, in Law, signifies the manner in which lands
or tenements are held, or the service which the tenant owes
to his lord. Of this kingdom almost all the real property
is by the policy of our laws supposed to be granted by, de¬
pendent upon, and held of, some superior lord, by and in
consideration of certain services to be rendered to the lord
by the tenant or possessor of this property. The thing
held is therefore styled a tenement, the possessors of it ten¬
ants, and the manner of their possession a tenure. Thus
all the lands in the kingdom are supposed to be held, me¬
diately or immediately, of the king, who is styled the lord
paramount, or above all. Such tenants as held immediate¬
ly under the king, when they granted out portions of the
lands to inferior persons, became also lords with respect to
those inferior persons, as they were still tenants with re¬
spect to the king ; and thus partaking of a middle nature,
were called mesne or middle lords.
TEOS, one of the twelve Ionian cities, was situated on
the south side of the Ionian peninsula, and distinguished by
TER
beinp* the place where the poet Anacreon and tne historian T^ranio Ljgt
Hecataeus v'ere born. „ i :,
TERAMO, a city of Italy, the capital of the Neapolitan „
province Abruzzo Ulteriore I. It stands on the river lor-
dino, and is fortified. It is the seat of a bishop, and, be¬
sides the cathedral, has nine churches, with 9250 inhabi¬
tants, who have considerable trade in corn and in wine, and
other products of the soil.
TERCERA, one of the largest of the Azores, or Western
Islands, lying in the Atlantic Ocean. It is about forty miles
in circumference, and is surrounded with craggy rocks, which
render it almost inaccessible. The soil is fertile, abounding
in corn, wine, and fruits; and the inhabitants have plenty
of cattle to supply the ships that touch there. Their prin¬
cipal trade is in wood. The inhabitants are lively, addicted
to gallantry, and are said to be extremely revengeful. It
is subject to Portugal, and Angra is the capital town. Long.
27. 1. W. Lat. 28. 45. N.
TEREK, a considerable river of Asiatic Russia, in the
government of Caucasus, wdiich has its rise in the deep re¬
cesses of the snow-covered mountains in the loftiest part
of the Caucasian chain, on the frontier of Circassia and
Georgia. It flows with a rapid course northward towards
the plains, whence it turns eastward, and flows along the
foot of the mountain range, till, after passing Kizlar, it
divides into three branches, and falls into the Caspian. It
forms the boundary between the Russian territory and the
Caucasian tribes; and, for the purpose of overawing them,
a number of forts has been built along the river by Russia.
It flows through a picturesque country; and its banks are
adorned with fine forests of oak, while the lower parts pro¬
duce vines, mulberries, and other fruit trees.
TERENCE, or Publius Terentius, acomic poetof great
celebrity, was born at Carthage in the year 192 before the
commencement of the Christian era. At an early age he
became a captive, and was sold as a slave to Terentius
Lucanus, a Roman senator, to whom he appears to have
been indebted for a learned education. His manners and
accomplishments recommended him not only to his master,
but likewise to other men of rank, whose names have been
recorded. Having been manumitted, he attained to great
eminence as a writer of Latin comedies. He was honour¬
ed with the friendship of Laelius, and of Scipio the son of
Paulus TEmilius ; and his dramas are even supposed to have
derived some of their chief beauties from their patrician
pens. Such insinuations have not been uncommon in va¬
rious eras of literary history ; but some doubt may reason¬
ably be entertained whether Scipio or Laelius could have
produced even the second-rate scenes of Terence’s come¬
dies. They exhibit a uniform vein of elegant simplicity,
in which we discover no reason to suspect a divided pro¬
perty. His plots are derived from Greek sources, chiefly
from Menander; but the terse Latinity and graceful dic¬
tion are peculiarly his own. Caesar considered the wrant of
pungent humour, the vis comica, as the chief defect of his
dramas.
Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adjuncta foret vis
Comica, ut asquato virtus polleret bonore
Cum Grascis, neque in hac despectus parte jaceres.
The comedies of Terence appear to have been very suc¬
cessful on the stage, but he did not long continue his pros¬
perous career. According to Eusebius, he died in Arca¬
dia ; and Suetonius refers his death to the consulship ot
Cn. Corn. Dolabella and M. Fulvius Nobilior, that is, to the
year 159 before Christ. According to this chronology, he
must only have attained the age of thirty-three; but the
latter w-riter states that he had not completed his thirty-
fifth year. The circumstances of his death are variously
related, and one account ascribes it to shipwreck. He left
an only daughter, who became the wife of a Roman knight,
and inherited a garden of twenty acres in the Via Appia.
TER
Pergasta He had a tawny complexion, with a slender frame, and a
moderate stature.
lerpiu. Of the six comedies of Terence, the editions are very
numerous, and not a few appeared before the termination
of the first half century of printing. The editio princeps,
a folio without date, is supposed to have been printed at
Strasburgby Mentelin. Seventeen editions, the first in 1517,
proceeded from the Aldine press. Of the earlier editions,
the most important is that of Gabriel Faernus, Florent.
1565, 8vo. Faernus was a man of taste as well as learn¬
ing, and, being himself a very skilful versifier,1 possessed
some eminent qualifications as an editor of Terence. To
his text many succeeding editors have chiefly adhered. An¬
other valuable edition was published by Lindenbrog, Paris.
1602, 4to, Francof. 1623, 4to. Passing many others, we ar¬
rive at the edition of Bishop Hare, Lond. 1724, 1725, 4to.
It was speedily followed by that of Bentley, Cantab. 1726,
4to, Amst. 1727, 4to. Another elaborate edition, differing
however in many respects, was about the same time pub¬
lished by Westerhov, Hag. Com. 1726, 2 tom. 4to. There
are many subsequent editions, some of a very recent date.
One edition was professedly published for men of taste ; “ in
usum elegantiorum hominum edidit F. H. Bothe.” Bero-
lini, 1806, 8vo. A good translation of Terence, into blank
verse, was executed by the elder George Colman, Lond.
1765, 4to.
TERGOVISTA, a town of European Turkey, in Wa¬
lachia, in the district of Zara de Suss, on the river Jalomiza.
It is situated in a pleasant and fruitful district, and was
once the residence of the waiwodes of Walachia, and still
continues the seat of government of the district. It con¬
tains several churches, two convents, and some very large
but rather dilapidated houses, and a population of 5400
persons. It is sixty-four miles south-east from Herman-
stadt, and 180 north-east from Belgrade. Long. 25. 29.
E. Lat. 45. 3. N.
TERKI, a fortress built by Russia at the mouth of the
Tumenka, one of the branches of the Terek. The place
was once of great importance, but was afterwards razed to
the ground. The present fort contains only a small garri¬
son, and a few inhabitants.
TERM, in Grammar, denotes some word or expression
in a language. The word term, terminus, is borrowed me¬
taphorically, by the grammarians and philosophers, from the
measurers or surveyors of lands: as a field is defined and
distinguished by its termini, or limits, so is a thing or mat¬
ter by the word or term by which it is denoted.
Term, in Law, is generally taken for a limitation of time
or estate ; as, a lease for a term of life or years. Term,
however, is more particularly used for the time when the
English courts of justice are open; in opposition to which,
the rest of the year is called vacation.
TERMINATION Island, in the South Pacific Ocean,
so named by Captain Vancouver, as being the termination
of his researches on the south-west coast of New Holland,
near which it lies. Long. 122. 8. E. Lat. 34. 32. S.
TERMINI, a city of the island of Sicily. It stands on
the northern shore of the island, near the mouth of the river
Leonardo. Its appearance from the sea is very respectable.
It is surrounded with walls rapidly tending to decay, but is
protected by a castle on a high rock, which commands the
town and coast. The streets are narrow and filthy, but
there are some tolerable buildings; and it has the conveni¬
ence of a good carriage-road to the metropolis, twenty-four
miles distant. In ancient times it was celebrated for its
thermal baths, supplied by chalybeate sulphureous springs,
of the heat ot 121° of Fahrenheit. Though in bad repair,
they are resorted to for the cure of rheumatic complaints.
TER 185
T he city contains 12,800 inhabitants, who derive consider- Termini
able profit from the anchovy fishery, and from the expor- !!
tation of oil, olives, wine, sumach, corn, and rice. Terpander.
Termini, in Architecture, denote a kind of statues or
columns, adorned on the top with the figure of a man’s, wo¬
man’s, or satyr’s head, as a capital; and the lower part end¬
ing in a kind of sheath or scabbard.
TERMINUS, in Pagan worship, an ancient deity among
the Romans, who presided over the stones or land-marks,
called termini, which were held so sacred that it was ac¬
counted sacrilege to move them ; and as the criminal be¬
came devoted to the gods, it was lawful for any man to kill
him. The worship of this deity was instituted by Numa
Pompilius, who, to render land-marks, and consequently the
property of the people, sacred, erected a temple on the Tar-
peian Mount to Terminus.
TERNATE, one of the smaller Molucca Isles, on the
wTest coast of Gilolo, about twenty-five miles in circumfe¬
rence, and formerly the seat of sovereignty over all the ad¬
jacent Molucca islands, Tidore, Bachian, Motir, and Ma-
chian, which are properly the Moluccas, being the islands
which originally produced the finer spices ; and in the wmods
of Ternate larger nutmegs are still found than any that are
produced in Banda. The king of Ternate was one of the
most potent sovereigns in the Asiatic islands, extending his
dominion over seventeen or eighteen islands, and main¬
taining a considerable naval force. When the Portuguese
were driven from these islands by the Dutch in 1607, the
native princes wTere forced to submit to their conquerors,
who interdicted them from trading with any other Euro¬
pean nation. The island contains a lofty peak, which some¬
times discharges flames. Ternate formerly carried on a
considerable trade with China, and with the other Asiatic
islands. At present its chief produce is rice. It was ta¬
ken from the Dutch in the course of the revolutionary war,
but was restored at the peace of Amiens. It was again
taken in 1810, and was restored to the Dutch with their
other possessions in India by the peace of Paris in 1814.
TERNI, a town of Italy, in the papal delegation of Spo-
leto. It stands between two branches of the river Nera, in
a delightful valley surrounded with olive, pomegranate, and
mulberry trees. It is the seat of a bishop, has a cathedral,
several parish churches, and five monasteries, with 5100 in¬
habitants. In the episcopal garden are the remains of an
amphitheatre, and in the church of St Salvador those of a
temple of the sun. Near to it is the celebrated cascade of
the Marmora, where the river Belino, by three successive
falls of 300 hundred feet, empties its water into the Nera.
Long. 12. 34. E. Lat. 42. 34. N.
TERPANDER, a celebrated Greek poet and musician.
The Oxford marbles record that he was the son of Derde-
neus of Lesbos, and that he flourished in the 381st year of
these records; which nearly answers to the 27th Olym¬
piad, and 671st year before Christ. The marbles likewise
inform us that he taught the names, or airs, of the lyre and
flute, which he performed himself upon this last instru¬
ment, in concert with other players on the flute. Several
writers affirm that he added three strings to the lyre, which
before his time had but four. Among the many signal ser¬
vices which Terpander is said to have rendered to music,
none was of more importance than the notation that is as¬
cribed to him for ascertaining and preserving melody,
which before was traditional, and wholly dependent on
memory. The invention, indeed, of musical characters,
has been attributed by Alypius and Gaudentius, two Greek
writers on music, and upon their authority by Boethius, to
Pythagoras, who flourished fully two centuries after Ter¬
pander. But Plutarch, from Heraclides of Pontus, assures
See a very elegant volume entitled “ Gabrielis Facrni Cremonensis Fabula; centum, ex antiquis auctoribus delecta? c.arminibusque ex-
pueatae, et ejusdem Carmina varia.” Parma;, 17S3, 4to.
VUL. XXI. 2 A
186 TER
Terra us that Terpander, the inventor of nomes for the cithara,
Australis }n hexameter verse, set them to music, as well as the verses
Incognita jjomer? ;n order to sing them at the public games. Cle-
Terrasson.mens Alexandrinus, in telling us that this musician wrote
i y . - the laws of Lycurgus in verse, and set them to music,
makes use of the same expression as Plutarch ; which
seems clearly to imply a written melody. After enumerat¬
ing the airs which Terpander had composed, and to which
he had given names, Plutarch continues to speak of his
other compositions ; among which he describes the proems,
or hymns for the cithara, in heroic verse. Of the works of
this poet only a few fragments now remain.
TERRA Australis Incognita, a name for a supposed
unknown continent lying towards the south pole. It was
an object of search to several navigators, among others
to Captain Cook, who made the circuit of the Southern
Ocean in a high latitude, and came to the conclusion that
there could be no continent in that quarter, unless so far
south as to be out of the reach of navigation; but he con¬
sidered the excessive cold and vast fields of ice which he
encountered, as proofs of the existence of land near the
pole. This question has, however, been set at rest by the
recent discoveries of the French under Captain D’Urville,
and the American exploring expedition under Lieutenant
Wilkes, which by an extraordinary coincidence were made
on the same day (Jan. 19, 1840), at the distance of 720
miles from each other. Lieutenant Wilkes states that his
discoveries have led him to the following conclusions : “ 1st,
From our discoveries of the land through forty degrees of
longitude, and the observations made during this interesting
cruise, with the similarity of formation and position of the ice
during our close examination of it, I consider that there can
scarcely be a doubt of the existence of the Antarctic Con¬
tinent, extending the whole distance of seventy degrees from
east to west. 2d, That different points of the land are at
times free from the ice barrier. 3d, That they are frequent¬
ed by seals, many of which were seen, and offer to our en¬
terprising countrymen engaged in those pursuits, a field of
large extent for their future operations. 4th, That the large
number of whales of different species seen, and the quantity
of food for them, would designate this coast as a place of
great resort for them. The fin-backed whale seemed to
predominate.
“ We proceeded on our cruise to the northward and east¬
ward, with strong gales, until we reached the latitude of
certain islands laid down on the charts as the Royal Com¬
pany’s Islands, about six degrees to the westward of their
supposed locality. I then stood on their parallel, and passed
over their supposed site ; but we saw nothing of them, nor
any indication of land in the vicinity. I feel confident, as
far as respects their existence in or near the longitude or
parallel assigned them, to assert that they do not exist.
The last ice island was seen in lat. 51° south.”
TERRACINA, a city of Italy, in the papal delegation
of Frosinone. It stands on the sea-shore, at the foot of a
hill, where the Pontine marshes terminate. It is the seat of
a bishop, has a cathedral, and is surrounded with walls ; and
being a frontier place, is furnished with a garrison. It is
deemed unhealthy, but contains 4170 inhabitants. Near to
it are the facade of a temple of Jupiter, and the remains of
the palace of Theodoric. It has wood near it, which yields
cork. Long. 13. 13. 2. E. Lat. 41. 18. 14. N.
TERRA-NOVA, a city of the island of Sicily, in the
province of Noto, on a hill in a healthy situation, on the
sea-shore, near the mouth of the river Graccio. It is well
built, and contains 8290 inhabitants, who cultivate cotton,
and collect much silk, and trade extensively in wheat, bar¬
ley, soda, sulphur, and pulse of various kinds.
TERRASSON, John, born at Lyon in 1669, distinguish¬
ed himself in the dispute concerning Homer, between La
Motte and Madame Dacier, by writing a “ Dissertation
TER
Critique sur 1’Iliade d’Homere.” Paris, 1715, 2 tom. 12mo. Terre
Among other works, he likewise wrote a political and moral Nllp«leti
romance called Sethos. It is a publication of considerable T 1
learning and ability. He published a French translation of
Diodorus Siculus. Paris, 1737-44, 7 tom. 12mo. Terrasson
is commonly described as Abbe, but he only appears to have
been in sub-deacon’s orders. In 1721 he became professor
of Greek and Latin in the College of France. Having out¬
lived his memory, he died at Paris on the 15th of Septem¬
ber 1750.
TERRE Napoleon, a tract of coast on the south shore
of New Holland, first explored by the French navigator
Captain Baudin in Le Geographe. According to Captain
Flinders, it is comprised between Lat. 37. 36. and 35. 40. S.
and between Long. 140. 10. and 138. 58. E. making about
fifty leagues of coast, in which, Captain Baudin observes,
there is neither river, inlet, nor place of shelter; and it has,
besides, an appearance of extreme barrenness.
Terre Verte, in the colour-trade, the name of a green
earth much used by painters, both singly for a good stand¬
ing green, and in mixture with other colours. The name
is French, and signifies green earth.
TERRIANI or Terrai, a district in Northern Hindus¬
tan, situated about the twenty-seventh degree of north la¬
titude, partly comprehended in the British dominions, and
partly in those of Nepaul. The word properly signifies
marshy land, and is sometimes applied to the flats lying be¬
low the hills in the interior of Nepaul, as well as to the low
tract bordering on the company’s northern frontier. To the
south it is bounded by Gorackpoor, Bettiah, and Tyrhoot.
The Terriani of Nepaul is confined between the Gunduck
and the Teesta, and is divided into five soubahs or govern¬
ments, from which however the rajah of Nepaul does not
draw any considerable revenue, owing partly to mismanage¬
ment, and partly to the low state of the population from
the unhealthiness of the country. The western Terriani
contains inexhaustible forests of the most excellent timber.
The pines of Bechiacori, and the saul trees both of that and
of the Jhurjoory Forest, are not surpassed anywhere for
straightness or durability, and might be floated south on
the Boora Gunduck. Pure turpentine of the Sulla pine
might also be procured.
So extremely unhealthy is this dreary tract, that Heber
(vol. ii. p. 157) mentions, on the authority of those who had
resided in the vicinity, that not only the inhabitants, but
every thing which has the breath of life, instinctively deserts
it from the beginning of April to October. The tigers
go up the hills, and the antelopes and wild hogs make ex¬
cursions into the cultivated plain; and those who are obliged
to traverse the forests during the intervening months, such
as military officers or Dak bearers, agree that not so much
as a bird can be heard or seen in the frightful solitude. In
the time of the heaviest rains, and while the water falls in
torrents, the country may be passed in comparative safety.
It is during the extreme heat, and while the exhalations are
ascending from the damp ground after the rains have ceased,
namely, in May, the latter end of August, and the early part of
September, that the climate is most fatal. The season is more
healthy in October, when the animals return, and the wood¬
cutters and cowmen venture, though cautiously. From the
middle of November to March, troops pass and repass with¬
out any danger. The forest extends at the foot of the lowest
hills in a long black level line, so black and level that He¬
ber remarks it might seem to have been drawn with ink and
a ruler. Fever and ague are the diseases to which this dis¬
trict is liable. The inhabitants are few, and unhealthy in
their appearance, and are rather decreasing, owing to the
fatality of the climate. The principal rivers are the Bhag-
mutty, the Bukkia, and the Jumne, besides many nullahs
and inferior streams.
TERROWEH, a town and fortress of Hindustan, in the
: it-
II
i
• ^
TER
r rt ian province of Allahabad, district of Bundelcund. Latitude
111 not ascertained.
fljto^ TERTULLIAN, or Quintus Septimius Florens Ter-
tuluanus, one of the Latin fathers, was born at Carthage
about the middle of the second century. Dr Allix, in his
“ Dissertatio de Tertulliani Vita et Scriptis,” has remarked
that those who suppose him to have flourished about the
year 160, have referred his birth to too early a period.
His father was a centurion in the legion of the proconsul.
The son was well instructed in elegant as well as useful
learning, and in particular acquired much skill in the civil
law. Having renounced the errors of paganism, he distin¬
guished himself by his able apology for the Christians. It
appears from his works that he was married. He became
a presbyter of the church of Carthage, and afterwards paid a
visit to Rome, where he was a spectator of the games cele¬
brated by the emperor Severus in the year 204. On his re¬
turn, he embraced the errors of Montanus. He then thought
proper to assume the pallium, or robe of the ancient philoso¬
phers, and to defend his conduct in a learned and singular
tract “ De Pallio.” He at length relinquished his connexion
with the Montanists, but still retained some peculiar opinions.
Tertullian reached an advanced age, and we may perhaps
place his death about the year 240. He was a man of much
fervour and ingenuity, conjoined with various learning ; but
his works contain many erroneous, and some pernicious opi¬
nions, among which we may class his notion as to the bene¬
fit of prayers for the dead. He writes in an African style
of eloquence, and his meaning is not unfrequently obscure.
Lactantius, no mean judge, has censured him as deficient
in ease and perspicuity. The earliest edition of his works
was published by Beatus Rhenanus, Basil. 1521, fol. Many
editions followed, but we shall only refer the reader to that of
Rigault, or Rigaltius, Paris. 1634, fol.1 A separate volume,
containing the commentaries of former editors, was added
in 1635. Some of his treatises have received much learned
illustration in a separate form; particularly the Apologeti-
cus from Heraldus, Lutet. Paris. 1613, 4to, and from Ha-
vercamp, Lugd. Bat. 1718, 8vo, and the tract “De Pallio”.
from Salmasius, Lugd. Bat. 1656, 8vo. This tract, very
brief in itself, is suffused with an immense stream of erudi¬
tion.
TERUEL, a department of the southern division of the
province of Aragon, in Spain, a rich district, watered by
the streams of the rivers Guadalaviar and Alhambra. The
borders of the department are mountainous and sterile, but
the valleys are very productive. The capital is a city of the
same name, upon the river Turia, at the point where it falls
into the Alhambra. It is situated on a hill, is surrounded
with walls, and is the seat of a bishop. It has a cathedral,
seven other churches, five convents for males and females,
and 1200 houses, with 5600 inhabitants, who deal largely
in fine wool, and make some woollen cloths. Near the city
are the remains of a noble aqueduct constructed by the
Romans. There are also mines of quicksilver at some dis¬
tance from the city, which were formerly worked, but are
now abandoned. Lat. 40. 38. 2. N.
TER UNCI US, a very small brass coin, in use among the
Romans.
TERVENGARY, a small Mahommedan town of Hin¬
dustan, in the province of Malabar, situated on the banks
ot a river which is navigable in the rainy season thirty-two
miles for canoes. Near this town Tippoo’s forces were de¬
cisively defeated by Colonel Hartley’s army. It is twenty-
three miles south by east from Calicut. Long. 76. E. Lat.
11. 2. N.
TERZETTO (Ital.'), a musical composition for three ob-
T E S 187
bligati parts, vocal or instrumental. An instrumental ter- Teschen
zetto is also called a trio. jj
TESCHEN, a circle of the Austrian principality of Mo- vTes3en*-
ravia, usually called a duchy. It is bounded on the north ^
by Prussian Silesia, on the east by Gallicia, on the south
by Hungary, and on the west by Perau. It extends over
756 square miles, and contains nine cities or towns, 279 vil¬
lages, and 161,500 inhabitants. The capital is the city of
the same name, on the beautiful river Elsa. It is well
built, is surrounded with walls, and contains one Lutheran
and four Catholic churches, and a collegiate institution
belonging to each religion. It is a place of considerable
trade, and has manufactures of linen and woollen. The
situation is fine, and the country around fertile. It is cele¬
brated for the treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia,
concluded in 1779. The inhabitants amount to 5860.
Long. 12. 27. E. Lat. 49. 41. N.
TESHOO Loomboo is, properly speaking, a large mo¬
nastery, consisting of three or four hundred houses, the
habitations of the gylongs or priests, besides temples, mau¬
soleums, and the palace of the lama or sovereign pontiff
of this idolatrous religion of the east. This is the seat of
his authority, and the capital of all that part of Tibet im¬
mediately subject to him. The buildings are all of stone,
two stories high, flat roofed. The fortress of Shiggatzee
Jeung stands on a prominent ridge of the rock, and com¬
mands the pass. From this point roads diverge to Bootan
and Bengal, to Lahdack and Cashmere; to the mines of
lead, copper, cinnabar, and gold ; to Nepaul, to Lassa, and
China. Catmandoo, the capital of Nepaul, is estimated to
be 400 miles distant. The plain extends fifteen miles on a
direct level, and is encompassed on all sides by rocky hills.
It is intersected by the river Painomchieu, which at a small
distance joins the Brahmaputra. This great river flows here,
in a widely extended bed, through many channels, forming
a multitude of islands, and its principal channel is narrow,
deep, and never fordable. The monastery of Teshoo Loom¬
boo contains no less than 3700 priests for the performance
of daily prayer in the temple, and four lamas chosen to
superintend the ceremonies. Under the direction of the
monastery, there is an extensive establishment for the ma¬
nufacture of images, in which they excel the Chinese.
4 ESSELATED Pavements, those of rich mosaic work,
made of curious square marbles, bricks, or tiles, called tes-
selce from their resembling dice.
TESSERA, in Roman antiquity, denoted in its primary
sense a cube or die; so called from the Greek word rteea^a,
or TiSSioa, four ; respect being had to its number of sides,
distinct from the two horizontal planes above and below.
And it was thus distinguished from the talus, which being
round at each end, contained only four planes or faces on
w’hich it could stand ; and therefore wThen thrown it had no
more than two side faces in view. Hence ludere talis et
ludere tesseris are spoken of by Roman writers as two
different games. The word tessera was applied to many
other things, not so much from a similitude in the figure,
as from the relation they bore to some other things of
which they were the sign or token; as the points on the
upper plane of the die denoted the good or ill success of
the cast.
The tessera hospitalis was either public or private. As
to the former, we find among the inscriptions published by
Gruter instances of two municipal towns which put them¬
selves under the patronage of the Roman governor; and the
reciprocal engagement between them, engraved on two
copperplates, of an oblong form, witli a pediment at the
top, is called in both tessera hospitalis. The design of it
See Du Pin, Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques, tom. i. p. 106. Dr Kaye, bishop of Lincoln, has published a work of consider¬
able value, under the title of “ The Ecclesiastical History of the second and third Centuries illustrated from the Writings of Tertullian.”
Cambridge, 1826, 8vo.
188
T E S
T
E T
was to cultivate or maintain a lasting friendship between
private persons and their families, and gave a mutual claim
to the contracting parties and their descendants, of a recep¬
tion and kind treatment at each other’s houses, as occasion
offered ; for which end those tesserae were so contrived as
best to preserve the memory of that transaction to posteri¬
ty. And one method of doing this was by dividing one of
them lengthwise into two equal parts, upon each of which
one of the parties wrote his name, and interchanged it with
the other. From this custom came the prevailing expres¬
sion “ tesserarn hospitalem confringere,” applied to persons
who had violated their engagements.
The tesserce frumentnrice were small tallies given by the
emperors to the populace at Rome, entitling them to the
reception of a quantity of corn from the public at stated
seasons. The person who had the inspection of these was
called tesserarius. They were made of wood and of stone.
There was another kind of tessera, which entitled persons
to a sight of the public games and other diversions, usually
made in an oblong form.
The tessera militaris was a signal given by the general
or chief commander of an army, as a direction to the sol¬
diers for executing any duty or service required of them.
This, upon urgent occasions, was only vocal; but in ordinary
cases it was written on a tablet, commonly made of wood.
Besides these civil and military tesserae, there are others
which relate to religious affairs, and may be called sacred.
TESSIN or Ticino, a canton of Switzerland, in the most
southern part of the confederation, extending in longitude
from 8° 5' to 8° 58' east, and in latitude from 45° 46' to 46°
33' north. It is bounded on the north by Uri, on the north¬
east by the Greybunden, on the south-east and south by
Venetian Lombardy, and on the south-west and west by
the Sardinian dominions. It is 781 geographical square
miles in extent, contains twelve market-towns and 212
villages, thirteen monasteries, and seven nunneries, with
113,923 inhabitants in 1838, who all adhere to the Ro¬
mish church. They are all of the Italian race, and speak
that language, except about a thousand, who use a cor¬
rupted German, and live in one of the valleys, unconnect¬
ed with their fellow-citizens. The contingent to the force
of the confederation is fixed at 1804, and the pecuniary
contribution at L.1127. 10s. It has lately received a new
constitution of the representative kind, with a president
changed monthly, and an assembly of 114, with another of
eleven members. It is a most delightful and picturesque
district, where, especially on the southern side, nature is
exhibited in the wildest and most fantastic forms, inter¬
mingled with the valleys, which present less rugged beau¬
ty, and many of them a high degree of fertility. From
St Gothard, 9000 feet high, the southern side displays
the lakes scattered on the declivities. Although on the
mountains there is little or no cultivation, with scarcely any
productions except timber, and in a few summer months
some butter, yet, on the declivities towards Italy, agricul¬
ture is carried on with great success. In some of the val¬
leys prodigious crops of maize are gathered, in others the
mulberry trees abound, and much silk is collected ; and in
most of them wane is extensively produced, though it is
not well managed. Hemp, flax, tobacco, and all kinds of
fruit, are likewise abundant. By the construction of roads,
this canton has recently become more easily accessible, and
the inns are much improved.
TESSOUWA, a considerable town in Africa, situated
east of Mourzouk, the capital of the kingdom of Fezzan.
Near this town a deep and rapid stream is said to have
existed, but was overwhelmed by the moving sands so fre¬
quent in Africa.
TEST Act is the statute 25 Car. II. cap. 2, wdiich di¬
rects all officers, civil and military, to take the oaths, and
make the declaration against transubstantiation, in the court
of King’s Bench, or Chancery, the next term, or at the Testa^
next quarter-sessions, or (by subsequent statutes) wfithin six r |
months after their admission ; and also within the same ^etrari
time to receive the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper accord-
ing to the usage of the church of England, in some public
church, immediately after divine service or sermon, and to
deliver into court a certificate thereof signed by the minis¬
ter and churchwarden, and also to prove the same by two
credible witnesses, upon forfeiture of L.500, and disability
to hold the said office. This act, so incompatible with the
principles of toleration, and injurious to the rights of dis¬
senters, has happily been repealed by 9 Geo. IV. cap. 17.
TESTAMENT, or Last Will. Testaments, both Jus¬
tinian and Coke agree, are so called, because they are
testatio mentis ; an etymon which seems to savour too much
of conceit, it being plainly a substantive derived from the
verb testari, in like manner as jurarnentum, incrementum,
and others, from other verbs. The definition of the old
Roman lawyers is much better than their etymology : “ vo¬
luntatis nostrae justa sententia de eo, quod quis post mortem
suam fieri velitwhich may be thus rendered into Eng¬
lish : “ the legal declaration of a man’s intentions, which he
wills to be performed after his death.” It is called sententia,
to denote the circumspection and prudence with which it is
supposed to be made; it is “ voluntatis nostrae sententia,”
because its efficacy depends on its declaring the testator's
intention, whence in English it is emphatically styled his
will; it is justa sententia, that is, drawn, attested, and
published, with all due solemnities and forms of law ; it is
“ de eo, quod quis post mortem suam fieri velit,” because
a testament is of no force till after the death of the testa¬
tor. Testaments are divided into two kinds ; written, and
verbal or nuncupative ; of which the former is committed
to writing; the latter depends merely upon oral evidence,
being declared by the testator in extremis, before a sufficient
number of witnesses, and afterwards reduced to writing.
TESTUDO, in the military art of the ancients, was a
kind of cover or screen which the soldiers formed with their
bucklers, by holding them up over their heads, and stand¬
ing close to each other. This expedient served to shelter
them from darts and other missiles, especially those thrown
from above, when they went to the assault. The same
name was also applied to a large wooden tower which moved
on several wheels, and was covered with bullock-hides,
serving to shelter the soldiers when they approached the
walls to mine them, or to batter them with rams. It was
called testudo, from the strength of its roof, which covered
the workmen as the shell does the tortoise.
TETBURY, a town of the hundred of Longtrees and
county of Gloucester, ninety-nine miles from London. It
is on an elevated spot on the borders of Wiltshire. There
are manufactures of woollen cloths. It is moderately well
built, and has a good market-house well attended. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1821 to 2734, and in 1831 to 2939.
I EIHUROA, a small island in the South Pacific Ocean,
subject to Otaheite, twenty-four miles north-west of Point
Venus. Long. 149. 30. W. Lat. 17. 4. S.
TETRACHORD (rsrga^ogSov), a group of four sounds
in melodic succession, and belonging to the ancient Greek
system of music.
TETRARCH, a prince who holds and governs a fourth
part of a kingdom. Such originally was the import of the
title tetrarch ; but it was afterwards applied to any petty
king or sovereign, and became synonymous with ethnarch,
as appears from the following considerations. Pliny makes
mention of six tetrarchies within the city of Decapolis;
Herod’s kingdom was only divided into three parts, which
yet were called tetrarchies, and the sovereigns, Luke iii. 1,
tetrarchs ; Josephus tells us, that, after the battle of Phi-
lippi, Antony, going into Syria, constituted Herod tetrarch;
and on medals the same Herod is called ethnarch.
I
>95
T E W
TETRASTYLE, in ancient architecture, a building,
I! and particularly a temple, with four columns in its front.
^vVT' TETTUA Motu, a cape on the east coast of New
Zealand, on the north-east point of Poverty Bay. Long.
181. 30. W. Lat. 38. 36. N.
TEUTONES, or Teutoni, a people always by histo¬
rians joined with the Cimbri; both seated, according to
Mela, beyond the Elbe, on the Sinus Codanus, or Baltic;
and there, it is supposed, lay the country of the Teutones,
now Ditmarsh ; diversity of dialects producing the differ¬
ent terms Teu, Tut, Dit, Tid, and Thod, which in the an¬
cient German language signified people. Of these Teu¬
tones, Virgil is to be understood in the epithet Teutonicus ;
an appellation which more lately came to be applied to the
Germans in general, and later still the appellation Aleman-
ni. The Teutones, in conjunction with the Cimbri and
Ambrones, made war on the Romans, and marched towards
Italy in the year 101 b. c. We are told, that the Teutones
alone were so numerous, that they were six whole days
without intermission in passing the Roman camp. In trans¬
alpine Gaul they engaged the consul Marius, but were
defeated with incredible slaughter; 100,000 of them, ac¬
cording to the lowest calculations, being killed on the spot.
According to others, the number of those killed and taken
prisoners amounted to 290,000.
TEUTONIC, something belonging to the Teutones.
The Teutonic language is supposed to have been the lan¬
guage of the ancient Germans, and hence is reckoned
among the mother-tongues.
Teutonic Order, an order of military knights, establish¬
ed towards the close of the twelfth century, on the follow¬
ing occasion. When the emperor Barbarossa engaged in
a crusade for the recovery of the Holy Land out of the
hands of Saladin, he was followed by great numbers of
German volunteers, who from various motives enlisted un¬
der his banners. After the emperor’s death, the Germans,
who had signalized themselves before Acre or Ptolemais,
resolved to choose another leader ; and at last fixed their
choice upon Frederick duke of Suabia, second son to the
emperor, and Henry duke of Brabant. Under these ge¬
nerals they behaved with so much bravery, that Henry king
of Jerusalem, the patriarch, and several other princes, de¬
termined to reward their valour by instituting an order of
knighthood in their favour. This was accordingly done,
and the new knights had at first the title of the knights of
St George ; afterwards it was thought proper to place them
under the tutelage of the Virgin Mary, to whom there was
already an hospital dedicated on Mount Zion, for the relief
of German pilgrims. From this time they were called
Equites Mariani, or knights of St Mary. Laws, regula¬
tions, and statutes, were drawn up for them by the Christian
kings in Syria and the patriarch ; and, among other obliga¬
tions, it was required, that every person admitted to the
privileges of .the order should be of noble parentage; that
the order should defend the Christian religion and the Holy
Land ; that they should. exercise hospitality towards the
Christians in general, but particularly those of their own
country; and that they should with all their power endea¬
vour to propagate and extend the Christian faith. In the
year 1190, having become rich by donations from the su¬
perstitious, they elected as their first grandmaster Henry
Walpot, a German, who had distinguished himself by his
zeal and valour; and their choice was confirmed by the
emperor. The following year, Pope Celestine III. con¬
firmed their privileges already granted, giving them the
| title of the Teutonic knights of the Hospital of St Mary
the Virgin. By the conditions of this bull, they vowed
perpetual continence, obedience, and poverty ; obligations
to which it mav well be imagined they did not verv strict¬
ly adhere.
TEWKESBURY, a town of the hundred of the same
T H A ’ 189
name, in the county of Gloucester, 104 miles from London. Texel
It stands on the banks of the river Severn, near to the ^ i!
junction of the Avon with that stream. It is finely situated , 1 lla^*
on a rising ground, and for the most part is well built. ^
The church is a Gothic structure, one of the finest and
largest in England, and formerly occupied by a mitred ab¬
bot. It is 300 feet in length and 120 feet broad ; the chan¬
cel has several painted windows, and many fine monuments.
There is a brisk trade carried on by both rivers, and in the
town there are small manufactures. It is an ancient bo¬
rough, and is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and
eleven councillors, and returns two members to parliament.
There are good markets on Wednesday and Saturday. Near
this place was fought the great battle between the Yorkists
and the Lancastrians in 1471, when the former became the
conquerors. The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 4962,
and in 1831 to 5780.
TEXEL, an island on the northern shore of the province
of North Holland, separated from the mainland by the chan¬
nel of Marsdiep, which is an entrance to the Zuyder Sea.
It is about twelve miles long and three broad, and contains
six villages, with 4950 inhabitants, who have flocks of 30,000
sheep yielding the finest wool. Near to it Admiral Blake,
in 1653, gained a victory over Van Tromp; and another
battle was fought in 1673 wdth the combined fleets of Eng¬
land and France against the Dutch, when the victory was
doubtful. At this place, too, in 1799, a squadron of Dutch
ships of war in a state of insubordination was surrendered to
the British. There are fortifications on the island, com¬
manding the anchorage.
TEXT, a relative term, contradistinguished from gloss or
commentary, and signifying an original discourse exclusive
of any note or interpretation. This word is particularly used
for a certain passage of Scripture, chosen by a preacher as
the subject of his sermon.
TEXTURE properly denotes the arrangement and co¬
hesion of several slender bodies or threads interwoven or
entangled among each other, as in the webs of spiders, or
in cloths.
THALES, a celebrated Greek philosopher, and the first
of the seven wise men of Greece, was born at Miletus about
640 b. c. In order to improve himself in the knowledge of
the sciences, he travelled into Egypt, w'here he discoursed
wdth the priests and other learned men. Some say that he
married; but others observe that he eluded the solicita¬
tions of his mother on this head, by telling her when he was
young that it was too soon, and afterwards that it was too
late. Thales acquired great reputation by his wisdom and
learning : he was the first among the Greeks who foretold
eclipses of the sun, and made extraordinary discoveries in
astronomy. He was the founder of the Ionian sect of phi¬
losophers, who were so denominated from his being born
in Ionia. He maintained that wrater was the principle of
which all the bodies in the universe are composed; that
the world was the work of God; and that God sees the
most secret thoughts of the heart. Among his wise maxims,
the following have been recorded. The most difficult
thing in the world is to know ourselves, the most easy to
advise others, and the most sweet to accomplish our de¬
sires. In order to live well, we ought to abstain from what
we find fault with in others. Bodily felicity consists in
health, and that of the mind in knowledge. The most an¬
cient of beings is God, because he is uncreated : nothing is
more beautiful than the world, because it is the work of
God ; nothing more extensive than space, quicker than
spirit, stronger than necessity, wiser than time. It was also
one of his sentences, “ that we ought never to say that to
any one which may be turned to our prejudice ; and that we
should live with our friends as with persons that may be¬
come our enemies.” He thanked God for three things;
that he was born of the human, not of the brute species; a
T H A
T H A
man, and not a woman ; a Greek, and not a barbarian. None
of the ancient philosophers ever applied himself more ear¬
nestly to the study of astronomy than Thales. Diogenes
Laertius reports, that leaving his lodging with an old wo¬
man to contemplate the stars, he fell into a ditch ; on which
the good woman cried, “ How canst thou know what is do¬
ing in the heavens, when thou canst not perceive what is at
thy feet ?” He went to see Croesus, who was marching with
a powerful army into Cappadocia, and enabled him to pass
the river Halys without making a bridge. Thales died soon
afterwards, at the age of about ninety. He composed se¬
veral treatises in verse, on meteors, the equinoxes, &c. but
they are all lost.
THALIA, in Pagan mythology, one of the nine Muses.
She presided over comedy ; and is represented crowned
with a garland of ivy, holding a mask in her hand, and wear¬
ing buskins on her feet.
THAME, a town of the hundred of the same name, in
the county of Oxford, forty-six miles from London. It
stands on a rising ground on the banks of the Thames, con¬
sists of one long street, and has a fine Gothic church, a free
school, and alms-houses. The river is navigable to the
town. There is a market on Tuesday. The inhabitants
amounted in 1821 to 2479, and in 1831 to 2885.
THAMES, a river of England. As this river passes
through the metropolis, the reader will find, under the
article London, a description of the most important cir¬
cumstances relating to it in that part of its progress which
is under the superintendence of the magistracy of Lon¬
don. Without entering into the disputes as to the origin
of the river, which are prolix, and give no definite re¬
sult, we take it up, where several of the streams meet, at
Lechlade, where it first becomes navigable to London, at
a distance by water of 138 miles. It passes by Hamp¬
ton on its left to Oxford, bearing the name of the Isis,
which it there loses, and adopts that of a smaller stream
coming from Thame, and assumes the name of that place.
It receives the water of the Windrush and the Evenlode
above Oxford, and that of the Charwell as it leaves the
city. It then proceeds to Abingdon and Dorchester, and
enters the county of Berks at Wallingford, and in its course
is augmented by small streams. From Wallingford it pro¬
ceeds to Reading, where the Kennet joins its copious stream.
It then washes the towns of Henley, Marlow, Maidenhead,
Windsor, and Eton, and forms the boundary between the
counties of Buckingham and Berks. At Colnbrook it re¬
ceives the waters of the Coin, and soon becomes the boun¬
dary between the counties of Surrey and Middlesex, in
which latter county, just above the bridge, is the London
stone marking the boundary of the city’s jurisdiction. It
afterwards has its body of water augmented by the streams
of the Wey, the Wandle, the Lea, the Roding, the Darent,
and the Medway, when it is lost in the great estuary at
the Nore.
Thames, a river of New Zealand, which, about fourteen
miles from its entrance, is as wide as the Thames at Green¬
wich. The course is from south to north.
THANASIR, or Tannesar, a town of Hindustan, pro¬
vince of Delhi, which formerly contained the celebrated
temple of Jug Soom, which was held in the highest esti¬
mation by the Hindus, and innumerable pilgrims flocked
to it from all parts of India. It now belongs to the Sikhs,
and is principally inhabited by that race and by Hindus.
Long. 76. 48. E. Lat. 29. 55. N.
THANE, or Thanus, a name given to the nobility in
Britain before the time of William the Conqueror. It sig¬
nifies a minister or honourable retainer, from the verb the-
nian, to minister. • There were several degrees of nobi¬
lity among the Anglo-Saxons ; but those most commonly
mentioned are the king’s thanes and the alderman’s thanes.
The king’s thanes seem to have been of three different de¬
grees, according to their different degrees of wealth or fa- Thanet j ^
vour at court. The alderman’s thanes seem to have been v-- L
of the lowest degree of nobility, and next to them those J*.
who were promoted to that dignity from their advancement
in the church, from their valour, success in agriculture, or
commerce ; for if a ceorl or farmer applied to learning, and
attained to priest’s orders ; if he acquitted himself so well as
to obtain from a nobleman five hythes of land, or a gilt
sword, helmet, and breast-plate, the reward of his valour;
or if by his industry he had acquired the property of five
hythes of land; or if he applied to trade, and made three
voyages beyond sea in a ship of his own, and a cargo be¬
longing to himself, he was denominated a thane.
The thanes, who were the only nobility among the Anglo-
Saxons, were a very numerous body of men, comprehend¬
ing all the considerable landholders in England, and fill¬
ing up that space in society between the ceorls or yeoman¬
ry on the one hand, and the royal family on the other; a
space which is now occupied both by the nobility and gen¬
try. In times of war, they constituted the flower of the
armies, and in times of peace they swelled the trains of the
kings, and added greatly to the splendour of their courts,
especially at the three great festivals of Christmas, Easter,
and Whitsuntide. From this body all the chief officers,
both civil and military, as aldermen, greeves, earls, hereto-
gens, &c. were taken; and to obtain some of these offices
was the great object of their ambition. Before they ob¬
tained an office, their lands were their only support; and
they lived in greater or less affluence, according to the ex¬
tent of their estates. These they divided into two parts;
one of which they called their inlands, and the other their
outlands. Their inlands they kept in their own immediate
possession, and cultivated them by the hands of their slaves
and villains, in order to raise provisions for their families;
their outlands they granted to ceorls or farmers, either for
one year, or for a term of years, for which they received a
certain stipulated proportion of their produce annually.
These customs had long prevailed among their ancestors in
Germany, and were adhered to by their posterity in Eng¬
land till the conquest. The thanes were under no obliga¬
tions on account of their lands, except the three following,
which were indispensably necessary to the defence and im¬
provement of their country; to attend the king with their
followers in military expeditions, to assist in building and
defending the royal castles, and in keeping the bridges and
highways in proper repair. To these obligations all pro¬
prietors of land (even the churchmen for a long time not
excepted) were subjected ; and these services were consi¬
dered as due to their country, rather than to the persons ot
their kings, and were agreed to by all as being necessary to
their own preservation and convenience. This title of thane
was abolished in England at the conquest.
THANET, or Isle of Thanet, a part of the county of
Kent, in the north corner of it, surrounded by the sea, ex¬
cept at one part, where the river Stour, which was once
a large estuary, divides it from the rest of the county.
It extends nine miles from east to west, and eight miles
from north to south, and contains 24,880 acres of fertile
land, with a population in 1831 of 26,090 persons. It com¬
prises eight parishes, and three other divisions called Villa.
W ithin it are the towns of Margate, Ramsgate, and Broad-
stairs, which have rapidly increased in extent, in the num¬
ber of good houses, as well as in inhabitants; and from the
number of persons who resort to them for the purpose of
sea-bathing, a continued increase may with certainty be an¬
ticipated. The soil of the island is remarkably fertile, and
is perhaps better cultivated than any other district of the
same extent in England. Besides the corn consumed at
home, it is enabled to supply the city of London with 30,000
quarters annually, which is forwarded by means of water-
carriage. The wheat and barley sent from hence is com-
THE
Th.,n sidered among the best brought to the London market.
I Here many kinds of seeds are produced for the seedsmen
I heaves-0f the metropolis; not only the seeds of clover, lucerne,
" sainfoin, and trefoil, but also of canary, anis, radish, spinach,
cabbage, and mustard. About 4000 acres are valuable
pasture, and used for the fattening of sheep and cattle.
Except in the towns, there are no gentlemen’s seats in the
island, most of them having been converted into farm¬
houses, and occupied by the holders of large farms. The
people on the shore are for the most part occupied in mari¬
time affairs, especially in assisting ships in distress, in which
they display great boldness, skill, and activity.
THANN, a city of France, in the department of the Up¬
per Rhine, and the arrondissement of Befort. It is situated
at the foot of a mountain, upon which the castle of Engel-
burg stands, on the river Thuron, and at the entrance of
the valley of St Martin. The church of St Theobald is a
curious object, on the model of the cathedral of Strasburg,
with a tower 300 feet in height. In 1836, Thann contained
3937 inhabitants, mostly using the German language, and
employed in making cotton goods, hosiery, and leather, and
in working some mines of coal in the neighbourhood.
THASO, or Tasso, an island on the northern coast of
Greece, the Thasos of antiquity. It stands in the Gulf of
Contessa, about four miles from the mainland, and seven
leagues to the eastward of Cape Karca or Kofani. It is
thirteen miles long from north to south, and eleven broad
from east to west. It is mountainous, particularly in the
south and in the east parts, but affords excellent wine, with
a quantity of honey and bees’ wax. The gold mines men¬
tioned by ancient writers are not now known to exist, but
it still supplies some fine marbles. In former times it was
celebrated for its fertility, but of late years it has been much
neglected. On the shore of the mainland, opposite to
Thaso, is the town of Cavalla, before which is good an¬
chorage in from eight to ten fathoms water, under the pro¬
tection of a castle. On the north-east side there is a good
roadstead, near the town of Tasso Paolo. The centre of
the island is in long. 24. 39. E. and lat. 40. 41. N.
THATCHAM, a town of England, in the hundred of
Reading and county of Berks. It stands on the great road
from London to Bath and Bristol, being fifty-three miles
from the former city. It is well built, and was formerly a
place of some consequence. It has a parish church and an
endowed school. The parish is very extensive, containing
1149 acres of well-cultivated and productive land. The
1 chief trade is attending on the numerous travellers that
pass through. Within the parish there are two hamlets,
i Greenham and Midgham. In 1821 the whole population
i amounted to 3677, and in 1831 to 3912.
THAXTED, a town of the hundred of Dunmow, in the
county of Essex, forty-seven miles from London. It is a
place of little trade, though formerly much cutlery was
made there. It has a spacious church, built by John duke
of Lancaster, and several chapels for dissenters. It was
formerly a borough, and more considerable than it is at
present. There is a market on Friday. The inhabitants
amounted in 1821 to 2045, and in 1831 to 2293.
IHEA1TNES, a religious order in the Romish church,
so called from their principal founder John Peter Caraffa,
then bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in the kingdom of Naples,
i and afterwards pope, under the name of Paul IV. The
names of the other founders were Gaetan, Boniface, and
Consiglieri. These four individuals, desiring to reform the
ecclesiastical state, laid the foundation of an order of regu-
I lar clerks at Rome in the year 1524. Pope Clement VII.
: approved the institution, and permitted the brethren to
i make the three religious vows, to elect a superior every
i three years, and to draw up statutes for the regulation of
the order. 1 hey were the first who endeavoured, by their
example, to revive among the clergy the poverty of the
THE 191
apostles and first disciples of our Saviour, and were also the Theatre,
first who assumed the title of regular clerks.
THEATRE, a place in which dramatic pieces are ex¬
hibited. The article Drama, besides relating the literary
history of the stage, has furnished as minute an account of
the plan and arrangements of the ancient theatres as the
purposes of this work allow. Similar details as to the mo¬
dern theatres of the Continent, would lead into a field far
too wide to be traversed ; and we must here confine our¬
selves to a brief notice of the establishments devoted to
dramatic entertainments in Britain.
The earliest positive mention of professional actors in
England, as a class distinctly separable from minstrels or
others, occurs about the middle of the fifteenth century ;
and a sumptuary law of Edward IV., passed in 1464, makes
an exception in favour of u players in their enterludes.”
Richard III., when duke of Gloucester, kept a company of
players and musicians in his pay. The children of the
king’s chapel were trained for acting as well as singing;
and Henry VII. had two distinct sets of players, the one be¬
ing composed of the gentlemen of the chapel, who perform¬
ed regularly at certain seasons ; and the other, the “ play¬
ers of interludes,” being more like those strolling compa¬
nies whom about that time we find to have been often taken
into the pay of noblemen throughout the country. In the
reign of Henry VIII. the court amusements became more
expensive and diversified, in this respect as in every other;
and the royal example was eagerly imitated by the wealthy
nobles. Besides the annual payments from the king to the
Lord of Misrule, and the large sums expended on masques
and other entertainments, rve find salaries to have been re¬
gularly paid to two companies of the “ king’s players,” in
addition to the children of the chapel; and the royal play¬
ers, as well as those of the nobility, travelled through all the
provinces. In 1528, Henry entertained the French am¬
bassadors at Greenwich with a Latin moral play, acted by
the pupils of St Paul’s school, in which the reformation was
ridiculed, and Luther and his wife were prominent charac¬
ters. The corporations, especially that of Chester, so cele¬
brated for its patronage of religious theatricals, continued
to exhibit dramatic show's on occasions of festivity ; al¬
though the corporation of London appear, even before the
middle of the sixteenth century, as decidedly opposing
stage plays, and attempting to suppress them within their
jurisdiction. In 1543 was passed the earliest act of parlia¬
ment for the regulation of the stage ; and in 1546, if not
earlier, was established the office of Master of the Revels,
for managing and superintending the pastimes of the court.
The disturbances of the two short reigns which succeeded
Henry’s, checked the progress of theatrical amusements;
but their prosperity revived on the accession of Elizabeth,
who lived to witness the rise of the dramatic art to its high¬
est literary excellence. The companies of itinerant players
multiplied so excessively, and their irregularities were con¬
sidered so dangerous, that a statute of the queen, passed in
1572, stamped the first public brand on the profession; de¬
claring that all players, fencers, bearwards, not belonging
to any nobleman,—and all tinkers, jugglers, pedlars, &c. not
having license from two justices of the peace,—should be
dealt with as rogues and vagabonds.
About the year 1570, or very little later, w'ere erected
the earliest buildings in London that were devoted exclu¬
sively to theatrical representation. These were two, both
in Shoreditch; the one called “ The Theatre,” by way of
eminence, the other called “ The Curtain.” A third
theatre, within the privileged precinct of the Blackfriars,
was built in 1576, by Burbadge, the father of the famous
player, whose company had been driven out of the city by
the corporation ; and the Globe on the Bankside in South¬
wark (which afterwards became the summer theatre of
Shakspeare’s company, while the Blackfriars was their place
192
T H E A T R E.
Theatre of acting in winter) was erected about the year 1594. But
between 1570 and 1600, there arose eleven buildings, if not
more, in or about London, applied to the purpose of dra¬
matic exhibitions. Several of these were always obscure,
but others possess interest, on account of the merit of the
works produced on their stages. The Globe and Black-
friars always maintained the first rank, and continued in the
possession of the company called the Queen’s Players ; Pa-
ris-Garden, an old building, was used both for stage-play¬
ing and bear-baiting; and the Rose, built about 1585, and
the Fortune, in 1599, were especially under the control of
the pawnbroker Philip Henslowe, whose manuscript diary
is one of the most instructive documents which we possess
relating to the dramatic history of that age. An attempt
of the government in 1598 to limit the license of playing in
London to two companies, bearing the names of the Lord
Chamberlain and Lord Admiral, seems to have been com¬
pletely unsuccessful. In the reign of James, the Globe and
Fortune were successively burnt, but both rebuilt; and no
new theatre of consequence was erected except the Phoenix
or Cockpit in Drury Lane, and the Red Bull in Saint
John Street, if indeed the latter was not somewhat older.
In the same reign the principal companies of players were
three. Those who obtained the royal patent of 1603, at the
head of whom stood Shakspeare, Burbadge, and Laurence
Fletcher, had been recently called the Lord Chamberlain’s
men, but now resumed their older title of the King’s Play¬
ers or Servants. The company at first named Players of
the Lord Admiral (or of the Earl of Nottingham, who held
that office) were afterwards called the Players 'of Prince
Henry : these were the actors especially connected with
Henslowe; and his celebrated son-in-law Edward Alleyn,
the founder of Dulwich College, was the most distinguished
among them. Those actors who had formerly been called
Children of the Chapel, but of whom many were persons of
mature age, were now called Children of the Revels, and
appear frequently in connection with Ben Jonson’s works.
James had passed an act against profanity in plays: his son
passed one, the first of his reign, against the acting of them
on Sundays, an impropriety which it had been formerly at¬
tempted to remove, and which the growing spirit of puri¬
tan ism regarded with increasing horror. But Charles,
whose taste for literature and art was the best feature in
his character, was a liberal and judicious patron of the
theatre during those few early years of his reign that pre¬
ceded the disturbances. In the same year as the act last
named (1625), he renewed his lather’s patent to the “ King’s
Players,” in favour of Heminge and Condell, Shakspeare’s
executors, and others; annexing a condition which we find
often insisted on in regard to dramatic exhibitions in those
days, that no performance should take place in London un¬
less the persons infected by the plague fell short of a cer¬
tain number in the week. About 1635 thei'e were in the
metropolis, besides a French troop and a Spanish, five set¬
tled companies of English players;—the King’s Servants,
under Lowin and Taylor, who played, as of old, at the
Globe and B lack friars;—the Queen’s, who played at the
Cockpit;—the Prince’s men, at the Fortune;—the Children
of the Revels, probably at the Red Bull;—and the company
attached to a new theatre in Salisbury Court. The civil
war broke out in 1642 ; and in September of that year an
“ ordinance of both houses of parliament,” setting forth the
necessity of fasting and prayer, and of all other means “ to
appease and avert the wrath of God appearing in these
judgments,” ordained that, “while these sad causes and set
times of humiliation do continue, public stage-plays shall
cease and be forborne.” In 1647 a more peremptory act
declared stage-players punishable by public whipping for the
first offence, and authorized the demolition of the theatres.
And tor nearly ten years from that time we hear of only
one or two unimportant infractions of the prohibition.
During those early ages of our dramatic annals, which Theatf.
the civil wars thus brought to a close, the theatres were
divided into two classes, the Public and the Private, the dis¬
tinctions of which are not yet very clear, and do not seem
to have been ever very important. The private theatres, it
is said by Mr Collier, were smaller than the others, and were
entirely roofed over, which the latter were not; the perform¬
ances in them were by artificial light; their “ pits” had seats;
and there were other minor differences of arrangement.
The Blackfriars, the Cockpit, and the house in Salisbury
Court, were private theatres ; the Globe, Fortune, and Bull,
were public. There has been loud controversy on the
question whether moveable scenery was at all used in the
time of Shakspeare; but it may be considered as having
been authoritatively settled in the negative. There was a
balcony or upper stage, which served, on multifarious occa¬
sions, the purposes of a second scene, representing the walls
of a town in King John and elsewhere,—Juliet’s balconv,—
or the seat of the audience at the performance of the play in
Hamlet, in which the player-king and queen occupied the
front of the main stage. Besides the curtain which con¬
cealed this balcony when it was not required, other cur¬
tains, called traverses, crossing the back of the stage, served
to separate a portion, which, by drawing these partly or
wholly, could be made to pass for an inner room. There
is good evidence of the use of trap-doors in the stage ; and
descents from above were also attempted, as in Greene’s
Alphonsus, a play older than most of Shakspeare’s, in which
one direction was this—“ let Venus be let down from the
top of the stageand another, in the same play, orders
that Venus shall either simply make her exit, “ or, if you
can conveniently, let a chair come down from the top of
the stage and draw her up.” The performances, in Shak¬
speare’s time, took place but once a day; the usual hour
seems to have been three o’clock; and nothing except the
short and rude pieces called jigs seems to have been ex¬
hibited besides the principal play. There were play-bills
pasted up in the streets as early at least as the middle of
the sixteenth century ; and in 1620 a royal patent was
granted for the printing of them. The purchases which
theatrical companies made from authors seem to have been
understood as comprehending, not merely the right of re¬
presenting the pieces, but the entire copyright; and the
care ol the players to keep popular pieces in manuscript
was one of the causes especially destructive to the drama¬
tic literature of those times. Before the year 1600, Hens¬
lowe, whose loans had made most of the dramatists of the
time his bond-slaves, seems never to have paid an author
more than eight pounds for a play; and even authors of repu¬
tation, such as Dekker, sometimes received much less. But
the value of literary labour rose in the beginning of the
next century, and we then find even inferior writers, like Da-
borne, stipulating for sums as high as twenty pounds. The
usual price, however, till the closing of the theatres, was
about twelve pounds, to which were sometimes added the
receipts, in whole or in part, of one of the early perform¬
ances. 1 he actors were divided into two classes: the
Shareholders, wdio were joint proprietors of the establish¬
ment, and ranked according to the amount of their interest,
as whole sharers, three-quarter sharers, or half sharers ; and
the Hired Men, who were the inferior actors, receiving
wreekly salaries from the sharers. In 1608, when the cor¬
poration contemplated removing the players of the Black¬
friars, but proposed giving them compensation for the loss
of their property and employment, a statement wras pro¬
duced which gives some curious results. It appears that the
whole interest in the profits of the establishment was di¬
vided into twenty shares, which belonged to eleven actors.
Burbadge owned the building and four of the shares;
Shakspeare owned four shares, with the wardrobe and pro¬
perties ; F letcher had three shares; Heminge and Condell
r
THEATRE.
two shares each; Taylor and Lowin a share and half each ;
and four others parted the remaining two shares equally
among them. Each share was valued at L.33. 6s. 8d. per
annum, and was offered to the corporation at seven years’
purchase: the building was valued at L.1000, the ward¬
robe and properties at L.500. The whole property was
thus estimated by the players themselves at L.6166. 13s. 4d.,
besides compensation demanded by the hired men, and
allowances to the widows and orphans of deceased players.
Shakspeare’s interest was valued by him at L.1433. 6s. 8d.,
which might be equal to between L.6000 and L.7000 in
modern money. All these valuations, however, must have
been above the truth.1
The representation of Sir William Davenant’s Siege of
Rhodes, in 1656, was the first step towards a revival of
theatrical amusements; and three years later, two rival
companies began to act openly in London, the one at the
Cockpit, the other at the Red Bull. The former, originally
organized by one Rhodes, a bookseller, was composed
chiefly of new actors, among whom the best, Betterton and
Kynaston, were youths who had been his own apprentices;
the latter embraced those old actors who had survived the
wars, in which several of them had served with some dis¬
tinction. Two royal patents (the origin of the modern mo¬
nopoly) were issued in 1663. The one was in favour of Dave-
nant, who placed himself at the head of Rhodes’s players,
and acted for some time at a new house in Lincoln’s Inn
Fields, calling his company the Duke of York’s, though
they were sworn in as servants of the king. The other
patent was given to the witty Killigrew, whose actors,
called the King’s Company, were those who had begun to
play at the Red Bull, but who were removed to a new
theatre built in Drury Lane. The new companies pre¬
sented one remarkable novelty, in the accession of several
females to their number. Before the Restoration, the fe¬
male parts had been performed by the younger male actors ;
and the only instance in which an innovation had been
tried was in 1629, when a French company appeared at the
Blackfriars, consisting partly of women, or, as Prynne is
pleased to express it, “ monsters rather”—“ an impudent,
shameful, unwomanish, graceless, if not more than mere¬
tricious attempt.” Those who looked on the matter in a
more candid and philosophical temper, might not unreason¬
ably have expected that the introduction of actresses to
the stage would have helped to purify it from that coarse¬
ness which had disfigured the drama in its preceding ages.
But after the Restoration, the players, the public at large,
and the court, which gave law to the public and the players,
were all alike corrupt; and if the new addition did nothing
to deteriorate, it did at all events nothing to retard the in¬
creasing degradation. That which, in most of the dramas
produced in Elizabeth’s reign, had been merely coarseness
of language, had been accompanied in very many of the
later plays with real licentiousness of principle and feeling;
and the profligacy of Charles the Second and his minions
was now aped with applause in works full of the most dis¬
gusting and disgraceful obscenity. The injury which mo¬
rality received from the stage was accompanied by injury
to taste, inflicted not only by that undramatic spirit which
pervaded the very best works of the time, but by the pomp
of decoration, the singing, music, and dancing, by which Da-
venant sought to make his theatre a match for the superior
histi ionic skill displayed by his rivals. The licentiousness
was greatly amended after the Revolution, but the corrup¬
tion of taste gave way much more slowly.
In 1671 the Duke’s players opened a new theatre in
Dorset Gardens, probably on the site of the old house in
Salisbury Court; and in 1674 the King’s players opened a
193
second new theatre in Drury Lane, in the place of their Theatre,
former one, which had been burned down. A union of —v-—^
the two patents, and of both companies, produced discon¬
tents both among the actors and the public; and a new
patent having been granted by King William to Betterton
and some of the rebellious players, a third theatre was built
by them in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, for which was afterwards
substituted a splendid but ill-designed house in the Hay-
market, planned by Sir John Vanbrugh, and opened in
1705. In the mean time, various disputes and misfortunes
happened among the old patentees. The interference of
the Lord Chamberlain, whom, as coming in the place of
the Master of the Revels, the actors and the public some¬
times considered as having exclusive jurisdiction over the
playhouses, while at other times the managers voluntarily
submitted their disputes to his arbitration, was repeatedly
exerted, and often very arbitrarily, to restore something
like order and prosperity; and at length matters were placed
for a time on a footing not materially different from the
modern one. The theatre in the Haymarket was appro¬
priated solely to the opera; and the two old patents of
Charles the Second were the warrant under which the re¬
gular drama was played at Drury Lane by a company acting
under Killigrew’s patent, and at the theatre in Lincoln’s Inn
hields (once more rebuilt) by a company directed by the
younger Rich, the holder, of the patent which had been
granted to Davenant. At Drury Lane, plays which, how¬
ever indifferent, were the best the age could produce, or
the public endure, were acted with excellent skill by a com¬
pany directed by the first actors of the day, Wilks, Dogget,
Booth, and Cibber, with whom, for a good many years, Sir
Richard Steele was associated in the patent. At Lincoln’s
Inn Fields were produced those execrable abortions called
pantomimes, on which the manager Rich prided himself so
much, and whose scenery and drolleries gained for his house
a popularity which he probably thought cheaply purchased
by the ridicule showered on him without ceasing by the wits
of Queen Anne’s reign.
In 1720 there arose new quarrels, new financial embar¬
rassments, and new interferences and prohibitions by the
Lord Chamberlain; but of the events which took place for
many years, two or three only demand notice. The first was
the opening, in 1729, of a new theatre in Goodman’s Fields,
rebuilt in 1732, which did not for some time obtain such
success as to tempt the patentees to suppress it. A second
occurrence was the transfer of Rich’s company, in 1733, to
a new house in Covent Garden.' In 1737 there was passed,
in spite of energetic and well-founded opposition, an act of
parliament, taking from the crown the right of granting any
new patents for theatres in the metropolis, and forbidding
the representation of any plays not previously licensed by
the Lord Chamberlain. In 1741 Garrick appeared at Good¬
man’s Fields, in the character of Richard the Third.
In 1747 the patent of Drury Lane was renewed in fa¬
vour of Lacey, who was to be the man of business of the
establishment, and Garrick, who was to support it both as
actor and author. Under the direction of these managers
the theatre enjoyed uninterrupted prosperity for nineteen
years; and, however faulty Garrick’s ideas of the literary
qualities of the drama may in some respects have been, Ave
owe him a heavy debt of gratitude for the benefits he con¬
ferred on public taste by his restoration of Shakspeare’s
works to that place on the stage from which they had been
banished with equal constancy by the debauchery of Charles
the Second’s time, and the pedantic coldness of Queen
Anne’s. In the mean time, after the death of Rich in 1761,
Covent Garden was chiefly supported by its musical pieces;
and the new management, begun in 1767, at the head of
°! •the th,eatres ‘fl‘heir suppression in the civil wars, see Collier’s Annals of the Stage, 3 vols. 1831 ; and Malone’s His-
wrj ot the tstage, in Ins posthumous Shakspeare of 1821.
VOL. XXI. „
2 B
194
T II E
THE
Theatre, which stood the elder Column, produced little advantage
-v—'' to any except the lawyers who received fees in the lawsuits
between the proprietors. In 1766, a theatre in the Hay-
market, not that which held the patent, but another which
had been built in 1720, and which had received occasional
licenses for performances during the summer, received a
regular patent, granted in favour of Foote, which recog¬
nized its actors as the king’s servants, and allowed perfor¬
mances in it from the 14th of May to the 14th of Septem¬
ber. The patentee immediately pulled down the old house,
and built a new one, which was opened in 1767.
In 1790 there was built, on the site of Sir John Van¬
brugh’s Haymarket Theatre, a new house devoted to the
Italian opera, which received the name of the King’s Theatre,
and has since then suffered no very material alteration in
the general structure of its interior. In 1794 was opened
a new theatre in Drury Lane, built, after a plan by Hol¬
land, on the site of the former one; and two or three years
earlier, Covent Garden had received such improvements as
amounted nearly to a total renovation. Long before these
events, however, the management of Covent Garden had
passed to Harris; while at Drury Lane, Garrick had been
succeeded by Sheridan, Ford, and Linley; and Foote’s
place at the Haymarket had been filled by Colman. In
1803 the stage-management of Covent Garden passed to
John Philip Kemble; and the subsequent changes which
took place for some time in that and the other theatres are
not of such literary moment as to require notice. In Sep¬
tember 1808, Covent Garden Theatre was burnt to the
ground; and the present building, erected on its site, after a
plan by Smirke, was opened within twelve months from
the catastrophe. In 1809 a similar calamity destroyed the
theatre in Drury Lane, which was rebuilt by Wyatt, and
opened for performances in 1811. Foote’s summer theatre
in the Haymarket made way, in 1821, for a new house
planned by Nash, and possessing a patent extending its per¬
formances to seven months.
It would not be too much to say, that the excellence of
the dramas which our modern stage has produced, bears, in
comparison with those of our older times, a proportion
nearly inverse to that of the dimensions and adornment of
the edifices in which the works of the two ages have been
respectively acted. The question as to the causes of our
decay, and as to our probable prospect of revival, has been
handled elsewhere, and would lead us beyond the proper
province of this article ; but the discouraging state of the
drama during the whole period which has elapsed in the
present century may be admitted as a sufficient reason for
declining to trace the history of our great theatres through
that series of misfortunes which has hung over all of them,
especially Drury Lane, for the last thirty years. The
ruinous consequences of their injurious monopoly have not,
it should appear, been even yet made sufficiently obvious
to those who possess the power of remedying the evil; and
the many minor theatres, which, if allowed free scope,
might perhaps become the nurseries of a new school in dra¬
matic art, are left to struggle against obstacles arising from
this cause, and seconded but too faithfully by the general
corruption of dramatic taste.
I he evils produced by the monopoly of the great theatres
in the metropolis were till lately aggravated tenfold by the
laws affecting copyright in dramatic performances. Liter-
ary property of this sort was continually invaded, and towards
the end of the eighteenth century the courts of law formallv
authorized the encroachments. The decisions were founded
on very curious and subtile distinctions.
The first case brought forward was that in which Mack-
lin, in 1770, applied to the Court of Chancery for an in¬
junction to stay the printing of his farce of “ Love-a-la-
Mode” in a magazine, in which it was appearing piecemeal.
The farce had never yet been printed or published; and
; (
if*
nof
the booksellers obtained their manuscript from a short- Theln,^:
hand writer, whom they employed to attend the theatre
and take down the dialogue from the mouths of the actors.
The court held that this was a ptiblication of the play, and
forbidden by the act of Queen Anne. In terms of this
decision, it was always afterwards held, that the author or
his assignee retained the exclusive right of printing and
publishing a play, although it might have been already
acted.
But in 1790, the Court of King’s Bench laid down the law
very differently for the case in which redress is claimed
against the unauthorized representation of a play on the stage.
O’Keeffe’s farce, “ The Agreeable Surprise,” had been acted
on various stages, although the copyright had been sold by
the author to Colman of the Haymarket. Colman prose¬
cuted the manager of the Richmond theatre for infringe¬
ment of the act of Queen Anne, maintaining that his act¬
ing of the piece was a publication of it in the sense of the
statute. The court found that acting (or, as one of the
judges called it, repeating a book from memory) was not
publication, nor prohibited by the act. The provincial
managers thenceforth continued to plunder dramatic authors
with impunity, as soon as, by the publication of their works,
or in other ways, they were able to procure access to them.
No endeavour was made in the courts to shake the decision
given in Colman’s case, till the year 1822, when Murray the
bookseller prosecuted Elliston for acting Byron’s tragedy
of Marino Faliero, “ altered and abridged for the stage,” the
play having been previously printed and published by Mur¬
ray, the proprietor of the copyright. The attempt in this
case to found the action for redress independently of the
statute, was equally unsuccessful with the previous attempt
to rest it solely on the statutory words.
These decisions, it is true, left several very important
questions still undetermined ; but the letter of the law, and
the spirit of the interpretations which had been long put
upon it, were equally unfavourable to the dramatic author.
Writers of plays continued to depend for remuneration on
the small sums which they could obtain from booksellers
for the right of printing and publishing, writh any other sum
which the managers of the London theatres chose to give
for the privilege of acting the drama till publication.
This unfair state of things was altered in 1833 by Sir
Edward Lytton Bulwer’s act, “ To amend the laws relating
to dramatic literary property.” By this statute it is enacted,
first, that the author of every dramatic piece not printed or
published (or the assignee of the author) shall have, as his
own property, the sole liberty of representing it, or causing it
to be represented, at any place of dramatic entertainment;
secondly, that the author of every dramatic piece which has
been or shall be printed and published (or the assignee of
the author) shall have, as his own property, the same liberty
of representing it, or causing it to be represented, till the end
of twenty-eight years from the date of the publication, and
also during the residue of the author’s life; thirdly, that
the penalty for infringement of the act shall be, for each re¬
presentation. an amount not less than forty shillings, or
the full amount of the benefit or advantage arising from
the representation, or the injury or loss sustained by the
proprietor of the drama, recoverable in an action to be
brought within twelve months after the offence, (b. i..)
THEBES, the name of a celebrated city of ancient i
Gi ’eece. It is supposed to have been built by Cadmus,
about the year of the world 2555. This Cadmus, according Account
to the Greeks, was the son of Agenor king of Sidon or of Cadies
Tyre ; but the Sidonians allow him to have been of no higli-ff® (0I11
1 b
d
Me!
n.
t
* is
er quality than his cook, and tell us that his wife was a mu¬
sician at court, with whom he ran away into Greece. The
Greek writers aver, that being commanded by his father to
go in search of his daughter Europa, whom Jupiter in the
shape oi bull had carried off, and being forbidden to return
Thtbei.
THEBES.
195
F#ld
■e “;:
rliekil-
'■e
Cai
eii-
it-rai
nid
Spc-
without her, he built, or rebuilt, the city of Thebes, after
—V"' liaving long sought her in vain. He was at first opposed
by the Hyantes and Aones ; the former of whom he defeat¬
ed in battle, and forced to retire into Locris; the latter sub¬
mitted, and were incorporated among his subjects.
Those who endeavour to extract some truth from the
multitude of fables in which the early part of the Grecian
history is obscured, are of opinion that Cadmus was one of
111 the Canaanites expelled by Joshua; and that he was of the
family of the Cadmonites mentioned by Moses and Joshua.
He is allowed to have introduced the Phoenician letters into
Greece, established the first schools, and introduced brass,
which, from him, had the name of Cadmean given to it.
The government of Thebes continued for a long time mo¬
narchical ; and the names of a number of its kings have
been transmitted to us, with some account of their trans¬
actions, though much obscured by fable.
Although the Thebans had been famed in the early pe-
is a|e- rjocj 0f their history for their martial achievements, yet in
,o process of time they seem to have degenerated. At the
time of the invasion of Xerxes, they were the first people in
Greece who were gained over to the Persian interest. On
account of this conduct, they became very obnoxious to the
other states, especially to the Athenians, whose power and
t tkn- renown increased every day. The Thebans being in no
n‘* '' condition to oppose such a formidable power, placed them-
tion'f se^ves under the protection of the Spartans, who, out of jea¬
lousy of the Athenians, readily forgave them ; and so grate¬
ful were the Thebans for the kindness shown them at this
time, that during the whole of the Peloponnesian war Spar¬
ta had not a more faithful ally. By these means they not
only recovered the government of Bceotia, of which they
had formerly been in possession, till deprived of it on ac¬
count of their siding with the Persians, but their city be¬
came one of the first in Greece. By this prosperity the
Thebans were so much elated, that, when the peace of An-
talcidas came to be signed, they refused to agree to it, as
they were thus once more deprived of the government of
Bceotia ; so that it was not without the utmost difficulty
that they were overawed by the other states. Not content
" T11' with forcing them to give up this point, however, the Spar-
ciU'l tans undertook to change the form of the Theban govern-
rM.,y ment, which at this time was a democracy, and accomplish-
Sp<- ed their purpose, through the treachery of those who had
s> the care of the citadel.
e lk The Thebans continued under the power of the Spartans
l®rj); for four years; at the expiration of which, a conspiracy
tmli-being formed against them by some of the principal people
1(fp-jsLrin the city, among whom was a young nobleman named
Pelopidas, the Spartans were all massacred or driven out, and
the citadel was regained. During the tumult Epaminon-
das, afterwards the celebrated general, with a number of
the best citizens, joined the party of Pelopidas ; and the
latter having called a general assembly of the Thebans, pro¬
claimed liberty to them, and exhorted them in the strong¬
est manner to fight for their country. This speech was re¬
ceived with the greatest acclamations ; Pelopidas was unani¬
mously declared the preserver of Thebes, and was charged
with the management of the war which was then to be
undertaken against Sparta.
These transactions so much exasperated the Spartans,
that they immediately sent their king Cleombrotus against
them, though it was then the depth of winter. The Athe¬
nians, in the mean time, who had hitherto assisted the The¬
bans, declined any further connection, lest they should draw
upon themselves the resentment of the Spartans. But they
were soon afterwards determined to act again on the same
side, by an attempt which the Spartan general, Sphodnas,
had rashly made on the Pyraeus, or harbour of Athens,
ihus, by means of the Athenians, a powerful diversion was
made in favour of the Thebans, who gradually recovered all
e fdn
.TO Vi! 1
ar wh
arta.
the towns of Boeotia, and at length began to act offensively Thebes,
against their enemies, and made a powerful invasion in Pho- ^ ' v ' '
cis. They had now many sharp encounters, which, though
they did not amount to decisive battles, yet did not fail °to
raise their courage, and depress that of the Spartans. In The Spar-
these encounters Pelopidas always signalized himself; and tens de¬
in the battle of Tanagra, where the Lacedaemonians were feated.
entirely defeated by the Athenians and their allies, Pelopi- PeloPldas-
das had a principal share in the victory, and killed the Spar¬
tan general with his own hand. Soon after this, with a body
of only 300 Thebans, he entirely routed and dispersed nearly
1000 Spartans, which was the greatest disgrace that the lat¬
ter had ever known ; for till that crisis, whether in war with
the Greeks or barbarians, they had never been overcome
by an equal, much less by such an inferior number of troops.
Ihese successes of the Thebans greatly alarmed the Plataea and
Athenians, who continually sought to oppose their growing Thespia
power. In this opposition they were joined by the Plataeans,razed by
who on that account became extremely obnoxious to thej^g e"
Ihebans, so that they at last came to a resolution to surprise a'S"
their city. This they accomplished, and entirely destroyed
it, together with Thespia, another city extremely well af¬
fected to Athens. Encouraged by their success, the The¬
bans soon afterwards began to think of enlarging their ter¬
ritories, and of making encroachments on their neighbours,
as they saw other states had done before them. This spirit
of conquest is said to have been raised by their general Pe¬
lopidas. He was seconded by Epaminondas, a person who, Account of
though like him endowed with all the necessary qualities to Epaminon-
make a complete captain or patriot, had till then preferred das‘
a private life, and lived in a constant course of virtue and
the study of philosophy. He had as yet seldom appeared
in public, except to get himself excused from those state
employments which were so eagerly courted by others.
Ibis, however, had not hindered him from contracting an
intimate friendship with Pelopidas, which had been daily
improved by the correspondence of their tempers and prin¬
ciples, as well as by that zeal which both displayed for the
good of their country. Before this period, they had often
appeared together in action, and to such advantage, that
Epaminondas’s merit could no longer be concealed, nor in¬
deed sutler him to continue longer in his beloved retirement.
He at length found himself placed at the head of the The ¬
ban troops; where he gave such early proofs of his future
prowess and abilities as justly secured him the next rank to
Pelopidas. Both came now to be considered in the same
light, as generals in the field, as governors at home, and as
complete statesmen in the council. When the general treaty
for restoring peace to Greece came to be proposed by the
Athenians, and was upon the point of being executed by
the rest of the states, the Thebans refused to agree to it,
unless they were comprehended in it under the name of
Bczotians. This demand was as strenuously opposed by
the other contracting powers as insisted on by Epaminondas,
who was there as ambassador on the part of the Thebans.
Agesilaus, in particular, told him in plain terms that the
Thebans ought to evacuate Boeotia, and leave the cities of
it free and independent. He replied, that the Lacedsemo- His differ-
nians would do well to set them the example, by restoringence with
Messenia to its ancient proprietors, and Laconia to its ancient Agesilaus
freedom ; and that the pretensions of the city of Thebes to ^
Boeotia. were at least as well founded as those of Sparta to^11111'
those two countries. He then proceeded to shew how far
Sparta had aggrandized herself at the expense of her neigh¬
bours ; that peace might be indeed obtained, and upon a
solid and lasting footing ; but that this could not be other¬
wise than by admitting the principle of equality. His bold
though just remonstrance, in which not only Thebes, but
Greece in general, was concerned, failed not to exasperate
the haughty Spartan monarch ; and the Athenians, who had
till now looked upon the Thebans as dependants either on
196
THEBES.
Thebes, them or on the Macedonians, were not a little offended to
^hear their ambassador talk in such a high strain. The re-
1 he Spar- gujt conf'erence was, that Agesilaus struck the name
Thebes out of the treaty, and declared war against them,
against  
Thebes.
about the year 371 b. c.
The Thebans were in no small consternation to see them¬
selves engaged in a war with the powerful Spartans, without
any ally to assist them ; and the rest of the Grecian states
having made peace with the latter, began to look upon the
ruin of the former as unavoidable. They however resolv¬
ed to make the best defence they could ; and placed their
army under the command of Epaminondas, assigning him,
at his own request, six individuals to act as counsellors or
assistants. The Theban army consisted at most of 6000
men, whereas that of the enemy was at least thrice that
number; but Epaminondas chiefly trusted to his horse, in
which he had much the advantage both in quality and good
management. The rest he endeavoured to supply by the
disposition of his men, and the vigour of his attack. He
even refused to suffer any to serve under him in the en¬
gagement, but such as he knew to be fully resolved to con-
Are entire-quer or die. The two armies met at Leuctra, where the
ly defeated Spartans were defeated w ith great slaughter, as related under
at Leuctra. article.
The victorious general, desirous to improve this great
victory, sent a herald, crowned wdth garlands, to communi¬
cate it in form to the Athenians, in hopes that this would
be an effectual means to reunite them to the Theban inte-
The Athe- rest. But the Athenians, who now looked upon them with
mans jea- a jealous eye, and had in view the sovereignty of Greece,
th t^le W0ldd not even grant their herald an audience. The
e ans‘ Thebans took care to strengthen themselves by alliances ;
and, besides the Arcadians and Eleans, had brought the
Phocians, Locrians, Acamanians, Euboeans, and other states,
under their dependence; so that they were now in a condi-
The The- tion to act offensively against the Spartans. Accordingly,
bans invade under pretence of assisting the Arcadians, they entered Pelo-
L^Tutare Ponnesus " a gaPant army, with Epaminondas and Pelo-
repulsed. pidas at its head. Here they were joined by the Arcadian
and other confederate forces ; so that the whole amounted
to 40,000, or, according to some accounts, 50,000 men, be¬
sides great numbers of those wdro followed the camp, rather
for plunder than fighting, and were computed at about 20,000
more. The army was divided into four columns, and moved
towards Sellasia, the place of rendezvous, from which they
pursued their march with fire and su’ord towards Sparta.
But here they were repulsed by Agesilaus, who wras then
returned to that metropolis.
TheMesse- To repair, in some measure, this disgrace, and at the
maas re*t<?‘same time to leave some lasting monument which should
ancient do- redound as much to his glory as to the mortification of the
minions. Spartans, Epaminondas left not their territories till he had
restored the posterity of the Messenians to their ancient
dominions, from which they had been banished nearly 300
years ; rebuilt their capital, and left a strong garrison for
its defence. He was, however, nearly cut off in his return
by Iphicrates, whom the Athenians had sent with 12,000
men to intercept him; but this general loitered so long at Co¬
rinth, that the Thebans had passed the defiles of Cenchreae,
the chief place where he could have obstructed their re¬
treat had he taken possession of it in proper time. Epami¬
nondas continued his march till he came in full view of the
city of Corinth. He found the roads choked up with trees,
rocks, stones, and every thing that could render them im¬
passable ; and the Corinthians well fortified, and resolute
on a stout defence. But he advanced so furiously upon
them, notwithstanding all these difficulties, that they aban¬
doned all their intrenchments and outworks to the Thebans,
and fled into the city. Thither these pursued them sword in
hand, and made a horrid slaughter ; insomuch that Corinth
must inevitably have fallen into their hands had their gene¬
Tbe Corin-
thians de-
teated.
rals thought fit to pursue these advantages; but whether Thebes
they were afraid of the Athenians falling upon them, or ap-
prehended some dangerous ambush in a country with which
they were but indifferently acquainted, or whether the army
was too much weakened through so many fatigues, or, lastly,
whether the coldness of the season, it being then the depth
of winter, would not permit them to proceed farther, they
immediately marched towards Boeotia. This gave such an EpamiCe,
advantage to their enemies, that they met with a very mor- dasandPf.
tifying reception on their return to Thebes, where they loPi(iils&
were both arrested, and seized as state-prisoners, for having ^eb“5:
presumed to prolong their command four months longer es
than the time limited by law, which time included almost
the whole of their expedition from their first entrance into
Peloponnesus. At last, however, the judges being asham¬
ed to proceed any further, they were both honourably
acquitted. This prosecution had been chiefly carried on and
encouraged by Meneclides, a discontented Theban, and a
bold and able speaker, who by his artful calumnies at the
trial, had so far prevailed with the judges as to get Epami¬
nondas deprived of the government of Boeotia for a whole
year, though he could not gain the same advantage against
Pelopidas, who was a greater favourite of the people, as
being his senior.
By this delay the Spartans, with much difficulty, had re-War re.
covered themselves from their great defeat at Leuctra, andne'veil»itl
settled their affairs in as good a posture as they could; but SPara
though they had repulsed the Thebans in Peloponnesus,
yet from the exploits which they had performed there,
especially in dismembering the whole kingdom of Mes-
senia from them, they had still cause to fear what their
forces might accomplish under two such generals, and had
accordingly taken due care to strengthen themselves against
them, and to provide a great number of auxiliaries from
other states, especially from that of Athens, wuth whom
they had renewed their old treaty, and had agreed that
each should have the command five days alternately. Soon
after this treaty the Arcadians renewed the war, and took
Palene in Laconia by storm, put the garrison to the sword,
and were presently assisted by the Argives and Eleans, and
especially by the Thebans, who sent to them 7000 foot,
and 500 horse under the command of Epaminondas. This
measure so alarmed the Athenians that they immediately The Tk
sent Gobrias with some forces to oppose his passage; and bans rti.
he so behaved himself against the Thebans that they werese^
a second time forced to abandon Peloponnesus. This ill
success gave fresh occasion to the enemies of Epaminondas
to blame his conduct in the highest terms, notwithstanding
the singular bravery with which he and his troops had for¬
ced the pass. Even his friends could not but suspect him
of partiality for the Spartans, in not pursuing his advantage
over them, and making a greater slaughter of them when
he had it in his power; while his enemies made it amount Epami«'
to no less than treachery to his country ; so that their brave dasikp
general was once more deprived of the government of Bceo-
tia, and reduced to the condition of a private man. He did
not continue long under this disgrace before an occasion
offered to make his services again of such necessity to the
state, as to give him an opportunity to retrieve his fame,
and wipe off the stain which his enemies had thrown upon
him.
The Thessalians, who had groaned some time under the Pelopik
tyranny of the usurper Alexander, surnamed the Phertean, 9ejze^’
sent an embassy to Thebes to implore their aid and protec-
tion ; upon which Pelopidas was immediately sent as ambas¬
sador to expostulate with him on their behalf. Pie was
then in Macedon, from whence he took the young prince
Philip, afterwards the celebrated monarch, in order to pro¬
tect and educate him ; and upon his return marched di¬
rectly to Pharsalus in Thessaly, in order to punish the
treachery of some mercenaries who had deserted the The-
’ Jek
iisor
Uton:
-g-fi: 
THEBES.
197
Tlban
.rmy nt
o ream
lim,) -
:eate<»
Ijpip’on-
la.s j n or-
d.
TUei‘6.
(PSC'IS
'elojifas.
^'icdu of
1’oloilas
thjil'er.
s;uji aurt.
bans in that expedition; but when he came thither he was
surprised to be met by the tyrant at the head of a numerous
army before that city, while he himself was only accompa¬
nied by a very small band. Acting as if he had supposed
that Alexander came hither to justify himself, and answer
to the complaints alleged against him, he advanced, with
Ismenias his colleague, unarmed and unattended, not doubt¬
ing but his character as ambassador from so powerful a re¬
public, joined to his own character and authority, would
protect them from insult or violence; but he found him¬
self mistaken, for Alexander had no sooner got them into
his hands, than he caused them to be seized and sent priso¬
ners to Pheraea.
The Thebans highly resenting the indignity offered to
their ambassadors, sent immediately an army into Thessaly ;
but the generals were repulsed with great loss by the usurp¬
er ; and it was owing to Epaminondas, who was among them
only as a private centinel, that they were not totally cut
off. For the Thebans, finding themselves in such imminent
danger, which they attributed to the incapacity of their
generals, had immediately recourse to him, whose valour
and experience had been so often tried; and, partly by
persuasions and entreaties, and partly by threats, obliged
him to take the command. This soon gave a different turn
to their affairs, and converted their flight into a safe and
regular retreat; for he took the horse and light-armed foot,
and placed himself at their head in the rear, and charged
the enemy with such vigour and bravery, that he obliged
them to desist from their pursuit.
As the army had suffered such loss as not to be able to
pursue them in their turn, he was obliged to march for Thebes,
accompanied by the pusillanimous generals. They were
fined 12,000 drachms each, and Epaminondas was reinstated
in the command, and sent with a new reinforcement to re¬
pair the late dishonour, and prosecute their revenge. The
news of his being in full march greatly alarmed Alexander ;
but the general, preferring the safety of his imprisoned col¬
league to all other considerations, forbore pushing hostilities
to extremes, for fear of provoking the enemy to wreak all
his fury on him. He contented himself for a while hover¬
ing about with his army, and now and then with such slight
skirmishes as should intimidate the tyrant, and bring him
the sooner to make some satisfactory offers. Alexander
being fully convinced of the superiority of the Theban ge¬
neral, was glad to accept of a truce of thirty days, and to
release Pelopidas and Ismenias; upon which Epaminondas
immediately withdrew his forces, and returned with them
to Thebes.
By this time Thebes was raised to a sufficient height of
reputation and glory to begin to aim in earnest at the sove¬
reignty of Greece. The main obstacle to it was, that the
other states grew so jealous of her present greatness, as to
enter into the strongest alliances and confederacies to pre¬
vent its further growth ; so that being now unable to pro¬
cure many allies at home, they made no difficulty to seek
for them abroad ; and the Lacedaemonians, by setting the
example, gave them' a plausible pretence to follow their
steps, and procure an alliance with Persia, which at that
time they found was ready to accept of the offers on any
terms; the only question was, which of the three states
should be preferred, Sparta, Athens, or Thebes. At the
same time the Thebans proposed to their new confederates
to send proper deputies to the Persian court, in order to
support their respective interests. These were the Arca¬
dians, Eleans, and Argives, at the head of whose deputa¬
tion Pelopidas was sent on behalf of the Thebans ; and the
Athenians being apprized of these proceedings, likewise sent
two deputies. Being all arrived at the Persian court, they
began to pursue each their respective interests ; but Pelo-
pidas had by that time gained such credit, both for his sin¬
gular address and his extraordinary exploits, that he was
distinguished in a particular manner from all the other de- Thebes,
puties, and was received by the king with manifest marks~v——^
of honour and esteem, who freely owned himself convinced
that the Thebans were the people on whom he could most
safely depend; and after having greatly applauded the equity
of his demands, he ratified and confirmed them with great
readiness, to the no small mortification of the other states.
The substance of them was, that the liberties formerly
granted to the other towns of Greece should be confirmed,
that Messenia in particular should continue free and inde¬
pendent on the jurisdiction of Sparta ; that the Athenians
should lay up their fleet; and that the Thebans should
be looked upon as the ancient and hereditary friends of
Persia.
The Thebans took advantage of the dissensions which The Tke-
prevailed among the Greeks as a pretence for increasing bans pro-
their forces ; and Epaminondas thought it a proper oppor- P°?e to
tunity for his countrymen to make a bold effort to obtain a
the dominion at sea, as they had in a great measure obtain- ‘
ed it at land. He proposed it tq them in a public assem¬
bly, and encouraged their hopes from the experience of the
Lacedaemonians, who in Xerxes’s time had, with ten ships
only at sea, gained the superiority over the Athenians, who
had no fewer than 200 ; and added, that it would now be
a disgrace to Thebes to suffer two such republics to engross
the command of so extensive an element. The people
readily adopted his proposal, not without extraordinary ap¬
plause, and immediately ordered 100 galleys to be equipped;
and in the mean while sent him to Rhodes, Chios, and By¬
zantium, to secure those states in their interest, and procure
what assistance he could from them. Llis negociations had
all the success that could be wished for, notwithstanding the
strenuous opposition of the Athenians, and of their admiral
Laches, who was sent with a powerful squadron against him.
But what more effectually thwarted all his measures, was
the work which they found for him by land, and the oblig¬
ing the Thebans to take part in the quarrels which then
reigned among their neighbours; so that whatever projects
they had concerted proved abortive for the present; and
the death of Epaminondas, which happened not long after,
put an effectual stop to them.
During the absence of that general, and of his colleague
Pelopidas, the Orchomenians, being incited by some The¬
ban fugitives, had formed a design to change the Theban
government into an aristocracy; and 300 horsemen of the
former had been actually despatched to carry it into execu¬
tion. Their project, however, was seasonably discovered
by the vigilance of the magistrates, who caused them to be
seized and immediately put to death. They next sent a The city of
sufficient force against the city of Orchomenos, with orders Orchome-
to slay all the men, and to sell all the women and children nos razed,
for slaves, which was punctually done; after which they
razed that noble city to the ground. Pelopidas was then on Pelopidas
his way to Thessaly at the head of a powerful army, whi- marches
ther he had been sent to assist the Thessalians, who still against the
groaned under the tyranny of Alexander the Phersean, and ^ ho'ssalian
had made several brave elforts to recover their liberty, but •vr<m
had been still overpowered by that usurper. Being joined
by the Thessalians, he encamped in the face of the enemy,
though far superior in number, and consisting of above
20,000 men. A fierce engagement soon ensued, in which
both sides fought with uncommon bravery. The place
where the battle was fought was called Cynocephala, from
several little hills on it, between which there ran a large
plain. Both armies endeavoured at first to post themselves
on these eminences with their foot, while Pelopidas ordered
his cavalry to charge that of the enemy below; which they
did with such success that they soon put them to the rout,
and pursued them over the plain. This obliged the tyrant
to gain the tops of the hills, where he greatly annoyed the
Thessalians that endeavoured to force those ascents; so
198
THEBES.
Thebes.
Is killed.
Alexander
defeated,
and at last
murdered.
Ambition
of the The
bans.
that Pelopidas was obliged to give over his pursuit and
' come to their relief. This immediately inspired the Thes¬
salians with fresh courage. They again began to charge the
enemy at several onsets, and soon threw them into such
disorder that they were forced to give way. Pelopidas no
sooner perceived the advantage, than he began to look for
Alexander, with a design of engaging him. Having des¬
cried him as he was commanding his right wing, and en¬
deavouring to rally his men, he moved directly to him ; and
having approached so near as to be heard by him, chal¬
lenged him to decide the battle by single combat. Alex¬
ander, instead of accepting the offer, turned about, and, with
all the speed he could, ran. to screen himself among his
guards. Upon this Pelopidas charged him with such furi¬
ous speed that he obliged him to retire farther, and shel¬
ter himself within the thickest ranks ; the sight of which
made him attack with fresh vigour, and fight more despe¬
rately against him. He tried in vain several times to break
through their ranks to reach him, cutting down great num¬
bers of those that came forward to oppose him. His eager¬
ness at length exposed him so far to the darts that were dis¬
charged from a distance, that some of them penetrated his
armour, and gave him one or two desperate wounds, when
some of the enemy advanced, and stabbed him in the breast
with their spears.
It is scarcely possible for words to express the grief and
despair which not only his brave Thebans, but likewise the
Thessalians and other allies, showed at the sight of their
slain general. Some of the latter who had perceived the
danger to which he was exposed, descended from the hill
with all possible speed to his relief; but when they per¬
ceived that they had come too late to save him, both they
and the rest of the little army thought of nothing but how
to avenge his death. They rallied accordingly both horse
and foot, as quickly as possible, and began to charge the
enemy afresh, and with such desperate fury that they at
length gained a complete victory over them, and killed
above 3000 in the pursuit, besides a much greater number
which they had slain on the field of battle, though they still
looked upon all these advantages as too small to compen¬
sate the loss of their brave general.
The news of his death had no sooner reached Thebes,
than the whole city was seen in as deep mourning as his
army. They however sent a reinforcement of 7000 foot
and 700 horse, as well to revenge the death of that general,
as to improve the victory which he had gained over the
enemy. The Thebans then fell so furiously on them, that
they quickly broke and totally defeated the shattered re¬
mains of Alexander’s army. He was forced to sue for
peace, and to accept it on such conditions as the conque¬
rors thought fit to impose. He was at length despatched
in his bed by his wife Thebe, assisted by her brothers,
about seven years after his defeat. His body was after¬
wards dragged along the streets, trodden under foot, and
left a prey to the dogs.
All this while the Thebans were watching to improve
every commotion that happened, every success they gained,
to the forwarding of their reigning and favourite project of
increasing their power above all the rest, and in their turn
of giving laws to Greece. Their late success in Thessaly,
and the rupture between the Arcadians and Mantineans at
the same time, about some consecrated money which the
former had taken out of the temple of Olympia to pay their
troops employed against the Eleans, and which the latter
called a downright sacrilege, besides other discords that
reigned in the other states of Greece, gave fresh encourage¬
ment to Thebes to offer her arbitration in those disputes.
Those who had embezzled the sacred money, and wanted
rather to embroil matters than to have them brought to
light, informed the Thebans that the Arcadians were on
the point of revolting to the Spartans, and advised them to
come and defeat their design. At the same time they de- Theks,
spatched some private directions to a Theban officer at Te- '''“■Yv
gea, to apprehend several of their own people as disturbers
of the peace. This was accordingly done, and several emi¬
nent persons were confined as prisoners of state. They
were soon after discharged, and loud complaints were made
against such arbitrary and unjust proceedings. The officer
was accused before the Theban senate of having intermed¬
dled in their affairs, and endeavoured to interrupt the good
correspondence between the two states. It was even urged
by some of the Tegeans that he should be indicted ; while
the more moderate, who foresaw the consequences which
were likely to attend such appeals, and that it would infalli¬
bly bring the Thebans upon them, loudly protested against
their marching into their territories, and did all they could
to prevent it. The Thebans, however, were become too
powerful and ambitious to miss so fair an opportunity of
once more obtaining a footing in Peloponnesus, as they had
long ago premeditated; and Epaminondas was so far from Epaminon.
making a secret of their design, that he told the Arcadian das dis.
deputies in justification of it, that as it was on their account P'easestj«
that the Thebans engaged in the war, they had acted treach- Q^e°!
erously with them in making peace with Athens without
their consent; but that when he had joined his army on his
march into Peloponnesus to assist his friends, he would soon
see what proofs the Arcadians would give of their fidelity.
This speech did not fail to occasion great alarm, especially
as it was spoken in such a magisterial style and threatening
tone. Even those who were best affected to the Thebans
could not forbear expressing their dislike of it; and all
those who had the welfare of Peloponnesus at heart readily
agreed with the Mantineans, that no time was to be lost in
using all proper means to prevent the impending storm.
Athens and Sparta were accordingly applied to, and were A comli
easily prevailed upon to assist the Mantineans, and tocomenatjon
into a strict confederacy against the Thebans ; and in order
to prevent all disputes about the command of the army, e
it was agreed that each state should have it in its own ter¬
ritories ; wEich plainly shows howr terrified they all were at
the apprehension of a fresh invasion of the Thebans. This
was a point which neither the Spartans nor Athenians would
so readily have given up to the Arcadians, though these
had formerly as strenuously insisted upon it, even when
they were almost reduced to the last extremity, and had
never been able to obtain it till now\ But Epaminondas
wras then in full march at the head of his Boeotian troops,
with some Euboean auxiliaries, and a body of stout Thes¬
salian horse; and was moreover to be joined by the Mes-
senians, Argives, and several other nations, as soon as he
had entered Peloponnesus. The confederate army against
him had ordered their rendezvous at Mantinea, the place
which they naturally concluded would be first attacked, as
being the chief seat of those who had revolted from the
Thebans. But while they were securing themselves onEpaminos-
that side, Epaminondas, wEo wisely considered how far this das makes
confederacy and expedition must have drained the city ofan u!1®'
Sparta of its main strength, broke up privately from Ne-
maea, where he had lain for some time encamped, andgpjta.
marched all that night writh a design to have surprised that
important capital. His project being discovered, the vigi¬
lant king took care to disconcert it; so that, though the
1 heban general made several vigorous assaults on that city,
he was so stoutly repulsed, and the Spartans behaved with
such intrepid valour, that he wTas forced to retire and turn
his thoughts against Mantinea, which he judged by this
time to have been quite defenceless. He indeed judged
rightly ; for the place was not only drained of its troops,
but likewise of its inhabitants, who took that opportunity,
while the scene of war was in Lacedaemon, to gather in
their harvest, and were scattered all over the country; so and on
that he would not have met with any difficulty in gaining Maiiti"1-’5’
/-
i ar.-1
A .
►■I
!Oi
T H E
rhlfr'* the town, had not the Athenian auxiliaries come unexpect-
edly to its relief, and given him a fresh repulse.
These two last defeats greatly exasperated the Theban
general, who had never before experienced such disasters,
and could not but foresee that they would not only lessen
his reputation with his allies, but, if not speedily retrieved,
would sully the glory of all his former exploits. What
added to his present difficulties was, that the time allotted
him for his expedition was almost expired; so that he had
I but a short space left to undertake some brave achievement,
which might recover his and his country’s honour, and keep
up the spirits of his auxiliaries, and those under his protec¬
tion. He was moreover in the midst of his enemy’s coun¬
try, and saw plainly enough how narrowly they watched all
his motions, and how well prepared they were to oppose
him whatever attempt he resolved upon, whether to attack
them or to retreat. Under all these difficulties, he rightly
considered that he must immediately resolve upon a deci¬
sive battle; in which, if his pristine fortune followed him, he
might at once retrieve his affairs, and make himself master
of Peloponnesus ; or, if that failed him, as it lately had
till < done, fall honourably in the attempt. In this engagement
ui'Ii1:■ Epaminondas made the wisest disposition of his troops, at-
l tacked and fought with the most intrepid courage and con¬
duct, and had opened himself a way through the Spartan
ranks, thrown them into the utmost confusion, and made a
terrible slaughter of them, insomuch that the field of battle
was covered with their wounded and slain, when, in the
heat of the fight, having ventured himself too far in order
to give them a total overthrow, the enemy rallied again,
pouring with their whole fury three volleys of darts upon
aniim- him, some of which he drew out and returned to them, till
1 at length, being covered with wounds, and weakened with
the loss of so much blood, he received a mortal wound from
a javelin, and was with great difficulty rescued from the
enemy by his brave Thebans, and brought alive, though
speechless, into his tent. As soon as he had recovered
himself, he asked his friends that were about him what was
become of his shield; and being told that it was safe, he
beckoned to have it brought to him, and kissed it. He next
inquired which side had gained the victory ; and being an¬
swered, the Thebans, he replied, then all is well: and upon
observing some of his friends bewail his untimely death,
and leaving no children behind him, he is said to have an¬
swered, “ Yes; I have left two fair daughters, the victory
of Leuctra, and this of Mantinea, to perpetuate my memory.”
Soon afterwards, upon drawing the point of the javelin out
of his body, he expired.
The consequence of this great general’s fall, and of the
bloody fight in which neither party could boast any great
advantage over the other, after a great loss of men on both
sides, insomuch that Xenophon makes it a drawn battle, was,
that both parties agreed on ^cessation of arms, and parted,
as it were by consent, to take care of their wounded and
slain. The Thebans indeed thus far gained the greater
share of glory, that they renewed the fight, and after a most
desperate contest, obtained a victory over those Spartans
! that opposed them, and rescued the body of their dying gene-
,Cl' c -ral out of their hands. But an effectual end was put to this
1 ‘ bloody war, and a general peace agreed on by all but the
Spartans, who refused it only because the Messenians were
included in it. As to the Thebans, they had no great rea¬
son to boast of this dear-bought victory, since their power
and glory began to decline from that very time; so that it
may be truly said, that it had risen and set with their great
general.
te of On the death of Epaminondas, the Thebans relapsed into
, *1 f°rmer state of inactivity and indolence; and at last
! N t having ventured to oppose Alexander the Great, their city
| was taken, and the inhabitants slaughtered for several hours,
after which the buildings were destroyed. It was rebuilt
T H E 199
by Cassander, but never afterwards made any considerable Themis-
figure among the states of Greece. About the year 146 b. tius-
c. it fell under the power of the Romans, under wdiich it '''
continued till the extinction of their empire by the Turks.
It is now called Thive, and, according to Dr Clarke, is about
two and a half English miles in circumference. It contains
about 300 houses, and many interesting antiquities. The
present inhabitants live chiefly within what was anciently
the citadel. The circuit of the walls can yet be traced, and
many parts of them are still standing. There were two
mosques in Thebes, and a great many Greek churches. It
is seated between two small rivers, at the south-west side
of a large plain, in long. 23. 40. E. and lat. 38. 17. N.
Thebes, in Egypt, one of the most renowned cities of
the ancient world. It was also called Diospolis, or the city
of Jupiter, and was built, according to some by Osiris, ac¬
cording to others by Busiris. Its length, in Strabo’s time,
was 80 furlongs, or ten miles; but this was nothing in com¬
parison of its ancient extent, before it was ruined by Cam-
byses, which, we are told, was no less than 420 stadia, or 52
miles and an half. The wealth of this city was so great,
that, after it had been plundered by the Persians, what was
found on burning the remains of the pillage, amounted to
above 300 talents of gold and 2300 of silver.
Mr Bruce visited the ruins of this celebrated city ; but
informs us that nothing now remains except four temples,
and these neither so entire nor magnificent as others at Den-
dera. Thebes has been celebrated by Homer for its hun¬
dred gates; but Mr Bruce informs us, that no vestiges of
these are now remaining, neither can we discover the foun¬
dation of any wall it ever had; “ and as for the horsemen
and chariots it is said to have sent out, all the Thebaid sown
with wheat would not have maintained one half of them.
Thebes, at least the ruins of the temples called Medinet
Tabu, are built in a long stretch of about a mile broad, most
parsimoniously chosen at the sandy foot of the mountains.
The Horti Pensiles, or hanging gardens, were surely formed
upon the sides of these hills, then supplied with water by
mechanical devices. The utmost is done to spare the plain,
and with great reason; for all the space of ground this an¬
cient city bas had to maintain its myriads of horses and men,
is a plain of three quarters of a mile broad between the town
and the river, upon which plain the water rises to the height
of four and five feet. All this pretended populousness of
ancient Thebes I therefore believe to be fabulous.” After
examining the ground on which Thebes is supposed to have
stood, he concluded that it had no walls, and that conse¬
quently Homer’s story of its having an hundred gates is mis¬
understood. The mountains of the Thebaid stand close be¬
hind the town, not in a ridge, but standing single, so that
you can go round each of them. A hundred of these are
said to be hollowed out for sepulchres and other purposes.
These, he thinks, were the hundred gates of Homer; in
proof of this they are still called by the natives Beeban el
Meluke, the ports or gates of the kings. All that is said
of Thebes by poets or historians after the days of Homer is
meant of Diospolis, which, as its name testifies, was built
by the Greeks, long after Thebes was destroyed ; though
Diodorus says it was built by Busiris. It was on the east
side of the Nile, whereas ancient Thebes was on the wrest,
though both are considered as one city. See Egypt.
THEMISTIUS, a Greek orator and philosopher, was a
native of Paphlagonia, and flourished during the latter half
of the fourth century. He became very eminent as a pub¬
lic teacher of philosophy, and distinguished himself by com¬
mentaries on some of the works of Aristotle. His eloquence
procured him the appellation of or the Eloquent.
At Constantinople he taught for twenty years. Having
been invited to Rome, he removed to that city, but, after
an interval of two years, returned to his former place of
residence, and there spent the remainder of his life. He
200
T II E
Tbemisto- was married, and had children. Although he adhered to
C^U:1 the pagan superstitions, Constantius admitted him to the
ri senate in the year 355; and his panegyrical oration on that
emperor procured him the honour of a statue. From Julian,
a pagan and a philosopher, he received in 362 the higher
distinction of being nominated praefect of Constantinople.
In 384 he obtained the same appointment from Theodosius
the Great.
Themistius is regarded as one of the best writers of this
declining age of Grecian literature. The first edition ot
his works, including commentaries on Aristotle, and only
eight orations, was published by Trincavellus, Venet. 1534,
fol. His orations afterwards found a very learned editor,
Dionysius Petavius, who published two different editions,
Flexiae, 1613, 8vo, Paris. 1618, 4to. This second edition
contains nineteen orations; but thirty-three are included
in the edition of Hardouin, Paris. 1684, fol. To this num¬
ber an addition has lately been made by Angelo Mai:
“ Themistii Philosophi Oratio in eos a quibus ob Praefectu-
ram susceptam fuerat vituperatus, inventore et interprete
Angelo Maio, Bibliothecae Ambrosianae a LL. 00.” Medio-
lani, 1816, 4to & 8vo.
THEMISTOCLES, the renowned Athenian admiral,
general, and patriot, who gained the battle ofSalamis against
the Persians. Being banished his country by his ungrate¬
ful fellow-citizens, he fled to Artaxerxes king of Persia;
but, in order to avoid taking up arms against his country,
he slew himself, 464 b. c. See Athens.
THEOBALD, Lewis, best known as an editor of Shak-
speare, was the son of an attorney practising at Sittingbourne
in Kent. His grammatical learning he received at Isle-
worth in Middlesex, and was originally destined for his fa¬
ther’s profession; but this he speedily abandoned for the
profession of an author, and having fixed his residence in
the metropolis, he engaged in a variety of literary under¬
takings. To Mist’s Weekly Journal he contributed a paper
called “ The Censor;” and his censures being pronounced
with great freedom, gave no small offence to some writers
more formidable than himself. One of those whom he pro¬
voked was the rabid Dennis. Pope’s translation of Homer
he at first extolled, and afterwards abused. He was the
original hero of the Dunciad, but was displaced to make
room for Cibber, to whom the poet’s satire is in many in¬
stances inapplicable. Theobald endeavoured to avenge
himself by publishing 11 Shakespeare restored; or, a Speci¬
men of the many Errors as well committed as unamended
by Mr Pope in his edition of this poet, designed not only to
correct the said edition, but to restore the true Reading of
Shakespeare in all the Editions ever yet published.” Lond.
1726, 4to. This prelude was after a considerable inter¬
val followed by his edition of Shakspeare’s Works, Lond.
1733, 7 vols. 8vo. In 1726 he had introduced on the stage
“ The double Falsehood, or, the distrest Lovers of which,
as he averred, the greater part was written by Shakspeare.
His arguments in favour of this hypothesis were not consi¬
dered as satisfactory; and, according to the opinion of Dr
Farmer, this drama was the production of Shirley. Theo¬
bald was the author or translator of twenty plays, enume¬
rated in the Biographia Dramatica, vol. i. p. 706. He was
likewise concerned in various translations; and at the time
ot his death he had made some progress in an edition of
Beaumont and Fletcher. He died in the month of Sep¬
tember 1744.
THEOCRACY, in matters of government, a state go¬
verned by the immediate direction of God alone. Such
was the ancient government of the Jews before the time of
Saul.
T II E
poets, was the son of Praxagoras and Philine. He was a na- Theodc
live of Syracuse, and flourished about 272 years before the s—v<
Christian era.1 The younger Hiero, king of Syracuse, is
celebrated in his verses ; but he appears to have found
a more liberal patron in Ptolemy Philadelphus, who at¬
tracted him to the Egyptian court, and of whom he speaks
in terms of high commendation. Of his personal history,
we possess no further memorials on which we can place
much reliance. The pastorals of Theocritus, which have
furnished models to all succeeding poets, are remarkable for
their simplicity, very frequently elegant, but sometimes ap¬
proaching to rudeness. They are written in the Doric dia¬
lect, which is peculiarly adapted for such compositions
Thirty idyls bear his name, but it has been doubted whether
they were all produced by the same poet. To him are like¬
wise ascribed twenty-two epigrams; and the authorship of
one or two fantastic productions he disputes with Simmias.
The first edition of Theocritus, containing only eighteen
idyls, issued from Milan, along with the “ Opera et Dies”
of Hesiod. It is a folio volume, without date, but is sup¬
posed to have been printed in 1493. The edition of Aldus
appeared in 1495, that of Junta in 1515 ; and the earliest
edition accompanied with the scholia, at Rome in 1516.
The best of the old editions is that of Daniel Heinsius, Ex
bibliopolio Commeliniano, 1604, 4to. Beside the notes of
the editor, it includes those of Joseph Scaliger and Isaac
Casaubon. Among the more remarkable editions, we must
not overlook that of Reiske, Lipsiae, 1765-6, 2 tom. 4to. He
was speedily followed by a more elegant, though not a more
learned editor, Thomas Warton, Oxon. 1770, 2 tom. 4to.
The preface is elegantly written, and the annotations dis¬
play a more than ordinary degree of refined taste, but this
splendid edition is not without its defects. One of these
is the inconvenient arrangement of the Greek scholia, nor
is the rejection of the accents to be commended. A valu¬
able edition of Theocritus, including likewise Bion and
Moschus, was published by Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat. 1779,
8vo. The editions of Harles, Jacobs, Dahl, Schafer, Hein-
dorf, and Wiistemann, have each their share of merit. The
poems of Theocritus are inserted in the first volume of
Brunck’s “ Analecta veterum Poetarum Graecorum,” and
in the second volume of Gaisford’s “ Poetae Minores Graeci.”
Oxon. 1816-20, 4 tom. 8vo. The scholia are to be found
in the fourth volume. Of the idyls of this poet, English
translations were published by Thomas Creech in 1681, by
Francis Fawkes in 1767, by Richard Polwhele in 1786,
and by M. J. Chapman in 1836. Polwhele has likewise
translated the epigrams of Theocritus.
THEODOLITE, a mathematical instrument for mea¬
suring heights'and distances. See Mensuration and Sur-
THEOCRITUS, the most famous of all the pastoral
THEODORE, Baron Nieuhof, in the county of La
Marc in Westphalia, an adventurer who obtained consi¬
derable notoriety under the title of King of Corsica. He
had his education in the French service, and afterwards
went to Spain, where he received some marks of regard
from the duke of Riperda and Cardinal Alberoni; but be¬
ing of an unsettled disposition, he quitted Spain, and tra¬
velled into Italy, England, and Holland, in search of new
adventures. He at last fixed his attention on Corsica, and
formed the scheme of rendering himself sovereign of that
island. He was a man of abilities and address ; and having
fully informed himself of every thing relating to Corsica,
went to Tunis, where he devised means to procure some
money and arms ; and then went to Leghorn, from whence
he wrote a letter to the Corsican chiefs Giafferi and Paoli,
offering considerable assistance to the nation if they would
elect him as their sovereign. This letter was consigned to
.'Hore.
1 Clinton’s Fasti Hellenic!, vol. iii. p. 7.
1
THE
eodc: - Count Domenico Rivarola, who acted as Corsican plenipo-
tentiary in Tuscany, and he gave for answer, that if Theo¬
dore brought the assistance which he promised to the Cor¬
sicans, they would very willingly make him king. With¬
out loss of time he set sail, and landed at Tavagna in the
spring of the year 1736. He was a man of a very stately
appearance, and the Turkish dress, which he wore, added to
the dignity of his mien. He had a few attendants with him ;
and his manners were so engaging, and his offers so plausi¬
ble, that he was proclaimed king of Corsica before Count
Rivarola’s despatches arrived to inform the chiefs of the
terms upon which he had agreed. He brought with him
about 1000 zequins of Tunis, besides some arms and am¬
munition, and made magnificent promises of foreign assist¬
ance ; whence the Corsicans, who were glad of any sup¬
port, willingly gave in to his schemes. Theodore instantly
assumed every mark of royal dignity. He had his guards
and his officers of state; he conferred titles of honour, and
1 struck money both of silver and copper. The silver pieces
were few in number, and can now hardly be met with ; the
I copper coins have on one side T. R., that is, “ Theodorus
Rex,” with a double branch crossed, and round it this in¬
scription, Pro bond publico Re. Co., that is, “ For the
public good of the kingdom of Corsicaon the other side
is the value of the piece, Cinque solidi, or five sous.
' The Genoese were not a little confounded with this un¬
expected adventure. They published a violent manifesto
against Theodore, treating him with great contempt; but
at the same time showing they were alarmed at his appear¬
ance. Theodore replied in a manifesto, with all the calm¬
ness and dignity of a monarch ; but after being about eight
months in Corsica, perceiving that the people began to cool
I in their affections towards him, he assembled his chiefs,
and declared he would keep them no longer in a state of
uncertainty, being determined to seek in person the sup-
I port which he had long expected. He settled an adminis¬
tration during his absence, recommended unity in the
1 strongest terms, and left the island with reciprocal assur¬
ances of fidelity and affection. He proceeded to Holland,
where he was so successful as to obtain credit from several
) rich merchants, particularly Jews, who trusted him with
cannon and other warlike stores to a great value, under the
charge of a supercargo. With these he returned to Cor-
i sica in 1739 ; but by this time the French, as auxiliaries to
the Genoese, had become so powerful in the island, that
i though Theodore threw in his supply of warlike stores, he
did not incline to venture his person, the Genoese having
set a high price on his head. He therefore again departed ;
and after many unavailing attempts to recover his crown,
I at length chose for retirement a country where he might
i enjoy the participation of that liberty which he had so vainly
I endeavoured to give his Corsicans; but his situation in
I England by degrees grew wretched, and he was reduced so
low as to be several years before his death a prisoner for
debt in the King’s Bench. At length, to the honour of
some gentlemen of rank, a charitable contribution was set
on foot for him in the year 1753. Mr Boswell observes,
that Horace Walpole generously exerted himself for the
unfortunate Theodore, and wrote a paper in The World with
great elegance and humour, soliciting a contribution for
; the unhappy monarch in distress, to be paid to Mr Robert
i Dodsley, bookseller, as lord high treasurer. This brought
him a very handsome sum, and he was set at liberty. The
same writer adds, that Mr Walpole had the original deed by
i which Theodore made over the kingdom of Corsica in se¬
curity to his creditors, and that he also had the great seal
of the kingdom. Theodore died on the 11th of December
1756, and was buried in St Anne’s churchyard, Westminster,
THE 201
where, in 1757, a simple unadorned monument of marble Theodore-
was erected to his memory. tus
THEODORETUS, or, as he is frequently called, The- t, ^ .
odoritus, was born at Antioch towards the close of the
fourth century. According to his own account, his birth Y "
was preceded by divers miracles. He received his educa¬
tion in the neighbouring monastery of Euprepius, where
he had Chrysostom for one of his instructors. About the
year 420 he became bishop of Cyrus in Syria. His con¬
nection with Nestorius involved him in a charge of heresy;
and in 449 the council of Ephesus deposed him from his
bishopric; but in 451 the council of Chalcedon recalled
him from exile, and restored him to his office. He survived
till 457 or the following year. His works, compared with
those of the other Greek fathers, are of very considerable
value. He has written commentaries on most of the books
of the Old Testament, and on the epistles of Paul. His
ecclesiastical history, divided into five books, prosecutes the
narrative from the year 322 to the year 427. It is printed
with different editions of Eusebius, and the other Greek
historians of the church. A collective edition of his works,
with a Latin version, was published by Sirmond, Lutet.
Paris. 1642, 4 tom. fol. A supplementary volume was added
by Gamier in 1684. Another edition was long afterwards
published by J. L. Schulze, Halae Sax. 1769-74, 5 tom.
8vo. Each volume is however divided into two parts. Dr
Gaisford has very recently published a valuable edition of
his “ Graecarum Affectionum Curatio,” Oxon. 1839, 8vo.
This treatise is important as a contribution to the history
of philosophy, and its merits have been fully discussed by
Luzac.
THEOGONY, from Qtbg, God, and yovri, seed, off¬
spring, that branch of the heathen theology which taught
the genealogy of their gods. Hesiod gives us the ancient
theogony in a poem under that title. Among the most an¬
cient writers, Dr Burnet observes that theogony and cos¬
mogony signified the same thing. In effect, the genera¬
tion of the gods of the ancient Persians, fire, water, and
earth, is apparently no other than that of the primary ele¬
ments.
THEOGNIS, a Greek poet of a singular character,
flourished in the 59th Olympiad, or about 544 years before
the Christian era. According to Plato, who is followed by
Suidas, he was a native of Megara in Sicily, but Harpocra-
tio contends for Megara in Greece; and Corsini has satis¬
factorily shewn that the latter statement is much more pro¬
bable.1 Theognis commonly uses the Ionic dialect, and
not the Doric of the Sicilians; and his verses afford several
other indications of an Achaian origin. He speaks of
himself as a person of superior birth. From his fellow-ci¬
tizens, whoever they were, he experienced harsh treatment;
and having been driven into exile with his wife Argyris, he
found a place of refuge at Thebes. As he survived the
Median war, b. c. 490, he must have reached a very ad¬
vanced age ;2 but how or where he terminated his career,
we find no information. His remaining work consists of a
series of rVw/Aa/, or moral sentences, written in elegiac verse,
and containing many pointed and striking sentiments, though
some of them are not strictly moral. The name of the au¬
thor’s friend Cyrnus is very frequently introduced. Of
this work there are many separate editions. It is likewise
to be found in Brunck’s “ Gnomici Poetae Graeci,” and in
the first volume of Gaisford’s “ Poetae Minores Graeci.” In
the edition of Bekker (Lipsiae, 1815, 8vo), one hundred and
fifty-one verses are printed for the first time, and the total
number is thus raised to 1389. A more recent edition,
with a critical commentary and notes, was published by F.
Th. Welcker, Francof. 1826, 8vo.
* ^’'nton’s Fasti Hellenici, vol. ii. p. 9.
VOL. XXI.
1 Corsini Fast Attici, tom. iii. p. 109.
9
C
202
THEOLOGY.
Theology. The word theology, in its most restricted sense, signifies a
'discourse concerning God, (Xo-yot irepirov 0eov); but it is
commonly employed to designate that science which treats
not only of the divine existence and attributes, but also of
the relations which subsist between God and his intelli¬
gent creatures, the duties which consequently devolve upon
the latter, and the arrangements which He has entered
into for their government and benefit. More particularly
it is used to designate the scientific development of the doc¬
trines upon these points embraced by Christianity.
Obs. The word Beo'Koyeiv and its cognates were first used to denote
the fables of those poets arid philosophers who wrote of the gene¬
alogy and exploits of the gods of Greece. They were afterwards
adopted by the earliest writers of the Christian church, who styled
the author of the Apocalypse, by way of eminence, 6 8eo\oyos,
the Divine.
Having already, under the article Polytheism, treated
of the origin and characteristics of idolatry, we are happily
relieved from the necessity of here examining the theology
of paganism ; for although every pagan nation of antiquity
had some tutelary deities peculiar to itself, they may yet be
considered as having all had the same theology, since an
intercommunity of gods was universally admitted, and the
heavenly bodies were adored as the dii majorum gentium.
over the whole earth. The absurdities and inconsistency
of the pretended revelation of the Arabian impostor, have
also been sufficiently exposed under the words Alcoran and
Mahometanism ; so that the only theology of which we
have to treat at present is the Christian theology. This
comprises a body of science so important, that in compari¬
son with it all other sciences sink into insignificance; for
without a competent knowledge of the attributes of God,
of the several relations in which he stands to us, and of the
ends for which we were created, it is obvious that we must
wander through life like men groping in the dark, strangers
to the road on which we are travelling, as well as to the
fate awaiting us at the end of our journey.
The Christian theology embraces both what has been
called Natural Theology, and that which is peculiar to the
scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. The distinc¬
tion between these two is clear and well-founded.11 At the
same time, it is not of that kind which renders it necessary
that the two should be treated separately ; for as Christi¬
anity is no less a republication of the religion of nature,
(see Hill’s Divinity, b. ii. c. 3, 1), than an announce¬
ment of truths, of which the volume of nature bears no
traces, the attempt to present the entire body of its the¬
ology in one continuous whole, necessarily involves the
statement both of the doctrines of natural, and those of
Biblical theology.
a Concerning the extent of natural theology many opinions have
been formed, while some have contended that there is no such
thing. Into these disputes we mean not at present to enter. We. _ 1
believe that one of them could have had no existence among sober
and enlightened men, had the contending parties been at due pains to
define with accuracy the terms which they used. Whatever be
the origin of religion, it is obvious, that no man can receive a
written book as the word of God, till he be convinced by some
other means that God exists, and that he is a Being of power, wis¬
dom, and goodness, who watches over the conduct of his creature
man. If the progenitor of the human race was instructed in the
principles of religion by the Author of his being, (a fact of which it
is difficult to conceive how a consistent theistcan entertain a doubt),
he might communicate to his children, by natural means, much of
that knowledge which he himself could not have discovered had he
not been supernaturally enlightened. Between illustrating or prov¬
ing a truth which is already spoken of, and making a discovery of
what is wholly unknown, every one perceives that there is an im¬
mense difference.1
To beings whose natural knowledge originates wholly from sen¬
sation, and whose minds cannot, but by much discipline, advance
from sense to science, a long series of revelations might be neces¬
sary to give them at first just notions of God and his attributes, and
to enable them to perceive the relation between the effect and its
cause, so as to infer by the powers of their own reason, the existence
of the Creator from the presence of his creatures. Such revela¬
tions, however, could be satisfactory only to those who immediately
received them. Whenever the Deity has been pleased by super¬
natural means to communicate any information to man, we may be
sure that he has taken effectual care to satisfy the person so highly
favoured, that his understanding was not under the influence of any
illusion ; but such a person could not communicate to another the
knowledge which he had thus received, by any other means than an
address to his rational faculties. No man can be required to believe,
no man indeed can believe, without proof, that another, who has no
more faculties, either of sensation or intellect, than himself, has ob¬
tained information from a source to which he has no possible access.
An appeal to miracles would in this case serve no purpose; for we
must believe in the existence, power, wisdom, and justice of God,
before a miracle can be admitted as evidence of any thing but the
power of him by whom it is performed. See Miracle.
It is therefore undeniable that there are some principles of the¬
ology which may be called natural; for though it is in the highest
degree probable that the parents of mankind received all their theo¬
logical knowledge by supernatural means, it is yet obvious that
some parts of that knowledge must have been capable of a proof
purely rational, otherwise not a single religious truth could have
been conveyed through the succeeding generations of the human
race, but by the immediate inspiration of each individual. We in-
deed admit many propositions as certainly true, upon the sole autho¬
rity of the Jewish and Christian scriptures, and we receive these
scriptures with gratitude as the lively oracles of God ; but it is self-
evident that we could not do either the <*ne or the other, were we
not convinced by natural means that God exists, that he is a being
of goodness, justice, and power, and that he inspired with divine
wisdom the penmen of these sacred volumes. Now, though it is
possible that no man, or body of men, left to themselves from in¬
fancy in a desert world, would ever have made a theological dis¬
covery, yet whatever propositions relating to the being and attri¬
butes of the first cause and the duty of man, can be demonstrated
1 The discriminating powers of Aristotle will not be questioned; and in the following extract made by Cicero from some of his works
which are now lost, ne expresses our sentiments on this important subject with his usual precision :—“ Praeclare ergo Aristoteles, si es-
sent, inquit, qui sub terra semper babitavissent, bonis, et illustribus domiciliis, qu* essent ornata signis atque picturis, instructaque rebus
iis omnibus, quibus abundant ii, qui beati putantur, nec tamen exissent unquam supra terram : accepjbsent autem fama et auditione,
esse quoddam numen, et vim deorum ; deinde aliquo tempore, patefactis terras faucibus, ex illis abditis sedibus evadere in baec loca, quae
nos incolimus, atque exire potuissent; cum repente terram, et maria, coelumque vidissent; nubium magnitudinem, ventorumque vim cog-
novissent, adspexissentque solem, ejusque turn magnitudinem, pulchritudinemque, turn etiam efficientiam cognovissent, quod is diem effice-
ret, toto ccelo luce diffusa: cum autem terras nox opacasset, turn ccelum totum cernerent astris distinctum et ornatum, lunaeque luminum
varietatem turn crescentis, turn senescentis, eorumque omnium ortus et occasus, atque in omni aeternitate ratos, imrnutabilesque cursus;
ha;c cum viderent, profecto et esse decs, et h^c tanta opera deorum esse arbitrarentur.”—-De Ac/. Deorum, lib. ii. § 37.
hrom this passage it is evident, that the Stagyrite, though he considered the motions of the heavenly bodies, the ebbing and flowing of
the sea, and the other phenomena of nature, as affording a complete proof of the being and providence of God, did not however suppose
that from these phenomena an untaught barbarian would discover this fundamental principle of religion. On the contrary, he expressly
affirms, that before a man can feel the force of the evidence which they give of this important truth, he must have heard of the existence
and power of God.
T H E O
eoloi. by human reason, independent of written revelation, maybe called
natural theology, and are of the utmost importance, as being to us the
1 first principles of all religion. Natural theology, in this sense of the
word, is the foundation of the Christian revelation; for without a
previous knowledge of it, we could have no evidence that the scrip¬
tures of the Old and New Testaments are indeed the word of God.
On this subject many books have been published in our own and
other languages ; of which the following may be mentioned as the
most valuable : Paley’s Natural Theology, especially as edited by
Lord Brougham and Sir Charles Bell, 4 vols. l-2mo. Chalmers’s
Nat. Theol. Works, vol. i. and ii. Sumner’s Records of the Crea¬
tion, 2 vols. 8vo. The Bridgewater Treatises on the Power, Wisdom,
and Goodness of God, &c., by Chalmers, Kidd, Whevvell, Bell, Ro-
get, Buckland, Kirby, and Prout.
The principles of this science are to be found only in the
word and works of God ; and he who would extract them
pure and unsophisticated, must dig for them himself in that
exhaustless mine. To fit a man for this important investi¬
gation, much previous knowledge is requisite. He must
study the works of God scientifically, before he can per¬
ceive the full force of that testimony which they bear to
the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of their author.
Hence the necessity of a general acquaintance with the
physical and mathematical sciences before a man enter on
the proper study of theology, for he will not otherwise ob¬
tain just and enlarged conceptions of the God of the uni¬
verse. He should also make himself acquainted with the
principles of logic, the philosophy of the human mind, and
the different sources of evidence. Above all, he should
devote himself to the study of the original languages of
scripture, and to the principles of Biblical criticism and in¬
terpretation. He who is incapable of consulting the ori¬
ginal scriptures, must rest his faith, not on the sure foun-
' dation of the word of God, but on the credit of fallible
translators ; and if he be at any time called on to vindicate
revelation against the scoffs of infidelity, he will have to
i struggle with many difficulties which are easily solved by
him who is master of the original tongues.
Having satisfied himself of the Authenticity and Divine
( Authority of the Scriptures, (see Scripture and Inspira-
1 tion), the student will set himself honestly, diligently, and
devoutly to examine into their sacred contents, that he
i may therein learn for himself the system of truths which
; they contain.
Ohs. “ Impressed,” says Mr.Tatham, {Chart and Scale of Truth),
“with an awful senseofthe importance of the sacred volume, the phi¬
losophical [scientific] divine will shake off the bias of prejudices, how¬
ever formed, of opinions however sanctioned, and of passions howr-
ever constitutional, and bring to the study of it the advantage of a
pure and impartial mind. Instead of wasting all his labour upon a
i number of minute and less significant particulars, and of refining
away plain and obvious sense by the subtleties of a narrow and cor¬
rosive mind, his first object will be to institute a theological inquiry
into the general design of the written word, and from principles fully
l contained and fairly understood, to illustrate the true nature and
genius of the religious dispensation in all its parts. He will mark the
difference between the first and second covenants, and observe the
connection that subsists between them. He will trace the tempo¬
rary economy of the Old Testament, and weigh the nature and intent
of the partial covenant with the Jews; observing with astonishment
how it was made introductory of better things to come : and he will
{ follow it through the law and the prophets in its wonderful evolu-
i tions, till he see this vast and preparatory machine of providence
i crowned and completed in the eternal gospel. This New Testament,
the last and best part of the religious dispensation, he will pursue
through the sacred pages of that gospel with redoubled attention;
contemplating the divine foundation on which it claims to be built,
the supernatural means by which it was executed, and the immortal
1 end which it has in view.”
1 In the course of this inquiry into the import of the sacred volume,
the student will pay particular attention to the circumstances of the
: age and country in, which its various writers respectively lived, and
to the nature of the different styles, analogical, and parabolical in
which it is written. He will likewise keep in mind that God, whom
it claims for its author, is the parent of truth, and that all his actions
and dispensations must be consistent with one another. He will
therefore compare the different passages of the Old and New Tes-
LOGY. 203
taments which relate to the same doctrine, or to the same event, Theology.
reasonably concluding that the Bible mifst be the best interpreter of
itself; and though the opinions which he thus forms may often be
erroneous, they will seldom be dangerous errors, and may easily be
corrected by mature reflection, or by consulting approved authors
who have treated before him of the various points which have been
the subject of his studies. Of this mode of proceeding one good
consequence will be, that, having from the sacred scriptures formed a
system of theology for himself, he will afterwards study the systems of
other men without any violent prejudices for or against them ; he will
be so much attached to his own opinions, as not to relinquish them in
obedience to mere human authority, at the same that he will be ready
to give them up when convinced that they are not well-founded; and
if he have read the scriptures attentively, he will have acquired such
a love of truth as to embrace her wherever she may be found.
No small assistance will be obtained in this inquiry by
an acquaintance with the history of theological opinions,
and of the different controversies which have at different
periods, or more continuously, agitated the church.b It
has indeed been long fashionable to decry polemical di¬
vinity as an useless, if not a pernicious, study ; but it is not
impossible that this fashion has had its origin in ignorance,
and that it tends to perpetuate those schisms which it pro¬
fesses to lament. We are, however, far from recommend¬
ing to the young divine a perusal of the works of the seve¬
ral combatants on each side of a disputed question, till he
has fitted himself for judging between them by a long
course of preparatory study; and no preparation can better
fit him for this purpose, than an impartial study of eccle¬
siastical history. He who has with accuracy traced the
progress of our holy religion from the days of the apostles
to the present time, and marked the introduction of new
doctrines, and the rise of the various sects into which the
Christian world is divided, is furnished with a criterion
within himself, by which to judge of the importance and
truth of the many contested doctrines : while he who,
without this preparation, shall read a multitude of books
on any religious controversy, will be in danger of becom¬
ing a convert to his last author, if that author possess any
tolerable share of art and ingenuity.
b See Stapferi Theologiae Polemicae Institutiones, 5 tom. 8vo, 1743—
47. Reinbard Theologia Polemica, &vo, 1745. Petavius De Theo-
logicis Dogmatibus, 3 vols. folio, 1700. Augusti’s Christliche Dog-
mengeschichte, 8vo, 1835; &c.
The student will find it further of advantage to compare
his own conclusions with those which have been arrived at
and advocated by the most distinguished writers upon sys¬
tematic theology. He will thus be enabled to verify his
own opinions where they are sound, and to modify or correct
them where they are erroneous.
Obs. Systems of theology abound both in our own and in other lan¬
guages. The following appear especially worthy of the attention
of the student: Latin.—Phil. Melanchtbonis Loci Communes Theo-
logici, 1521, denuo edidit Augusti, 8vo, 1821. J. Calvini Institutiones
Pel. Christ., 1536, denuo ed. Tholuck. 2 tom. 8vo, 1834, 5. J.
Gerhardi Loci Theologici, 1610-22, denuo ed. Cotta, 20 tom. 4to,
1762-81. Fr. Turretini Institutio Theol. Elencticae, 3 tom. 4to,
1701. D. Hollazii Examen Theol. Acroam. 1707, denuo ed. Tel¬
ler, 1763, 4to. J. Cp. Doderleinii Institutio Theologi Christ, in capp.
relig. theor. nostris temporibus accommodata, 1780, ed. 6ta, a Junge,
1797, 8vo. Ric. Baxteri Methodus Theologiae Christ, fol. 1681.
Herm. Witsii De Oeconomia Foederum Dei cum Hominibus lib. iv.
4to, 1693. Herm. Muntinghe Pars theol. Christ, theoretica, 2 vols.
8vo, 1800. English—Th. Ridgley’s Body of Divinity, &c. 2 vols.
fol. 1731 ; 4 vols. 8vo, 1819. Th. Gill’s Body of Doctrinal and Prac¬
tical Divinity, 2 vols. 4to, 1769 ; 3 vols. 8vo, 1796. Tim. Dwight’s
rI heology explained and defended, in a series of Sermons, (many edi¬
tions). G. Hill’s Lectures in Divinity, 2 vols. 8vo, 1821 ; 2 vols.
12mo, 1833. Dick’s Lectures on Theology, 4 vols. 8vo. Morren’s
Biblical 1 heology, 8vo, 1835. S. S. Schmucker’s Biblical Theo¬
logy, translated from the Works of Storr and Flatt, 8vo, 2d ed. 1836,
(London, reprinted 1839.)
As much of our success, in all theological inquiries, de¬
pends upon the spirit and temper in which these are pro¬
secuted, we commend to the attention of the reader the fol- ^
204
THEOLOGY.
Theology, lowing solemn charge, with w'hich the late Dr. Taylor of
Norwich was wont to preface his Theological Lectures :
“ I. I do solemnly charge you, in the name of tie God of Truth,
and of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the Way, the Truth, and the
Life, and before whose judgment-seat you must in no long time ap¬
pear, that in all your studies and inquiries of a religious nature, pre¬
sent or future, you do constantly, carefully, impartially, and consci¬
entiously, attend to evidence, as it lies in the Holy Scriptures, or in
the nature of things, and the dictates of reason; cautiously guarding
against the sallies of imagination, and the fallacy of ill-grounded
conjecture.
“ IL That you admit, embrace, or assent to no principle or senti¬
ment by me taught or advanced, but only so far as it shall appear to
you to be supported and justified by proper evidence from revelation
or the reason of things.
“ III. That if, at any time hereafter, any principle or sentiment
by me taught or advanced, or by you admitted or embraced, shall,
upon impartial and faithful examination, appear to you to be dubious
or false, you either suspect or totally reject such principle or senti¬
ment.
“ IV. That you keep your mind always open to evidence : That
you labour to banish from your breast all prejudice, prepossession,
and party-zeal: That you study to live in peace and love with all
your fellow-Christians; and that you steadily assert for yourself,
and freely allow to others the unalienable rights of judgment and
conscience.”
“ Bene pkecasse,” said Luther, “ est bene studuisse.”
Christian theology may be divided into parts ; the
first, embracing the doctrines concerning God; the second,
those concerning man ; the third, those concerning the
scheme of man’s salvation through Jesus Christ; and the
fourth, those respecting the means to be used by man for
the furtherance of the work of grace in his soul. The last
of these relates chiefly to the constitution and duties of the
Christian church, and has been already sufficiently consi¬
dered in this work. See Episcopacy, Independents,
Methodists, Presbyterians, Pope, Quakers, &c. Bap¬
tism, Eucharist, &c.
Of the other three parts we shall here present our rea¬
ders with a concise view of the leading particulars.
Part I—Doctrines respecting God.
Sect. I. Of the Divine Existence.
In every system of theology the first truths to be believ¬
ed are those which relate to the being and attributes of
God. The Jewish lawgiver, therefore, who records the
earliest revelations that were made to man, begins his his¬
tory with a display of the power and wisdom of God in the
creation of the world. He does not inform his country¬
men, and expect them to believe, on the authority of his
divine commission, that God exists; for he well knew that
the being of God must be admitted, and just notions enter¬
tained of his attributes, before man can be required to pay
any regard to miracles which afford the only evidence of a
primary revelation. “ In the beginning,” says he, “ God
cieated the heavens and the earth.” Here the being of
God is assumed as a truth universally received; but the
sentence, short as it is, reveals another, which, as we shall
afterwards shew, human reason could never have discovered.
J he evidence of the Divine existence is drawn partly
from the intimations of conscience within us, and partly
from the marks of adaptation and design in the world
around us. The conviction that, apart from any human
influence whatever, we are obliged to do one thing and to
i efrain from doing another, and the accompanying sense of
responsibility which attaches to us in regard to all parts of
our conduct, lead us directly to the assurance that there
exists for us an Obliger and a Judge? So also the obvious
adaptation of the world, both as a whole and in its separate
parts, to certain definite and ascertainable ends, constrains us
to admit the conclusion that it must be the product of some
great, wise, and powerful being, whom we call God.d Other
modes of proof, such as the ontological one of Des Cartes,
and Clarke's a prioi'i one, have been adopted and advanced
by philosophical theists, but their argumentative value is
more than questionable.®
c The principal supporter of this moral proof (as it has been
called) of the Divine existence, is Kant, who has urged it in se-
veral of his works. See his Kritik der reinen Vernunft, s. 223;
and his Krit. der Urtheilskraft, s. 426. Part of the latter passage
is given by Storr in his “ Biblical Theology,” (translated by S. S.
Schmucker, D. D. Lond. 1839.)
d This argument is admirably developed by Paley in his Natural
Theology, and fully illustrated by the authors of the Bridgewater
Treatises.
e Vide Cartesii Meditationes de Prima Philosopliia, Med. 3 et 5.
Leibnitii Opera Theologica, tom. i. p. 5, &c. (Ed. Dutens. Genev.
1768.) Clarke’s Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.
Brougham’s Discourse on Natural Theology, p. 81, &c. Gillespie’s
Necessary Existence of Deity.
Sect. II. Of the Divine Unity.
As the marks of design in the universe convince us that
it is the work of divine power, so the perfect harmony
which pervades the universe evinces that that power is the
property of one intelligence. That on this globe the seve¬
ral elements serve for nourishment to plants, plants to the
inferior animals, and animals to man ; that the other pla¬
nets of our system are probably inhabited, and their inha¬
bitants nourished in the same or a similar manner ; that the
sun is so placed as to give light and heat to all, and by the
law of gravitation to bind the whole planets into one system
with itself—are truths so obvious and so universally acknow¬
ledged, as to supersede the necessity of establishing them
by proof. The fair inference therefore is, that the solar
system and all its parts are under the government of one
intelligence, which directs all its motions and all the changes
which take place among its parts for some wise purposes.
To suppose it under the government of two or more intel¬
ligences would be highly unreasonable; for if these intel¬
ligences had equal power, equal wisdom, and the same de¬
signs, one of them would evidently be superfluous; and if
they had equal power and contrary designs, they could not
be the parents of that harmony which we clearly perceive
to prevail in the system.
The truth thus intimated by the harmony of nature is
plainly and frequently asserted in the scriptures. The
texts affirming this great and fundamental truth are almost
numberless. “ Unto thee,” says Moses to his countrymen,
(Deut. iv. 35 and 39; vi. 4), “ it was shewed, that thou
mightest know that the Lord is God; there is none else
besides him. Know therefore that the Lord he is God in
heaven above and upon the earth beneath : there is none
else? And again, “ Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is
one Lord,” or, as it is expressed in the original, “ Jehovah
our God is one Jehovah,” one Being to whom existence is
essential, who could not have a beginning and cannot have
an end. In the prophecies of Isaiah, God is introduced as
repeatedly declaring the same truth. (Isa. xiv. 5, 6, 18; xliv.
8.) In perfect harmony with these declarations of Moses and
the prophets, our Saviour, addressing himself to his Father,
says, (John xvii. 3), “ This is life eternal, that they might
know' Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom Thou
hast sent; ’ and St. Paul, who derived his doctrine from his
divine Master, affirms, (1 Cor. viii. 4), that “an idol is nothing
in the world ; and that there is none other God but one."
Ihe unity of the divine nature, which, from the order
and harmony of the world, appears probable to human rea¬
son, these texts of revelation put beyond a*doubt. Hence
the first precept of the Jewish law, and, according to their
own writers, the foundation of their whole religion, was,
“ Thou shalt have none other gods before Me.” Hence,
too, the reason of that strict command to Jews and Chris-
heolcy. tians to give worship to none but God: “ Thou shalt wor-
'F-y^ship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve;”
because he is God alone. Him only must we fear, be¬
cause he alone hath infinite power; in him alone must we
trust, because “ he only is our rock and our salvation
and to him alone must we direct our devotions, because
“ he only knoweth the hearts of the children of men.”
Sect. III. Of the Divine Trinity.
It has been already remarked, on the first verse of the
first chapter of Genesis, that it contains an intimation of
one of the peculiar doctrines of Christianity, which human
reason never could have gathered from the light of nature.
1 That doctrine is the existence of a threefold plurality in the
one Godhead. This is intimated in the passage referred to,
by the use of the word D'rrbx, elohim, gods, in conjunction
with a singular verb. Some indeed have gone the length
of asserting, that from this the doctrine of the Trinity
may be proved ; but to this opinion we can by no means
give our assent. That there are three distinct persons in
the one divine nature may be inferred with sufficient evi¬
dence from a multitude of passages in the Old and New
Testaments diligently compared together; but it would
perhaps be rash to rest the proof of so sublime a mystery
on any single text of holy scripture, and would certainly
be so to rest it on the text in question. That Moses was
acquainted with this doctrine, we may reasonably conclude
from his so frequently making a plural name of God to
< agree with a verb in the singular number; but had we not
possessed the brighter light of the New Testament to guide
us, we should never have thought of drawing such an in¬
ference. For supposing the word D'rrbx to denote clearly
a plurality of persons, how could we have known that the
1 number is neither more nor less than three, had it not been
ascertained to us by subsequent revelations ?
There are indeed various passages in the Old Testament,
I of the phraseology of which no rational account can be
given, but that they indicate more than one person in the
Godhead. Such are those texts already noticed; “ and
the Lord God said, let us make man in our own image,
after our likeness;” and “ the Lord God said, behold the
man is become like one of us.” To these may be added
the following, which are to us perfectly unintelligible on
any other supposition; and 11 the Lord God said, let us go
down, and there confound their language,” (Gen. xi. 6, 7.)
“ If I be a Master (in the Hebrew adonim, masters,)
where is my fear ?” (Mai. i. 6.) “ The fear of the Lord
(Jehovah) is the beginning of wisdom, and the knowledge
of the Holy (in the Hebrew holy ones) is understanding,”
(Prov. ix. 10). “ Remember thy Creator (Hebrew, thy
i Creators) in the days of thy youth,” (Eccles. xii. 1). “ And
\ now the Lord God and his Spirit hath sent me,” (Isa.
i xlviii. 16.) “ Seek ye out of the book of the Lord and
( read, for my mouth it hath commanded, and his spirit it
hath gathered them,” (Isa. xxxiv. 16.)
That these texts imply a plurality of divine persons, seems
to us incontrovertible. When Moses wrote the passage in
which he represents God as saying, let us make man, “ the
majesty of the plural number,” as it has been called, had
not been adopted by earthly sovereigns; and it is obvious
that the Supreme Being could not, as has been supposed,
! call on angels to make man; for in different places of scrip¬
ture (John ix. 8 ; Isa. xlv. passim) creation is attributed to
i God alone. Hence it is that Solomon speaks of Creators
in the plural number, though he means only the one Su-
I preme Being, and exhorts men to remember them in the
j days of their youth. In the passage first quoted from
Isaiah, there is a distinction made between the Lord God
i I and his Spirit; and in the other, three divine persons are
introduced, viz. the Speaker, the Lord, and tne Spirit of
the Lord. It does not, however, appear evident from these
205
passages, or from any other that we recollect in the Old Theology.
Testament, that the persons in Deity are three and no more:
but no sober Christian will harbour a doubt but that the
precise number was by some means or other made known
to the ancient Hebrews; for inquiries leading to it would
be naturally suggested by the form in which the high priest
was commanded to bless the people. “ The Lord bless
thee and keep thee. The Lord make his face to shine
upon thee, and be gracious unto thee. The Lord lift up
his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace,” (Numb.
vi. 24, 25, 26.)
The form of Christian baptism establishes the truth of
the doctrine of the Trinity beyond all reasonable ground of
dispute. “ Go,” says our blessed Saviour, “ and teach all na¬
tions, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” What was it the apostles
were to teach all nations ? Was it not to turn from their
vanities to the living God; to renounce their idols and false
gods, and so to be baptized in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost ? What now must occur
to the Gentile nations on this occasion, but that, instead of
all their deities, to whom they had before bowed down, they
were in future to serve,, worship, and adore, Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost, as the only true and living God ? To suppose
that God and two creatures are here joined together in
the solemn rite by which men were to be admitted into a
new religion, which directly condemns all creature-worship,
would be so unreasonable, that we are persuaded such a sup¬
position never was made by any converted polytheist of an¬
tiquity. The nations were to be baptized in the name of
three persons, in the same manner, and therefore, doubtless,
in the same sense. It is not said in the name of God and
his two faithful servants; nor in the name of God, and
Christ, and the Hody Ghost, which might have suggest¬
ed a thought that one only of the three is God; but in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost. Whatever honour, reverence, or regard, is paid
to the first person in this solemn rite, the same is paid to
all three. Is he acknowledged as the object of worship ?
So are the other two likewise. Is he God and Lord over
us ? So are they. Are we enrolled as subjects, servants,
and soldiers, under him ? So are we equally under all. Are
we hereby regenerated and made the temple of the Father ?
So are we likewise of the Son and Holy Ghost. “ We will
come,” says our Saviour, “ and make our abode with him,”
(John xiv. 23.)
If those who believe the inspiration of the scriptures
could require any further proof that the Godhead compre¬
hends a trinity of persons in one nature, we might urge the
apostolical fbrm of benediction; “ The grace of our Lord
Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion
of the Holy Ghost, be with you all,” (2 Cor. xiii. 14.)
Would St. Paul, or any other man of common sense, have
in the same sentence, and in the most solemn manner, re¬
commended his Corinthian converts to the love of God,
and to the grace and communion of two creatures ? We
should think it very absurd to recommend a man at once to
the favour of a king and a beggar; but how infinitely small
is the distance between the greatest earthly potentate and
the meanest beggar, when compared with that which must
for ever subsist between the Almighty Creator of heaven and
earth and the most elevated creature ?
But how, it will be asked, can three divine persons be but
one and the same God ? This is a question which has been
often put, but which, we believe, no created being can fully
answer. It is to be observed, however, that no intelligent
Trinitarians affirm that these divine Persons, or Hypos¬
tases, are one and three in the same sense ; for this would
be a contradiction in terms. What is affirmed is, that in
one sense they are three, and in another one; though how
this is, or what may be the difference between the one sense
THEOLOGY.
THEOLOGY.
206
Theology, and the other, we are utterly unable to tell. The case is
one which admits of no explanation. The divine nature and
its manner of existence is, to us, wholly incomprehensible ;
and we might with greater reason attempt to weigh the
mountains in scales, than by our limited faculties to fathom
the depths of infinity. The Supreme Being is present in
power to every portion of space, and yet it is demonstrable,
that in his essence he is not extended, (see Metaphysics,
p. 699-) Both these truths, his inextension and omni¬
presence, are fundamental principles in what is called na¬
tural religion; and when taken together they form, in the
opinion of most people, a mystery as incomprehensible as
that of the Trinity in unity. Indeed there is nothing of
which it is more difficult to form a distinct notion than
unity simple, and absolutely indivisible. Though the Tri¬
nity in unity, therefore, were no Christian doctrine, myste¬
ries must still be believed; for they are as inseparable from
the religion of nature as from that of revelation; and atheism
involves the most incomprehensible of all mysteries, even
the beginning of existence without a cause. We must in¬
deed form the best notions that we can of this and all other
mysteries ; for if we have no notions whatever of a Trinity
in unity, we can neither believe nor disbelieve that doc¬
trine. It is however to be remembered, that all our notions
of God are more or less analogical; that they must be ex¬
pressed in words which, literally interpreted, are applicable
only to man; and that propositions understood in this lite¬
ral sense may involve an apparent contradiction, from which
the truth meant to be expressed by them would be seen to
be free, had we direct and adequate conceptions of the di¬
vine nature. On this account it is to be wished that men
treating of the mystery of the Holy Trinity, had always ex¬
pressed themselves in scripture language, and never aimed
at being wise above what is written; as all attempts to ex¬
plain or simplify this doctrine have proved singularly futile,
ending either in pompous absurdity, or in a virtual negation
of the doctrine to be explained.
Stuart’s Letters to Dr. Charming; Horsley’s Letters to Priestley; Theci0l
Fuller’s Works, vol. i. and vol. iv.; Waterland’s Importance of
Doctrine of the Holy Trinity asserted; Faber’s Apostolicity of
Trinitarianism.
Sect. IV. Of the Manifestation of Deity in the Works of
Creation and Providence.
The essence of this self-existent, all-powerful, infinitely
wise, and perfectly good Being, is to us wholly incompre¬
hensible. That it is not matter, is shown by the process
of argumentation by which wre have proved it to exist: but
what it is we know not, and it would be impious presump¬
tion to inquire. It is sufficient for all the purposes of reli¬
gion to know that God has formed all things, and is some¬
how or other present to every part of his work ; that exist¬
ence and every possible perfection is essential to him ; and
that he wishes the happiness of all his creatures. That he
is the former of all things is explicitly stated in Scripture,
as in many places, so especially in the first sentence of
Genesis already quoted. That by “ the heavens and the
earth,” in that passage, is meant the whole universe, visible
and invisible, is known to every person acquainted with the
phraseology of Scripture; and we need inform no man con¬
versant with English writers, that by creation, in its pro¬
per sense, is meant bringing into being or making that to
exist which existed not before. It must, however, be ac¬
knowledged, that the Hebrew word N'n does not always
imply the production of substance, but very often the form¬
ing of particular organized bodies out of pre-existing mat¬
ter. Thus when it is said, (Gen. i. 21, 27), that “ God
created great whales, and every living creature that mov-
eth, which the waters brought forth abundantly after their
kind,” and again, “ that he created man male and female
though the word is used on both occasions, we are not
to conceive that the bodies of the first human pair, and of
these animals, were brought into being from nonentity, but
only that they were formed by a proper organization being
given to pre-existent matter. But when Moses says, “ In
the beginning God created the heaven and the earth,” he
cannot be supposed to mean, that “ in the beginning God
only gave form to matter already existing of itself;” for in
the very next verse we are assured that after this act of
creation was over, “ the earth was still without form and
void,” or in other words, in a chaotic state.
lhat the Jews, before the coming of our Saviour, under¬
stood their lawgiver to teach a proper creation, is plain from
that passage in the second book of the Maccabees, in which
a mother, to persuade her son to suffer the cruellest tortures
rather than forsake the law of his God, uses the following
argument: “ I beseech thee, my son, look upon the heaven
and the earth, and all that is therein, and consider that God
made them of things that were not.” To the same purpose
the inspired author of the epistle to the Hebrews, when
magnifying the excellence of faith, says, “ Through faith
we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of
God, so that things which are seen were not made of things
which do appear;’ where, as Bishop Pearson has ably prov¬
ed, (Exposition of the Creed), the phrase /x?j eKifiaivo/ievcov is
equivalent to 6vk e’£ ovtcov, in the quotation from the Mac¬
cabees.
The very first verse, therefore, of the book of Genesis
informs us of a most important truth, which all the unin¬
spired wisdom of antiquity could not discover. It assures
us, that as nothing exists by chance, so nothing is neces¬
sarily existing but the three divine persons in the one God¬
head. Every thing else, whether material or immaterial,
derives its substance, as well as its form or qualities, from
the fiat of that self-existent Being, “ who was, and is, and
is to come.”
It does not, however, follow from this verse, or from any
other passage in the sacred Scriptures, that the whole uni-
06s. 1. An attempt has been made by some of the opponents of
this doctrine to represent it as borrowed by the early Christians from
the speculations of the later Platonists. But if this be the case, we may
properly ask, whence had those Platonists the doctrine themselves ?
It is not surely so simple or so obvious as to be likely to have occur¬
red to the reasoning mind of a Pagan philosopher; or if it be, why
do Unitarians suppose it to involve a contradiction ? Plato indeed
taught a doctrine in some respects similar to that of the Christian
Trinity, and so did Pythagoras, with many other philosophers of Greece
and the East; but though these sages appear to have been on some occa¬
sions extremely credulous, and on others to have indulged themselves
in the most mysterious speculations, there is no room to suppose
that they were naturally weaker men than ourselves, or that they were
capable of inculcating as truths what they perceived to involve a con¬
tradiction. The Platonic and Pythagorean trinities never could have
occurred to the mind of him who merely from the works of creation
endeavoured to discover the being and attributes of the Creator;
and therefore as those philosophers travelled into Egypt and the
East in quest of knowledge, it appears to us in the highest degree
probable, that they picked up this mysterious and sublime doctrine
in those regions where it had been handed down as a dogma from
the remotest ages, and where we know that science was not taught
systematically, but detailed in collections of sententious maxims and
traditionary opinions. If this be so, we cannot doubt but that the
Pagan trinities had their origin in some primaeval revelation. No¬
thing else indeed can account for the general prevalence of a doctrine
so remote from human imagination, and of which we find vestiges
in the sacred books of almost every civilized people of antiquity.
The corrupt state in which it is viewed in the writings of Plato and
others, is the natural consequence of its descent through a long course
of oral tradition; and then falling into the hands of men who bent
every opinion as much as possible to a conformity with their own
speculations. The trinity of Platonism therefore, instead of being
an objection, lends, in our opinion, no feeble support to the Chris¬
tian doctrine, since it affords almost a complete proof of that doc¬
trine's having made part of the first revelations communicated to
man.
06s.2. See Pearson on theCreed; Burnet’s Exposition of theThirty-
nine Articles; Wardlaw’s Discourses on the Socinian Controversy;
THEOLOGY.
207
beolory.
verse was called into existence at the same instant; neither
is it by any means evident that the chaos of our world was
brought into being on the first of those six days during
which it was gradually reduced into form. From a passage
in the book of Job, (xxxviii. 7), in which we are told by
God himself, that when the “ foundation of the earth was
laid the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of
God shouted for joy,” it appears extremely probable that
worlds had been created, formed, and inhabited, long before
our earth had any existence. Nor is this opinion at all con¬
trary to what Moses says of the creation of the stars; for
though they are mentioned in the same verse with the sun
and moon, yet the manner in which, according to the ori¬
ginal, they are introduced, by no means indicates that all
the stars were formed at the same time with the luminaries
of our system. Most of them have been created long be¬
fore, and some of them since, our world was brought into
being; for that clause, (ver. 16.), “ he made the stars also,”
is in the Hebrew no more than “ and the stars the words
he made being inserted by the translators. The word verse
therefore ought to be rendered thus, “ and God made two
great lights ; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser
light with the stars to rule the night;” where nothing is in¬
timated with respect to the time when the stars were form¬
ed, any more than in that verse of the Psalms, (cxxxvi. 9),
which exhorts us to give thanks to God who made the moon
and stars to rule by night; for his mercy endureth “ for
ever.” The first verse of the book of Genesis informs us
that all things spiritual and corporeal derive their existence
from God ; but it is nowhere said that all matter was creat¬
ed at the same time.1
That the whole corporeal universe may have been created
at once, must be granted; but if so, we have reason to be¬
lieve that this earth, with the sun and all the planets of
the system, were suffered to remain for ages in a state of
chaos, “ without form and void ;” because it appears from
other scriptures, that worlds of intelligent creatures existed,
and even that some angels had fallen from a state of hap¬
piness, prior to the era of the Mosaic cosmogony. That the
sun and the other planets revolving round him were form¬
ed at the same time with the earth, may be confidently as¬
serted ; for it is not only probable in itself from the known
laws of nature, but is expressly affirmed by the sacred his¬
torian, who relates the formation of the sun and moon in
the order in which it took place.
(
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Obs. There is one part of the Mosaic narrative of the creation which
requires to be more particularly noticed, as it has afforded consider¬
able difficulty to some, and has been laid hold of by others, as inva¬
lidating the claims of the writer to divine superintendence. It is
that in which he informs us, that on the first day after the produc¬
tion of the chaos, the element of light was created ; and yet within a
few sentences he declares, that the sun, the fountain of light, was
not made till the fourth day. How are these two passages to be re¬
conciled ? We answer, that they may be reconciled many ways.
Moses wrote for the use of a whole people, and not for the amuse¬
ment or instruction of a few astronomers; and in this view his lan¬
guage is sufficiently proper, even though we suppose the formation
of the sun and the other planets to have been carried on at the same
time, and in the same progressive manner, with the formation of this
earth. The voice which called light into existence would separate
the fiery and luminous particles of the chaos from those which were
opaque, and, on this hypothesis, consolidate them in one globe, dif¬
fusing an obscure light through the planetary system; but if the
earth’s atmosphere continued till the fourth day loaded with vapours,
as from the narrative of Moses it appears to have done, the sun
could not till that day have been seen from the earth, and may there¬
fore, in popular language, be said with sufficient propriety to have
been formed on the fourth day, as it was then made to appear. But
though this solution of the difficulty serves to remove the objection,
and to secure the credit of the sacred historian, candour compels us
to confess that it appears not to be the true solution.
The difficulty itself arises entirely from supposing the sun to be
the sole fountain of light; but the truth of this opinion is not self- Theology,
evident, nor has it ever been established by satisfactory proof. It *»
is indeed to a mind divested of undue deference to great names, and
considering the matter with impartiality, an opinion extremely im¬
probable. The light of a candle placed on an eminence may in a
dark night be seen in every direction at the distance of at least three
miles. But if this small body be rendered visible by means of rays
emitted from itself, the flame of a candle, which cannot be supposed
more than an inch in diameter, must, during every instant that it con¬
tinues to burn, throw from its own substance luminous matter suffi¬
cient to fill a spherical space of six miles in diameter. This pheno¬
menon, if real, is certainly surprising; but if we pursue the reflection
a little farther, our wonder will be greatly increased. The matter
which, when converted into flame, is an inch in diameter, is not,
when of the consistence of cotton and tallow, of the dimensions of
the 20th part of an inch; and therefore, on the common hypothesis,
the 20th part of an inch of tallow may be so rarefied as to fill a space
of 113.0976 cubic miles! a rarefaction which to us appears alto¬
gether incredible. We have indeed heard much of the divisibility
of matter ad infinitum, and think we understand what are usually
called demonstrations of the truth of that proposition ; but these de¬
monstrations prove not the actual divisibility of real solid substances,
but only tbat on trial we shall find no end of the ideal process of
dividing and subdividing imaginary extension.
On the whole, therefore, we are much more inclined to believe
that the matter of light is an extremely subtile fluid, diffused through
the corporeal universe, and only excited to agency by the sun and
other fiery bodies, than that it consists of streams continually issuing
from the substance of these bodies. It is indeed an opinion pretty
generally received, and certainly not improbable in itself, that light
and electricity are one and the same substance ; but we know that
the electrical fluid, though pervading the whole of corporeal nature,
and, as experiments show, capable of acting with great violence, yet
lies dormant and unperceived till its agency be excited by some
foreign cause. Just so it may be with the matter of light. That
substance may be “ diffused from one end of the creation to the
other. It may traverse the whole universe, form a communication
between the most remote spheres, penetrate into the inmost recesses
of the earth, and only wait to be put in a proper motion to commu¬
nicate visible sensations to the eye. Light is to the organ of sight
what the air is to the organ of hearing. Air is the medium which,
vibrating on the ear, causes the sensation of sound; but it equally
exists round us at all times, though there be no sonorous body to
put it in motion. In like manner, light may be equally extended at
all times, by night as well as by day, from the most distant fixed
stars to this earth, though it then only strikes our eyes so as to ex¬
cite visible sensations when impelled by the sun or some other mass
of fire.” Nor let any one imagine that this hypothesis interferes
with any of the known laws of optics; for if the rays of light be im¬
pelled in straight lines, and in the same direction in which they are
supposed to be emitted, the phenomena of vision must necessarily be
the same.
Moses therefore was probably a more accurate philosopher than
he is sometimes represented. The element of light was doubt¬
less created, as he informs us, on the first day; but whether it was
then put in that state in which it is the medium of vision, we cannot
know, and we need not inquire, since there was neither man nor in¬
ferior animal with organs fitted to receive its impressions. For the
first three days it may have been used only as a powerful instrument
to reduce into order the jarring chaos. Or if it was from the begin¬
ning capable of communicating visible sensations, and dividing the
day from the night, its agency must have been immediately excited
by the Divine power till the fourth day, when the sun was formed,
and endowed with proper qualities for instrumentally discharging that
office. This was indeed miraculous, as being contrary to the present
laws of nature: but the whole creation was miraculous; and we
surely need not hesitate to admit a less miracle where we are under
the necessity of admitting a greater. The power which called light
and all other things into existence, could give them their proper mo¬
tions by ten thousand different means; and to attempt to solve the
difficulties of creation by philosophic theories respecting the laws of
nature, is to trifle with the common sense of mankind: it is to con¬
sider as subservient to a law that very power by whose continued
exertion the law is established.
The Scriptures inform us that creation was the work of
the Trinity. Moses declares that the heaven and the earth
were created, not by one person, but by the Elohim. The
\oyos indeed, or second person, appears to have been the
L
1 See Lectures “ On the Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Science.” By J. P. Smith, D.D.
Leet. vii. part ii. Lond. 1839, 8vo.
THEOLOGY.
208
Theology, immediate Creator; for St. John assures us, (chap. i. 3),
that “ all things were made by him, and that without him
was not any thing made that was made.” Some Arian writers
of great learning (and we believe the late Dr. Price was of
the number) have asserted, that a being who was created
himself may be endowed by the Omnipotent God with the
power of creating other beings; and as they hold the \oyos
or word, to be a creature, they contend that he was employ¬
ed by the Supreme Deity to create, not the whole universe,
but only this earth, or at the utmost the solar system. “ The
old argument,” says one of them, “ that no being inferior to
the great Omnipotent can create a world, is so childish as
to deserve no answer. Why may not God communicate
the power of making worlds to any being whom he may
choose to honour with so glorious a prerogative ? I have
no doubt but such a power may be communicated to many
good men during the progress of their existence; and to
say that it may not, is not only to limit the power of God,
but to contradict acknowledged analogies.”
We are far from being inclined to limit the power of
God. He can certainly do whatever involves not a direct
contradiction ; and therefore, though we know nothing ana¬
logous to the power of creating worlds, yet as we perceive
not any contradiction implied in the notion of that power
being communicated, we shall admit that such a communi¬
cation may be possible, though we think it in the highest
degree improbable. But surely no man will contend that
the whole universe was brought into existence by any crea¬
ture; because that creature himself, however highly exalt¬
ed, is necessarily comprehended in the notion of the uni¬
verse. Now St. Paul expressly affirms (Colos. i. 17) that,
by the second person in the blessed Trinity, “ were all
things created that are in heaven, and that are in earth,
visible and invisible, whether they be thrones, or do¬
minions, or principalities, or powers ; all things were
created by him and for him; and he is before all things,
and by him all things consist.” Indeed the Hebrew Scrip¬
tures in more places than one (Isa. xl. 12; xliv. 24. Jer. x.
10-13) expressly declare that this earth, and of course the
whole solar system, was formed, as well as created, not by
an inferior being, but by the true God, even Jehovah alone ;
and in the New Testament, (Rom. i. 18-22), the Gentiles
are said to be without excuse for not glorifying him as God,
“ because his eternal power and Godhead' are clearly seen
from the creation of the world.” But if it were natural to
suppose that the power of creating worlds has been, or ever
will be, communicated to beings inferior to the great Om¬
nipotent, this reasoning of the apostle’s would be founded
on false principles, and the sentence which he passed on the
Heathen would be contrary to justice.
But though it be thus evident that the Xcyos was the im¬
mediate Creator of the universe, we are not to suppose that
it was without the concurrence of the other two persons.
The Father, who may be said to be the fountain of the Di¬
vinity itself, was certainly concerned in the creation of the
world, and is therefore in the apostle’s creed denominated
the “ Father Almighty Maker of heaven and earth and
that the Holy Ghost or third person is likewise a Creator,
we have the express testimony of two inspired writersc By
the word of the Lord (says the Psalmist) were the heavens
made, and all the host of them by the breath (Hebrew, Spi¬
rit) of his mouth.” And Job declares, that the “ Spirit
of God made him, and that the breath of the Almighty gave
him life.” Indeed these three divine persons are so inti¬
mately united, that what is done by one must be done by
all, as they have but one and the same will. This is the
reason assigned by Origen {Contra Cels. p. 386) for our
paying divine worship to each; 6PWk(vo^v 6w tov Trarepa
tt)s d\T)6eias, kcu tov iiov ttjv aXfeiav, ovra dvo 777 vnaarao-ei
npaypara, tv 8e 777 opovoiq, nai 777 crvp(f)(oviq, km 777 TavTOTijri
TTjs dov'Krjo-fais. “ We worship the Father of truth, and the
Son the truth itself, being two things as to hypostasis, but Tbeok
one in agreement, consent, and sameness of will.” Nor is
their union a mere agreement in will only; it is a physical
or essential union: so that what is done by one must ne¬
cessarily be done by the others also, according to that of
our Saviour, “ I am in the Father and the Father in me:
The Father who dwelleth in me, he doth the works.”
Over the universe thus framed by him the Deity presides
with watchful providence and care, attending to the mi¬
nutest circumstance, and regulating the course of every
event. Comp. Psal. xviii. 31; xxxvi. 6-15. Matt. vi. 25-32;
x. 29. John v. 17. Acts xvii. 24, &c. See also Art. Pro¬
vidence and Predestination in this work.
Sect. V. Of the Divine Attributes.
From the phenomena of nature and the statements of
Scripture we not only learn that God exists, but also that
he is possessed of certain qualities, intellectual and moral,
by which he becomes known to his creatures. Of these
some are announced by both nature and Scripture ; for our
knowledge of others we are indebted to Scripture alone.
In the present outline it seems necessary to mention only
the following:
i. Power. How strongly do the works of creation im¬
press on our minds a conviction of the infinite power of
their Author ! He spoke, and the universe started into
being; he commanded, and it stood fast. How mighty is
the arm which “ stretched out the heavens and laid the
foundations ot the earth ; which removeth the mountains
and they know it not; which overturneth them in his anger;
which shaketh the earth out of her place, and the pillars
thereof tremble ! How powerful the word which command-
eth the sun, and it riseth not; and which sealeth up the
stars ;” which sustaineth numberless worlds of amazing bulk
suspended in the regions of empty space, and directs their
various and inconceivably rapid motions with the utmost re¬
gularity ! “ Lift up your eyes on high, and behold, who
hath created all these things ? By the word of the Lord
were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the
breath of his mouth. Hell is naked before him, and de¬
struction hath no covering. He stretcheth out the north
over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing.
He has measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and
meted out the heavens with a span ; and comprehended the
dust of the earth in a measure : and weighed the moun¬
tains in scales, and the hills in a balance. Behold ! the na¬
tions are as a drop of the bucket, ana are counted as the
small dust of the balance ; behold, he taketh up the isles as
a very little thing. All nations before him are as nothing,
and they are counted to him less than nothing and vanity.
To whom then will ye liken God, or what likeness will ye
compare unto him ?” Ps. xxxiii. 6, 9. Job ix. 4, &.; xxvi.
6. Isa. xi. 12.
ii. Wisdom. As the works of creation are the effects of
God’s power, they likewise, in the most eminent manner,
display his wisdom. This was so apparent to Cicero, even
from the partial knowledge in astronomy which his time
afforded, that he declared (De Nat. Deorum, lib. ii.) those
who could assert the contrary to be void of all understanding.
But if that great master of reason had been acquainted with
the modern discoveries in astronomy, which exhibit num¬
berless worlds scattered through space, and each of immense
magnitude; had he known that the sun is placed in the
centre of our system, and that, to diversify the seasons, the
planets move round him with exquisite regularity; could he
have conceived that the distinction between light and dark¬
ness is produced by the diurnal rotation of the earth on its
own axis, instead of that disproportionate whirling of the
whole heavens which the ancient astronomers were forced
to suppose ; had he known of the wonderful motions of the
comets, and considered how such eccentric bodies have
THEOLOGY.
eojon'.
been preserved from falling upon some of the planets in
the same system, and the several systems from falling upon
each other; had he taken into the account that there are
greater things than these, and “ that we have seen but a
few of God’s works that virtuous pagan would have been
ready to exclaim in the words of the Psalmist, “ O Lord,
how manifold are thy works ! In wisdom hast thou made
them all; the earth is full of thy riches.”
In the attribute of infinite wisdom is comprehended that
of omniscience; for as wisdom is only knowledge well-di¬
rected, perfect wisdom must be the well-directing of all
knowledge.
iii. Goodness. The goodness of God is not less conspi¬
cuous in his works than His power or His wisdom. Contri¬
vance proves design, and the predominant tendency of the
contrivances indicates the disposition of the designer.
Now, all the evidences of design whicl we behold in the
universe are directed to useful and beneficial purposes, and,
consequently, indicate benevolence as a predominating fea¬
ture in the character of the Creator; while, from the vast
number of creatures on our earth endowed with life and
sense, and a capability of happiness, and the infinitely greater
number which probably inhabit the planets of this and other
systems, we may infer that the goodness of God is as bound¬
less as his power, and that “ as is his majesty, so is his
mercy.” Out of his own fulness hath he brought into being
numberless worlds, replenished with myriads of myriads of
creatures, furnished with various powers and organs, capa¬
cities and instincts; and out of his own fulness he continu¬
ally and plentifully supplies them all with every thing neces¬
sary to make their existence comfortable. “ The eyes of all
wait upon him, and he giveth them their meat in due season.
He openeth his hand and satisfies the desires of every living
thing; he loveth righteousness and judgment; the earth is full
of the goodness of the Lord. He watereth the ridges there¬
of abundantly; he settleth the furrows thereof; he maketh it
soft with showers, and blesseth the springing thereof. He
crowneth the year with his goodness; and his paths drop fat¬
ness. They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness; and the
little hills rejoice on every side. The pastures are clothed
with flocks ; the valleys also are covered with corn ; they
shout with joy, they also sing.” Survey the whole of what
may be seen on and about this terraqueous globe, and say,
if our Maker has a sparing hand. Surely the Author of
so much happiness must be essential goodness; and we
must conclude with St. John, that “ God is love.”
ces
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Obs. “ The world abounds with contrivances, and all the contrivan¬
ces in it with which vve are acquainted are directed to beneficial pur¬
poses. Evil no doubt exists ; but it is never, that we can perceive,
the object of contrivance. Teeth are contrived to eat, not to ache;
their aching now and then is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps
inseparable from it: but it is not its object. This is a distinction
which well deserves to be attended to. In describing implements
of husbandry, one would hardly say of a sickle that it is made to
cut the reaper’s fingers, though, from the construction of the instru¬
ment, and the manner of using it, this mischief often happens. But
if he had occasion to describe instruments of torture or execution,
this, he would say, is to extend the sinews; this to dislocate the
joints; this to break the bones ; this to scorch the soles of the feet.
Here pain and misery are the very objects of the contrivance. Now,
nothing of this sort is to be found in the works of nature. We
never discover a train of contrivance to bring about an evil purpose.
No anatomist ever discovered a system of organization calculated to
produce pain and disease; or, in explaining the parts of the human
body, ever said, this is to irritate, this to inflame, this duct is to con¬
vey the gravel to the kidneys, this gland to secret the humour which
forms the gout. If, by chance, he came to a part of which he
knows not the use, the most that he can say is, that to him it ap¬
pears to be useless : no one ever suspects that it is put there to in¬
commode, to annoy, or to torment. If God had wished our misery, he
might have made sure of his purpose, by forming our senses to be as
many sores and pains to us as they are now instruments of gratifica¬
tion and enjoyment; or, by placing us among objects so ill suited to
our perceptions as to have continually offended us, instead of minis¬
tering to our refreshment and delight. He might have made, for in-
VOL. XXI.
stance, every thing we tasted bitter, every thing wTe saw loathsome,
every thing we touched a sting, every smell a stench, and every
sound a discord.”—Paley's Natural Theology.
Instead of this, all our sensations, except such as are excited by
what is dangerous to our health, are pleasures to us. The view of
a landscape is pleasant; the taste of nourishing food is pleasant;
sounds not too loud are agreeable, while musical sounds are exqui¬
site ; and scarcely any smells, except such as are excited by effluvia
obviously pernicious to the brain, are disagreeable ; while some of
them, if not too long indulged, are delightful. Since, then, God
has called forth his consummate wisdom to contrive and provide for
our happiness, and has made those things, which are necessary to
our existence, sources of pleasure to us; who can doubt but that be¬
nevolence is one of his attributes; and that, if it were not impious
to draw a comparison between them, it is the attribute in which he
himself most delighteth ?
But it is not from sensation only that we may infer the benevo¬
lence of the Deity. He has formed us with minds capable of intel¬
lectual improvement, and he has implanted in the breast of every
man a very strong desire of adding to his knowledge. This addi¬
tion, it is true, cannot be made without labour; and, at first, the re¬
quisite labour is to most people irksome : but a very short progress
in any study converts what was irksome into a pleasure of the most
exalted kind; and he who by study, however intense, enlarges his
ideas, experiences a complacency, which, though not so poignant,
perhaps, as the pleasures of the sensualist, is such as endears him to
himself, and is what he would not exchange for any thing else which
this world has to bestow, except the still sweeter complacency aris¬
ing from the consciousness of having discharged his duty.
That the practice of virtue is attended with a peculiar pleasure of
the purest kind, is a fact which no man has ever questioned, though
the immediate source of that pleasure has been the subject of many
disputes. He who attributes it to a moral sense, which instinctive¬
ly points out to every man his duty, and on the performance of it
rewards him with a sentiment of self-approbation, must of necesssity
acknowledge benevolence to be one of the attributes of that Being
who has so constituted the human mind. That to protect the inno¬
cent, relieve the distressed, and do to others as we would in like
circumstances wish to be done by, fills the breast, previously to all
reflection, with a holy joy, as the commission of any crime tears it
with remorse, cannot indeed be controverted. Many, however,
contend, that this joy and this remorse spring not from any moral in¬
stinct implanted in the mind, but are the consequence of early and
deep-rooted associations of the practice of virtue with the hope of
future happiness, and of vice with the dread of future misery. On
the respective merits of these two theories we shall not now decide,
but only observe, that they both lead with equal certainty to the
benevolence of the Deity, who made us capable of forming associa¬
tions, and subjected those associations to fixed laws. This being
the case, the moral sense, with all its instantaneous effects, affords
not a more convincing proof of his goodness, than that principle in
our nature by which remote circumstances become so linked to¬
gether, that the one circumstance never occurs without bringing the
other also into view- It is thus that the pleasing complacency,
which was, perhaps, first excited by the hopes of future happiness,
comes in time to be so associated with the consciousness of virtu¬
ous conduct, the only thing entitled to reward, that a man never
performs a meritorious action without experiencing the most exqui¬
site joy diffused through his mind, though his attention at that in¬
stant may not be directed either to heaven or to futurity. Were we
obliged, before we could experience this joy, to estimate by reason
the merit of every individual action, and trace its connection to
heaven and future happiness through a long train of intermediate
reasoning, we should be, in a great measure, deprived of the present
reward of virtue; and, therefore, this associating principle contri¬
butes much to our happiness. But the benevolence of a Being, who
seems thus anxious to furnish us with both sensual and intellectual
enjoyments, and who has made our duty our greatest pleasure, can¬
not be questioned; and therefore we must infer, that the Author
of Nature wishes the happiness of the whole sensible and intelligent
creation. Ps. cxiv. 15, 16 ; xxiii. 5; lv. 10, &c.
Objectors have asked, Why, if the Author of Nature be a
benevolent Being, are we necessarily subject to pain, diseases, and
death ? The scientific physiologist replies, Because, from these
evils, Omnipotence itself could not in our present state exempt us,
but by a constant series of miracles. He who believes the Bible,
knows likewise that mankind were originally in a state in which
they were not subject to death ; and that they fell under its domin¬
ion through the fault of their common progenitors. Without, howr-
ever, insisting upon this, the question is one which may be answered
upon such data as are presented by the phenomena of nature. Now,
we know that as all matter is divisible, every system composed of it
must necessarily be liable to decay and dissolution; and our material
2 D
209
Theology.
210 THE O
Theology, system would decay and be dissolved long before it could serve the
purposes of nature, were therenot methods contrived, with admirable
wisdom, for repairing the waste occasioned by perpetual friction. The
body is furnished with different fluids, which continually circulate
through it in proper channels, and leave in their way what is neces¬
sary to repair the solids. These again are supplied by food ab
extra; and to the whole processes of digestion, circulation, and
nutrition, the air we breathe is absolutely necessary. But as the
air is a very heterogeneous fluid, and subject to violent and sudden
changes, it is obvious that these changes must affect the blood, and
by consequence the whole frame of the human body. The air, in¬
deed, in process of time consumes even marble itself; and, there¬
fore, w^e cannot wonder that as it is in one state the parent of
health, it should in another be the source of disease to such crea¬
tures as man and other terrestrial animals. Nor could these conse¬
quences be avoided without introducing others much more deplor¬
able. The world is governed by general laws, without which there
could be among men neither arts nor sciences; and though laws
different from those by which the system is at present governed
might, perhaps, have been established, there is not the smallest rea¬
son to imagine that they could on the whole have been better, or
attended with fewer inconveniences. Aslongas we have material and
solid bodies capable of motion, liable to resistance from other solid
bodies, supported by food, subject to the agency of the air, and divi¬
sible, they must necessarily be liable to pain, disease, corruption,
and death, and that, too, by the very influence of those laws which
preserve the order and harmony of the universe. Thus gravitation
is a general law so good and so necessary, that were it for a moment
suspended, the world would instantly fall to pieces ; and yet, by
means of this law, the man must inevitably be crushed to death on
whom a tower shall chance to tumble. Again, the attraction of
cohesion is a general law, without which it does not appear that
any corporeal system could possibly exist: it is by this law, too, or
a modification of it, that the glands and lacteals of the human body
extract from the blood such particles as are necessary to nourish the
solids ; and yet it is by means of the very same modification of the
very same law that a man is liable to be poisoned.
Although the human body could not have been preserved from
dangers and dissolution, but by introducing evils greater on the
whole than those to which it is now liable, why, it has sometimes
been asked, is every disorder to which it is subject attended with
sickness or with pain ? and why is such a horror of death implanted
in our breasts, seeing that, by the laws of nature, death is inevitable ?
We answer, That sickness, pain, and the dread of death, serve the
very best purposes. Could a man be put to death, or have his
limbs broken without feeling pain, the human race had long ago
been extinct. Felt we no uneasiness in a fever, we should be in¬
sensible of the disease, and die before we suspected our health to
be impaired. The horror which generally accompanies our reflec¬
tions on death tends to make us more careful of life, and prevents
us from quitting this world rashly, when our affairs prosper not ac¬
cording to our wishes. It is likewise an indication that our exis¬
tence does not terminate in this world ; for our dread is seldom ex¬
cited by the prospect of the pain which we may suffer when dying,
but by our anxiety concerning what we may be doomed to suffer or
enjoy in the next stage of our existence; and this anxiety tends
more, perhaps, than any thing else to make us live while we are
here in such a manner as to ensure our happiness hereafter.
iv. Righteousness. In our views of the Divine benevo¬
lence, we must not forget that it is not such a fond affec¬
tion as often obtains that name among men. All human
affections and passions originate in our dependence and
wants; and it has been doubted whether any of them be
at first disinterested: but he to whom existence is es¬
sential cannot be dependent; he who is the Author of
every thing can feel no want. The Divine benevo¬
lence, therefore, must be wholly disinterested, and, of
course, free from those partialities originating in self-love,
w hich are alloys in the most sublime of human virtues. The
most benevolent man on earth, though he wishes the hap¬
piness of every fellow-creature, has still, from the ties of
blood, the endearments of friendship, or, perhaps, from a
regard to his own interest, some particular favourites whom,
on a competition with others, he would certainly prefer.
But the equal Lord of all can have no particular favourites.
His benevolence is therefore coincident with justice; or,
that which is called divine justice, is only benevolence ex¬
erting itself in a particular manner for the propagation of
general felicity. When God prescribes laws for regulat-
LOGY.
ing the conduct of his intelligent creatures, it is not be- Theoi,,
cause he can reap any benefit from their obedience to those
laws, but because such obedience is necessary to their own
happiness ; and when he punishes the transgressor, it is not
because, in his nature, there is any disposition to which the
prospect of such punishment can afford gratification, but
because, in the government of free agents, punishment is
necessary to reform the criminal, and to intimidate others
from committing the like crimes. Compare Ps. vii. 10-18.
Rom. ii. 5, 6. 2 Tim. iv. 8. Rev. xix. 2, &c.—Intimately
connected with the righteousness of God is his holiness, for
we cannot but infer that he, who so earnestly desires and
carefully enjoins the moral excellence of his creatures, is
himself the grand pattern of all moral beauty. Compare
Matt. v. 45—48. Eph.iv. 24. 1 Pet. i. 16. 2 Pet. i. 4. 1 John
i. 5, &c.
v. Immutability and Veracity. He who is perfectly wise
and holy must be unchangeable, for change can character¬
ise the conduct only of beings whose faculties do not ex¬
clude the possibility of error, or wEose will is liable to be
influenced by unworthy motives. Hence the Scriptures
ascribe to God the attribute of immutability as to his pur¬
poses, decrees, and judgments ; compare Exod. iii. 14—17;
vi. 2—8. Deut. vii. 8—11. Ps. xxxiii. 9—11. Matt, iii.6.
Rom. xi. 29. Heb. vi. 17, 18. James i. 17, &c. Closely-
connected with this is the divine Veracity; for he who never
changes can never, by any subsequent word or deed, con¬
tradict what he has already said ; compare Numb, xxiii. 19.
Ps. xxxiii. 4. Isa. xlvi. 9,10. Rom. iii. 3—5. 2Cor. i. 18—
20. Tit. i. 2, &c.
Obs. See Zanehii De Natura Dei sive Divinis Attributis lib. v.
Charnock on the Divine Attr butes.
Sect. VI.—Of the Reverence due to the Deity.
From the short view that we have taken of the divine
perfections, it is evidently our duty to reverence, in our
minds, the self-existent Being to whom they belong. This
is, indeed, not only a duty, but a duty of which no man who
contemplates these perfections, and believes them to be real,
can possibly avoid the performance. He who thinks irre¬
verently of the Author of nature, can never have consider¬
ed seriously the power, the wisdom, and the goodness display-
edin his works; for whoever has a clear notion of these must be
convinced,that he who performed them has no imperfection;
that his power can accomplish every thing which involves not
a contradiction ; that his knowledge is intuitive, and free
from the possibility of error; and that his goodness emends to
all without partiality and without any alloy of selfish design.
This conviction must make every man, on whose mind it is
impressed, ready to prostrate himself in the dust before the
Author of his being ; who, though infinitely exalted above
him, is the source of all his enjoyments, constantly watches
over him with paternal care, and protects him from num¬
berless dangers. The sense of so many benefits must ex¬
cite in his mind a sense of the liveliest gratitude to him from
whom they are received, and an ardent wish for their con¬
tinuance.
While silent gratitude and devotion thus glow in the
breast of the contemplative man, he.will be careful not to
form even a mental image of that all-perfect Being to whom
they are directed. He knows that God is not material;
that he exists in a manner altogether incomprehensible;
that to frame an image of him would be to assign limits to
what is infinite ; and that to attempt to form a positive con¬
ception of him would be impiously to compare himselfwith
his Maker.
The man who has any tolerable notion of the perfections
of the Supreme Being will never speak lightly of him, or
make use of his name except on great and solemn occa¬
sions. He knows that the terms of all languages are inade¬
quate and improper, when applied directly to him who has
THEOLOGY.
no equal, and to whom nothing can be compared ; and
therefore he will employ these terms with caution. When
he speaks of his mercy and compassion, he will not consi¬
der them as feelings wringing the heart like the mercy and
compassion experienced by man, but as rays of pure and
disinterested benevolence. When he thinks of the stupen¬
dous system of nature, and hears it perhaps said that God
formed it for his own glory, he will reflect that God is so
infinitely exalted above all his creatures, and so perfect in
himself that he can neither take pleasure in their applause,
nor receive any accession of any kind from the existence of
ten thousand worlds. The immense fabric of nature, there¬
fore, only displays the glory or perfections of its Author to
us, and to other creatures who have not faculties to compre¬
hend him in himself.
When the contemplative man talks of serving God, he
does not dream that his services can increase the divine fe¬
licity ; but means only that it is his duty to obey the divine
laws. Even the pronoun He, when it refers to God, cannot
be of the same import as when it refers to man; and by the
philosophical divine it will seldom be used but with a men¬
tal allusion to this obvious distinction.
As the man who daily venerates the Author of his being
will not speak of him on trivial occasions, so will he be still
further from calling upon him to witness impertinences and
falsenood. (See Oath). He will never mention his name
but with a pause, that he may have time to reflect in silence
on his numberless perfections, and on the immense distance
between himself and the Being of whom he is speaking.
The slightest reflection will convince him that the world,
with all that it contains, depends every moment on that
God who formed it; and this conviction will compel him
to wish for the divine protection of himself and his friends
from all dangers and misfortunes. Such a wish is in effect
a prayer, and will always be accompanied with adoration,
confession, and thanksgiving. (See Prayer). But adora¬
tion, confessions, supplications, and thanksgiving constitute
what is called worship, and therefore the worship of God is
a natural duty. It is the addressing of ourselves as his de¬
pendants to him as the supreme cause and governor of the
world, with acknowledgments of what we enjoy, and petitions
for what we really want, or he knows to be convenient for
us.
Obs. See Wollaston’s Religion of Nature delineated.
Part II.—Doctrines concerning Man.
Sect. I.— Of the Original State of Man.
In the Mosaic account of the creation we are told that
“ God created man in his own image ; in the image of God
created he him ; male and female created he them,” Gen.
i* 27. In these words we have a description of the nature
ot man as he came at first from the hands of his Creator,
into the proper meaning of which it is of great importance
that we should inquire.
The answer to this inquiry depends upon the meaning
we attach to the words “ in the image of God;” for it is by
that phrase, that the peculiarity of man’s nature, and his
pre-eminence over the brutes, is marked. Now, this image
or likeness must have been found either in his body alone,
his soul alone, or in both united. That it could not be in
his body alone, is obvious ; for the infinite and omnipotent
God is allowed by all men to be without body, parts, or
passions, and therefore to be such as nothing corporeal can
possibly resemble.
It this likeness is to be found in the human soul, it comes
to be a question in what faculty or power of the soul it con¬
sists. home have contended, that man is the only creature
on this earth who is animated by a principle essentially dif¬
ferent from matter; and hence they have inferred, that he
211
is said to have been formed in the Divine image, on account Theology,
of the immateriality of that vital principle which was in-v^fcY^*w
fused into his body when “ the Lord God breathed into
his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living
soul,” (Gen. ii. 7.) That this account of the animation of
the body of man indicates a superiority of the human soul
to the vital principle of all other animals, cannot, we think,
be questioned; but it does not therefore follow, that the hu¬
man soul is the only immaterial principle of life which ani¬
mates any terrestrial creature. It has been shewn else¬
where (see Metaphysics), that the power of sensation, at¬
tended with individual consciousness, as it appears to be in
all the higher species of animals, cannot result from any
organical structure, or be the quality of a compound extend¬
ed being. The vital principle in such animals, therefore,
must be immaterial as well as the human soul; but as the
word immaterial denotes only a negative notion, the souls of
men and brutes, though both immaterial, may yet be sub¬
stances essentially different. This being the case, it is plain
that the Divine image in which man was formed, and by
which he is distinguished from the brute creation, cannot con¬
sist in the mere circumstance of his mind being a substance
different from matter, but in some positive quality which
distinguishes him from every other creature on this globe.
About this characteristic quality various opinions have
been formed. By Calvinists it is generally supposed, “ that
the image of God in Adam appeared in that rectitude,
righteousness, and holiness, in which he was made ; for
God made man upright (Eccles. vii. 2), a holy and right¬
eous creature; which holiness and righteousness were in
their kind perfect; his understanding was free from all
error and mistakes ; his will biased to that which is good;
his affections flowed in a right channel towards their pro¬
per objects ; there were no sinful notions and evil thoughts
in his heart, nor any propensity or inclination to that which
is evil ; and the whole of his conduct and behaviour was
according to the will of God. And this righteousness (say
they) was natural, and not personal and acquired. It was
not obtained by the exercise of his free-will, but was creat¬
ed with him, and belonged to his mind, as a natural faculty
or instinct.” Gill’s Body of Divinity, b. iii. eh. 3. They,
therefore, call it original righteousness, and suppose that it
was lost in the fall.
To this doctrine many objections have been made. It
has been said that righteousness consisting in right actions
proceeding from proper principles, could not be created
with Adam and make a part of his nature; because nothing
which is produced in a man, without his knowledge and con¬
sent, can be in him either virtue or vice. Adam, it is add¬
ed, was unquestionably placed in a state of trial, which
proves that he had righteous habits to acquire; whereas the
doctrine under consideration, affirming his original righte¬
ousness to have been perfect, and therefore incapable of im¬
provement, is inconsistent with a state of trial. That his
understanding was free from all errors and mistakes, has
been thought a blasphemous position, as it attributes to man
one of the incommunicable perfections of the Deity. It is
likewise believed to be contrary to fact; for either his un¬
derstanding was bewildered in error, or his affections flow¬
ed towards an improper object, when he suffered himself, at
the persuasion of his wife, to transgress the express law of
his Creator. The objector expresses his wonder at its hav¬
ing ever been supposed that the whole of Adam’s conduct
and behaviour was according to the will of God, when it is
so notorious that he yielded to the first temptation with
which, as far as we know, he was assailed in Paradise.
Convinced by these and other arguments, that the image
of God, in which man was created, could not consist in
original righteousness, or in exemption from all possibility
of error, many learned men, and Bishop Bull (English
Works, vol. iii.) among others, have supposed, that by the
image of God is to be understood certain gifts and powers
supernaturally infused by the Holy Spirit into the minds of
our first parents, to guide them in the ways of piety and
virtue. This opinion they rest chiefly upon the authority
of Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Athanasius, and
other fathers of the primitive church ; but they think, at
the same time, that it is countenanced by several passages
in the New Testament. Thus when St. Paul says, (1 Cor.
xv. 45, 46,) “ and so it is written, the first man Adam
was made a living soul, the last Adam was made a quicken¬
ing spiritthey understand the whole passage as relating
to the creation of man, and not as drawing a comparsion
between Adam and Christ, to show the great superiority of
the latter over the former. In support of this interpretation
they observe, that the apostle immediately adds, “ howbeit,
that was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural,
and afterwards that which is spiritualan addition which they
think was altogether needless, if, by the quickening spirit,
he had referred to the incarnation of Christ, which had
happened in the very age in which he was writing. They
are therefore of opinion, that the body of Adam, after being
formed of the dust of the ground, was first animated by a
vital principle, endowed with the faculties of reason and
sensation, which entitled the whole man to the appellation
of a living soul. After this, they suppose certain graces of
the Holy Spirit to have been infused into him, by which he
was made a quickening spirit, or formed in the image of
God ; and that it was in consequence of this succession of
powers communicated to the same person, that the apostle
said, “ howbeit, that wras not first which is spiritual, but that
which is natural.”
We need hardly observe that, with respect to a question
of this kind, the authority of Tatian and the other fathers
quoted is of no great weight. Those men had no better
means of discovering the true sense of the scriptures of the
Old Testament than we have ; and their ignorance of the
language in which these scriptures are written, added to
some metaphysical notions respecting the soul, which too
many of them had derived from the school of Plato, ren¬
dered them very ill qualified to interpret the writings of
Moses. Were authority to be admitted, we should con¬
sider that of Bishop Bull and his modern followers as
of greater weight than the authority of all the ancients
to whom they appeal. But authority cannot be admitted ;
and the reasoning of this learned and excellent man, from
the text of St. Paul, is surely very inconclusive. It makes
two persons of Adam ; a first, when he was a natural man,
composed of a body and a reasonable soul; a second, when
he was endowed with the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and by
them formed in the image of God. In the verse following,
the apostle expressly calls the second man, of whom he
had been speaking, “ the Lord from heaven but this ap¬
pellation we apprehend to be too high for Adam in the
state of greatest perfection in which he ever existed. That
our first parents were endowed with the gifts of the Holy
Ghost may be granted ; but as these gifts were adventiti¬
ous to their nature, they could not be that image in which
God made man.
Since man was made in the image of God, that phrase,
whatever be its precise import, must denote something pe-
culiar and at the same time essential to human nature; but
the only two qualities at once natural and peculiar to man
are his shape and his reason. As none but an anthropomor-
phite will say that it was Adam’s shape which reflected this
image of his Creator, it has been concluded that it was the
faculty of reason which made the resemblance. To give
strength to this argument, it is observed by Warburton,
(Divine Leg., book ix.) that when God says, “ let us make
man in our image,” he immediately adds, “ and let them
have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl
of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth
but as many of the cattle have much greater bodily strength Theoi0!,
than man, this dominion could not be maintained but by the
faculty of reason bestowed upon him and withheld from
them.
If the image of God was impressed only on the mind of
man, this reason seems to be conclusive ; but it has been
well observed by Gill, (Body of Divinity, book iii. chap. 3,)
that it was the whole man, and not the soul alone, or the
body alone, that is said to have been formed in the divine
image ; even as the whole man, soul and body, is the seat
of the new and spiritual image of God in regeneration and
sanctification “ The very God of peace,” says the apostle,
“ sanctify you wholly ; and may your whole spirit, soul, and
body, be preserved blameless to the coming of our Lord
Jesus Christ.” It is worthy of notice, that the reason as¬
signed for the prohibition of murder to Noah and his sons
after the deluge, is, that man was made in the image of God.
“ Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be
shed ; for in the image of God made he man.” These
texts seem to indicate, that whatever be meant by the
image of God, it was stamped equally oh the soul and on
the body. In vain it is said that man cannot resemble God
in shape. This is true, but it is little to the purpose ; for
man does not resemble God in his reasoning faculty more
than in his form. It would be idolatry to suppose the su¬
preme majesty of heaven and earth to have a body or a
shape; and it would be little short of idolatry to imagine
that he is obliged to compare ideas and notions together ; to
advance from particular truths to general propositions ; and
to acquire knowledge, as we do, by the tedious processes
of inductive and syllogistic reasoning. There can, there¬
fore, be no direct image of God either in the soul or in the
body of man ; and the phrase really seems to import no¬
thing more than those powers or qualities by which man
was fitted to exercise dominion over the inferior creation ;
as if it had been said, “ Let us make man in our image,
after our likeness, that they may have dominion,” &c. But
the erect form of man contributes, in some degree, as well
as his rational powers, to enable him to maintain his autho¬
rity over the brute creation ; for it has been observed by
travellers, that the fiercest beast of prey, unless ready to
perish by hunger, shrinks back from a steady look of the
human face divine.
By Dr. Gill and other writers, who have admitted the
probability of this interpretation, another has been devised
of the expression that man wras formed in the image of God.
All the members of Christ’s body, say they, w ere written
and delineated in the book of God’s purposes and decrees,
and had an ideal existence from eternity in the divine
mind ; and therefore the body of Adam might be said to
be formed after the image of God, because it was made ac¬
cording to that idea. But to this reasoning objections may
be urged, which we know not how to answer. All things
that ever were or ever shall be, the bodies of us who
live at present, as well as the bodies of those who lived
5000 years ago, have from eternity had an ideal existence
in the Divine mind; nor in this sense can one be said to
be prior to another. It could not, therefore, be after the
idea of the identical body of Christ that the body of Adam
was formed ; for in the Divine mind ideas of both bodies
were present together from eternity, and each body was
formed after the ideal archetype of itself. It may be add¬
ed, likewise, that the body of Christ was not God, nor
the idea of that body the idea of God. Adam, therefore,
could not, with propriety, be said to have been formed in
the image of God, if, by that phrase, nothing more were in¬
tended than the resemblance between his body and the
body of Christ. These objections to this interpretation ap¬
pear to us unanswerable; but w e mean not to dictate to our
readers. Every man will adopt that opinion which he
thinks supported by the best arguments ; but it is obvious,
LOGY. 213
pear willing enough to allow that the punishments with Theology,
which natural religion is armed against vice must be only w-y-'W
of a temporary duration, because reason, say they, is ready
to revolt at the thought of everlasting punishment.
This opinion, which confounds natural with revealed re¬
ligion, giving to the former an important truth which be¬
longs exclusively to the latter, has been so ably confuted
by Warburton, (Div. Leg. b. ix.) that we shall submit his
arguments to our readers in preference to any thing which
we ourselves can give.
“ If reason doth, on the one hand, seem to revolt at ever¬
lasting punishment, we must confess that fancy, on the
other, (even when full plumed by vanity'), hath scarcely
force enough to rise to the idea of infinite rewards. How
the heart of man came to consider this as no more than an
adequate retribution for his right conduct during the short
trial of his virtue here, would be hard to tell, did we not
know what monsters pride begot of old upon pagan philo¬
sophy; and how much greater still these latter ages have
disclosed, by the long incubation of school-divinity upon
folly. What hath been urged from natural reason, in sup¬
port of this extravagant presumption, is so very slender,
that it recoils as you enforce it. First, you say, ‘ that the
soul, the subject of these eternal rewards, being immate¬
rial, and so, therefore, unaffected by the causes which bring
material things to an end, is, by its nature, fitted for eter¬
nal rewards.’ This is an argument ad ignorantiam, and
holds no farther. Because an immaterial being is not sub¬
ject to that mode of dissolution which affects material sub¬
stances, you conclude it to be eternal. This is going too
fast. There may be, and probably are, many natural causes
(unknown indeed to us) whereby immaterial beings come
to an end. But if the nature of things cannot, yet God
certainly can, put a final period to such a being when it
hath served the purpose of its creation. Doth annihila¬
tion impeach that wisdom and goodness which was display¬
ed when God brought it out of nothing ? Other immate¬
rial beings there are, viz., the souls of brutes, which have
the same natural security with man for their existence, of
whose eternity we never dream. But pride, as the poet
observes, calls God unjust,
T H E O
that whatever more may be meant by the image of God in
which man was made, the phrase undoubtedly comprehends
all those powers and qualities by which he is enabled to
maintain his authority over the inferior creation. Among
these the faculty of reason is confessedly the most impor¬
tant ; for it is by it that man is capable of being made ac¬
quainted with the Author of his being, the relation which
subsists between them, and the duties implied in that re¬
lation from the creature to the Creator.
Sect. II—Of the Religion of Man in his Primeval State.
It is more than probable that man, after his creation, was
not left to discern, by the efforts of his own unassisted rea¬
son, either his own character or the duties which devolved
upon him towards God. This opinion is confirmed by what
the inspired historian tells us, when he says, Gen. ii., “ God
blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because that in it
he had rested from all his works which he had created and
made for Adam could not have understood what was
meant by the sanctification of a particular day, or of any
thing else, unless he had previously received some religious
instruction. There cannot therefore be a doubt, but that,
as soon as man was made, his Creator communicated to
him the truths of what is called natural religion ; and to
these were added the precept to keep holy the Sabbath-day,
and set it apart for the purposes of contemplation and wor¬
ship.
This was a very wise institution, as all the divine institu¬
tions must be. “ The great end for which we are brought
into life, is to attain the knowledge and be confirmed in
the love of God. This includes obedience to his will in
thought, word, and deed, or that course of conduct which
can alone make us happy here, and fit us for everlasting
glory hereafter. But of these things we cannot retain a
proper sense without close and repeated application of
thought; and the unavoidable cares and concerns of the pre¬
sent life occupying much of our attention, it is, in the nature
of things, necessary that some certain portion of time should
be appropriated to the purposes of religious instruction and
the public adoration of our Creator, in whom we all live, and
move, and have our being.” Hence a very learned divine,
Dr. Taylor of Norwich, has inferred, that though the parti¬
cular time is a matter of positive appointment, the observa¬
tion of a sabbath, in general, is a duty of natural religion,
as having its foundation in the reason of things. See Sab¬
bath.
Man, therefore, in his natural and original state was a
rational and religious being, bound to do “ justice, to love
mercy, to walk humbly with his God, and to keep holy the
Sabbath-day.”
In this original state, man was under the discipline of what
we have called natural religion, entitled to happiness while
he should perform the duties required of him, and liable to
punishment when he should neglect those duties, or trans¬
gress the law of his nature as a rational and moral agent.
This being the case, it is a matter of some importance, to
ascertain, if we can, what the rewards and punishments are
which natural religion holds out to her votaries.
That under every dispensation of religion the pious and
virtuous man shall enjoy more happiness than misery; and
that the incorrigibly wicked shall have a greater portion of
misery than happiness, are truths which cannot be contro¬
verted by any one who admits that the Almighty gover¬
nor of the universe is a Being of wisdom, goodness, and
justice. But respecting the rewards of virtue and the
punishment of vice, more than these general truths seems
not to be taught by natural religion. Many divines, how¬
ever, of great learning and worth, have thought otherwise,
and have contended, that from the nature of things, the re¬
wards bestowed by an infinite God upon piety and virtue
must be eternal like their author. These men, indeed, ap-
If man alone engross not heaven’s high care;
Alone made perfect here, immortal there.
However, let us (for argument’s sake) allow the human soul
to be unperishable by nature, and secured in its existence
by the unchangeable will of God, and see what will follow
from thence—An infinite reward for virtue during one mo¬
ment of its existence, because reason discovers that, by the
law of nature, some reward is due ? By no means. When
God hath amply repaid us for the performance of our duty,
will he be at a loss how to dispose of us for the long remain¬
der of eternity? May he not find new and endless employ¬
ment for reasonable creatures, to which, when properly dis¬
charged, new rewards, and in endless succession, will be
assigned ? Modest reason seems to dictate this to the fol¬
lowers of the law of nature. The flattering expedient of
eternal rewards for virtue here was invented in the
simplicity of early speculation, after it had fairly brought
men to conclude that the soul is immaterial.
“Another argument urged for the eternity of the rewards
held out by natural religion, to the practice of piety and
virtue, is partly physical and partly moral. The merit of
service (say the admirers of that religion) increases in pro¬
portion to the excellence of that Being to whom our ser¬
vice is directed and becomes acceptable. An infinite
being, therefore, can dispense no rewards but what are in¬
finite. And thus the virtuous man becomes entitled to im¬
mortality.
“ The misfortune is, that this reasoning holds equally on
the side of the unmerciful doctors, as they are called, who doom
%
214
THEOLOGY.
Theology, the wicked to everlasting punishment. Indeed, were
* this the only discredit under which it labours, the merciless
doctors would hold themselves little concerned. But the
truth is, that the argument from infinity proves just nothing.
To make it of any force, both the parties should be infinite.
This inferior emanation of God’s image, man, should either
be supremely good or supremely bad, a kind of deity or a
kind of devil. But these reasoners, in their attention to the
divinity, overlook the humanity, which makes the decrease
keep pace with the accumulation, till the rule of logic, that
the conclusion follows the weaker part, comes in to end the
dispute.”
These arguments seem to prove unanswerably, that im¬
mortality is not essential to any part of the compound being
man, and that it cannot be claimed as a reward due to his
virtue. It is not, indeed, essential to any created being, for
what has not existence of itself, cannot of itself have perpe¬
tuity of existence (see Metaphysics) ; and as neither man
nor angel can be profitable to God, they cannot claim from him
any thing as a debt. Both, indeed, as moral agents, have
duties prescribed to them ; and while they faithfully perform
those duties, they have all the security which can arise from
the perfect benevolence of him who brought them into ex¬
istence, that they shall enjoy a sufficient portion of happi¬
ness to make that existence preferable to non-existence;
but reason and philosophy furnish no data from which it can
be inferred that they shall exist for ever. Man is partly
composed of perishable materials. However perfect Adam
may be thought to have been when he came first from the
hands of his Creator, his body, as formed of the dust of the
ground, must have been naturally liable to decay and dis¬
solution. His soul, indeed, was of a more durable substance;
but as it was formed to animate his body, and had no prior
conscious existence, it is not easy to conceive what should
have led him, under an equal providence, where rewards and
punishments were exactly distributed, to suppose that one
part of him should survive the other.
Gen. i. 29, with Gen. ii. 16, 17. In the first of these pas- Thed
sages God gives to man, immediately after his creation,
“ every herb bearing seed which was upon the face of all
the earth, and every tree, without exception, in which was
the fruit of a tree bearing seed : to him he said it should be
for meat.” In the second, “ he commanded the man, say¬
ing, of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat; but
of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt noteat
of it; for in the day thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely
die.” When the first grant of food was given, Adam and
his wife must have been where no tree of knowledge grew,
and they must have been intended to live at least so long in
that state as that they should have occasion for food, other¬
wise the formal grant of it would have been not only super¬
fluous, but apt to mislead them with respect to the subse¬
quent restriction.
In Paradise Adam was placed under a new law, and by
the grace of God assured of a supernatural and eternal re¬
ward in case of perfect obedience. “ And the Lord God,”
says Moses, “ planted a garden eastward in Eden, and took
the man and put him in the garden to dress it and to keep
it. And the Lord God,” continues he, “commanded the man,
saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat;
but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil thou shalt
not eat of it; for in the day that thou eatest thereof, thou
shalt surely die,” (Gen. ii. 8, 15, 16, 17.) Here is no men¬
tion made of the laws of piety and moral virtue resulting
from the relations in which the various individuals of the
human race stand to each other, and in which all his crea¬
tures stand to God, their Almighty and beneficent Creator.
With these laws Adam was already well acquainted ; and he
must have been sensible, that as they were founded in his
nature, no subsequent law could dispense with their obliga¬
tion. They have been equally binding on all men in every
state and under every dispensation ; and they will continue
to be so as long as the general practice of justice, mercy,
and piety, shall contribute to the sum of human happiness.
The new law peculiar to his paradisaical state was the com¬
mand not to eat of the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil. This was a positive precept, not founded in
the nature of man, but very proper to be the test of his
obedience to the will of his Creator. The laws of piety and
virtue are sanctioned by nature, or by that general system
of rules according to which God governs the physical and
moral worlds, and by which he has secured, in some state or
other, happiness to the pious and virtuous man, and misery
to such as shall prove incorrigibly wicked. The law re¬
specting the forbidden fruit was sanctioned by the penalty
of death denounced against disobedience ; and by the sub¬
jects of that law the nature of this penalty must have been
perfectly understood: but Christian divines, as we shall
afterwards see, have differed widely in opinion respecting
the full import of the Hebrew words which our translators
have rendered by the phrase thou shalt surely die. All how¬
ever agree that they threatened death, in the common ac¬
ceptation of the word, or the separation of the soul and
body, as one part of the punishment to be incurred by eat¬
ing the forbidden fruit; and hence we must infer, that had
the forbidden fruit not been eaten, our first parents would
never have died, because the penalty of death was denoun¬
ced against no other transgression. What, therefore, is said
respecting the fruit of the tree of knowledge, implies not
only a law but also a covenant,1 promising to man, upon the
Sect. III.—Condition of Man in Paradise.
BishopWarburton has advanced the notion that Adam, after
his creation, lived for some time under the dispensation of
simple natural religion before he was admitted into Paradise,
where he was placed under a new dispensation. (Div. Leg.
book ix. chap. 1.) To this opinion we are disposed to assent,
though not altogether in the form nor for the reasons which
the author has adduced. It appears clear from the sacred
narrative that though Adam and his wife were created on
the sixth day, they were not on that day introduced into
Paradise. After telling us that on the sixth day God finish¬
ed all his works, which he saw to be very good, and rested on
the seventh day, Moses briefly recapitulates the history of
the generations of the heavens and of the earth, gives us a
more particular account of the formation of the first man,
informing us that the “ Lord God formed him out of the
dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath
of life, when man became a living souland then proceeds
to say, (Gen. ii. 7, 8, and 15,) that the “ Lord God planted
a garden eastward in Eden, where he put the man whom he
had formed.” f rorn this short history of the first pair it
appears evident beyond dispute, that neither the man nor
the woman was formed in the garden ; and that from their
creation some time elapsed before the garden was prepared
for their reception, is likewise evident from a comparison of
wordtilf tin e'en (To ffrhe 'fou rrh‘ppii t Wey!n in Senera1’ was denominated by a word equivalent to the English
of Hippo. That the phraseology is strietlv m-^’" • 611 P*iraseo'°£y was introduced into the church by the celebrated Augustin, bishop
and absolute dominion of the one over T° v?8*1 ^ suPPose who reflects on the infinite distance between the contracting parties,
mus^hkve a rieht'efiher to furrefTto'fliVtprma^nr", l 0.,be CaPab-le of,erlteri^ int0 a tenant, in the proper sense of the word, both partied
refuse the gift of immortality oil the terms "ly'e'o OI T)(;m '• but surely Adam had no right to bargain with his Maker, or to
here meanfhy tie word e ‘7»Z „T his tat t ,0 T' The."T! ■»■>-/accurately denote what is
LOGY. 215
sively translated to some superior state, or would have ceased Theology,
to propagate their kind as soon as the earth should have
been replenished with inhabitants. He who reflects on the
promise, that, after the general resurrection, there is to be a
new heaven and a new earth, will probably embrace the latter
part of the alternative; but that part in its consequences differs
not from the former. In the new earth promised in the Chris¬
tian revelation, nothing is to dwell but righteousness. It will
therefore be precisely the same with what we conceive to
be expressed by the word heaven; and if under the first
covenant this earth was to be converted into a similar place,
where, after a certain period, men should never marry nor
be given in marriage, but enjoy what divines have called the
beatific vision, we may confidently affirm, that, had the first
covenant been faithfully observed, Adam and his posterity,
after a sufficient probation, would all have been translated
to some superior state or heaven.
To fit them for that state, the gifts of divine grace seem
to have been absolutely necessary. To them it was a state
certainly supernatural, otherwise a God of infinite wisdom
and perfect goodness would not, for a moment, have placed
them in an inferior state. But to enable any creature, es¬
pecially such a creature as man, whom an ancient philoso¬
pher has justly styled faov /junrjTiiiov, to rise above its nature,
foreign and divine aid is unquestionably requisite ; and
therefore, though we cannot persuade ourselves that the
gifts of the Holy Ghost constituted that image of God in
which man was originally made, we agree with Bishop Bull,
that these gifts were bestowed on our first parents to enable
them to fulfil the terms of the covenant under which they
were placed.
On the whole, we think it apparent from the portions of
scripture which we have examined, that Adam and Eve
were endued with such powers of body and mind as fitted
them to exercise dominion over the other animals; that
those powers constituted that image of God in which they
are said to have been formed ; that they received by imme¬
diate revelation the first principles of all useful knowledge,
and especially of that system which is usually called natural
religion ; that they lived for some time with no other reli¬
gion, entitled to the natural rewards of piety and virtue, but
all the while liable to death; that they were afterwards
translated into Paradise, where they were placed under a
new law, with the penalty of death threatened to the breach
of it, and the promise of endless life if they should faithful¬
ly observe it; and that they were endued with the gifts of
the Holy Ghost, to enable them, if not wanting to them¬
selves, to fulfil the terms of that covenant, which has been
improperly termed the covenant of works, since it flowed
from the mere grace of God, and conferred privileges on
man to which the most perfect human virtue could lay no
just claim.
T H E O
observance of one positive precept, immortality or eternal
■ life; which is not essential to the nature of any created
being, and cannot be claimed as the merited reward of the
greatest virtue or the most fervent piety.
This obvious truth will enable us to dispose of the objec¬
tions which have been sometimes brought by free-thinking
divines against the wisdom and justice of punishing so se¬
verely as by death the breach of a mere positive precept;
which, considered in itself, appears to be a precept of very
little importance. We have only to reply, that as an exemp¬
tion from death is not due either to the nature or to the vir¬
tue of man, it was wise and just to make it depend on the
observance of a positive precept, to impress on the minds
of our first parents a constant conviction, Ikit they were to
be preserved immortal, not in the ordinar^ourse of divine
providence, but by the special grace and favour of God.
The same consideration will show us the folly of those men
who are for turning all that is said of the trees of knowledge
and of life into figure and allegory. But the other trees
of which Adam and Eve were permitted to eat, were certain¬
ly real trees, or they must have perished for want of food.
And what rules of interpretation will authorise us to inter¬
pret eating and trees literally in one part of the sentence,
and figuratively in the other ? A garden in a delightful cli¬
mate is the very habitation, and the fruits produced in that
garden the very food, which we should naturally suppose
to have been prepared for the progenitors of the human
race; and though in the garden actually fitted up for this
purpose two trees were remarkably distinguished from the
rest, perhaps in situation and appearance, as well as in vflse,
the distinction was calculated to serve the best of purposes.
The one called the tree of life, of which, while they conti¬
nued innocent, they were permitted to eat, served as a sac¬
ramental pledge or assurance on the part of God, that as
long as they should observe the terms of the covenant their
life should be preserved ; the other, of which it was death
to taste, was admirably adapted to impress on their minds
the necessity of implicit obedience to the Divine will, in
whatever manner it might be made known to them.
A question of some importance has been started, What
would have finally become of men if the first covenant had
not been violated ? That they would have been all im¬
mortal is certain ; but it is by no means clear that they
would have lived for ever on this earth. On the contrary,
it has been an article of very general belief in all ages of
i the church, (See Bull's State of Man before the Fall,) that
the garden of Eden was an emblem or type of heaven, and
therefore called Paradise (see Paradise) ; and that under
the first covenant, mankind, after a sufficient probation here,
were to be translated into heaven without tasting death.
This doctrine is not indeed explicitly taught in Scripture;
but many things conspire to make it highly probable. The
frequent communications between God and man before the
fall,1 seem to indicate that Adam was training up for some
i higher state than the terrestrial paradise. Had he been in-
j tended for nothing but to cultivate the ground and propa-
' gate his species, he might have been left like other animals
to the guidance of his own reason and instincts ; which, after
the rudiments of knowledge were communicated to him,
must surely have been sufficient to direct him to everything
necessary to the comforts of a life merely sensual and ra¬
tional, otherwise he would have been but an imperfect ani¬
mal. It is obvious too, that this earth, however fertile it
may have originally been, could not have afforded the means
of subsistence to a race of immortal beings multiplying to
infinity. For these reasons, and others which will readily
occur to the reader, it seems incontrovertible, that under
the first covenant, either mankind would have been succes-
Sect. IV.—Of the Fall of Man.
From the preceding account of the primeval state of man,
it is evident that his continuance in the tenestrial paradise,
together with all the privileges which he there enjoyed,
were made to depend on his observance of one positive pre¬
cept. Every other duty incumbent on him, whether as re¬
sulting from what is called the law of his nature, or from
the express command of his God, was as much his duty be¬
fore as after he was introduced into the garden of Eden ;
and though the transgression of any law would undoubt¬
edly have been punished, it does not appear that a breach
of the moral law, or of the commandment respecting the
sanctification of the Sabbath-day, would have been pu¬
nished with death, whatever may be the import of that
word in the place where it is first threatened. The
1 That there were such frequent communications, has been shown to be in the highest degree probable, by the late Dr. Law, bishop of
Carlisle. See his Discourses on the several Dispensations of Revealed Religion.
THEOLOGY.
216
Theology, punishment was denounced only against eating the fruit
the tree of the knowledge of good and evil: For
“ the Lord commanded the man saying, Of every tree
of the garden thou mayest freely eat, but of the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil thou shalt not eat of it; for in
the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.” To
the word death in this passage divines have affixed many and
different meanings. By some it is supposed to import a
separation of the soul and body, while the latter was to con¬
tinue in a state of conscious existence; by others, it is
taken to imply annihilation, or a state without conscious¬
ness ; by some, it is imagined to signify eternal life in tor¬
ments ; and by others a spiritual and moral death, or a state
necessarily subject to sin. In any one of these accepta¬
tions it denoted something new to Adam, which he could
not understand without an explanation of the term ; and
therefore, as it was threatened as the punishment of only
one transgression, it could not be the divine intention to
inflict it on any other.
The abstaining from a particular fruit in the midst of a
garden abounding with fruits of all kinds, was a precept
which at first view appears of easy observation ; and the
penalty threatened against the breach of it was, in every
sense, awful. The precept, however, wras broken notwith¬
standing that penalty ; and though we may thence infer that
our first parents were not beings of such absolute perfec¬
tion as by divines they have sometimes been represented,
we shall yet find, upon due consideration, that the tempta¬
tion by which they were seduced, when taken with all its
circumstances, was such as no wise and modest man will
think himself able to have resisted. The short history of
this important transaction we have in the third chapter of
the book of Genesis, ver. 1-6.
To our readers, on referring to this passage, the conver¬
sation between the serpent and the woman must appear to
begin abruptly; and indeed it is not possible to reconcile it with
the natural order of a dialogue, or even with the common
rules of grammar, but by supposing the tempter’s question,
“Yea, hath God said, ye shall not eat of every tree of the
garden ?” to have been suggested by something immediately
preceding either in words or in significant signs. Eve had
undoubtedly by some means or other informed the serpent
that she was forbidden to eat of the fruit on which he was
probably feasting; and that information, whether given in
words or in actions, must have produced the question with
which the sacred historian begins his relation of this fatal
dialogue. We are told that the woman saw that the tree
was good for food; that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a
tree to be desired to make one tuise; but all this she could
not have seen, had not the serpent eaten of its fruit in her
presence. In her walks through the garden, it might have
often appeared pleasant to her eyes ; but previously to expe¬
rience she could not know but that its fruit was the most
deadly poison, far less could she conceive it capable of con¬
ferring wisdom. But if the serpent ate of it before her, and
then extolled its virtues in rapturous and intelligible lan¬
guage, she would at once see that it was not destructive of
animal life, and naturally infer that it had very singular
qualities. At the moment she was drawing this inference,
it is probable that he invited her to partake of the delicious
fruit, and that her refusal produced the conference before
us. That she yielded to his temptation, need excite no
wonder; for she knew that the serpent was by nature a
brute animal, and if he attributed his speech to the virtues
of a tree, she might infer, with some plausibility, that what
had power to raise the brute mind to human, might raise
the human to divine, and make her and her husband, ac¬
cording to the promise of the tempter, become as gods,
knowing good and evil.
Full of these hopes of raising herself to divinity, and not,
as has sometimes been supposed, led headlong by a sensual
appetite, she took of the fruit and did eat, and gave to her TheoU,
husband with her, and he did eat. ^V\
Sect. V.—Immediate Consequences of Adam's Transgres¬
sion and Fall.
The covenant, which, on the introduction of our first pa¬
rents into Paradise, their Creator was graciously pleased to
make with them, having been broken by their violation of
the condition on which they were advanced to that super¬
natural state, the historian tells us, that “ lest they should
put forth their hand and take also of the tree of life and eat,
and live for ever, the Lord God sent them forth from the
garden of Eden, to till the ground from whence they were
taken.” Had they been so sent forth without any farther
intimation respecting their present condition or their future
prospects, and if the death under which they had fallen was
only a loss of consciousness, they would have been in pre¬
cisely the same state in which they lived before they were
placed in the garden of Eden ; only their minds must now
have been burdened with the inward sense of guilt, and
they must have known themselves to be subject to death;
of which, though not exempted from it by nature, they had
probably no apprehension till it was revealed to them in the
covenant of life which they had so wantonly broken.
God did not however send them forth thus hopeless and
forlorn from the Paradise of delights which they had so re¬
cently forfeited. He determined to punish them for their
transgression, and at the same time to give them an oppor¬
tunity of recovering more than their lost inheritance. Call¬
ing therefore the various offenders before him, and inquir¬
ing into their different degrees of guilt, he began with pro¬
nouncing judgment on the serpent in terms which implied
that there was mercy for man. “ And the Lord God said
unto the serpent, Because thou hast done this, thou art
cursed above all cattle, and above every beast of the field:
upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt thou eat all the
days of thy life ; and I will put enmity between thee and
the woman, and between thy seed and her seed: it shall
bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel.”
That this sentence has been fully inflicted on the ser¬
pent, no reasoning can be necessary to evince. Every spe¬
cies of that reptile is more hateful to man than any other
terrestrial creature ; and there is literally a perpetual war
between them and the human race. It is remarkable too,
that the head of this animal is the only part which it is safe
to bruise. His tail may be bruised, or even cut off, and he
wall turn with fury and death on his adversary ; but the
slightest stroke on the head infallibly kills him. That the
serpent, or at least the greater part of serpents, go on their
belly, every one knows ; though it is said, that in some parts
of the east, serpents have been seen with wings, and others
with feet, and that these species are highly beautiful. If
there be any truth in this story, we may suppose that these
walking and flying serpents have been suffered to retain
their original elegance, that mankind might see what the
whole race was before the curse was denounced on the
tempter of Eve ; but it is certain that most of the species
have neither wings nor feet, and that many of the most
poisonous of them live in burning deserts, where they have
nothing to eat hut the dust among which they crawl.
Obs. I. See Bochart, Hierozoicon, lib. i. cap. 4. Bruce’s Travels.
Ohs.. 2. To this degradation of the serpent, infidels have objected,
that it implies the punishment of an animal which was incapable of
guilt; but this objection is founded in thoughtlessness and ignorance.
The elegant form of any species of inferior animals adds nothing to the
happiness of the animals themselves ; the ass is probably as happy
as the horse, and the serpent that crawls as he that flies. Fine pro¬
portions attract indeed the notice of man, and tend to impress upon
his mind just notions of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator;
but surely the symmetry of the horse, or the beauty of the peacock,
is more properly displayed for this purpose, than the elegance of the
instrument employed by the enemy of mankind. The degradation
!0l
THEOLOGY.
ogf of the serpent in the presence of our first parents must have served
— the best of purposes. If they had so little reflection as not yet to
have discovered that he was only the instrument with which a more
powerful being had wrought their ruin, they would be convinced, by
the execution of this sentence, that the forbidden fruit had no power
in itself to improve the nature either of man or of beast. But it is
impossible that they could be so stupid as this objection supposes
them. doubtless knew by this time that some great and
wicked spirit had actuated the organs of the serpent; and that when
enmity was promised to be put between its seed and the seed of the
vyoman, that promise was not meant to be fulfilled by serpents occa¬
sionally biting the heels of men, and by men in return bruising the
heads of serpents. If such enmity, though it has literally taken
place, was all that was meant by this prediction, why was not Adam
directed to bruise the head of the identical serpent which had de¬
luded his wife ? If be could derive any consolation from the exer¬
cise of revenge, surely it would be greater from his revenging himself
on his own enemy, than from the knowledge that there should be a
perpetual warfare between his descendants and the breed of serpents
through all generations.
We cannot doubt but that their gracious and merciful Creator
would inform our first parents, that they had a powerful enemy;
that he was a rebellious angel capable of deceiving them in many
ways ; and that they ought therefore to be constantly on their guard
against his wiles. They must have known that they were them¬
selves animated by something different from matter ; and when they
found they were deceived by the serpent, they might surely, without
any remarkable stretch of sagacity, infer that their malignant enemy
had actuated the organs of that creature in a manner somewhat si¬
milar to that in which their own souls actuated their own bodies.
If this be admitted, the degradation of the serpent would convince
them of the weakness of the tempter when compared with their
Creator; and confirm their hopes, that since he was not able to pre¬
serve unhurt his own instrument of mischief, he should not be able
finally to prevail against them ; but that though he had bruised their
heels, the promised seed of the woman should at last bruise his
head, and recover the inheritance which they had lost. See Pro¬
phecy.
217
fections from this world, in which they were to live only for Theology,
a time; and to hope, with humble confidence, in the pro-'
mise of their God, that, upon their departure from it, they
should be received into some better state. To enable them
to wean their affections from earth, nothing could more con¬
tribute than to combine sensual enjoyment with sorrow
and lay them under the necessity of procuring their means
of subsistence by labour, hard and often fruitless. This
would daily and hourly impress upon their minds a full con¬
viction that the present world is not a place fit to be an
everlasting habitation; and they would look forward, with
pious resignation, to death, as putting a period to all their
woes. Had they indeed been furnished with no ground of
hope beyond the grave, we cannot believe that the right¬
eous Judge of all the earth would have added to the pe¬
nalty originally threatened. That penalty they would
doubtless have incurred the very day on which they fell;
but as they were promised a deliverance from the conse¬
quences of their fall, it was proper to train them up by se¬
vere discipline for the happiness reserved for them in a fu¬
ture state.
After the passing of their sentence, the man and woman
were turned out into the world, where they had formerly
lived before they were placed in the garden of Eden ; and
all future access to the garden was for ever denied them.
They were not, however, in the same state in which they
originally were before their introduction into Paradise.
They were now conscious of guilt, doomed to severe la¬
bour, liable to sorrow and sickness, disease and death.
Having thus punished the original instigator to evil, the
Almighty Judge turned to the fallen pair, and said to the
woman, “ I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy con¬
ception : in sorrow thou shaft bring forth children ; and thy
desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.
And unto Adam he said, Because thou hast hearkened unto
the voice of thy wife, and hast eaten of the tree, of which I
commanded thee, saying, Thou shaft not eat of it: cursed
is the ground for thy sake; in sorrow shaft thou eat of it
ill the days of thy life: Thorns also and thistles shall it
bring forth unto thee, and thou shaft eat the herb of the
field. In the sweat of thy face shaft thou eat bread, till thou
return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou taken: for
dust thou art, and unto dust shaft thou return.”
Here is a terrible denunciation of toil and misery and
leath upon two creatures; who, being inured to nothing,
ind formed for nothing but happiness, must have felt in-
initely more horror from such a sentence, than we, who
Te familiar with death, intimate with misery, and “ born
o sorrow as the sparks fly upward,” can form any ade-
uate conception of. The hardship of it seems to be ag¬
gravated by its being severer than what was originally
hreatened against the breach of the covenant of life. It
ras indeed^ said, “ In the day thou eatest thereof, thou shaft
urely die ; but no mention was made of the woman’s in-
urring sorrow in conception, and in the bringing forth of
hildren ; of the curse to be inflicted on the ground; of its
'ringing forth thorns and thistles instead of food for the use
f man ; and of Adam s eating bread in sorrow and the sweat
f his face till he should return to the dust from which he
Jjras taken.
j These seeming aggravations, however, are in reality in-
1 tances of divine benevolence. Adam and Eve were now
i objected to death ; but in the sentence passed on the ser-
! ent, an obscure intimation had been given them that they
ere not to remain for ever under its power. It w^as there-
>re their interest, as well as their duty, to reconcile them-
f Ives as much as possible to their fate; to wean their af-
VOL. XXI.
Sect. VI—Remoter Consequences of the Fall.
As all mankind are descended from Adam and Eve, all
have become exposed to certain penal consequences of their
transgression. It may seem indeed to detract from the
moral attributes of God, to inflict misery on children for
the sins of their parents ; but before any thing can be pro¬
nounced concerning the Divine goodness and justice in the
present case, we must know precisely how much we suffer
in consequence of Adam’s transgression, and whether we
have ourselves any share in that guilt which is the cause of
our sufferings.
That women would have had less sorrow in the bringing
forth of children ; that we should have been subjected to
less toil, and exempted from death, had our first parents
not fallen from their paradisaical state, are truths incontro¬
vertible by him who believes the inspiration of the holy
Scriptures ; but that mankind would in that state have been
wholly free from pain and every bodily distress, is a propo¬
sition which is not to be found in the Bible, and which
therefore no man is bound to believe. The bodies of Adam
and Eve consisted of flesh, blood, and bones, as ours do ;
they were surrounded by material objects as we are ; and
their limbs were unquestionably capable of being fractured.
That their souls should never be separated from their bo¬
dies while they abstained from the forbidden fruit, they
knew from the infallible promise of him who formed them,
and breathed into their nostrils the breath of life ; but that
not a bone of themselves or of their numerous posterity
should ever be broken by the fall of a stone or of a tree,
they were not told, and had no reason to expect. Of such
fractures, pain would surely have been the consequence ;
though we have reason to believe that it would have been
quickly removed by some infallible remedy, probably by
the fruit of the tree of life. J
Perhaps it may be said, that if we suppose our first pa¬
rents or their children to have been liable to accidents of
this kind in the garden of Eden, it will be difficult to con¬
ceive how they could have been preserved from death, as
a stone might have fallen on their heads as well as on their
feet, and have at once destroyed the principle of vitality.
But this can be said only by him who knows little of the
2 E
218
THEOLOGY
Theology, physical world, and still less of the power of God. There
'are many animals which are susceptible of pain, and
easily killed; and man in Paradise might have resembled
these. At any rate, we are sure that the omnipotent Crea¬
tor could and would have preserved him from death ; but
we have no reason to believe that, by a constant miracle,
he would have preserved him from every kind of pain. In¬
deed, if, under the first covenant, mankind were m a state
of probation, it is certainly conceivable that some one indi¬
vidual of the numerous race might have fallen into sin,
without actually breaking the covenant by eating the truit
of the tree of knowledge ; and such a sinner would un¬
doubtedly have been punished by that God who is of purer
eyes than to behold iniquity; but how punishment could
have been inflicted on a being exempted from all possibi¬
lity of pain as well as of death, we confess ourselves unable
to imagine. Remorse, which is the inseparable consequence
of guilt, and constitutes in our present state great part of
its punishment, flows from the fearful looking for of judg¬
ment, which the sinner knows shall, in a future state, ue-
vour the adversaries of the gospel of Christ; but he, who
could neither suffer pain nor death, had no cause to be
afraid of future judgment, and was therefore not liable to
the tortures of remorse. We conclude, therefore, that it
is a mistake to suppose pain to have been introduced into
the world by the fall of our first parents, or at least that the
opinion contrary to ours has no foundation in the word of
God.
Death, however, was certainly introduced by their fall ;
for the inspired apostle assures us, that in Adam all die,
(Cor. xv. 22) ; and again, that through the. offence of one
many are dead, (Rom. v. 15.) But concerning the full
import of the word death in this place, and in the sentence
pronounced upon our first parents, divines hold opinions
extremely different. ManyT contend, that it includes death
corporal, spiritual or moral, and eternalj and that all man¬
kind are subjected to these three kinds of death, on account
of their share in the guilt of the original transgression,
which is usually denominated original sin, and considered
as the source of moral evil.
That all men are subjected to death corporal in conse¬
quence of Adam’s transgression, is universally admitted;
but that they are in any sense partakers of his guilt, and on
that account subjected to death spiritual and eternal, has
been very strenuously denied. To discover the truth is of
great importance; for it is intimately connected with the
Christian doctrine of redemption. We shall therefore
state, with as much impartiality as we can, the arguments
commonly urged on each side of this much agitated ques¬
tion.
Those who maintain that all men sinned in Adam, gene¬
rally state their doctrine thus : “ The covenant being made
with Adam as a public person, not for himself only, but for
his posterity, all mankind descending from him by ordinary
generation, sinned in him, and fell with him in that first
transgression ; whereby they are deprived of that original
righteousness in which he was created, and are utterly in¬
disposed, disabled, and made opposite to all that is spiri¬
tually good, and wholly inclined to all evil, and that conti¬
nually ; which is commonly called original sin, and from
which do proceed all actual transgressions, so as we are by
nature children of wrath, bond-slaves to Satan, and justly
liable to all punishments in this world and in that which is
to come, even to everlasting separation from the comfort¬
able presence of God, and to most grievous torments in
soul and body, without intermission, in hell-fire for ever.”
What in this passage we are first to examine, is the sen¬
tence which affirms all mankind descending from Adam
by ordinary generation, to have sinned in him and fallen
with him in his first transgression ; the truth of which is at¬
tempted to be proved by various texts of holy Scripture.
Thus, St. Paul says expressly, that “ by one man sin en- Theolop,
tered into the world, and death by sin ; and so death pass-
ed upon all men, for that all have sinned. But not as the
offence, so also is the free gift. For if, through the offence
of one many be dead, much more the grace of God, and
the gift °f grace, which is by one man, Jesus Clnist, hath
abounded unto many ; and not as it was by one that sinned,
so is the gift (for the judgment was by one unto condemna¬
tion)-, but the free gift is of many offences unto justifica¬
tion. For if, by one man’s offence, death reigned by one;
much more they, who receive the abundance of grace and
of the gift of righteousness, shall reign in life by one, Jesus
Christ. Therefore as by the offence of one, judgment came
upon all men to condemnation $ even so, by the righteous¬
ness of one, the free gift came upon all men to justification
of life. For as by one man’s disobedience many were made
sinnersi so byf the obedience of one shall many be made
righteous.” (Rom. v. 12, 15-20.) In this passage the
apostle assures us, that all upon whom death has passed
have sinned; but death has passed upon infants, who could
not commit actual sin. Infants therefore must have sinned
in Adam, since death has passed upon them ; for death “ is
the wages only of sin.” He tells us likewise, that by the
offence of one, judgment came upon all men to condemna¬
tion ; and therefore since the righteous Judge of heaven and
earth never condemns the innocent with the wicked, we
must conclude, that all men partake of the guilt of that of¬
fence for which judgment came upon them to condemna¬
tion. These conclusions are confirmed by his saying ex¬
pressly, that “ by one man’s disobedience many (j. e. all
mankind) were made sinners;” and elsewhere (Rom. ii. 10.
and Eph. ii. 1, 3), that “ there is none righteous, no ml
one;” and that his Ephesian converts “ were dead in tres¬
passes and sins, and were by nature children of wrath even
as others.” The same doctrine, it is said, we are taught by
the inspired writers of the Old Testament. Thus Job, ex-
postulatine; with God for bringing into judgment with him
such a creature as man, says, “ Who can bring a clean
thing out of an unclean ? Not one.” And Eliphaz, reprov¬
ing the patient patriarch for what he deemed presumption,
asks, (Job xiv. 4. and xv. 14), “ What is man that he should
be clean, or he who is born of a woman that he should be
righteous ?” From these two passages it is plain, that Job
and his unfeeling friend, though they agreed in little else,
admitted as a truth unquestionable, that man inherits from
his parents a sinful nature, and that it is impossible for any
thing born of a woman by ordinary generation ;o be right¬
eous. The Psalmist speaks the very same language, when
aknowledging his transgressions, he says, (Psalm ii. 5),
“ Behold I was shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my mo¬
ther conceive me.”
Having thus proved the fact, that all men are made sin¬
ners by Adam’s disobedience, the divines who embrace this
side of the question, proceed to inquire how they can be
partakers in guilt which was incurred so many ages before
they were born. It cannot be by imitation ; for infants,
according to them, are involved in this guilt before they be
capable of imitating any thing. Neither do they admit that
sin is by the apostle put for the consequences of sin, and
many said to be made sinners by one man’s disobedience,
because by that disobedience they were subjected to death,
which is the wages of sin. This, which they call the doc¬
trine of the Arminians, they affirm to be contrary to the
whole scope and design of the context; as it confounds to¬
gether sin and death, which are there represented, the one
as the cause, and the other as the effect. It likewise ex¬
hibits the apostle reasoning in such a manner as would, m
their opinion, disgrace any man of common sense, and much
more an inspired writer ; for then the sense of these words»
“ Death hath passed upon all men, for that all have sinned,
must be, death has passed upon all men, because it hath
THEOLOGY.
219
'be<^
for
sin
his
cor
mil
hin
del
Of
to
the
or
Ad
ini[
bee
J
tha!
mar
ofi
But
mor
the
mar
and
m
mar
is a
sinf
ofr
dati
met
act
sin
eolo;; •
passed upon all men; or, all men are obnoxious to death,
because they are obnoxious to death. The only way, there¬
fore, continue they, in which Adam’s posterity can be made
sinners through his disobedience, is by the imputation of
his disobedience to them; and this imputation is not to be
considered in a moral sense, as the action of a man com¬
mitted by himself, whether good or bad, is reckoned to
him as his own ; but in a forensic sense, as when one man’s
debts are in a legal way placed to the account of another.
Of this we have an instance in the apostle Paul, who said
to Philemon concerning Onesimus, “ If he hath wronged
thee, or oweth thee any thing, (<=\Aoyei) impute it to me,”
or place it to my account. And thus the posterity of
Adam are made sinners by his disobedience; that being
imputed to them and placed to their account, as if it had
been committed by them personally, though it was not.
Some few divines of this school are indeed of opinion,
that the phrase, “ By one man’s disobedience many were
made sinners,” means nothing more than that the posterity
of Adam, through his sin, derive from him a corrupt nature.
But though this be admitted as an undoubted truth, the
more zealous abettors of the system contend, that it is not
the whole truth. “ It is true,” say they, “ that all men are
made of one man’s blood, and that blood tainted with sin ;
and so a clean thing cannot be brought out of an unclean.
What is born of the flesh is flesh, carnal and corrupt: every
man is conceived in sin, and shapen in iniquity ; but there
is a difference between being made sinners, and becoming
sinful. The one respects the guilt, the other the pollution
of nature; the one is previous to the other, and the foun¬
dation of it. Men receive a corrupt nature from their im¬
mediate parents ; but they are made sinners, not by any
act of their disobedience, but only by the imputation of the
sin of Adam.’’
To illustrate this doctrine of imputed sin, they observe,
that the word Karea-TaOrjaav, used by the apostle, signifies
constituted in a judicial way, ordered and appointed in the
dispensation of things that so it should be; just as Christ
was made sin or a sinner by imputation, or by that consti¬
tution of God which laid upon him the sins of all his peo¬
ple, and dealt with him as if he had been the guilty person.
That this is the sense of the passage, they argue further
from the punishment inflicted on men for the sin of Adam.
The punishment threatened to that sin was death ; which
includes death corporal, moral, and eternal. Corporal death,
say they, is admitted by all to be suffered on account of the
sin of Adam ; and if so, there must be guilt, and that guilt
made over to the sufferer, which can be done only by fm-
putation. A moral death is no other than the loss of the
image of God in man, which consisted in righteousness and
holiness; and particularly it is the loss of original right¬
eousness, to which succeeded unrighteousness and unholi¬
ness. It is both a sin and a punishment for sin ; and since
it comes on all men as a punishment, it must suppose pre¬
ceding sin, which can be nothing but Adam’s disobedience,
the guilt of which is made over to his posterity by imputa¬
tion. This appears still more evident from the posterity of
Adam being made liable to eternal death in consequence
of his transgression ; for the wages of sin is death, even
death eternal, which never can be inflicted on guiltless per¬
sons. But from the passage before us we learn, that “ by
the offence of owe judgment came upon all men to condem¬
nation and therefore the guilt of that offence must be
reckoned to all men, or they could not be justly condem¬
ned for it. That Adam’s sin is imputed to his posterity, ap¬
pears not only from the words, “ by one man’s disobedience
many were made sinnersbut likewise from the opposite
clause, “ so by the obedience of one shall many be made
righteousfor the many ordained to eternal life, for whom
Christ died, are made righteous, or justified, only through
the imputation of his righteousness to them ; and therefore
it follows, that all men are made sinners only through the Theology,
imputation of Adam’s disobedience. -w1
To this doctrine it is said to be no objection that Adam’s
posterity were not in being when his sin was committed ;
for though they had not then actual being, they had yet a
virtual and representative one. They were in him both
seminally and federally, and sinned in him, (Rom. v. 12) ;
just as Levi was in the loins of Abraham, and paid in him
tithes to Melchizedec, (Heb. vii. 9, 10.) From Adam
they derive a corrupt nature; but it is only from him, as their
federal head, that they derive a share of his guilt, and are
subjected to his punishment. That he was a federal head
to all his posterity, the divines of this school think evident
from his being called a figure of Christ, (Rom. v. 14); and
the first Adam described as natural and earthly, in contra¬
distinction to Christ the second Adam, described as spiritual
and the Lord from heaven; and from the punishment
threatened against his sin being inflicted not on himself
only, but on all his succeeding offspring. He could not be
a figure of Christ, say they, merely as a man ; for all the
sons of Adam have been men as well as he, and in that
sense were as much figures of Christ as he ; yet Adam and
Christ are constantly contrasted, as though they had been
the only two men that ever existed, because they were the
only two heads of their respective offspring. He could not
be a figure of Christ on account of his extraordinary pro¬
duction ; for though both were produced in ways uncom¬
mon, yet each was brought into the world in a way pecu¬
liar to himself. The first Adam was formed of the dust of
the ground; the second, though not begotten by a man,
was born of a woman. They did not therefore resemble
each other in the manner of their formation, but in their
office as covenant-heads ; and in that alone the comparison
between them is exact.
Nor have any of the posterity of Adam, it is said, reason
to complain of such a procedure. Had he stood in his in¬
tegrity, they would have been, by his standing, partakers of
all his happiness; and therefore should not murmur at re¬
ceiving evil through his fall. If this do not satisfy, let it
be considered, that since God, in his infinite wisdom, thought
proper that men should have a head and representative, in
whose hands their good and happiness should be placed,
none could be so fit for this high station as the common pa¬
rent, made after the image of God, so w ise, so holy, just,
and good. Lastly, to silence all objections, let it be remem¬
bered, that what God gave to Adam as a federal head, re¬
lating to himself and his posterity, he gave as the Sovereign
of the universe, of whom no created being has a right to ask,
“ What dost thou ?” (See Gill’s Body of Divinity.)
Such are the consequences of Adam’s fall, and such the
doctrine of original sin, as maintained by the more rigid
followers of Calvin. That great reformer, however, was
not the author of this doctrine. It had been taught so early
as in the beginning of the fifth century, by St. Augustin,
the celebrated bishop of Hippo ; and the authority of that
father had made it more or less prevalent in both the
Greek and Roman churches long before the Reformation.
Calvin wras indeed the most eminent modern divine by
whom it has been held in all its rigour; and it consti¬
tutes one great part of that theological system, which,
from being taught by him, is now known by the name of
Calvinism.
But if it was as Sovereign of the universe that God gave
to Adam what he received in Paradise relating to himself
and his posterity, Adam could in no sense of the words be
a federal head ; because, upon this supposition, there was
no covenant. The Sovereign of the universe may unques¬
tionably dispense his benefits, or withhold them, as seems
expedient to his infinite wusdom ; and none of his subjects
or creatures can have a right to say to him, “ What dost
thou ?” But the dispensing or withholding of benefits is a
220 T H E O
Theology, transaction very different from the entering into covenants ;
and a judgment of it is to be formed on very different prin¬
ciples. Every thing around us proclaims that the Sovereign
of the universe is a being of perfect benevolence ; but, say
the disciples of the school now under consideration, the
dispensation given to Adam in Paradise was so far from be¬
ing the offspring of benevolence, that, as it is understood
by the followers of Calvin, it cannot possibly be reconciled
with the eternal laws of equity. The self-existent and all-
sufficient God might or might not have created such a be¬
ing as man ; and in either ease there would have been no
reason for the question “ What dost thou ?” But as soon
as he determined to create him capable of happiness or mi¬
sery, he would not have been either benevolent or just, if
he had not placed him in a state where, by his own exer¬
tions, he might, if he chose, have a greater share of happi¬
ness than of misery, and find his existence, upon the whole,
a blessing. They readily acknowledge, that the existence
of any created being may be of longer or shorter duration,
according to the good pleasure of the Creator; and there¬
fore they have no objection to the apostolic doctrine, that
“ in Adam all diefor immortality being not a debt, but
a free gift, may be bestowed on any terms, and with perfect
justice withdrawn when those terms are not complied with.
Between death, however, as it implies a loss of conscious¬
ness, and the extreme misery of eternal life in torments,
there is an immense difference. To death all mankind
might justly be subjected through the offence of one ; be¬
cause they had originally no claim to be exempted from it,
though that one and they too had remained for ever inno¬
cent ; but eternal life in torments is a punishment which a
God of justice and benevolence can never inflict but upon
personal guilt of the deepest die. That we can personally
have incurred guilt from a crime committed some thousands
of years before we were born, is impossible. It is indeed
a notion as contrary to reason as to common sense ; for the
apostle expressly informs us, (1 John iii. 4), “ that sin is
the transgression of some law and the sin of Adam was
the transgresion of a law which it was never in our power
either to observe or to break. Another apostle (Rom. iv.
15) assures us, that “ where no law is, there is no trans¬
gression but there is now no law, nor has been any these
five thousand years, forbidding mankind to eat of a parti¬
cular fruit; for, according to the Calvinists themselves,
(Gill’s Body of Divinity, book iii. ch. 10.) Adam had no
sooner committed his first sin, by which the covenant with
him was broken, than he ceased to be a covenant-head.
This law given him was no more ; the promise of life by it
ceased ; and its sanction, death, took place. But if this be
so, how is it possible that his unborn posterity should be
under a law which had no existence, or that they should be
in a worse state in consequence of the covenant being bro¬
ken, and its promise having ceased, than he himself was be¬
fore the covenant was first made ? He was originally a
mortal being, and was promised the supernatural gift of im¬
mortality on the single condition of his abstaining from the
fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. From that
fruit he did not abstain; but by eating it fell back into his
natural state of mortality. Thus far it is admitted that his
posterity fell with him; for they have no claim to a super¬
natural gift which he had forfeited by his transgression.
But we cannot admit, say the divines of this school, that
they fell into his guilt; for to render it possible for a man
to incur guilt by the transgression of a law, it is necessary
not only that he have it in his power to keep the law, but
also that he be capable of transgressing it by a voluntary
act. But surely no man could be capable of voluntarily
eating the forbidden fruit five thousand years before he him¬
self or his volitions existed. The followers of Calvin think
it a sufficient objection to the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion, that the same numerical body cannot be in different
LOGY.
places at the same instant of time. But this ubiquity of Theol
body, say the Remonstrants, is not more palpably absurd ^
than the supposition that a man could exert volitions before '
he or his will had any existence.
Nor will the introduction of the word imputation into
this important question remove a single difficulty. For what
is it that we mean by saying that the sin of Adam is imputed
to his posterity ? Is the guilt of that sin transferred from
him to them ? So surely thought Dr. Gill, when he said
that it is made over to them. But this is the same absur¬
dity as the making over of the sensible qualities of bread
and wine to the internal substance of the Saviour’s body
and blood. This imputation either found the posterity of
Adam guilty of his sin, or it made them so. It could not
find them guilty for the reason already assigned, as well as
because the apostle says expressly, that for the offence of
one judgment came upon all men, which would not be true
had all offended. It could not make them guilty ; for this
reason, that if there be in physics or metaphysics a single
truth self-evident, it is, that the numerical powers, actions,
or qualities of one being cannot possibly be transferred to
another, and be made its powers, actions, or qualities. Dif¬
ferent beings may in distant ages have qualities of the same
kind ; but as easily may 4 and 3 be made equal to 9, as two
beings be made to have the same identical quality. In
Scripture we nowhere read of the actions of one man being
imputed to another. “ Abraham,” we are told, “ believed in
God, and it was counted to him for righteousness but it
was his oxen faith, and not the faith of another man, that was
so counted. “ To him that worketh not, but believeth,his
faith (not another’s) is imputed for righteousness.” And of
our faith in him that raised Christ from the dead, it is said,
that “ it shall be imputed, not to our fathers or our children,
but to us for righteousness.”
When this phrase is used with a negative, not only is
the man’s own personal sin spoken of, but the non-imputa¬
tion of that sin means nothing more but that it brings not
upon the sinner condign punishment. Thus when Shemei
“ said unto David, Let not my lord impute iniquity unto
me;” it could not be his meaning that the king should not
think that he had offended; for with the same breath he
added, “ Neither do thou remember that which thy servant
did perversely, the day that my lord the king went out of
Jerusalem, that the king should take it to his heart. For
thy servant doth hnow that I have sinned? Here he plainly
confesses his sin, and declares, that by entreating the king
not to impute it to him, he wishes only that it should not
be so remembered as that the king should take it to heart,
and punish him as his perverseness deserved. When there¬
fore it is said, (2 Cor. v. 19,) that “ God was in Christ re¬
conciling die world to himself, not imputing to them their
iniquities,” the meaning is only, that for Christ’s sake, he was
pleased to exempt them from the punishment due to their
sins. In like manner, when the prophet, foretelling the
sufferings of the Messiah, says, that “ the Lord laid on him
the iniquity of us all,” his meaning cannot be, that the Lord
by imputation made his immaculate Son guilty of all the
sins that men have ever committed; for in that case it
would not be true that the “ just suffered for the unjust,”
as the apostle expressly teaches, (1 Peter iii. 28); but the
sense of the verse must be, as Bishop Coverdale translated
it, “ through him the Lord pardoneth all our sins.” This
interpretation is countenanced by the ancient version of
tie Seventy, /cat Kvpios napeStonev dvrov reus dpapnais Tjpcov:
words which express a notion very different from that of
imputed guilt. The Messiah was, without a breach of jus¬
tice, delivered for sins of which he had voluntarily offered
to pay the penalty; and St. Paul might have been justly
charged by Philemon with the debts of Onesimus, which
he desired might be placed to his account. Had the apostle,
however, expressed no such desire, surely Philemon could
ttetu
T H E O L O G V.
ipoloi. by no deed of his have made him liable for debts contracted
-Y^by another; far less could he by imputation, whatever that
™ word may mean, have made him virtually concur in the con¬
tracting of those debts. He could not have been justly sub¬
jected to suffering without his own consent; and he could
not possibly have been made guilty of the sins of those for
whom he suffered.
The doctrine of imputed guilt, therefore, as understood
by the Calvinists, is, in the opinion of their opponents, with¬
out foundation in Scripture, and contrary to the nature of
things. It is an impious absurdity, say they, to which the
mind can never be reconciled by the hypothesis, that all
men w^ere in Adam both seminally and federally, and sinned
in him, as Levi paid tithes to Melchizedec in the loins of
Abraham. 1 he apostle, when he employs that argument
to lessen in the minds of his countrymen the pride of birth
and the lofty opinions of their priesthood, plainly intimates,
that he was using a bold figure, and that Levi’s paying tithes
is not to be understood in a strict and literal sense. “ Now
consider,” says he, “how great this man was,untowhom even
the patriarch Abraham gave the tenth of the spoils. And,
1 may so say, Levi also, who receiveth tithes, paid tithes
in Abraham: for he was yet in the loins of his father when
Melchizedec met him.” This is a very good argument to
prove that the Levitical priesthood was inferior in dignity
to that of Melchizedec; and by the apostle it is employed
for no other purpose. Levi could not be greater than Abra¬
ham, and yet Abraham was inferior to Melchizedec. This
is the whole of St. Paul’s reasoning, which lends no support
to the doctrine of original sin, unless it can be shown that
Levi and all his descendants contracted from this circum¬
stance such a strong propensity to the paying of tithes, as
made it a matter of extreme difficulty for them, in every
subseqent generation, to comply with that part of the divine
law which constituted them receivers of tithes. That all
men were seminally in Adam, is granted; and it is likewise
granted that they may have derived from him, by ordinary
generation, diseased and enfeebled bodies: but it is as im¬
possible to believe that moral guilt can be transmitted from
father to son by the physical act of generation, as to con¬
ceive a scarlet colour to be a cube of marble, or the sound
of a trumpet a cannon ball. That Adam was as fit a per¬
son as any other to be entrusted with the good and happi¬
ness of his posterity, may be true; but there is no fitness
whatever, according to the Arminians, in making the ever¬
lasting happiness or misery of a whole race depend upon
the conduct of any fallible individual. “ That any man
should so represent me,” says Dr. Taylor, (Doctrine of Ori¬
ginal Sin, part iii.) “ that when he is guilty, I am to be
reputed guilty; when he trangresses, I am to be account¬
able and punishable for his transgression; and this before
I was born, and consequently before I am in any capacity
of knowing, helping, or hindering, what he doth; all this
every one who usetb his understanding must clearly see to
be false, unreasonable, and altogether inconsistent with the
truth and goodness of God.” And that no such appoint¬
ment ever bad place, he endeavours to prove, by showing
that the texts of Scripture upon which is built the doctrine
of Calvinists respecting original sin, will each admit of a
very different interpretation.
One of the strongest of these texts is Romans v. 19,
which we have already quoted, and which our author thus
explains. He observes, that the apostle was a Jew, fami¬
liarly acquainted with the Hebrew tongue; that he wrote
his epistle as well for the use of his own countrymen re¬
siding in Rome, as for the benefit of the Gentile converts;
and that though he made use of the Greek language, as
most generally understood, he frequently employed idioms.
Now it is certain that the Hebrew words riNtsn and pp,
“ sin and iniquity,” are frequently used in the Old Testa¬
ment to signify suffering, by a figure of speech which puts
221
the effect for the cause; and it is surely more probable, that Theology,
in the verse under consideration, the apostle used the cor¬
responding Greek word a/xaprooXoi in the Hebrew sense, than
that he meant to contradict what he had said in the former
verse, by teaching that all men were made guilty of an act
of disobedience committed thousands of years before the
majority of them had any being. In the” preceding verse
he says, “ that by the offence of one, judgment came upon
all men to condemnation.” But this cannot be true, if by
that offence all men were made sinners; for then judgment
must have come upon each for his own share in the origi¬
nal disobedience. “ Any one may see,” says Dr. Taylor,
“ that there is a vast difference between a man’s making
himself a sinner by his owra wicked act, and his being made
a sinner by the wicked act of another. In the latter case,
he can be a sinner in no other sense but as he is a sufferer;
just as Lot would have been made a sinner with the Sodo¬
mites, had he been consumed in the iniquity of the city,
(Gen. xix. 15;) and as the subjects of Abimelech would
have been made sinners, had he, in the integrity of his heart,
committed adultery with Abraham’s wife. (Gen. xx.) That
the people of Gerar could have contracted any real guilt
from the adultery of their sovereign, or that he, by lying
with a woman whom he had reason to believe to be not the
wife but the sister of another man, would have incurred
all the moral turpitude of that crime, are positions which
cannot be maintained. Yet he says, that Abraham had
brought upon him and on his kingdom <lgreat sin; though
it appears, from comparing the 6th verse with the 17th and
18th, that he had not been brought under sin in any other
sense than as he was made to suffer for taking Sarah into
his house. In this sense, ‘ Christ, though we are sure that
he knew no sin, was made sin for us, and numbered with
the transgressors,’ because he suffered death for us on the
cross; and in this sense it is true, that by the disobedience
of Adam all mankind were made sinners, because, in con¬
sequence of his offence, they were by the judgment of God
made subject to death.”
But it may be thought that this interpretation of the
word sin and sinners, though it might perhaps be admitted
in the 19th verse, cannot be supposed to give the apostle’s
real meaning, as it would make him employ in the 12th
verse an absurd argument, which has been already noticed.
But it may perhaps be possible to get quit of the absurdi¬
ty, by examining the original text instead of our translation.
The words are, K<U ovtws in navras dvOpcoTrovs d Oavaroi
birjXOev, e(p <p navres rjpuprov. In order to ascertain the real
sense of these words, the first thing to be done is to dis¬
cover the antecedent to the relative w. Our translators
seem to consider it as used absolutely without any antece¬
dent; but this is inaccurate, as it may be questioned whether
the relative was ever used in any language without an an¬
tecedent either expressed or understood. Accordingly, the
Calvinist critics, and even many Remonstrants, consider
tvos dvSpconov in the beginning of the verse as the antece¬
dent to « in the end of it, and translate the clause under
consideration thus: “ And so death hath passed upon all
men, in whom (viz. Adam) all have sinned.” Oavaros, how¬
ever, stands much nearer to <» than dvQpa>nov and being of
the same gender, ought, we think, to be considered as its real
antecedent; but if so, the clause under consideration should
be thus translated: “ and so death hath passed upon all men,
unto whichf all have sinned,” or, as the Arminians explain
it, have suffered. If this criticism be admitted as just, t<p
a> must be considered as standing here under particular em¬
phasis, denoting the utmost length of the consequences of
Adam’s sin;8 as if the apostle had said, “ so far have the
consequences of Adam’s sin extended, and spread their in¬
fluence among mankind, introducing not only a curse upon
the earth, and sorrow and toil upon its inhabitants, but even
death, universal death, in every part, and in all ages
2‘22
THEOLOGY.
Theology, of the world.” His words, say the Remonstrants, will un-
questionably bear this sense; and it is surely much more
probable that it is their true sense, than that an inspired
writer should have taught a doctrine subversive of all our
notions of right or wrong, and which, if really embraced,
must make us incapable of judging when we are innocent
and when guilty.
f ThateVi, when construed with a dative case, often signifies to or
unto, is known to every Greek scholar. Thus in evdogia 6Sor,
the way to fume, (Lucian.) KaKovpyos e vt rw Davaro), a criminal
unto death, (Demosth.) ’Em davaTco crvXkafieiv, to carry to death
or execution, (Isoc.) 'Yyeis en e'hev&epia ocX^ti, ye have been called
to liberty, (Gal. v. 13.) KTicrBevra tv Xpiaxcp’hjaov em ipyois
dyadois, created in Christ Jesus unto good works, (Ephes. ii. 10.)
See also 1 Thes. iv. 7; 2 Tim. ii. 14; and many other places of
the New Testament.
s’E(/>’w has likewise this import, denoting the terminus ad quern in
Phil. iii. 12, and iv. 10.
When the apostle says that there is none righteous, no not
one, he gives us plainly to understand that he is quoting
from the 14th Psalm; and the question first to be answered
is, In what sense were these words used by the Psalmist?
That they were not meant to include all the men and wo¬
men then living, far less all that have ever lived, is plain
from the fifth verse of the same Psalm, where we are told
that those wicked persons “ were in great fear, because God
was in the congregation of the righteous,” There was then,
it seems, a congregation of righteous persons, in opposition
to those called the children of men, of whom alone it is said
that there was none that did good, no not one. The truth
is, that the persons of whom David generally complains in
the book of Psalms, constituted a strong party disaffected
to his person and government. That faction he describes
as proud and oppressive, as devising mischief against him,
as violent men continually assembling for war. He styles
them his enemies; and sometimes characterizes them by
the appellation which was given to the apostate descen¬
dants of Cain before the deluge. Thus in the 57th Psalm,
which was composed when he fled from Saul to the cave in
which he spared that tyrant’s life, he complains—“ I lie
among them that are set on fire, even the sons of men, whose
teeth are spears,” &c.; and again, in the 58th Psalm, he
says, “ Do ye indeed speak righteousness, O congregation?
Do ye judge uprightly, O ye sons of men?” By comparing
these texts with 1 Sam. xxvi. 19, it will appear evident that
by the sons of men mentioned in them, he meant to cha¬
racterize those enemies who exasperated Saul against him.
Now it is well known, that there was a party adhering to
the interests of the house of Saul, which continued its en¬
mity to David during the forty years of his reign, and joined
with Absalom in rebellion against him only eight years be¬
fore his death. But it is the opinion of the most judicious
commentators, that the 14th Psalm was composed during
the rebellion of Absalom; and therefore it is surely much
more probable, that by the children of men, of whom it is
said there is “ none that doth good, no not one,” the in¬
spired poet meant to characterize the rebels, than that he
should have directly contradicted himself in the compass of
two sentences succeeding each other. Had he indeed known
that all the children of men, as descending from Adam,
“ are utterly indisposed, disabled, and made opposite to all
that is spiritually good, and wholly and continually inclined
to all evil,” he could not, with the least degree of consis¬
tency, have represented the Lord as “ looking down from
heaven upon them, to see if there were any that did under¬
stand and seek after God;” but if by the children of men
was meant only the rebel faction, this scenical representa¬
tion is perfectly consistent, as it was natural to suppose that
there might be in that faction some men of good principles
misled by the arts of the rebel chiefs.
Having thus ascertained the sense of the words as ori¬
ginally used by the Psalmist, the Arminian proceeds to in- Theo]0f
quire for what purpose they were quoted by the apostle;'s^>yv
and in this inquiry he seems to find nothing difficult. The
aversion of the Jews from the admission of the Gentiles
to the privileges of the gospel, the high opinion which they
entertained of their own worth and superiority to all other
nations, and the strong persuasion which they had that a
strict obedience to their own law was sufficient to justify
them before God, are facts universally known; but it was
the purpose of the apostle to prove that all men stood in
need of a Redeemer, that Jews as well as Gentiles had been
under the dominion of sin, and that the one could not in
that respect claim any superiority over the other. He be¬
gins his epistle, therefore, with showing the extreme de¬
pravity of the heathen world; and having made good that
point, he proceeds to prove, by quotations I’rom the books of
Psalms, Proverbs, and Isaiah, that the Jews were in no¬
wise better than they, that every mouth might be stopped,
and all the world become guilty, or insufficient for their
own justification before God.
The next proof brought by the Calvinists in support of
their opinion, that all men derive guilt from Adam by or¬
dinary generation, is that text in which St. Paul says that
the Ephesians “ were by nature children of wrath even as
others.” To this their opponents reply, that the doctrine of
original sin is in this verse, as in the last quoted, counte¬
nanced only by our translation, and not by the original
Greek as understood by the ancient fathers of the Christian
church, who w’ere greater masters of that language than
we. The wrords are km yptv TtKva (pvaei opyrjs: in which it
is obvious, that tckvo, though in its original sense it signi¬
fies the genuine children of parents by natural generation,
cannot be so understood here; because no man was ever be¬
gotten by, or born of, the abstract notion wrath. It must
therefore be used figuratively; and in other places of scrip¬
ture it often denotes a close relation to any person or thing.
Thus we read of the children of God, of the kingdom, the
resurrection, wisdom, light, obedience, and peace; whence
it is concluded, that by the children of wrath are meant
those who are liable to punishment or rejection. And be¬
cause there were in those days some children, in a lower
and less proper sense, by adoption, and others, in a higher
and more proper sense, by natural generation, of whom the
relation of the latter to their parents was much closer than
that of the former; the apostle tells the Ephesians, that they
were by nature children of wrath, to convince them that
they were really liable to it by the strictest and closest re¬
lation possible. That the word here is of the same
import with really oy truly, and that it does not signify what
we mean by nature in the proper sense of that word, the
ancient fathers are generally agreed, (see Hammond and
Whitby on the text, and Suidas on the word </>vo-ft); and
that the modern Greeks, who still speak a dialect of the
noble language of their ancestors, understand the word
in the same sense, is apparent from their version of the text
before us. In the most correct and elegant edition of the
New Testament in their vernacular tongue, the words un¬
der consideration are thus rendered; km cpvo-iKaqpaoOav reicva
opyqs wcrav km 6i 'homoi, where it is impossible that (pvauca
can signify natural, otherwise the apostle will be made to
say, not that we are by nature derived from Adam liable to
wrath, but that we were naturally begotten by wrath in the
abstract. For taking the word in the sense of really
or truly, both the ancient and modern Greeks appear in¬
deed to have the authority of St. Paul himself; wdio, writing
to Timothy, calls him yvqo-iov tckvov, “ his true or genuine
son;” not to signify that he w as the child of the apostle by
natural generation, but that he was closely related to him
in the faith to which St. Paul had converted him. That
the word rtKva <£v<m opyqs can signify nothing but truly or
really relations to wrath, is still further evident from the
|p
THEOLOGY.
s:iieofey- ground assigned of that relation. It is not the sin of Adam,
or the impurity of natural generation, “ but the trespasses
a and sins in which the Ephesians in time past ivalked, ac-
c cording to the course of the world, according to the power
0 of the prince of the air,” the spirit that at the time of the
8 apostle’s writing “ worked in the children of disobedience.”
S Surely no man can suppose that the Ephesians at any time
P past walked in Adam’s trespass and sin, or that the prince
0 of the power of the air tempted them to eat the forbidden
ft fruit.
Having thus commented on the principal texts which are
d cited from the New Testament to prove the doctrine of ori-
g ginal sin, the Arminians treat those which1 are quoted from
ll the Old Testament, in support of the same doctrine, with
n much less ceremony. Thus, when Job says, “ who can
^ bring a clean thing out of an unclean ? Not one,” he is
*[ speaking, say they, not of the pravity of our nature, but of
ft its frailty and weakness, of the shortness and misery of hu-
1,0 man life. The sentence is proverbial; and as it is used on¬
ly ly to signify, that nothing can be more perfect than its ori-
g ginal, it must, whenever it occurs, be understood according
1 to the subject to which it is applied. That in the place
11 under consideration it refers to our mortality, they think
P plain from the context; and Dr. Taylor adds, (Scripture
^ Doctrine, part ii.), with some plausibility, that if the words
rf refer to the guilt which we are supposed to derive from
^ Adam, they will prove too much to serve the common
S( scheme of original sin. They will prove that our natural
a; and inherent pravity, so far from rendering us fit objects of
" wrath, may be urged as a reason why God should not even
b bring us into judgment; for the patriarch’s whole expostu-
lation runs thus, “ Dost thou open thine eyes upon such a
o one, and bringest me into judgment with thee ? Who can
ft bring a clean thing out of an unclean ?”
The other text, quoted from the same book, they think
si still less to the purpose; for Eliphaz is evidently contrast-
ii ing the creature with the Creator; in comparison with whom,
h he might well say, without alluding to original guilt, “ what
ft is man, that he should be clean ? and he who is born of a
w woman, that he should be righteous ? Behold he putteth no
ti trust in his saints; yea, the heavens are not clean in his sight.
I How much more abominable and filthy is man, who drinketh
ft iniquity like water ?” He does not say, who derives by birth
a an iniquitous nature; for he knew well, that as we are born,
v wre are the pure workmanship of God, “ whose hands have
f; fashioned and formed every one of us;” but “ who drinketh
i iniquity like water,” who maketh himself iniquitous by run-
r ning headlong into every vicious practice.
Of the text quoted from the fifty-first psalm in support
c of the doctrine of original sin, Dr. Taylor labours, by a
1 long and ingenious criticism, to prove that our translators
1 have mistaken the sense. The word which they have
i rendered shapen, he shows to be used once by Isaiah, and
t twice in the book of Proverbs, to signify brought forth; and
t that which is rendered conceived me, is never, he says, em-
i j ployed in scripture to denote human conception. In this
last remark, however, he is contradicted by Mr. Parkhurst,
who says, (see his Lexicon on the wmrd can',) that the LXX
i 1 constantly render it by Kta-o-uwor eyiaa-craco, and the Vulgate
generally by concipio. Without taking upon us to decide
between these two eminent Hebrew scholars, we shall only
observe, that upon one occasion, (Gen. xxx. 38, 39, 40,
compared with xxxi. 10,) it certainly denotes ideas much
grosser than those which the Psalmist must have had of his
mother’s conception; and that there, at least, Dr. Taylor
properly translates it, incalescebant, adding, “ de hoc vero
incalescendi genere loqui Davidem nemo sanus existimare
potest. Matrem enim incaluisse, aut ipsum calefecisse eo
modo quo incalescerent Jacobi pecudes, Regem dicere, pror-
sus indecorum et absurdum.” He contends, however, that
the original force of the word is to be hot, and that it is ap-
223
plied to conception, to resentment, to warmth by which the Theology,
body is nourished, to idolaters in love with idols, and to the
heat of metals. The heat of idolaters, of resentment, and
of metals, are evidently foreign to the Psalmist’s purpose;
and the idea conveyed by the word incalescere being set
aside for the reasons already assigned, there remains only
the warmth by which the body is nourished, and of that
warmth by which our author is confident that David spoke.
If this criticism be admitted, the whole verse will then
run thus : “ Behold I was born in iniquity, and in sin did
my mother nurse me;” which has no reference to the ori¬
ginal formation of his constitution, but is a periphrasis of
his being a sinner from the womb, and means nothing more
than he was a great sinner, or had contracted early habits
of sin. He no more designed to signify in this verse, that
by ordinary generation he had a nature conveyed to him
which was “ utterly indisposed, disabled, and opposite to
all that is spiritually good, and wholly and continually in¬
clined to evil,” than he meant in another (Ps. Iviii.) to sig¬
nify strictly and properly that “ the wicked are estranged
from the womb, and tell lies as soon as they are born;”
or that Job meant to signify, (Job xxxi. 18), that from the
moment he came from his mother’s womb he had been a
guide to the widow" and a succour to the fatherless. All
these are hyperbolical forms of expression; which, though
they appear strained, and perhaps extravagant, to the
phlegmatic inhabitants of Europe, are perfectly suited to
the warm imaginations of the orientals, and to the genius of
eastern languages. They mean not that Job was born with
habits of virtue, that the wicked actually walked, and spoke,
and spoke lies from the instant of their birth, or that the
Psalmist was really shapen in sin and conceived in iniquity.
This last sentence, if interpreted literally, would indeed be
grossly impious: it would make the inspired penman throw
the whole load of his iniquity and sin from off himself upon
him who shaped, and upon her who conceived him; even
upon that God “ whose hands had made him and fashioned
him, and w hom he declares that he will praise for having
made him fearfully and wonderfully,” and upon that parent
who conceived him with sorrow, and brought him forth with
pain, and to whom the divine lawr commanded him to ren¬
der honour and gratitude. “ But if, after all,” says Dr.
Taylor, (Scripture Doctrine, part ii.) “ you will adhere to
the literal sense of the text for the common doctrine of ori¬
ginal sin, show" me any good reason why you ought not to
admit the literal sense of the text, this is my body, for tran-
substantiation? If you say, it is absurd to suppose that
Christ speaks of his real natural body; I say, it is likewise
absurd to suppose that the Psalmist speaks of his being real¬
ly and properly shapen in iniquity, and conceived in sin. If
you say, that the sense of the words this is my body, may be
clearly explained by other texts of scripture where the like
forms of speech are used; I say, and have shown, that the
Psalmist’s sense may as clearly and evidently be made out
by parallel texts, where you have the like kind of expres¬
sion. If you say that transubstantiation is attended with
consequences hurtful to piety, I say that the common doc¬
trine of original sin is attended wdth consequences equally
hurtful; for it is a principle apparently leading to all manner
of iniquity, to believe that sin is natural to us, that it is in¬
terwoven and ingrafted into our very constitution from our
conception and formation in the womb.”
Thus far the Arminians of the present day are agreed in
opposing the doctrine of the rigid Calvinists, and in stating
their own notions of the consequences of Adam’s fall; but
from that event their adversaries deduce one consequence,
which some of them admit and others deny. It is said that
though we cannot possibly be partakers in Adam’s guilt, we
yet derive from him a moral taint and infection, by which
we have a natural propensity to sin; that having lost the
image of God, in which he w as created, Adam begat sons
224
THEOLOGY
Theology, in his own image; and in one word, that the sensual appe-
'^‘^''tites of human nature were inflamed, and its moral and in¬
tellectual powers greatly weakened, by the eating of the for¬
bidden fruit. The heathens themselves acknowledged and
lamented this depravity, though they were ignorant of the
source from which it sprung. The scriptures assert it, af¬
firming that no man can be born pure and clean; that what¬
ever is born of the flesh, or comes into the world by ordi-
nary generation, is flesh, carnal and corrupt; that the ima¬
gination of the thoughts of man’s heart is only evil conti¬
nually ; that the heart is deceitful above all things and des¬
perately wicked; and that out of it proceeds all that is vile
and sinfid. (Job xiv. 4.)
We have thus given as full and comprehensive a view as
our limits will permit of the different opinions of the Calvin¬
ists and Arminians respecting the consequences of Adam’s
fall. If we have dwelt longer upon the scheme of the lat¬
ter than of the former, it is because every Arminian argu¬
ment is built upon criticism, and appeals to the original text;
while the Calvinists rest their faith upon the plain words of
scripture as read in our translation. If we might hazard
our own opinion, we should say that the truth lies between
them, and that it has been found by the moderate men of
both parties, who, while they make use of different language,
seem to us to have the same sentiments. That all man¬
kind really sinned in Adam, and are on that account liable
to most grievous torments in soul and body, without inter¬
mission, in hell fire for ever, is a doctrine which cannot be
reconciled to our natural notions of God. On the other
hand, if human nature was not somehow debased by the
fall of our first parents, it is not easy to account for the
numberless phrases in scripture which certainly seem to
speak that language, or for the very general opinion of the
Pagan philosophers and poets respecting the golden age
and the degeneracy of man. Cicero, in a quotation pre¬
served by St. Augustin from a work that is now lost, has
these remarkable words, “ Homo non ut a matre sed ut a
noyerca natura editus est in vitam, corpore nudo, et fragili,
et infirmo ; animo autem anxio ad molestias, humili ad ti-
mores, molli ad labores, prono ad libidines; in quo tamen
inest' tanquam obrutus quidam divinus ignis ingenii et
mentis. (Vide D. Aug. lib. iv. contra Pelagium.) Nor do
we readily perceive what should induce the more zealous
Arminians to oppose so vehemently this general opinion
of the corruption of human nature Their desire to vindi¬
cate the justice and goodness of God, does them honour ;
but the doctrine of inherent corruption detracts not from
these attributes; for what we have lost in the first Adam
has been amply supplied to us in the second; and we know
from the highest authority, that the duties required of us
are in proportion to our ability, since we are told, that “ unto
whomsoever much is given, of him shall much be required.”
Obs. See Holden’s Dissertation on the Fall of Man. Sher-
ioek’s do Taylor’s Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin. Edwards’s
Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin defended. Woods’s Essay
on Native Depravity. Boston, U. S., 1835. The work of Edwards
is an answer, and a most able answer, to that of Taylor.
divine; i. e. w'as a real man having a human body and a The0|
human soul, and yet at the same time being God. Whilst s *
on the one hand we are told of his birth by a human mother;
of his growing in wisdom and stature, (Luke ii. 52); of his
being hungry, thirsty, and weary, (John iv. 6, 10); of his
suffering and dying, all which are attributes of humanity;
we are on the other assured, that he was in a proper and pe¬
culiar sense the Son of God, (John i. 34; iii. 18); that in him
dwelt all the fulness of the Godhead bodily, (Col. ii. 9) ; that
he was God overall blessed for ever, (Tlom.ix. 5); that he was
God manifest in the flesh, (1 Tim. iii. 16); that he is the
Creator of the universe, and will be the final omniscient
judge of the quick and the dead; and that he is equally with
the Father the proper object of worship and religious ho¬
mage, (John i. 1—3. Col. i. 16, 17. Acts xvii. 31. 2 Tim.
iv. 1. 1 Thes. iii. 11—13. Rev. v. 5 14.)
Part III—Doctrines concerning the Scheme of
Human Redemption.
The deliverance of man from the penal consequences of
w sin’his moral renovation in the sight of God, are
effected by his cordially and intelligently accepting a graci¬
ous pardon offered to him by God, through the meritorious
atonement and intercession of Jesus Christ. See John iii.
i36 ; x. 9, 28. Rom. viii. 11; v. 1; iv. 5, &c.
Sect. I. Of the Person of Christ.
The Scriptures distinctly inform us that our Saviour Jesus
Uinst, united in his own person the human nature and the
Obs. 1. See Smith’s Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, 3 vols.
Wardlaw’s Discourses on the Socinian Controversy, Dis. iii—vi."
Wynperse’s Demonstration of the Divinity of our Lord, by Alex¬
ander. Ur wick’s Vindication of our Saviour’s Divine Right to
Worship.
Obs. 2. This incarnation of the Son of God is perhaps the greatest
mystery of the Christian faith, and that to which ancient and modern
heretics have urged the most plausible objections. The doctrine of the
Trinity is indeed equally incomprehensible; but the nature of God and
the mode of his existence, as revealed in scripture, no man, who
thinks, can be surprised that he does not comprehend ; for a revelation
which should teach nothing mysterious on such a subject, wrould be as
incredible and as useless as another which contained nothing but mys-
iery. The difficulty respecting the incarnation which forces itself on
the mind, is not how two natures so different as the divine and human
can be so intimately united as to become one person; for this union
in itself is not more inconceivable than that of the soul and body in
one man ; but that which at first is apt to stagger the faith of the
reflectmg Christian, is the infinite distance between the two natures
in Christ, and the comparatively small importance of the object for
the attainment of which the eternal Son of God is said to have’ as¬
sumed on him our nature.
Upon mature reflection, however, much of this difficulty will vanish
to him who considers the ways of Providence, and attends to the
meaning of the words in which this mystery is taught. The impor-
tance of the object for which the Word condescended to be made
flesh, we cannot adequately know. The oracles of truth indeed in¬
form us, that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners • but
there are passages scattered through the New Testament (Eph. i. 10-
Col. i. 19, 20,) which indicate, not obscurely, that the influence of
his sufferings extends to other worlds beside this: and if so, who can
take on him to say, that the quantity of good which they may have
produced, was not of sufficient importance to move even to this con¬
descension a Being who is emphatically styled love ?
But let us suppose that everything which he did and taught and
suffered was intended only for the benefit of man, we shall, in the
daily administration of providence, find other instances of the divine
condescension ; which, though they cannot be compared with the in¬
carnation of the second person in the blessed Trinity, are yet suffi-
cient to reconcile our understandings to that mystery when revealed
° US u L e„^?ln* °/ That in Christ there should have dwelt
on earth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily,” ( Col. ii. 9,) is in¬
deed a truth by which the devout mind is overwhelmed with astonish-
ment ; but it is little less astonishing that the omninotent Creator
s ould be intimately present at every instant of time to the meanest
of his creatures, “ upholding all things, the vilest reptile as well as
the most glorious angel, by the word of his power,” Heb. i. 3. Yet
i is a trut self-evident, that without this constant presence of the
rea or, not ing which had a beginning could continue one moment
in leing, t at the visible universe would not only crumble into chaos,
but vanish into nothing; and that the souls of men, and even the
mos ^exa te spirits of creation, would instantly lose that existence,
,’ aS.?'t wa? not of itself, and is not necessary, must depend
o y on the will of Him from whom it was originally derived. (See
Metaphysics and Providence.) ^
Wh u Partlcul^r God is present to his works, we cannot
r lu !S no^'llffus.ed through the universe like the anima mun-
di of the ancient Platomsts, or that modern idol termed the substra-
um of space, (see Metaphysics) ; but that he is in power as
intimately present now to every atom of matter as when he first
o"aUgia nt0 exl1st®nce> 18 equally the dictate of sound philosophy
i o lvine revelation; for “ in him we live and move and have
our being; and power without substance is inconceivable. If then
the divine nature be not debased, if it cannot be debased by being
upo
T H E O L O G Y.
225
constantly present with the vilest reptile on which we tread, why
should our minds recoil from the idea ot a still closer union between
the second person of’the ever blessed Trinity, and the body and soul
of Jesus Christ ? The one union is indeed different from the other,
but we are in truth equally ignorant of the nature of both. Reason
and revelation assure us that God must be present to his works to
preserve them in existence ; and revelation informs us further, that
one of the persons in the Godhead assumed human nature into a
personal union with himself, to redeem myriads of rational crea¬
tures from the miserable consequences of their own tolly and wicked¬
ness. The importance of this object is such, that, for the attainment
of it, we may easily conceive that he who condescends to be poten¬
tially present with the worms of the earth and the grass of the field,
would condescend still further to be personally present with the spot¬
less soul and body of a man. Jesus Christ lived indeed a life of
poverty and suffering upon earth, but his divine nature was not affect¬
ed by his sufferings. At the very time when, as a man, he had not
a place where to lay his head; as God, he was in heaven as well as
upon earth, (John iii. 13,) dwelling in light inaccessible; and while,
as a man, he was increasing in wisdom and stature, his divinity was
the fulness of him who filleth ail in all, and from whom nothing can
be hid.
Sect. II. Of the Life and Teaching of Christ.
What men earnestly wish to be true, they readily believe.
Hence the Jewish people, losing sight of the yoke under
which they and the whole human race were brought by the
fall of Adam, mistaking the sense of the blessing promised
to all nations through the seed of Abraham, and devoting
their whole attention to the most magnificent descriptions
of the Messiah’s kingdom, expected in him a prince who
should conquer the Romans, and establish on earth a uni¬
versal monarchy, of which Jerusalem was to be the metro¬
polis.
As our Saviour came for a very different purpose, the first
object of his mission was to rectify the notions of his erring
countrymen, in order to fit them for the deliverance which
they were to obtain through him. Accordingly, when he
entered on his office as a preacher of righteousness, he em¬
braced every opportunity of inveighing against the false
doctrines taught as traditions of the elders ; and by his
knowledge of the secrets of all hearts, he exposed the vile
hypocrisy of those who made a gain of godliness. The
Jews had been led, by their separation from the rest of the
world, to consider themselves as the peculiar favourites of
Jehovah ; and the consequence was, that, contrary to the
spirit of their own law, and the'explicit doctrines of some
of their prophets, they looked on all other nations with ab¬
horrence, as on people physically impure. These prejudices
the blessed Jesus laboured to eradicate. Having desired a
lawyer, by whom he was tempted, to read that part of the
law of Moses which commanded the Israelites to love their,
neighbours as themselves, he compelled him, by means of
a parabolical account of a compassionate Samaritan, to ac¬
knowledge, that under the denomination of neighbour, the
divine lawgiver had comprehended all mankind as the ob¬
jects of love, (St. Luke x. 25—38.) The importance in
which Moses held the ritual law, and to which, as the means
of preserving its votaries from the contagion of idolatry, it
was justly entitled, had led the Jews to consider every cere¬
mony of it as of intrinsic value and perpetual obligation :
but Jesus brought to their recollection God’s declared pre¬
ference of mercy to sacrifice ; showed them that the weigh¬
tier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith, claimed
their regard in the first place, and its ceremonial observances
only in the second ; and taught them in conformity with the
predictions of their own prophets, (Jeremiah xxxi. 31, &c.)
that the hour was about to come when the worship of God
should not be confined to Jerusalem, but that “ true wor¬
shippers should everywhere worship the Father in spirit
and in truth,” (John iv. 25—27.)
It being the design of Christ’s coming into the world to
break uown the middle wall of partition between the Jews
and Gentiles, and to introduce a new dispensation of reli-
VOL. XXI.
gion which should unite all mankind as brethren in the wor- Theology,
ship of the true God, and fit them for the enjoyment of^
heaven ; he did not content himself with merely restoring
the moral part of the Mosaic law to its primitive purity, dis¬
encumbered of the corrupt glosses of the scribes and pha¬
risees, but added to it many spiritual precepts, which, till
they were taught by him, had never occurred to either Jew
or Gentile. The Hebrew lawgiver had prohibited murder
under the penalty of death ; but Christ extended the prohi¬
bition to causeless anger, and to contemptuous treatment of
our brethren, commanding his followers,as they valued their
everlasting salvation, to forgive their enemies, and to love
all mankind. Adultery was forbidden by the law of Moses
as a crime of the deepest dye ; but Jesus said to his disci¬
ples, “ that whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her,
hath committed adultery with her already in his heart,” and
is of course liable to the Divine vengeance. The lex tali-
onis was in force among the Jews, so that the man who had
deprived his neighbour of an eye or a tooth, was to suffer
the loss of an eye or a tooth himself; but this mode of pu¬
nishment, which inflicted blemish for blemish, though suited
to the hardness of Jewish hearts, being inconsistent with
the mild spirit of Christianity, was abolished by our blessed
Lord, who severely prohibited the indulgence of revenge,
and commanded his followers to love even their enemies.
Perjury has in every civilised nation been justly considered
as a crime of the highest atrocity, and the Mosaic law doom¬
ed the false witness to bear the punishment, whatever it
might be, which he intended, by swearing falsely, to bring on
his brother; but the author of the Christian religion forbade
not only false swearing, but swearing at all, except on so¬
lemn occasions, and when an oath should be required by
legal authority.
By thus restoring the law to its original purity, and in
many cases extending its sense, the blessed Jesus executed
the office of a Pkophet to the lost sheep of the house of
Israel; but had he not been more than an ordinary prophet,
he could not have abrogated the most trivial ceremony of it,
nor even extended the sense of any of its moral precepts ;
for their great lawgiver had told them, that “ the Lord their
God would raise up unto them but one prophet, like unto
him, to whom they should hearken,” (Deut. xviii. 15.) That
prophet was by themselves understood to be the Messiah,
whom they expected to tell them all things. It was neces¬
sary therefore that Jesus, as he taught some new doctrines,
and plainly indicated that greater changes would soon be
introduced, should vindicate his claim to that exalted cha¬
racter which alone could authorise him to propose innova¬
tions. This he did in the amplest manner, by fulfilling pro¬
phecies and working miracles, (see Miracee and Pro¬
phecy) ; so that the unprejudiced part of the people readily
acknowledged him to be of a truth “ that prophet which
should come into the world—the Son of God, and the King
of Israel.” He did not, however, make any change in the
national worship, or assume to himself the smallest civil au¬
thority. He had submitted to the rite of circumcision, and
strictly performed every duty, ceremonial as well as moral,
which that covenant made incumbent on other Jews; thus
fulfilling all righteousness. Though the religion which he
came to propagate vras in many respects contrary to the
ritual law, it could not be established, or that law abrogated,
but in consequence of his death, which the system of sacri¬
fices was appointed to prefigure ; and as his kingdom, which
was not of this world, could not commence till after his re¬
surrection, he yielded during the whole course of his life a
cheerful obedience to the civil magistrate, and wrought a
miracle to obtain money to pay the tribute that was exact¬
ed of him. Being thus circumstanced, he chose from the
lowest and least corrupted of the people certain followers,
whom he treated with the most endearing familiarity for
three years, and commissioned at his departure to promul¬
gate such doctrines as, consistently with the order of the
2 F
THEOLOGY.
226
Theology, divine dispensations, he could not personally preach himself.
With these men, during the course of his ministry on earth,
he went about continually doing good, healing the sick, cast¬
ing out devils, raising the dead, reproving sin, preaching
righteousness, and instructing his countrymen, by the most
perfect example which was ever exhibited in the world, ol
whatsoever thingsare true, or honest, or just, or pure, or lovely,
or of good report. The scribes and pharisees, however, not
finding him that conqueror whom they vainly expected, be¬
coming envious of his reputation among the people, and
being filled with rancour against him for detecting their
hypocritical arts, delivered him up to the Roman governor,
who, though convinced of his innocence, yielded to the po¬
pular clamour, and crucified him between two thieves, as an
enemy to Caesar.
Sect. III.— Of the Death of Christ.
When our Lord was hanging upon the cross, and just
before he expired, he said, It is finished, intimating that
the purpose was now fulfilled for which he had come into
the world, and which, as he had formerly told his disciples,
“ was not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to
give his life a ransom for many,” (Matt. xx. 28). For his
blood, as he assured them at the institution of the Eucharist,
“ was to be shed for the remission of sins.” That Christ
diedvoluntarilyfor us, the just for the unjust, and that “there
is none other name under heaven given among men where¬
by we must be saved,” is the uniform doctrine of the pro¬
phets who foretold his coming, of John the Baptist, who was
his immediate harbinger, and of the apostles and evangelists
who preached the gospel after his ascension into heaven.
Thus Isaiah says of the Messiah (chap. liii. 5,6, 8, 10, 12),
that “ he was wounded for our transgressions, and bruised
for our iniquities; that the chastisement of our peace was
upon him, and that with his stripes we are healed ; that we
had all like sheep gone astray, turning every one to his own
way, and that the Lord laid on him the iniquity of us all;
that he was cut off out of the land of the living, and stricken
for the transgression of God’s people; and his soul or life
was made an offering for sin ; and that he bore the sin of
many, and made intercession for the transgressors.” The
Baptist, “ when he saw Jesus coming unto him, said to the
people, Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the
sin of the wmrld,” (John i. 29) ; plainly intimating that his
death was to be a sacrifice, since it was only as a sacrifice
that the Jews could form any conception of a lamb taking
away sin. The epistles of St. Paul are so full of the doctrine
of Christ’s satisfaction, that it is needless to quote particular
texts in proof of it. He tells the Romans, that Jesus Christ
was “ set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his
blood; he was delivered for our oftences, and raised again
for our justification; that he died for the ungodly; and that
God commendeth his love towards us, in that while we were
yet sinners Christ died for us,” (chap. iii. 25; iv. 25; v. 6, 8).
He assures the Corinthians that Christ died for all; that
“ they who live should not henceforth live unto themselves,
but to him who died for them and rose again ; and that God
made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin, that we might
be made the righteousness of God in him,” (2 Ep. v. 15,
21). He informs the Galatians, that Christ “gavehimself
for our sins, that he might deliver us from this present evil
world, according to the will of God and our Father; and
that he redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made
a curse for us,” (chap. i. 4). St. Peter and St. John speak
the very same language ; the former teaching us, that
" Christ suffered for us, and bare our sins in his own body
on the tree,” (1 Peter ii. 21 and 24); the latter, “ that the
blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth us from all sin, and that he
is the propitiation for our sins; and not for our sins only,
but also for the sins of the whole world,” (1 John i.7; ii. 2).
That he came into the world for the purpose of suffering, Theoi%,
appears from his own words : for “ no man,” said he, (John
x. 18), “ taketh my life from me, but I lay it down of my¬
self: 1 have power to lay it down, and I have power to take
it again. This commandment have I received from my
Father.” And that he voluntarily laid it down for mankind,
is evident from his calling himself the Good Shepherd, and
adding, that “ the Good Shepherd giveth his life for the
sheep.” (John x. 11.)
Sect. IV Of the nature of that benefit which Man
derives from the propitiatory work of Christ.
That Christ died for the benefit of the human race, is a
truth so apparent from Scripture, that no man professing
Christianity has hitherto called it in question; though very
different opinions have been formed, even by pious men,
concerning the nature and extent of that benefit, and the
means by which it is applied. Of these opinions we shall
endeavour to give an impartial account, and as fully as our
limits will permit.
The strictest adherents to the theological system of Cal¬
vin, interpreting literally such texts of Scripture as speak
of Christ’s being made sin for us, of his bearing our sins
in his own body on the tree, and of the Lord’s laying on
him the iniquity oj us all, contend, that the sins of the elect
wrere lifted off from them and laid on Christ by imputation,
much in the same way as they think the sin of Adam is
imputed to his posterity. “ By bearing the sins of his peo¬
ple,” says Dr. Gill, (Body of Divinity, vol. ii. book iii. chap. v.
§ 4), “ he took them off from them, and took them upon
himself, bearing or carrying them, as a man bears or carries
a burden on his shoulders. There was no sin in him in¬
herently, for if there had, he would not have been a fit
person to make satisfaction for it; but sin was put upon
him by his Divine Father, as the sins of the Israelites were
put upon the scape-goat by Aaron. No creature could have
done this ; but the Lord hath laid on him, or made to meet
on him, the iniquity of us all, not a single iniquity, but a
whole mass and lump of sins collected together, and laid
as a common burden upon him, even the sins of all the elect
of God. This phrase of laying sin on Christ is expressive
of the imputation of it to him; for it was the will of God
not to impute the transgressions of his elect to themselves,
but to Christ, which was done by an act of his own; for
he hath made him to be sin for us; that is, by imputation,
in which way we are made the righteousness of God in him;
that being imputed to us by him as our sins were to Christ.
The sense is, a charge of sin was brought against him as
the surety of his people. He was numbered with the trans¬
gressors ; lor bearing the sins of many, he was reckoned as
if he had been a sinner himself, sin being imputed to him;
and he was dealt with as such. Sin being found upon him
by imputaton, a demand of satisfaction lor sin was made,
and he answered it to the full. All this was with his own
consent. He agreed to have sin laid upon him, and im¬
puted to him, and a charge of it brought against him, to
which he engaged to be responsible; yea, he himself took
the sins of his people upon him ; so the evangelist Matthew
has it, “ He himself took our infirmities, and bare our sick¬
nesses,” (chap. viii. 17). As he took the nature of men,
so he took their sins, which made his flesh to have the like¬
ness of sinful flesh, though it really was not sinful. What
Christ bore being laid upon him, and imputed to him, were
sins of all sorts, original and actual; sins of every kind, open
and secret, of heart, lip, and life ; all acts of sin committed
by his people, for he has redeemed them from all their ini¬
quities ; and God, for Christ’s sake, forgives all trespasses,
his blood cleanses from all sin, and his righteousness justi¬
fies from all; all being imputed to him as that is to them.
Bearing sin supposes it to be a burden ; and indeed it is a-
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THEOLOGY.
jeolc;?. burden too heavy to bear by a sensible sinner.1 When sin
is charged home upon the conscience, and a saint groans,
being burdened with it, what must that burden be, and how
heavy the load which Christ bore, consisting of all the sins
of all the elect from the beginning of the world to the end
of it; and yet he sunk not, but stood up under it; failed not,
nor was he discouraged, being the mighty God, and the
Man of God’s right hand, made strong for himself.”
To the Arminians or Remonstrants, this doctrine of the
imputation of the sins of men to the Son of God appears as
absurd as the similar doctrine of the imputation of the sin
of Adam to his unborn posterity ; and it is certainly attend¬
ed with consequences which have alarmed serious Chris¬
tians of other denominations.
Were it possible in the nature of things, says the Armi-
nian, to transfer the guilt of one person to another, and to
lay it upon him as a burden, it could not be done without
violating those laws of equity which are established in the
Scripture and engraven on the human heart. But this is
not possible. To talk of lifting masses of sin, or transfer¬
ring them like burdens from the guilty to the innocent, is
to utter jargon, says he, which has no meaning ; and we
might with as much propriety speak of lifting a scarlet
colour from a piece of cloth and laying it on the sound of
a trumpet, as of literally lifting the sins of the elect from
them and laying them on Christ. Guilt is seated on the
mind ; and no man can become a sinner but by an act of
volition. If Christ therefore really took upon him the sins
of his people, he must have deliberately formed a wish to
have actually committed all these sins ; but such a wish,
though it would have made him inherently guilty, and
therefore incapable of satisfying for sin, could not have can •
celled deeds that were done before he was born, or have
made those innocent who really had been sinners. A deed
once done cannot be undone; a volition which has been
formed cannot be annihilated. By sincere repentance, the
habitual dispositions are indeed changed, and those who
have been sinners become objects of mercy ; but no power
can recal the hours that are past, or make those actions
which have been performed to have been not performed.
To remove guilt from the sinner and lay it on the innocent
may, therefore, be safely pronounced impossible even for
Omnipotence itself, for it implies that a thing may be and
not be at the same instant of time ; and the doctrine which
teaches that this removal was made from the elect to Christ,
is an imagination of yesterday, which has no countenance from
Scripture, and is contrary to the established constitution of
things. Those who imagine thatguilt may be propagated from
father to son, have something like an argument to urge for
the imputation of Adam’s sin to his numberless posterity ;
for all the men and women who have by ordinary genera¬
tion been introduced into the world, have undoubtedly de¬
rived their nature from the primeval pair. But Christ did
not derive his nature from the elect, that their sins should
be communicated to him ; nor, as he was miraculously con¬
ceived by the Holy Ghost, can we attribute to him any de¬
gree of that taint which is supposed to have been conveyed
from Adam to all the other generations of men.
Nothing more, therefore, can be meant by “ Christ’s be¬
ing made sin for us,” and “ bearing our sins in his own body
on the tree,” or by God’s “ laying upon him the iniquity of
us all,” than that by his sufferings we are freed from the
punishment of our sins; it being in Scripture a common
figure of speech, as even Dr. Gill has somewhere acknow¬
ledged, to denote by the word sin the consequences of sin.
-That this figure is used in those texts from which he infers
that Christ took the sins of the elect on himself, is evident
from the verse which he quotes from the gospel of St. Mat-
227
thew , in which it is said, that “ himself took our infirmities Theology,
and bore our sicknesses.” The sicknesses and infirmities
there alluded to are the leprosy, the palsy, the fever, and
demoniacal possessions ; but wlren our blessed Lord cured
these diseases, surely he did not by his omnipotent word
lift them off from the patients and take them on himself,
so as actually to become a leper, a paralytic, and a dsemo-
niac, or even to be reckoned as such either by the multi¬
tude, or by the priest, whose duty it was to take cognizance
of every illegal uncleanness, (Levit. xiii). And if his in¬
veterate enemies did not impute to him the leprosy when
he removed that plague from others, why should it be sup¬
posed that his own Father, to whom he was at all times well¬
pleasing, imputed to him the sins of which, by his sufferings,
he removed the punishment from those who were guilty ?
fo impute to a person any action, whether virtuous or vici¬
ous, which he did not perform, can proceed only from igno¬
rance, or malice, or partiality ; but God is no respecter of
persons, and from ignorance and malice he is removed to
an infinite distance. It is indeed an undoubted truth, that
“ the Lord Jesus, by his perfect obedience and sacrifice of
himself, which he through the eternal Spirit once offered up
unto God, hath fully satisfied the justice of his Father; and
purchased not only reconciliation, but an everlasting inhe¬
ritance in the kingdom of heaven for all those whom the
Father hath given him,” (Confession of Faith, chap. viii.
§ v.); but that he actually took on himself the sins of man¬
kind, or that those sins were imputed to him by God, who
punished him as a person whom he considered as guilty, is
a doctrine equally injurious to the justice of the Father and
to the immaculate purity of the Son.
I o this imaginary transferring of virtues and vices from
one person to another, as the Scriptures give no counte¬
nance, so they nowhere call the death of Christ a satisfac¬
tion for the sins of men. The term has indeed been long
in use among divines, and when properly explained it may
be retained without any danger; but in treating of this sub¬
ject, it would perhaps be more prudent to restrict ourselves
to the use of Scripture language, as the word satisfaction
carries in it the ideas of a debt paid and accepted; where¬
as it is said by St. Paul, that “ eternal life is the gift of God
through Jesus Christ our Lord ; and that we are justified
freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Jesus
Christ, whom God hath set forth to be a propitiation through
faith in his blood,” (Rom. vi. 23 ; iii. 24, 25).
I o clear up this matter, and attain adequate notions of
redemption, it will be necessary to look back to the fall of
our first parents ; for the great purpose for which Christ
wras promised, and for which he came into the world, was,
by bruising the head of the serpent, to restore mankind to
the inheritance which they had lost through the transgres¬
sion of Adam. This is apparent not only from the original
promise made to the woman, but also from different pas¬
sages in the epistles of St. Paul, who expressly calls Christ
the second Adam, and says, that, “ as by the offence of one,
judgment came upon all men to condemnation ; even so by
the righteousness of one, the free gift came upon all men
unto justification of life ;” that, “ as by one man’s disobe¬
dience many w7ere made sinners, so by the obedience of
one shall many be made righteous ;” and that, “ as in Adam
all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive,” (Rom. v.
18, 19 ; 1 Cor. xv. 22.) Hence it was that John the Bap¬
tist, when he saw Jesus coming to him, said to his disciples,
“ Behold the Lamb of God which taketh away, not the
sins, but the sin of the world,” (John i. 23), evidently al¬
luding to Adam’s sin and its consequences, since no other
sin was ever committed of which the consequences extend
to the whole world.
divineW6 S,W’ the learned aUth°r meanS 8 sinner who is conscious of Suilt and 111 desert as a transgressor of the
228 T II E O
Theology. This being the case, it is undeniable, that whatever we
lost in the first Adam is restored to us by the second ; and
therefore they who believe that the punishment denounced
against eating the forbidden fruit was death corporal, spi¬
ritual, and eternal, must believe that we are redeemed
from all these by Christ; who having “ appeared once in
the end of the world to put away sin by the sacrifice of him¬
self, died for us, that whether we wake or sleep, we should
live together with him,” (Heb. ix. 26. 1 Thess. v. 10). If
the image of God in which man was created was lost by
the breach of the first covenant, it is more than restored to
us “ by the Mediator of a better covenant, which is esta¬
blished upon better promises if by the sin of Adam we
were utterly indisposed, disabled, and made opposite to all
that is spiritually good, and wholly inclined to all evil, and
that continually, we are freed from that dreadful curse by
“ our Saviour Jesus Christ, who gave himself for us, that
he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify to himself
a peculiar people zealous of good works,” (Titus ii. 14);
and if for our share in the first transgression we be justly
liable to all punishments in this world and in that which is
to come, the apostle assures us, that “ when we were ene¬
mies we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son,
because that God was in Christ reconciling the world to
himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them,” (Rom.
v. 10. 2 Cor. v. 19). As Jesus is “the Lamb slain (in the
divine decree) from the foundation of the world,” these be¬
neficial consequences of his death have been extended by
a retrospective view to all in every age whose names are
written in the book of life, though it be absurd to suppose
that he literally took their sins upon him, and impious to
imagine that he suffered under the imputation of sin.
Sect. V—Of the extent of that benefit which Christ
procured for Man.
It is well known to be one of the fundamental doctrines
of the Calvinistic school, that “ none are redeemed^ Christ,
effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved,
but the elect only,” (Confession of Faith of the Church of
Scotland, chap. iii. § 6) ; and if the notions of redemption
which, in the end of the 17th century, were very generally
embraced, be admitted as just, it will not be easy to over¬
turn the arguments by which that doctrine is supported.
Such of them as are connected with the great question of
election and reprobation, and enter into the decision of it,
we have stated in another place (see Predestination) ;
but it is farther argued, (Gill’s Body of Divinity, vol.
ii. book iii. chap. 3), that the doctrine of universal redemp¬
tion reflects on the wisdom, the justice, and the power of
God, and robs him of his glory.
The Scriptures assure us that all men shall not be saved ;
but how can this be, if Christ died for all, and the scheme
of salvation, by his death, was formed by infinite wisdom ?
The Arminians indeed.say, that those who fail of salvation,
fail through their own fault in not performing the conditions
required of them ; but God either knew or knew not that
such men would not perform those conditions. If he knew
it not, his knowledge is limited ; if he did know it, where
was his wisdom in providing a scheme of redemption for
men to whom he was aware that it would be of no benefit ?
“ God,” we are told, “ is righteous in all his ways, and holy
in all his works;” but there is no righteousness in making
Christ bear the sins of all men, and suffer the punishment
due to them, if any one of those men shall be afterwards
punished everlastingly. If Christ has already paid the
debts of the whole world, it cannot be just to cast a single
inhabitant of the whole world into the prison of hell, there
to be detained till he shall again have paid the uttermost
farthing. “ The Lord’s hand is not shortened that it can¬
not savefor he is and always will be the same Almighty
power that he was from eternity ; but if by the divine de-
L O G Y.
cree Christ died for all men, and yet all men shall not be TheoL
saved, it would appear that man is mightier than his Maker, v—vy
The ultimate end of God in the redemption of man is ad¬
mitted to have been his own glory; but if any individual
of the human race, who was redeemed by Christ, shall not
be saved, God will so far lose his end, and be deprived of
his glory. For, if this were the case, where would be the
glory of God the Father in forming a scheme which, with
respect to multitudes, does not succeed ; and where would
be the glory of the Son of God, the Redeemer, in working
out the redemption of men who are yet not to be saved by
him ? and where would be the glory of the Spirit of God,
if redemption were not by him effectually applied to every
individual for whom it was wrought ? By such arguments
as these do the Calvinists oppose the scheme of universal
redemption, and contend that Christ died only for the elect,
or such as shall be placed on his right hand at the day of
judgment. This notion of a limited redemption, as they
think it more worthy of the sovereignty of God, they be¬
lieve to be taught by our Saviour himself, when he saith,
(John vi. 37-40), “ All that the Father giveth me shall come
to me ; and him that cometh to me, I will in no wise cast
out. For I came down from heaven, not to do my own
will, but the will of him that sent me. And this is the
Father’s will who hath sent me, that of all which he hath
given me I should lose nothing, but should raise it up again
at the last day.”
The Arminians, on the other hand, contend that it is im¬
pious to limit the effects of Christ’s death to a chosen few,
since it appears from Scripture, that by the decree and in¬
tention of his Father he tasted death for every man, that all,
without exception, might through him obtain remission of
their sins. Thus our Lord himself told Nicodemus, (John
iii. 14-18), that “ as Moses lifted up the serpent in the
wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up ; that
whosoever believeth in him, should not perish, but have
everlasting life. For God so loved the world, that he gave
his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him
should not perish, but have everlasting life. For God sent
not his Son into the world to condemn the world, but that
the world through him might be saved.” In perfect con¬
formity with the doctrine of his divine Master, St. Paul
teaches, (2 Cor. v. 14-20. 1 Tim. ii. 4-7. Heb. ii. 9),
that “ Christ died for all; that God was in Christ recon¬
ciling the world to himself, not imputing their trespasses
unto them that “ he wall have all men to be saved, and
to come into the knowledge of the truth that “ Christ
gave himself a ransom for all ? and that “Jesus was made
a little lower than the angels, that by the grace of God he
should taste death for every man” The very same thing
is taught by St. Peter and St. John, when the former says,
(2 Peter iii. 9), that “the Lord is not willing that any should
perish, but that all should come to repentanceand the
latter, (1 John ii. 2), that “ Jesus Christ the righteous is
the propitiation for our sins ; and not for our’s only, but for
the whole ivorld”
On these texts, without any commentary, the Arminians
are willing to rest their doctrine of universal redemption;
though they think that a very strong additional argument
for its truth arises from the numberless absurdities which
flow from the contrary opinion. Thus, say they, (Limborch’s
Theologia Christiana, Eng. Trans, book iv. chap, iii.) the
apostles were commanded by our Saviour (St. Mark xvi.
15, 16), to “ go into all the world and preach the gospel to
every creature” and all who hear it preached are required
to believe it: but no man, as the Calvinists themselves con¬
fess, can believe the gospel as a Christian, without believ¬
ing that Christ died for him ; and, therefore, if it be true
that Christ die-d only for the elect, a great part of mankind
are required to believe a lie, and a falsity is made the object
of divine faith ! Again, if Christ did not die for all, then
THEOLOGY.
229
no man can be sure that he is bound to believe in Christ
when preached to him ; nor can any man be justly con¬
demned for infidelity ; which is not only absurd in itself,
but directly contrary to what we are taught by our blessed
Lord, who assures us, (St. John hi. 18, 19, and 36 ; Rom.
xiv. 9), that unbelief is the cause of condemnation. Lastly,
if Christ died not for all, then it is certain that he cannot
claim dominion over all in consequence of his death and re¬
surrection ; but St. Paul says expressly, that “ to this end
Christ both died, and rose, and revived, that he might be
the Lord of the dead and living.” The Arminians acknow¬
ledge, that though Christ died for all, there are many who
will not be saved; for, say they, (Wells’s Divine Laws and
Covenants, part ii. chap, iii.) the death of Christ did not
literally pay the debts incurred by sinners, but only obtain¬
ed for them the gracious covenant of the gospel, by which
all who believe in him, and sincerely endeavour to work
out their own salvation with fear and trembling, are entitled
to forgiveness of sins and eternal life.
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Sect.VI.—Of the Resurrection and Ascension of Christ.
The Apostles of Christ, in announcing his religion to men,
laid great emphasis on the fact of their Master’s resurrec¬
tion from the dead, as that which proved the divinity of his
mission, and the acceptance of his work by God. That
this fact really occurred, there can be no doubt. It may
be laid down as a fixed principle, that no man, or body of
men, will deliberately choose evil for its orvn sake, or enter
zealously upon a tedious and difficult enterprise, from which
no good can possibly arise, and from which unmixed misery
is clearly foreseen as the necessary result of every step of
the progress. Such, however, must have been the choice
and the conduct of the apostles, when they resolved to
preach a new religion founded on the resurrection of Jesus,
if they did not certainly know that Jesus had risen from
the dead. And this conduct must have been adopted,
and, in opposition to every motive which can influence the
human mind, have been persevered in by a great number
of men and women, without the smallest contradiction hav¬
ing ever appeared in the various testimonies, which at dif¬
ferent times, and under the crudest tortures, they all gave
to a variety of circumstances, of which not one had its
foundation in truth. He who can admit this supposition,
will not surely object to the credibility of miracles. The
resurrection of a man from the dead is an event so dif¬
ferent indeed from the common course of things, that no¬
thing but the most complete evidence can make it an ob¬
ject of rational belief; but as the resurrection of Jesus has
always been said to have had God for its Author, it has
an effect which does not exceed the power of the cause
assigned, and is therefore an event possible in itself and
capable of proof. It is a deviation from the laws of na¬
ture, but it is not contradictory to any one of those laws.
That a great number of men and women should deli¬
berately form a plan of ruin and misery to themselves,
without a prospect of the smallest advantage either in this
world or the next, is as different from the common course
of things as the resurrection from the dead; and therefore
in itself at least as great a miracle: but that they should per¬
sist in prosecuting this plan in the midst of torments; that
they should spread themselves over the whole world, and
everywhere publish a number of falsehoods, without any
one of them contradicting the rest; that truth should never
escape them either in an unguarded moment, or when lin¬
gering on the rack, and yet all their lies should be in per¬
fect agreement with each other; that they should every
one of them court sufferings for a person whom they knew
to be an impostor; that not one of the number—not even a
single woman—should have so much compassion for a fellow-
creature, as to rescue him from the flames by confessing a
truth which could injure nobody—not even the suffering
deceivers themselves;—all this is not only different from the Theology,
common course of things, but directly contrary to the most
known laws of nature, and is therefore not miraculous, but
may be pronounced impossible. Yet this impossibility we
must admit, or acknowledge, that as Christ died for our sins,
according to the Scriptures, and was buried, so he arose
again the third day, according to the Scriptures; and was
seen of Cephas, then of the twelve; after that of above five
hundred brethren at once; after that of James; and then
of all the apostles; and that he was last of all seen of St.
Paul, (1 Cor. xv. 3-9,) who by the vision was converted
to preach the faith which till then he had persecuted.
Thus we are assured, that “ those who have fallen asleep
in Christ are not lost, since he has risen from the dead, and
become the first fruits of them that slept. For since by man
came death, by man also came the resurrection of the dead.
For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made
alive. But every man in his own order; Christ the first-
fruits, afterwards they that are Christ’s at his coming; for
all that are in the graves shall hear his voice, and shall come
forth; they that have done good unto the resurrection of
life, and they that have done evil to the resurrection of dam¬
nation.” (1 Cor. xv. 20-24, and St. John v. 28, 29.)
Our blessed Lord having conversed familiarly with the
eleven apostles for forty days after his resurrection, in¬
structing them in the things pertaining to the kingdom of
God; having extended their authority as his ministers, by
giving them a commission to teach all nations, and make
them his disciples, by baptizing them in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; and having
promised them power from on high to enable them to dis¬
charge the duties of so laborious an office—conducted them
as far as Bethany, that they might be witnesses to his as¬
cension into heaven. (See St. Luke xxiv. 49-43, and Acts
i. 6-12.)
That our blessed Lord ascended into heaven, will scarce¬
ly be denied in the present age by any one who admits that
he rose from the dead. The ascension was indeed the natu¬
ral consequence of the resurrection; for we cannot suppose
that a man would be called back from the grave to live for
ever in a world where all other men fall in succession a prey
to death. The purpose for which he died was to recover
for the descendants of Adam every privilege which they
had forfeited through his transgression; and if, as has been
generally believed, mankind were by the terms of the first
covenant to enjoy eternal life in heaven, some proof was
necessary that Christ by his death and resurrection had
opened the kingdom of heaven to all faithful observers of
the terms of the second. Hence it was prophesied (Psalm
Ixviii. 18; cx. 1; Micah ii. 13) of the Messiah, in whom all
the nations of the earth were to be blessed, that “ he should
ascend on high, lead captivity captive, and sit on the right
hand of God until his enemies should be made his foot¬
stool.” It was therefore of the greatest importance to the
apostles to have sufficient proof of their Master’s exaltation
to the right hand of the Majesty on high; for otherwise
they could neither have looked for an entrance into heaven
themselves, by a new and living way, as the author of the
epistle to the Hebrews expresses it, nor have preached Je¬
sus as the Messiah promised to their fathers, since they could
not have known that in him these prophecies were fulfilled.
But the proof vouchsafed them was the most complete that
the nature of the thing would bear. The spectators of the
ascension were many; for, according to the history of St.
Luke, (Acts i. 12-16.) those who returned from the Mount
of Olives to Jerusalem, and prepared themselves lor the
coming of the Holy Ghost, were in number about six score;
and to such a cloud of witnesses the evangelist would not
have appealed, had not the fact he was recording been very
generally known. Yet these w ere perhaps but part of the
witnesses; for since Christ had informed his disciples that he
230
THEOLOGY.
Theology, was to ascend to his Father and their Father, to his God
v —’ and their God, and that he was going to prepare a place for
them, that where he is there they might be likewise; we
can hardly doubt but that all who believed in him as the
Redeemer of the world would take care to be present, not
only to view their Master’s triumph over all his enemies,
but also anticipate that glory which awaited themselves.
It was probably on this occasion that he was seen after his
resurrection by above five hundred brethren at once, of
whom the greater part were alive at the writing of St. Paul’s
first epistle to the Corinthians.
But though such multitudes of people saw Jesus lifted up
from the mount, till he gradually vanished out of their sight,
some other evidence seemed necessary to certify them of the
place to which he had ascended. Two angels therefore ap¬
pear, and attest what human eyes could not see, but what
was indeed the consequence of what they had seen. They
attest that Christ had ascended to heaven, not to descend
again till the last day; and surely, with respect to this point,
the citizens of heaven were the most unexceptionable wit¬
nesses. We must therefore acknowledge and confess, against
all the wild heresies of old, that Jesus Christ the Son of
God, who died and rose again, did with the same body and
soul with which he had lived upon earth ascend “ into
heaven, there to appear in the presence of God for us.”
(Heb.ix.24.) Having in the outward tabernacle of this world
once offered up himself a pure and perfect sacrifice for the
expiation of our sins, he entered within the veil into the most
holy place, there to present his blood before God himself,
in order to obtain mercy for us, and restore us to the Di¬
vine favour. So that “ if any man sin, we have an advo¬
cate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous, who is
the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only, but also
for the sins of the whole world; and he is able to save to
the uttermost those that come to God by him, seein«- he
ever hveth to make intercession for us.” “ Seeing then^that
we have a great high-priest, who is passed into the heavens,
Jesus the Son of God, we may through him come boldly
unto the throne of grace, that we may obtain mercy and
find grace to help us in time of need.”
But it is not the office a priest only that our Lord dis¬
charges in heaven; he is represented as sitting on the right
hand of God, to denote that real authority with which he
is now vested; “angels, and authorities, and powers, beum
made subject to him,” (1 Peter iii. 22.) Hence it is that
after his resurrection, he said of himself, (Matt, xxviii. 18 )
“ all power is given unto me in heaven and in earth;” for,
as St. Paul informs us, (Phil. ii. 8, 9, 10,) “ because he hum-
bled himself and became obedient unto death, even the
death of the cross, therefore God hath highly exalted him,
and given him a name which is above every name; that at
the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in
leaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth.”
And this submission is due to him, because “ God raised
nm fiom the dead, and set him at his own right hand in
Ind mShT y PM68 ’ ^ ^ a11 Princ*Pa^ties and powers,
f dominion, and every name that is named, not
ha h n Tl 7 ’ bUti all° in that which is to come; and
hath put all things under his feet, and gave him to be head
over all things to the church,” (Eph. i. 20 &c ) As Cnd
Christ possessed a kingdom, which, as it^ad not a bemn-
mng, can never have an end: but the dominion, of which
the apostle is here treating, was conferred upon him as the
mediator of the new covenant, and will no longer continue
than till his enemies shall be subdued; for we are tohf that
“ “’“P ‘i'l ^ hath put all under ht feet!
and that the last enemy that shall be destroyed is death ”
He will ransom Jus subjects from the power of the grave*
he will redeem them from death. O death, he will beX
?,afUT! °.grave’ he wlIJ be thy destruction,” (Hosea xiif
14.) The trumpet shall sound, the graves shall be opened’
all the sons and daughters of Adam shall return to life, and Theoir
death shall be swallowed up in victory. “ Then mncthv-*V
the end, when the office of mediator ceasing, he shall have ^
delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Father, when
he shall have put down all rule and all authority and power.
For when all things shall be subdued unto him, then shall
the Son also himself be subject unto him that put all things
under him, that God may be all in all,” (1 Cor. xv. 24-28))
Sect. VII—Of Justification by Faith.
Between pardon of sin and justification there is so close
a connection, that many writers seem to consider the terms
as synonymous, and to infer, that he who is pardoned is ipso
facto justified. That every Christian, who shall be par¬
doned at the judgment of the great day, will likewise be
justified, is indeed true; but in propriety of speech, justi¬
fication is a word of very different import from pardon,
and will entitle the Christian to what mere pardon could
not lead him to expect. An innocent person, when falsely
accused and acquitted, is justified but not pardoned; and
a criminal may be pardoned, though he cannot be justified
or declared innocent. A man whose sins are pardoned is
freed from punishment; but the justified Christian is en¬
titled to everlasting life, happiness, and glory. If we were
only pardoned through Christ, we should indeed escape
the pains of hell, but could have no claim to the enioy-
ments of heaven; for these, being more than the most per¬
fect human virtue can merit, must be, what in the scrip¬
tures they are always said to be, “ the gift of God through
Jesus Christ our Lord.” Hence it is that St. Paul, dis¬
tinguishing, as we have done upon his authority, between
mere remission of sins and justification of life, declares,
(Romans iv. 25), that “ Jesus our Lord was delivered for our
offences, and raised again for our justification.”
The word justification, in Scripture, has been verygene-
rally considered as a forensic term expressing the sentence
of a judge. The most eminent reformed divines of all deno¬
minations, (Limborch, Bull, Waterland, Warburton, Beve¬
ridge, Vitnnga, Gill, &c.) and even many of the Romanists
themselves, have strenuously contended, that this is its ge¬
nuine sense, when it is distinguished from mere remisskin
. ^ regeneration, and sanctification; and if so, it will
signify God s pronouncing a person^, either as being per¬
fectly blameless, or as having fulfilled certain conditions re¬
quired of him in the Christian covenant. But that “ there
is not a just man upon earth, who doth good and sinneth
not, is made known to us by the most complete evidence
possible, the joint dictates of our own consciences and of
-‘"T revelf and therefore whosoever is pronounced
just by the Judge of all the earth, must be so, either be¬
cause, though not absolutely blameless, he has performed
the conditions required of him in the covenant of grace, or
because Christ has fulfilled all righteousness in his stead.
tho Ltnfr ^ S?nPture "otion of justification, it must be
the act of God, and cannot be the effect either of our faith or
of our virtue. Accordingly, we are said by the apostle to be
justified fieely by his grace through the redemption that is
7tnUthChnt c Wi°m S°d hath set to be a propi¬
tiation through faith in h.s blood. (Rom. iii. 24, 25 ') The
act of justification therefore proceeds from the divine phi-
of fi bPyf ^ Cann(7 b<: Performed by the instrumentality
is not^h f \*!? n0t,(J0d’ but man’ who believes; and man
is not the justifier of himself. To talk of any kind of in-
“0l JribCatl0n, besides the Propitiation set forth
“Omn 7 t0 make USe of very irnProper language:
Omms causa mstrumentalis,” says Bishop Bull, (Har-
luLaoffP0St-°llCa; Ca?’iL § 8-> “ SU0 n’odo effectum influit,
cum ?r0dUkt.1,° PrTie attribui Potest. Jam vero,
urn justificatio nihil ahud sit quam gratiosus Dei actus,
centpPteCCna n?ftra,noblS cond°net, ac nos ad salutem ac-
I , va e a surdum esset dicere, vel fidem, vel opera
THEOLOGY
olafr nostra, vel quidvis aliud, nostri aut remittere peccata nostra,
aut personas nostras acceptare; quod tamen, si instrumen-
talis causa justificationis tides sit, plane dicendum asset
In this sentiment of the bishop of St. David’s some of the
most eminent divines both among the Calvinists and Ar-
minians acquiesce. Many however have chosen to treat of
justification not only in the active sense, as it is the act of
God, for all admit that it is he who justifies; but likewise
in a passive sense, as it means our 'privilege or possession
held of him, when we are said to be justified by his grace.
In this view of the subject they may speak with sufficient
propriety, of an instrument of justification, not as the mean
by which it is conveyed, but as the medium through which
it is received by the true Christian. And hence it follows,
that Waterland and Warburton strenuously maintain the
doctrine of the Westminster Confession, “ that faith receiv¬
ing and resting on Christ is the alone instrument of justi¬
fication; though it cannot be alone in the person justified,
but must ever be accompanied with all other saving graces,
and be a faith which worketh by love.”
1 Obs. Notwithstanding this general agreement of Calvinists and Re¬
monstrants on the subject of justification, there are several differences
jof sentiment, and still more of phraseology, when they descend to par¬
ticulars. Of these an idea will be best formed by the perusal of the
uninent writers on both sides.
“ A notion (says Dr. Gill, Body of Divinity, vol. ii. book iii. chap.
3, sec. 5.) obtained some years ago, that a relaxation of the law and
die severities of it has been obtained by Christ; and a new law, a
remedial law, a law of milder terms, been introduced by him, which
is the gospel ; the terms of which are, faith, repentance, and new obe¬
dience ; and though these be imperfect, yet being sincere, they are
accepted by God in the room of perfect righteousness. But every
article of this scheme is wrong; for the law is not relaxed, nor any
bf its severities abated ; Christ came not to destroy, but to fulfil it;
and therefore it requires the same holy, just, and good things, as ever.
Nor isithe gospel a new law. There is nothing in it which looks
like a law; for it has no commands in it, but all promises, being a
pure declaration of giace and salvation by Christ; nor are faith, re¬
pentance, and a new obedience, required by it as a condition of man’s
[acceptance with God. Faith and repentance are gospel doctrines,
and parts of the gospel ministry; they are graces, and not terms re¬
quired to be performed by men of themselves. Faith is the gift of
God, and repentance is a grant from him. It is not true that God
will accept of an imperfect righteousness in the room of a perfect one ;
nor cun anything more highly reflect upon the justice and truth of
God, who is the judge of all the earth, than to suppose that he can
iever account that as a righteousness which is not one.”
Having thus proved by arguments which were almost in the same
words stated long before by Bishop Beveridge, (see his Private
Thoughts of Religion,) that the gospel is no relaxation of
the law, he proceeds to lay down his own notions of justification,
of which, he says, “ the sole matter, or that for the sake of which
» sinner is justified before God, is the righteousness of Christ
—that which he did and suffered on earth, in our nature, in our
stead, and as our representative. This is commonly called his active
ind passive obedience ; and when the purity and holiness of his own
lature was added to it, the whole made up the BiKauofxu tov uofiov,
’he righteousness of the laiv, which was fulfilled by him as the head and
i representative of his people, (Rom. viii. 4.) ; for whatever the law
required is necessary to a sinner’s justification before God, and it
required of sinners more than it did of man in innocence. Man was
created with a pure and holy nature, conformable to the pure and holy
law of God ; and it was incumbent on him to continue so, and to yield
in it perfect and sinless obedience, in the failure whereof he was
threatened with death. Man did fail, by which his nature was vitia¬
ted and corrupted, and his obedience became faulty and imperfect.
He therefore became liable to the penalty of the law, and still per¬
fect obedience was required of him. To the justification of a sinner,
therefore, is required the most complete obedience, active and pas-
nve ; or, in other words, purity of nature, perfect obedience, and the
sufferings of death ; all which meet in Christ, the representative of
his people, in whom they ere justified. There are, indeed, some
divines who exclude the active obedience of Christ from being
my part of the righteousrtess by which men are justified. They
mow it to have been a condition requisite in him as a Medi-
ator, qualifying him for his office ; but deny that it is the matter
o justification, or reckoned for righteousness to man. But
without the active obedience of Christ the law would not be satisfied ;
t e language of which is. Do and live; and unless its precepts be
obeyed, as well as its penalty endured, it cannot be satisfied ; and un-
231
less it be satisfied there can be no justification. If, therefore, men TheoWv
are justified by the righteousness of Christ, it must be by his active ^
obedience imputed and made over to them, so as to become theirs ^
even as David described the blessedness of the man unto whom God
imputeth righteousness without works, (Rom. iv. 6.) That this is
really the way in which men are justified, Dr. Gill thinks evident
because they must be justified either by an inherent or by an imputed
righteousness; but they cannot be justified by their own inherent
righteousness, for that is imperfect, and therefore not justifying
Hence the apostle ‘counts all things but dung, that he may win
Christ and be found in him ; not having his own righteousness, which
is of the law, but that which is through the faith of Christ, the right
eousness which is of God by faith,' (Phil. iii. 8, 9.) But by such a
righteousness as this a man cannot be justified in any other way than
by an imputation of it to him. Whence it follows, that ‘ as by one
man's disobedience many were made sinners by imputation, so by the
obedience of one shall many be made righteous, by having that obedience
placed to their own account.’ ”
As this author properly considers justification as the act of God,
he does not approve of the language in which faith is called the in¬
strument, either of conferring or receiving it. “ Faith,” says he,
(Body of Divinity, vol. i. book ii. sec. 5.) “is merely the evidence
of justification to the person justified; for ‘ faith is the evidence of
things not seen.’ The righteousness of God, of the God-man and
Mediator Jesus Christ, is revealed from faith to faith in the ever¬
lasting gospel, (Rom. i. 17,) and therefore must be before it is re¬
vealed, and before the faith to which it is revealed. Faith is that
grace whereby a soul, having seen its want of righteousness, beholds
in the light of the Divine Spirit a complete righteousness in Christ,
renounces its own, lays hold on that, puts it on as a garment, rejoices
in it, and glories of it; the Spirit of God witnessing to his spirit that
he is a justified person : and so he is evidently and dedaratively ‘jus¬
tified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and by the Spirit of our God-’
(1 Cor. vi. 11.) Faith adds nothing to the esse, only to the bene
esse of justification ; which is a complete act in the eternal mind of
God, without the being or consideration of faith, or any foresight of
it.. In the account of God, a man is as much justified before his
faith as after it ; and after he does believe, his justification depends
not on his acts of faith, for though we believe not, yet God abides faith¬
ful to his covenant-engagements with his son, by whose suretyship-
righteousness the elect are justified; but by faith men have a comfort¬
able sense, perception, and apprehension, of their justification, and enjoy
that peace of soul which results from it. It is by that only, under the
testimony of the Divine Spirit, that they know their interest in it, and
can claim it, and so have the comfort of it.”
Though this language differs from that of the Westminster Con-
fessipn, the author seems not to teach a different doctrine ; for if faith
be that grace by which a soul renounces its own righteousness, and
lays hold of Christ’s, which it puts on as a garment, it must be that
very thing which the compilers of the Confession meant by their de¬
finition of faith receiving and resting on Christ and his righteousness,
when they called it ‘‘ the alone instrument of justification.” Ac¬
cordingly this author elsewhere (Body of Practical Divinity, book i.
chap. 6,) teaches, that “ true faith in sensible sinners assents to Christ
and embraces him, not merely as a Saviour of man in general, but as
a special suitable Saviour for them in particular. It proceeds upon
Christ's being revealed in them as well as to them, by the spirit of
wisdom and revelation, in the knowledge of him as a Saviour that be¬
comes them. It comes not merely through external teachings by the
hearing of the word from men ; for no man, saith our blessed Lord,
can come to me except the Father draw him ; but such souls as are'
thus drawn, having heard and learned of the Father, believe not only
in the doctrine of Christ, but also in himself, trusting in him alone for
everlasting life and salvation.”
Were it not that Dr. Gill, in everything that he writes, has an
eye to the doctrine of election and reprobation, which he carries to a
greater height than almost any other divine with whose works we are
acquainted, he would differ little in his notions of justification from
the more moderate Arminiahs. “ Justification,” says Limborch, “ is
the merciful and gracious act of God, whereby he fully absolves from
all guilt the truly penitent and believing soul, through, and for the
sake ot Christ apprehended by a true faith; or gratuitously remits
sin upon the account of faith in Jesus Christ, and graciously imputes
that faith for righteousness.” Here, indeed, the imputation of Christ’s
righteousness is expressly denied ; but Dr. Waterland, who can hardly
be considered as a Calvinist, seems to contend for the^imputation of
that righteousness to the sinner, as well as for faith being the instru¬
ment by which it is received.
“ It cannot be for nothing,” says that able writer, (Summary
View of Justification,) “ that St. Paul so often and so emphatically
speaks of man’s being justified by faith, or through faith in Christ’s
blood ; and that he particularly notes it of Abraham, that hebelieved,
and that his faith was counted to him for justification, when he might
as easily have said that Abraham, to whom the gospel was preached,
232 T H E O
Theology, was justified by gospel-faith and obedience, bad he thought faith and
Y obedience equally instruments cf justification. Besides, it. is on all
hands allowed, that though St. Paul did not directly oppose faith to
evangelical works, yet he comprehended the works of the moral law
under those which he excluded from the office of justifying, in his
sense of the word justification. He even used such arguments as ex¬
tended to all kinds of works ; for Abraham’s works were excluded,
though they were undoubtedly evangelical.” To prove that he inter¬
prets the apostle’s doctrine fairly, the author quotes, from the genuine
epistle of Clemens of Rome, a passage, in which it appears, beyond a
doubt, that this fellow-labourer of St. Paul so understood the doctrine
of justifying faith as to oppose it even to evangelical works, however
exalted. “ It is true,” continues Waterland, “ Clemens elsewhere, and
St. Paul almost everywhere, insists upon true holiness of heart and
obedience of life as indispensable conditions of salvation or justifica¬
tion ; and of that, one would think, there could be no question among
men of any judgment or probity. But the question about conditions
is very distinct from the other question about instruments; and there¬
fore both parts may be true, viz., that faith and obedience are equally
conditions, and equally indispensable where opportunities permit;
and yet faith over and above is emphatically the instrument both of
receiving and holding justification, or a title to salvation.
“ To explain this matter more distinctly, let it be remembered,
that God may be considered either as a party contracting with man
on very gracious terms, or as a judge to pronounce sentence on him.
Man can enter into the covenant, supposing him adult, only by as¬
senting to it, and accepting it, to have and to hold it on such kind of
tenure as God proposes; that is to say, upon a self-denying tenure,
considering himself as a guilty man standing in need of pardon, and
of borrowed merits, and at length resting upon mercy. So here, the
previous question is, Whether a person shall consent to hold a pri¬
vilege upon this submissive kind of tenure or not? Such assent or
consent, if he comes into it, is the very thing which St. Paul and St.
Clemens call faith. And this previous and general question is the
question which both of them determine against any proud claimants
who would hold by a more self-admiring tenure.
“ Or if we next consider God as sittting in judgment, and man
before the tribunal going to plead his cause, here the question is.
What kind of plea shall a man resolve to trust his salvation upon ?
Shall he stand upon his innocence, and rest upon strict law ? or
shall he plead guilty, and rest in an act of grace ? If he chooses the
former, he is proud, and sure to be cast: if he chooses the latter, he
is safe so far in throwing himself upon an act of grace. Now this
question also, which St. Paul has decided, is previous to the ques¬
tion, What conditions even the act of grace itself finally insists upon?
A question which St. James in particular, and the general tenure of
the whole Scripture, has abundantly satisfied; and which could never
have been made a question by any considerate or impartial Chris¬
tian. None of our works are good enough to stand by themselves
before Him who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity. Christ
only is pure enough for it at first hand, and they that are Christ’s at
second hand in and through him. Now because it is by faith that
we thus interpose, as it were, Christ between God and us, in order
to gain acceptance by him; therefore faith is emphaticaliy the in¬
strument whereby we receive the grant of justification. Obedience
is equally a condition or qualification, but not an instrument, not
being that act of the mind whereby we look up to God and Christ,
and whereby we embrace the promises.”
But though Dr. Waterland contends that faith is the instrument
of justification, he does not, like the Antinomians, teach that it will
save men without works. “ The covenant of grace,” says he, “ has
conditions annexed to it of great importance, for without them no
instruments can avail. These are faith and obedience, as St. James
hath particularly maintained. St. Paul had before determined the
general and previous question respecting the plea by which we ought
to abide; and when some libertines, as is probable, had perverted
his doctrine of faith and grace, St. James showed that the very faith
which rests in a covenant of grace, implies a cordial submission to
the conditions of that covenant, otherwise it would be nothing but
an empty ceremony. The perfect agreement between St. Paul and
St. James in the article of justification, appears very clear and cer¬
tain. St. Paul declares, that in order to come at justification, it is
necessary to stand upon grace, not upon merit; which St. James
does not deny, but rather confirms, in what he says of the perfect
law of liberty, (James i. 25 ; ii. 12). St. Paul makes faith the in¬
strument of receiving that grace ; which St. James does not dispute,
but approves by what he says of Abraham, (ii. 23); only he mainl
tains, also, that in the conditionate sense, justification depends
equally upon faith and good works ; which St. Paul also teaches and
LOGY.
inculcates in effect, or, in other words, through all his writings. If Tf,f(
St. Paul bad had precisely the same question before him which St.. j- 11
James happened to have, he would have decided the same as St. "
James did; and if St. James had had precisely the same question
before him which St. Paul had, he would have determined just as
St. Paul did. Their principles were exactly the same, but the ques¬
tions were diverse ; and they had different adversaries to deal with
and opposite extremes to encounter, which is a common case.
“ It may be noted, that that faith which is here called a condition,
is of much wider compass than that particular kind of faith which is
precisely the instrument of justification. For faith as a condition
means the whole complex of Christian belief, as expressed in the
creeds; while faith as an instrument means only the laying hold on
grace, and resting in Christ’s merits, in opposition to our own de¬
servings : though this also, if it is a vital and operative principle,
(and if it is not, it is nothing worth), must of course draw after it
an hearty submission to, and observance of, all the necessary condi¬
tions of that covenant of grace wherein we- repose our whole trust
and confidence; so that St. Paul might well say, “ Do we then
make void the law (the moral law) through faith ? God forbid:
yea, we establish the law,” (Rom. iii. 51.) We exempt no man
from religious duties, which are duties still, though they do not
merit nor are practicable to such a degree as to be above the need of
pardon : they are necessary conditions in their measure of justifica¬
tion, though not sufficient in themselves to justify, nor perfect
enough to stand before Gcd or to abide trial: therefore Christ’s
merits must be taken to supply their defects ; and so our resting in
Christ’s atonement, by an humble self-denying faith, is our last
resort, our anchor of salvation both sure and steadfast, after we have
otherwise done our utmost towards the fulfilling of God’s sacred
laws, towards the performing of all the conditions required.
“ That good works, internal and external, are according as oppor¬
tunities offer and circumstances permit, conditions properly so called,
is clear from the whole tenor of Scripture, as hath been often and
abundantly proved by our own divines,1 and is admitted by the most
judicious among the foreign Reformed.2 Yet some have been very
scrupulous as to this innocent name, even while they allow the abso¬
lute necessity of good works as indispensable qualifications for fu¬
ture blessedness. Why not conditions therefore as well as qualifi¬
cations ? Perhaps because that name might appear to strike at ab¬
solute predestination, or unconditional election ; and there may lie
the scruple : otherwise the difference appears to lie rather in words
than in things.
“ Some will have them called not conditions, \)\xtfruits or conse¬
quents of justification. If they mean by justification the same as the
grace of the Holy Spirit, and the first grace of faith springing from
it, they say true ; and then there is nothing more in it than an im¬
proper use of the word justification, except that from abuse of words
very frequently arises some corruption of doctrine. If they mean
only, that outward acts of righteousness are fruits of inward habits
or dispositions, that also is undoubtedly true ; but that is no reason
why internal acts, virtues, graces, (good works of the mind), should
not be called conditions of justification; or why the outward acts
should not be justly thought conditions of preserving it. But if
they mean that justification is ordinarily given to adults without any
preparative or previous conditions of faith and repentance, that in.
deed is very new doctrine and dangerous, and opens a wide door to
carnal security and to all ungodliness.”
Sect. VIII.—Of the Person and Work of the Holt/ Spirit.
Our Saviour before his death promised to his disciples,
that after his ascension to heaven he should send unto them
another Comforter, (jrapaKXgros, he who stands by one and
assists as required, an advocate, a guide, a helper, fyc.) who
should abide with them for ever, even the Spirit of Truth,
(John xiv. 16, 17, &c.) Elsewhere this Spirit is denomi¬
nated “ the Holy Spirit,” “ the Spirit of God,” “ the Spirit
of Christ,” &c., and is frequently mentioned in union with
the Father and the Son as the object of adoration and the
author of blessing. (Comp. Matt, xxviii. 19; 2 Cor. xiii.
14, &c.) Hence theologians have denominated the Spirit
the third person in the divine Trinity. That there are three
persons in the one Godhead, has been shewn at large in a
former section of this article; and that the Holy Ghost is
one of these three, might be safely concluded from the pas-
S™l4'vol! «7. 5’4’ 516, 544, 5831 8451 66a Stillingfleet’s Worts, vol. Ui. p. 367, 380, 393, 398.
* Vossius de Bonis Operibus, Thes. x. p. 370. Op. tom. vi. Frid Spanhem. fil. Op. tom. iii. p. 141, 159.
THEOLOGY.
233
sages just referred to. But as more plausible objections
have been urged against his divinity than any that we have
met with against the divinity of Christ, it may not be im¬
proper to consider these before we proceed to give an ac¬
count of the graces which he imparts to the church. By the
Arians the Holy Ghost is considered as a creature; by the
Socinians and modern Unitarians, as they call themselves,
the words Holy Ghost are supposed to express, not a person
or spiritual subsistence, but merely an energy or operation,
a quality or power, of the Father, whom alone they acknow¬
ledge to be God. If this doctrine can be confuted, the
Arian hypothesis will fall to the ground of itself; for it is
not conceivable that any inspired teacher should command
I his followers to be baptized in the name of the self-existent
God and two creatures.
It is admitted by the Socinians themselves, that in the
scriptures many things are spoken of the Holy Ghost which
can be properly predicated only of a person ; but the infe¬
rence drawn from this concession they endeavour to invali¬
date by observing, that in scripture there are likewise ex¬
pressions in which things are predicated of abstract virtues,
i which can be literally true only of such persons as practise
(those virtues. Thus when St. Paul says, (1 Cor. xiii. 4-8),
* that “ charity sulfereth long and is kind, charity envieth not,
charity vaunteth not itself is not puffed up,” &c., we can¬
not suppose his meaning to be, that these actions are per¬
formed by charity in the abstract, but that every charitable
person, in consequence of that one Christian grace, suffereth
long and is kind, envieth not, vaunteth not himself, and is
not puffed up, &c. In like manner, say they, personal ac¬
tions are attributed to the Holy Ghost, which itself is no
person, but only the virtue, power, or efficacy, of God the
. Father; because God the Father, who Is a person, per-
f forms such actions by that power, virtue, or efficacy, in him¬
self, which is denominated the Holy Ghost. Thus when
we read (Acts x. 19, 20), that “ the Spirit said unto Peter,
Behold three men seek thee; arise therefore and get thee
down, and go with them, doubting nothihg, for I have sent
them we must understand that God the Father was the
person who spoke these words and sent the three men ; but
because he did so by that virtue in him which is called the
Spirit, therefore the Spirit is said to have spoken the words
and sent the men. Again, when “ the Holy Ghost said
(Acts xiii. 2) to those at Antioch, Separate me Barnabas
and Saul for the work whereunto I have called themwe
are to conceive that it was God the Father who command¬
ed the two apostles to be separated for the work to which
he had called them; but because he had done all this by
that power within him which is called the Holy Ghost,
| therefore his words and actions are attributed to the Holy
Ghost, just as long-suffering in men is attributed to cha-
rity.
This reasoning has a plausible appearance, and would be
of much force were all the actions which in scripture are
attributed to the Holy Ghost of such a nature that they
could be supposed to have proceeded from the person of
God the Father in consequence of any particular potver or
virtue in him ; but this is far from being the case. Thus,
the Spirit is said (Rom. viii. 26, 27) to make interces¬
sion tor us; but with whom can we suppose God the Fa¬
ther, the fountain of divinity, to intercede ? Our Saviour
assured his disciples, (John xiv. 26; xv. 26; xvi. 13, 14,
15), that the Father would, in his name, send to them the
Holy Ghost, who is the Comforter; that he would himself
send the Comforter unto them from the Father; that the
Comforter should not speak of himself, but speak only what
he should hear ; and that he should receive of Christ’s, and
shew it unto them. But we cannot, without blasphemy
and absurdity, suppose that the Father would, in the name
of Christ, send himself; that the Son would send the Fa¬
ther from the Father; and the Father would not speak of
VOL. XXI.
himself, but speak only what he heard ; or that either the Theology.
Father in person, or a quality of the Father, should receive
any thing of Christ to shew unto the apostles.
The sagacity of Socinus perceived the force of such ob¬
jections as these to his notion of the Holy Ghost being no¬
thing more than the power of the Father personified; and
therefore he invented another prosopopoeia to serve his pur¬
pose in the interpretation of those texts to which this one
cannot be applied. “ The Spirit of God,” says he, (Faust,
Socinus in Resp. ad Wickam, cap. 10J, “ may be consider¬
ed either as a property or power in God, or as the things
on which that power is working. When taken in the for¬
mer sense, the Spirit, where any personal attribute is given
to it, means God the Father; when taken in the latter
sense, it means the man on whom the power of the Father
is working; who, as long as he is affected by that power, is
therefore called the Spirit of God;” and he quotes, we
think most absurdly, the tenth verse of the second chapter
of the first epistle to the Corinthians, as a text in which by
the Spirit is meant an inspired man who could search all
things, yea, even the deep things of God.
How his modern followers, who deny the plenary inspi¬
ration even of Christ, will relish such a degree of inspira¬
tion as this, which raises mere men to a temporary equality
with God, we know not; but leaving them to settle the dis¬
pute with their master, we shall produce one or two passa¬
ges in which personal attributes are given to the Spirit of
God, when it is impossible to conceive that Spirit, either
as a power inherent in the Divine Father, or as the person
on whom that power is operating. We need not bring new-
texts into view, as some of those already quoted will serve
our purpose. When our Saviour promises that the Holy
Ghost, the Comforter, the Spirit of truth, should be sent by
the Father and the Son to the apostles, we have seen, that
by this Spirit he could not mean the Father or a property
of the Father; neither could he possibly mean the apostles
themselves, unless we are to suppose that the Father and
the Son sent St. Peter to St. Peter, and that St. Peter, so
sent, came to St. Peter. Again, when Christ says of the
Holy Ghost, “ he shall receive of mine, and shall shew it
unto you,” he could not, for the reason already assigned,
mean by the Holy Ghost the Father or the power of the
Father; and surely his meaning was not, that the apostles,
under the influence of the power of the Father, should re¬
ceive something and shew it each to himself. The Holy
Ghost therefore is unquestionably a person; for though there
are many passages of scripture in which the gifts of the Holy
Ghost are called the Holy Ghost, they are so called by a
very common figure of speech, in which the effect receives
the name of its cause : and since this person is joined with
the Father and the Son in the formula of Christian baptism ;
since they who lied to the Holy Ghost are said (Acts v. 4)
to have lied unto God; since blasphemy against him is a
more heinous offence than the same sin against even the
Father or the Son, (Mark iii. 28, 29); and since it was by
the operation of the Holy Ghost that Jesus Christ was con¬
ceived of the Virgin Mary, and even on that account called
the Son of God (Luke i. 35); it follows that the Holy
Ghost is God, of the same substance with the Father and
Son.
It was this Divine Spirit which, on the day of Pentecost,
inspired the apostles with the knowledge of different lan¬
guages ; and as these were given only to enable them to
preach the gospel to every creature, it can admit of no
doubt but that He, who so amply provided the means of
preaching, would take care that the gospel should be preach¬
ed in purity. Our Saviour had told his apostles, that the
Comforter would guide them into all the truth, (eis navav
Trjv d\r)6eiav), and bring all things to their remembrance,
whatsoever he had said unto them; but if they had not com¬
prehended the meaning of what he said, the bare remem-
2 g
234
THEOLOGY.
Theology, brance of his sayings would have been of little importance.
v ^ That before this miraculous shedding abroad of the Spirit
they had but a very imperfect knowledge of his doctrines,
and of the purpose for which he had come into the world,
is apparent from that unseasonable question which they put
to him when assembled to witness his glorious ascension;
“ Lord, wilt thou at this time restore again the kingdom to
Israel ?” Their minds still cherished with fondness the vain
prospect of temporal power; but after the day of Pentecost
they were directed to nobler objects. From the same Spirit
they received diversities of gifts besides that of language,
and thus were well qualified to declare to the world the
whole counsel of God.
But the work of the Holy Spirit has not been restricted
to the apostles and other possessors of miraculous gifts in the
early church. As man is designed for a supernatural state
in heaven, he stands in need of supernatural direction to
guide him to that state. “ No man,” says our Saviour,
“ can come to me except the Father draw him;” and the
apostle tells us, that “ as no man knoweth the things of a
man save the spirit of a man winch is in him, even so none
knoweth the things of God but the Spirit of God,” (John vi.
44; 2 Cor.ii. 11.) This omniscient Spirit indeed searcheth all
things, yea even the “ deep things of God,” and revealeth
them to the sons of men, to enlighten their understandings
and purify their hearts. The grace which he sheds abroad is
either external and general, or internal and particular. The
former has been extended to the whole church of God under
the patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian dispensations, in such
a revelation of the divine will as was sufficient to instruct men
unto eternal life, whether they had a full view or not of
that stupendous plan of redemption, by which the kingdom
of heaven was opened to them after the forfeiture of the
terrestrial Paradise; for there have been “ holy prophets
ever since the world began; and prophecy came not at any
time by the will of man, but holy men of God spake as they
were moved by the Holy Ghost,” (Luke i. 70, and 2 Peter
i. 21.) Hence it is that all scripture was given by inspira¬
tion of God to teach every thing which it is necessary for
us to know and believe; and the scripture is that work of
the Spirit which is extended to the universal church.
But the same spirit which thus generally reveals the ob¬
ject of faith to the church, does likewise particularly illu¬
minate the minds of individual believers, working in them
an assent to that which is taught them from the written
word. It was thus that “ the Lord opened the heart of
Lydia, (Acts xvi 14,) that she attended to the things which
u ere spoken by Paul; it is thus that “ the word preached
doth not profit if it be not mixed with faith in them who
hear it,” (Heb. iv. 2); and it is thus that “ God deals
to every man the measure of faith,” (Rom. xii.3); for “by
grace are we saved through faith, which is not of ourselves;
it is the gift of God,’ (Eph. ii. 8.) This illumination of the
bpint was conveyed to the apostles “ in a sound from
leaven as of a rushing mighty wind,” because it was meant
to testify to the world that they were chosen ministers of
the gospel; but the ordinary Christian receives it “ in the
still small voice,” because it is conveyed to him only to
lures” Un^erstan^in» t^at may understand the scrip-
Another operation of the Spirit on the minds of believers
is that which m scripture is called Regeneration; for
' according to his mercy God saveth us by the washing of
regeneration and renewing of the Holy Ghost, which he
sheds on us abundantly through Jesus Christ our Lord,”
( lit. i. 5, 6.) lo those who believe that we derive from
Adam a corrupted nature, this particular grace must appear
so absolute^ necessary, that without it we could have no
relish for heaven or heavenly things. “ The natural man,”
we are told, “ receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God,
tor they are foolishness to him; neither can he know them
because they are spiritually discerned,” (1 Cor. ii. 14.) In- Tlieoi0>
deed whatever be the powers of our moral faculties, when
compared with those of our first father, it is so long before
they be completely developed, that we should infallibly be
lost, if we were not blessed by a supernatural guide, when
reason is incapable of directing our conduct. Our passions
and appetites are in their full strength before experience
has furnished the mind with materials, by means of which
motives may be weighed; and therefore it would be impos¬
sible, without the aid of a divine interference, completely
to overcome those evil habits which are formed by sinful
indulgence. So true is it, that “ except a man be born
again of water and of the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter in¬
to the kingdom of God.” This change in our dispositions,
from an immoderate attachment to earth to a relish for the
things of heaven, is in scripture called “ a renewing of our
minds, a new creation, a new man;” in opposition to our
natural disposition, which is called “ the old man, corrupted
according to the deceitful lusts.”
A third office of the Holy Spirit is to lead, direct, and
govern us through all the periods of our lives. Without such
a leader and guide, the temptations with which we are sur¬
rounded would certainly overcome us, and we should faint
long before we arrive at the end of our journey. By the
very constitution of our nature we are subjected in some
degree to the influence of sense, of which the objects are
present, while the enjoyments of heaven are future, and
seen, as at a distance, only by the eye of faith; but “ the law
of the Spirit of life, in Christ Jesus, hath made us free from
the law of sin and death;” for God worketh in us both to
will and to do of his good pleasure; and as many as are
thus led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God; and
while they walk in the Spirit, they do not fulfil the lusts of
the flesh.” Without the aid of the same Spirit, we could not
even make our prayers acceptable; for since “our confi¬
dence in God is, that he heareth us only when we ask any
thing according to his will; and since we know not what
we should pray for as we ought, the Spirit itself maketh
intercession for us with groanings which cannot be uttered.”
(Rom. viii. 26.)
A fourth operation of the Holy Ghost, as he is the sanc¬
tifier of Christians, is to join them to Christ, and make them
members of that one body of which he is the head. “ For
by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body, (1 Cor. xii.
12, 13); and as the body is one and hath many members,
and all the members of that one body being many are one
body, so also is Christ.” “ Hereby we know that God abideth
in us, by the Spirit which he hath given us.”
It is likewise the office of the Holy Ghost to give us an
earnest of our everlasting inheritance, to create in us a sense
of the paternal love of God, and thereby to assure us of the
adoption of sons. “ As many as are led by the Spirit of
God, they are the sons of God; and because we are sons,
God hath sent forth the spirit of his Son into our hearts,
lor we have not received the spirit of bondage again to
fear; but we have received the Spirit of adoption, whereby
we cry Abba, Father; the Spirit itself bearing witness with
our spirit, that we are the children of God.” (Gal. iv. 6;
Rom. viii. 15, 16.)
By these, and the like means, does the Spirit of God sanc¬
tify the sons of men; and in consequence of this sanctifi¬
cation proceeding immediately from his office, he is called
the Holy Spirit and the Comforter. This is such a pro¬
vision “ for renewing us in the spirit, of our minds, and en¬
abling us to put on the new man, which, after God, is
created in righteousness and true holiness,” as, when made
known by revelation, appears to have been expedient, may
be conceived to have been even necessary, and though
reason could hardly have hoped for it, is contradicted by
none of our natural notions either of God or of man.
Ohs. See Owen’s Discourse concerning the Holy Spirit. J. Pye
Ward-
T H E
Smith On thePersonality of the Holy Spirit. Lond. 1831.
law’s Discourses on the Socinian Controversy, Disc. x.
Sect IX.— Of Death and its consequences.
As death has been introduced into our world by sin, and
as every member of the race has sinned, the lives of all are
forfeited and must in due time be yielded as Providence may
appoint. When this takes place, the soul is separated from
the body, and the latter speedily decomposes into kindred
dust. The former, however, still retains possession of all
its peculiar faculties, and passes at once into a state of se¬
parate existence, the character of which is determined by
the conduct of the individual during life. To those who
have availed themselves of the gracious provision made by
Christ for their redemption, death brings an immediate en¬
trance into the enjoyment of heaven; while for those who
have neglected or despised that provision, there remains
only the endurance of the punishment which the Great
Judge of all shall see necessary to inflict. (Comp. Rom. v.
12; Matt. x. 28; Luke xvi. 22—31; Phil.i. 23; Rom. xiv.
13, &c.)
This state of separate existence is destined to continue
only for a time. Christ has himself arisen from the dead as
“ the first fruits of them that sleep,” and we are assured,
that as he arose, so must all the dead who possess that na¬
ture of which he partook, be raised at the last day. When
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 _
THEOPHRASTUS, a celebrated philosopher, was a
native of Eresium, a maritime town in the island of Lesbos,
and is supposed to have been born about the year 392 be-
i fore the Christian era. His father was by trade a fuller.
' The original name of the son, we are informed, was Tyr-
tamus; but on account of his conspicuous eloquence, he
I was called Euphrastus, and afterwards Theophrastus. At
Ian early age he repaired to Athens, where he successively
became the disciple of Plato and of Aristotle. On the retire¬
ment ol the latter, he became the head of the Peripatetic
school; and so high was his reputation as a teacher of
philosophy, that at one period the number of his scholars
amounted to two thousand. He appears to have reached
a very advanced age. If the preface to his Characters is
genuine, and if one passage which it contains is correct in
the reading, he undertook that work at the age of ninety-
nine. This statement however cannot be received without
the utmost suspicion. He succeeded Aristotle in 322,
and was himself succeeded by Strato in 287 b.c. He had
thus presided in the Lycaeum for about thirty-five years.^
His works, according to the catalogue of Diogenes Laer¬
tius, were very numerous ; and several of them have been
preserved in a state more or less perfect. To the stock of
natural knowledge he made some important contributions.
The largest of his works are two which relate to the his¬
tory and to the causes of plants; and by these he has es¬
tablished a claim to be regarded as the father of botanical
science. His Characters form one of the most remarkable
compositions which ancient Greece has bequeathed to our
times.
The works of Theophrastus were first printed by Aldus,
in two volumes of his edition of Aristotle, Venet. 1497-8,
fol. A separate edition was long afterwards produced by
Heinsius, Lugd. Bat. 1()13, fol. Jhis only contains the
text, and a Latin version, without annotations; nor does
the very learned editor appear to have bestowed any ex-
traordinary labour on the undertaking. A more elaborate
edition was at length published by Schneider, Lipsiae,
1818-21, 5 tom. 8vo. The text is comprised in the first
^ volume ; the others are occupied with a Latin version,
THE 235
tnat period arrives, the Saviour shall again, in person, re- Theology,
visit this world, summon from their grave the bodies of all Theophras-
mankind who have died, change in a moment the bodies of tus-
those who shall then be alive, and afterwards proceed to a
solemn trial of the whole, each one by himself, according
to their deeds done in the body. At "the close, the eter^
nal destiny of each will be announced, and the mediatorial
reign of Christ terminated by the introduction of the right¬
eous into the fulness of that celestial enjoyment to which
our race was originally destined, and the banishment of the
wicked into that place which was prepared for the devil and
his angels. (Comp. 1 Cor. xv.; John xi. 23-26; Matt. xxv.
31-46; Rom. xiv. 9, 10; 2 Thess. i. 5-10, &e.)
Such are the leading principles of that great system of reli¬
gious truth which the Bible unfolds. In stating them, our ob¬
ject has uniformly been, with regard to such as are generally
adopted among pious inquirers, to present them clearly, and
with their Scripture evidence, to our readers; and in regard
to those on which differences of opinion have prevailed
among such, to bring forward, candidly and impartially, the
views held, and the reasons urged, on both sides. It is for
the intelligent reader, with his Bible in his hand, to deter¬
mine for himself what is right; and, as one who must an¬
swer to the Judge of all for his opinions as well as his con¬
duct, to embrace and follow what he is satisfied the inspired
writers teach.
annotations, various readings, and an index. Of the “ His-
toria Plantarum” an elaborate edition was published by
Bodseus, Amst. 1644, fol. A separate volume had for¬
merly appeared under the title of “ Julii Cmsaris Scaligeri
Animadversiones in Historias Theophrasti.” Lugduni,
1584, 8vo. The same learned man had likewise published
“Commentarii et Animadversiones in sex libros de Causis
Plantarum Theophrasti.’* Lugd. 1566, fol. The octavo
volume is a book of rare occurrence. An English transla¬
tion of the treatise on stones, accompanying the original,
was published by Sir John Hill, M.D. Lond."l746, 8vo.
Of the Characters of Theophrastus, the separate editions
are very numerous. The earliest, which only includes fif¬
teen characters, is that of Pirckheymher, Norembergae,
1527, 8vo. But for the most able and conspicuous edition
we are indebted to Casaubon, Lugd. 1592, 8vo. This
edition, which has often been reprinted, is accompanied
with a most learned and elaborate commentary. Here we
ought not perhaps to overlook the edition of Needham,
Cantab. 1712, 8vo. He has published the prelections of
Duport, professor of Greek at Cambridge, on thirteen of
the characters, and has reprinted the commentary of Ca¬
saubon. The editions by Fischer in 1763, and Schneider
in 1799, likewise deserve to be specified. The number
of characters Casaubon had augmented to twenty-eight.
Other two were long afterwards brought to light by Ama-
duzzi, who published them in a splendid volume printed
by Bodoni : “ Characterum Ethicorum Theophrasti Ere-
sii Capita duo hactenus anecdota, quae ex cod. MS. Vati-
cano saeculi XI. Grasce edidit, Latine vertit, praefatione et
adnotationibus illustravit Johannes Christophorus Amadu-
tius. Parmae, 1786, 4to. Here the Greek text occupies
six pages, but the volume extends to nearly one hundred
and forty. The Characters of Theophrastus have been
translated into many languages. The version of La Bru-
yere, with additional characters by the translator, ranks
among the most conspicuous books in the French language.
His, version was transferred into English in 1699 :&Bud-
gell’s translation of the original followed in 1713, and
Gally’s in 1725. A more recent version has appeared
1 Clinton’s Fasti Hellenic!, vol. ii. p. 183.
236
THE
THE
Theopom- under the subsequent title : “ The Characters of Theophras-
Pus tus, translated from the Greek, and illustrated by physiog-
Thermia no<:nical sketches. To which are subjoined the Greek text,
v with notes, and hints on the individual varieties of human
nature. By Francis Howell.” Lond. 1824, 8vo.
THEOPOMPUS, a celebrated Greek orator and histo¬
rian, was born in the island Chios, and flourished in the
reign of Alexander the Great. He was one of the most
famous of all the disciples of Isocrates, and won the prize
from all the panegyrists whom Artemisia invited to praise
Mausolus. He wrote several works, which are lost.
THEORBO (Ital. Tiarbo), a large kind of lute, long
disused.
THEOREM, a proposition which terminates in theory,
and which considers the properties of things already made
or done; or it is a speculative proposition deduced from
comparing together several definitions. A theorem is some¬
thing to be proved, and a problem something to be done.
THEORY, in general, denotes any doctrine which ter¬
minates in speculation, without considering the practical
uses or application thereof.
THEOSQPHISTS, a sect of men who pretend to de¬
rive all their knowledge from divine illumination. They
boast that, by means of this celestial light, they are not
only admitted to the intimate knowledge of God, and of all
divine truth, but have access to the most sublime secrets
of nature. They ascribe it to the singular manifestation of
divine benevolence, that they are able to make such a use
of the element of fire, in the chemical art, as enables them
to discover the essential principles of bodies, and to disclose
stupendous mysteries in the physical world. They even
pretend to an acquaintance with those celestial beings which
form the medium of intercourse between God and man, and
to a power of obtaining from them, by the aid of magic, as¬
trology, and other similar arts, various kinds of information
and assistance. To this class belonged Paracelsus, Robert
Fludd, Jacob Bdhm or Bcehmen, Van Helmont, Peter Poi-
ret, and the Rosicrucians.
THERAPEUTJE, a term applied to those that are
wholly in the service of religion. This general term has
been applied to particular sects of men, concerning whom
there have been great disputes among the learned.
THERAPEUTICS, that part of medicine which ac¬
quaints us with the rules that are to be observed, and the
medicines to be employed, in the cure of diseases.
THERMfE, hot baths or bagnios. Luxury and extra¬
vagance were in nothing carried to such heights as in the
thermae of the Roman emperors. Ammianus Marcellinus
complains that they were built to such an extent as to
equal whole provinces; from which description Valesius
w’ould make an abatement, by reading piscina instead of
provincial., And yet after all, the remains of some still
standing are sufficient testimonies for the historian’s cen¬
sure ; and the accounts transmitted of their ornaments and
furniture, such as being laid with precious stones (Seneca),
set round with seats of solid silver (Pliny), with pipes and
cisterns ot the same metal (Statius), rather confirm than in¬
validate the censure. The most remarkable bagnios were
those of Diocletian and Caracalla at Rome, great part of
which remains at this day. The lofty arches, stately pil¬
lars, variety of foreign marble, curious vaulting of the
roofs, great number of spacious apartments, all attract the
curiosity of the traveller. They had also their summer and
w inter baths.
I HERMIA, an island of Greece, in the southern part
of the Archipelago. It is about fifty-five square miles in
extent, is flat on the coast, but increases in height towards
the centre. The soil is generally fertile, and produces
good wheat, wine, figs, and cotton wool. The raising of
silk is an important object of pursuit; and much honey and
wax are collected. It contains 6000 inhabitants, all Greeks.
It formerly had natural warm baths, but they are not now There
in use. The chief tow n is of the same name, and stands on mete:
the north-east side of the island. It is the seat of a Greek
bishop, who has sixteen churches under his jurisdiction.
Near to it there is a very secure harbour, called Porto S.
Grini, wffiere one half of the population reside. Long. 24.
15. E. Lat. 37. 20. N.
THERMOMETER, from warm, and g-srssw, /Invents
measure; an instrument for indicating the temperature ofoPhet
bodies, or the intensity of their heat or cold, in terms of1®0®1#,
the expansion of one or more of them. But such an in¬
strument is seldom adapted to afford any direct measure of
absolute heat; for the expansion of every substance which
has yet been properly tried, proceeds in some higher ratio
than the corresponding increase of absolute heat. Of this,
air affords a remarkable example, as wfill be seen in the sequel.
Thermometers seem to have been invented about the end
of the sixteenth or beginning of the seventeenth century,
though, like many other useful inventions, it is not agreed
to whom the honour of the first of them belongs. Boer-
haave ascribes it to Cornelius Drebel, Fulgenzio to Paolo
Sarpi, and Sanctorio claims this honour for himself, being
supported by Borelli and Malpighi. But M. Libri, after
bestowing a great deal of labour and research on the sub¬
ject (Annales de Chimie for December 1830), maintains,
principally on the authority of Castelli and Viviani, that
Galileo had invented the thermometer prior to 1597, and
that Sagredo perfected it. There is nothing improbable
however in thermometers having been really invented by
several different persons, independently of each other, and
much about the same time.
The first form of an instrument for indicating the tem- Air-tk
perature, seems to have been a very imperfect air-thermo-m0IKl
meter. It had been long known that air expands consi¬
derably with heat, and contracts again with cold, and that
this expansion or contraction is greater or less according
as the heat or cold applied is so. The principle, then, on
which this air-thermometer was constructed is very simple.
It consists of a glass tube, BE, fig. 1, Plate CCCCXCIV.,Phte
connected at one end with a large glass ball A, and havingccccs:
its other end immersed in an open vessel, or terminating in
a ball DE, with a narrow orifice at D; which vessel or ball
contains some coloured liquor that will not easily freeze.
But the ball A must be first warmed, to expel a portion of
the air through the orifice D; and then, while cooling
again, the liquor, pressed by the atmosphere, will enter the
ball DE. The quantity of included air is to be so adjust¬
ed that, at a mean temperature of the weather, the liquor
may stand near the middle of the tube, as at C, when the
weight of the liquor, and the elasticity of the included air,
counterbalance the pressure of the atmosphere. As the
temperature increases, the included air, expanding there¬
by, will drive the liquor into the low^er ball, and conse¬
quently its surface will descend in the tube. On the con¬
trary, as the temperature falls, the air in the ball contracts,
and the liquor pressed by the atmosphere will ascend; and
such ascent or descent will be more or less, according to
the change of temperature. To the tube is affixed a gra¬
duated scale, by means of which the motions of the liquor
in the tube, and consequently the variations in the tempe¬
rature, may be observed.
This instrument having been found extremely defective, Its
owing to the air in the tube being affected by every va¬
riation in the pressure of the atmosphere, the Florentine
Academy, about the middle of the seventeenth century,
instead of air, employed‘alcohol, which, being coloured,
was enclosed in a fine glass tube, having a hollow ball a,qerera
one end A, fig. 2, and closed at the other end D. The
ball and tube were filled with alcohol, so as to stand at a
convenient height, as at C, when the weather is of a mean
temperature. This may be effected by immersing the open
THERMOMETER. 237
nd of the tube into a vessel of coloured alcohol, and then
heating the ball to expel the greater part of the air, or by
Placing it under a receiver of the air-pump. When the
thermometer is properly filled, the end D is closed by
drawing it to a point, and slightly melting it at a lamp, and
it is then said to be hermetically sealed. Formerly the in¬
cluded air was generally left of about one third its natural
density, to prevent the alcohol in the tube from separating ;
but some now try to expel the air entirely, and assign the
same reason for so doing. When the temperature in¬
creases, the alcohol expands, and rises in the tube; and
when the heat decreases, it descends, as measured by means
■of an attached scale.
fe(.L The alcohol thermometer, being unaffected by varia¬
tions in the pressure of the atmosphere, soon came into ge¬
neral use, and was at an early period introduced into Bri¬
tain by Mr Boyle. To this instrument, as then used, there
are, however, many objections. The liquor employed not
being always of the same strength, different tubes filled
with it, and exposed to the same temperature, did not cor¬
respond. It was another defect, that the scale did not com-
jmence at any fixed point. The highest term was adjust-
|ed to the great sunshine heats of Florence, which are very
»variable and undetermined; and frequently the wmrkman
formed the scale after his own fancy. While the thermo¬
meter was so defective, it could not be of general use.
To discover some fixed point by which a determinate
[)Mscale might be obtained, to which all thermometers might
be accurately adjusted and rendered comparable among
themselves, was the next desideratum. Mr Boyle, who
had at an early period studied the subject, proposed the
freezing point of oil of aniseeds; but this he soon aban-
i doned. Dr Halley next proposed that thermometers should
be graduated in a deep pit, where the temperature in all
seasons is pretty uniform ; and that the point at which the
spirit of wine stood there, should be the commencement of
the scale. But this was evidently so inconvenient that it
also was speedily abandoned. The freezing point of water
he regarded as a variable one.
It seems to have been reserved for the genius of Sir
Isaac Newton to determine this important point, on which
the accuracy and value of the thermometer depends. He
chose, as fixed, those points at which water freezes and
boils; the very points which experiments have since de¬
termined to be the most fixed and convenient. Sensible
of the disadvantages of spirit of wine, he tried linseed oil,
i which is capable of about fifteen times greater expansion.
It has not been observed to freeze even in great colds, and
it bears a considerable heat before it boils. With these
advantages, it was, in 1701, used by Newton, who esti¬
mated by it the temperatures of boiling water, melting wax,
boiling spirit of wine, and melting tin. Flis method of ad¬
justing the scale was this. Supposing the bulb, when im¬
mersed in thawing snow, to contain 10,000 parts, he found
the oil expand by the heat of the human body so as to take
up ^gth more space, or 10,256 such parts; and by water
I boiling strongly 10,725, and by melting tin 11,516: so
that, reckoning the freezing point as a common limit be¬
tween heat and cold, he there began his scale, marking it
0°, and the heat of the human body he made 12° ; and as¬
suming the degrees of heat proportional to the expansion,
or 256 : 725 : : 12 : 34, this last will express the heat of
boiling water, and, by the same rule, 72 that of melting tin.
To the application of linseed oil as a measure of heat
and cold, there are insuperable objections. It is so viscid,
and adheres so strongly to the sides of the tube, that it
moves too slowly. In a sudden cold, so much remains ad¬
hering to the sides of the tube, that the top of the oil is
seen lower than the temperature requires it.
All the thermometers hitherto proposed having been
liable to many inconveniences, this led Reaumur to attempt
tor
m
OI.S.
a new one, which was described in the Memoires de VAca- Thermo-
demie for 1730. This thermometer was made with spirit meter,
of w ine. He took a large ball and tube, graduating the
latter such, that the space from one division to another '
might contain the 1000th part of the liquor as it stood at ^ine ther-
the freezing point, which he adjusted by an artificial con-mometer,
gelation of water. Then putting the ball and part of the
tube into boiling w^ater, he observed whether it rose eighty
divisions; if it exceeded these, he added water, or if it fell
short of eighty divisions, he added rectified spirit. The
liquor thus prepared served for making a thermometer of
any size which would agree with his standard.
But as the bulbs were three or four inches in diameter, Its defects,
the surrounding ice would be melted before its tempera¬
ture could be communicated to the whole bulb, and con¬
sequently the freezing point would be marked too high.
Dr Martine accordingly found, that instead of 32° Fahren¬
heit, it corresponded with 34°, or a little above it. Doubts
have often been started whether Reaumur had really ever
put his thermometer in boiling water, considering that al¬
cohol boils at a much lower temperature. But unless the
upper end of the tube be open, or comparatively cold, the
alcohol so enclosed will, owing to the increased pressure,
scarcely boil at all, and more especially if a portion of air
be included along with it. No doubt there will be some
risk of bursting the bulb, though not much with such weak
alcohol as Reaumur’s. It is however quite obvious that
the boiling point of any liquid with which a thermometer
•may be filled is not necessarily the upper limit of its scale.
At length mercury was proposed as a fluid preferable to Mercurial
any yet employed in the construction of thermometers, thermome-
The first idea of this is usually ascribed to Dr Halley; but te^s•
he did not put it in practice, on account of the small ex¬
pansibility of mercury. Boerhaave says the mercurial ther¬
mometer w7as first constructed by Olaus Roemer ; but the
honour of this is generally given to Fahrenheit of Amster¬
dam, who described it to the Royal Society of London in
1724.
Mercury is superior to alcohol and oil, except for very
low temperatures, and is much more manageable than air.
Of all liquids it is the most easily freed from air. It sus¬
tains a heat of 680° of Fahrenheit’s scale, and does not
congeal till it fall 39 or 40 degrees below 0°. It is the
most sensible of any fluid to heat and cold, even air not
excepted. Count Rumford found that mercury was heated
from the freezing to the boiling point of water in 58 se¬
conds, wdiile water took 133 and air 617 seconds. The ex¬
pansion of mercury is only about ^th of that of alcohol,
but it is sufficient for most of the purposes of a thermome¬
ter. As to what is usually esteemed the chief thermometric
property of mercury, that of its variations of volume being
nearly proportional to the variations in its absolute heat; this
at best only argues the mercurial thermometer to be a toler¬
ably good measure of the variations of its own heat, or of
that of any other mass of mercury, which certainly is a
property of very limited importance, if, after all, it leave us
in the dark regarding the relation which subsists between
the degrees of the mercurial scale and the corresponding
variations of the absolute heat in other bodies.
Perhaps the simplest mode of filling a mercurial thermo¬
meter is to put the mercury into a paper funnel tied round
the top of the tube. But unless the bore be unusually
large, no mercury will enter it till the air be more or less
expelled by heating the bulb; and then, on allowing it to
cool again, the atmospheric pressure will force in the mer¬
cury. This operation should be done cautiously, by alter¬
nately heating gently and then cooling the bulb, and at
length making it boil so as completely to expel the air. It
is almost needless to add, that the tube as well as the mer¬
cury should be perfectly clean. To close the extremity of
the tube, it is first softened by heat and drawn to a capii-
238
THERMOMETER.
lary orifice. Then, if it is wished to free the tube entirely
of air, the bulb is heated fully to the highest temperature
it is ever intended to measure, and whilst in that state, the
mercury then filling the whole tube, the capillary point is
to be melted in the flame of a lamp.
To render a very slender thread of mercury more distinct¬
ly visible, Dr Wilson of Glasgow introduced tubes with flat¬
tened bores. This form, which is now in very general use,
has often been objected to, as tending to render the bore
unequal; but from attentively witnessing the process of
drawing tubes, we are rather at a loss to see any ground
for the objection. The uniformity of a bore may be easily
tested by trying whether the same minute quantity of mer¬
cury occupies the same length in every part of the tube
when shifted through it. There is however one fortunate
circumstance regarding tubes, which seems to be entirely
overlooked, namely, that the bore, whether cylindrical or
flattened, is seen considerably magnified by the refraction
of the glass.
The bulbs of thermometers are generally spherical.
Sometimes, however, to suit particular purposes, or to ac¬
quire more speedily the temperature of contiguous bodies,
other figures are given them, such as that of a pear, an egg,
a lens, or a cylinder. When a bulb is exposed to any
pressure materially different from the mean of the atmo¬
sphere, its size, especially if large and thin in the glass, is
so much affected as sensibly to alter the height of the mer¬
cury in the stem ; but this is so different in different ther¬
mometers, that the requisite correction can only be ascer¬
tained for any one by actual trial.
The fixed points which are now universally adopted for
thermometers are the boiling and freezing points of water.
The boiling water point, it is well known, varies some de¬
grees according to the pressure of the atmosphere. In an
exhausted receiver water boils at 98° or 100° Fahrenheit,
whereas in Papin’s digester it may require 400°. Nay,
unless the bottom of the digester be hotter than the top,
the pressure of the steam will completely prevent any boil¬
ing till the vessel burst. Hence it appears that water boils
at a lower point, according to its height in the atmosphere,
or to the smaller pressure of the air upon it.
The history, as well as the mode of applying the varia¬
tions in the boiling point of water to the mensuration of
heights, has been given by Sir John Leslie under the
article Barometrical Measurements, vol. iv. p. 401,
which probably was written for the Supplement to the former
edition of this work, before Dr Wollaston had described his
thermometrical barometer in the Philosophical Transac¬
tions for 1817. But at the Dublin meeting of the British
Association, Colonel Sykes, after objecting to this refined
apparatus, as expensive, and so fragile as to be extremely
liable to accidents in travelling on mountains, described a
variety of very satisfactory measurements which he had
made with common thermometers.
As artists may be obliged to adjust thermometers under
therm " vfry different pressures of the atmosphere, M. Deluc, in
ters to his Recherches sur les Mod. de l Atmosphere, from a series
these. experiments, has given an equation for this difference,
in Paris measure, which has been verified by Sir George
Shuckburgh; who, as well as Dr Horsley and Dr Maskelyne,
has adapted the equation and rules to English measures, and
reduced the allowances into tables. Dr Horsley’s rule de¬
duced from Deluc’s is this :
Fixed
points
Rule for
adjusting
Barometer.
26-0
26- 5
27- 0
27- 5
28- 0
28- 5
29- 0
29- 5
30- 0
30- 5
31- 0
Deluc’s
Correction.
— 6-83
— 5-93
— 5-04
— 4-16
— 3-31
— 2-45
— 1-62
— 0-80
0-00
+ 0-79
+ 1-57
Differ¬
ence.
•90
•89
•88
•87
•86
•83
•82
•80
•79
•78
Shuckburgh’s
Correction.
— 7-09
— 6-18
— 5-27
— 4-37
— 3-48
— 2-59
— 1-72
— 0-85
0-00
+ 0-85
+ 1-69
Differ¬
ence.
•91
•91
•90
•89
•89
•87
•87
•85
•85
•84
Tliernc,
meter,
99000
899
log. z— 92-804 — h,
where h denotes the height of a thermometer plunged in
boiling water above the point of melting ice, in degrees of
Fahrenheit, and z the height of the barometer in 10ths of
an inch. From this rule he has computed the correction
in the second column of the following table:
In the first column is the height of the barometer, in inches.
The second shows the correction to be applied, according to
the sign, to 212° of Fahrenheit, to find the true boiling
point, which for all intermediate states of the barometer
may be had with sufficient accuracy by taking proportional
parts. The fourth column contains a correction for the
same purpose, according to the experiments of Sir George
Shuckburgh. See Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixiv.
art. 20 and 30.
The temperature of steam in a nearly closed vessel is
more steady, and slightly lower than that of boiling water;
and the latter is from 2° to 4° higher in a glass vessel than
in one of metal. It is of material importance that the water
be pure, because foreign substances are apt to affect both
the freezing and boiling points.
The Royal Society, fully apprised of the importance ofCommitfa
adjusting the fixed points of thermometers, appointed aof Ro.Tal
committee to consider the best method for this purpose,
See Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37.
Although the boiling point be placed rather higher onP
some thermometers than on others, this produces very little
error in observations on the weather, at least in this climate;
for an error of IF0 in the boiling point will make an error
only of half a degree in the position of 92°, and of not
more than a quarter in that of 62°. It is only in nice expe¬
riments, or with hot liquors, that this can be of importance.
In adjusting the freezing as well as the boiling point, the
tube ought to be kept of the same temperature as the ball.
Many a thermometer, whilst undergoing this operation,
has little more than the bulb immersed in the bath which
is to give the requisite temperature, the stem being just
allowed to take its chance of holding some unknown tem¬
perature intermediate between those of the bath and of the
air. The indications of such an instrument, though pretty
well adapted for ordinary chemical purposes, must be some¬
what uncertain. But it is evidently impossible to apply a
correction for this, either to an instrument so vaguely gra¬
duated, or indeed to the very best of thermometers when
used with the stem at an unknown temperature ; so that
tables formed upon the idea that the stem has always the
same temperature as the air of the apartment, cannot be
expected to afford the proper correction, especially consi¬
dering how rapidly hot air and vapour may rise around the
stem, from a hot liquor. A mode of lessening this error
will afterwards be noticed.
In the ordinary manufacture of thermometers, it is reck¬
oned sufficient to place the new instrument horizontally in
a bath along with a standard thermometer, and to mark on
it the corresponding degree, or part of a degree; next,
either to change the temperature of the same bath, or to
put the instruments together into a bath of a different tem¬
perature, marking the degree as before. The space be¬
tween tbe two points so marked is then divided equally into
the corresponding number of degrees (regard of course
being had to any fraction), and the like division, if neces-
THERMOMETER.
in« sary, is extended both ways beyond the two points. This
:te^ method, however, does not provide against any inequality
' i*1 the bore of the tube. But it is obvious that any error
from such inequality might be obviated by marking a suf¬
ficient number of points at different temperatures; and
also that by the same means an alcohol thermometer may
be graduated to agree with a mercurial one, notwithstand-
; ing their very different rates of expansion. This we should
think greatly preferable to the perpetual application of cor¬
rections for their difference. However, when an alcohol
thermometer does require a correction, this ought to be
effected by means of a table formed from actual compari¬
son with a good mercurial one ; because alcohol thermo¬
meters differ so much among themselves that no general
table can be applicable to all. See Dr Richardson’s re¬
marks, with examples of this, in Journal of the Royal Geo¬
graphical Society, vol. ix. p, 332.
As the division of the scale is an arbitrary matter, ther¬
mometers differ much in this circumstance. Fahrenheit
made 180 degrees between the freezing and boiling water
points, Celsius made 100, Reaumur 80, Amontons 73, and
I Newton only 34i. For a general comparison of various
jscales, see fig. 4. A very accurate method of verifying
(the scales of thermometers, and an example of the dis¬
cordance of two standard thermometers, are given by Pro¬
fessor Forbes in the Philosophical Transactions for 1836,
p. 577. The history of several thermometers is briefly given
n the article Barometer, and a description of the Dif-
erential Thermometer, and of metallic thermometers, will
3e found under the article Meteorology. For a differ¬
ential thermometer Dr Marshall Hall employs a mercurial
hermometer, with a very minute bore and large degrees;
md to avoid an inconveniently long tube, he has a ball at
‘/he top, into which he can at pleasure throw up a portion
)f the mercury. But, owing to the quantity of mercury
actually used being thus rendered variable and uncertain,
i he indications of such an instrument are not comparable
vith those of a common thermometer. About twenty years
igo, the journals announced a great improvement which Dr
tfoward had made on Leslie’s differential thermometer, by
ubstituting alcohol for sulphuric acid. But had the learn-
:d doctor been sufficiently acquainted with the subject, he
rould have known that Leslie had purposely avoided using
•ny liquid which sensibly emits vapours; because a variable
luantity of elastic vapours mixed with the included air,
oust necessarily occasion similar but incomparably greater
incertainties than those in Dr Hall’s instrument.
Lie! As to the point at which the scale ought to commence,
•gP arious opinions have been entertained. If we knew the
beginning or lowest degree of heat, all would agree that
his ought to belhe lowest point of the thermometer; but
*e know neither the lowest nor the highest degrees of heat;
ve observe only the intermediate parts. All we can do,
hen, is to begin it at some invariable point, to which ther-
nometers made in different places may easily be adjusted,
ahrenheit began his scale at the point where snow and
alt congeal. Kirwan and Blagden proposed the freezing
oint of mercury. Sir Isaac Newton, Hales, Reaumur, and
elsius, adopted the freezing point of wrater. Fahrenheit’s
to is placed at an artificial cold which few can ever ex-
erience. 1 here would be several advantages in adopting
ie freezing point of mercury. It is the lowest degree to
uch liquid mercury can be applied ; and it wrould super-
Tle the use of the signs plus and minus on a mercurial
ermometer. But it is not a point well known, for few
an have an opportunity of seeing mercury congealed. As
a the abolition of negative numbers, it would not counter-
alance the advantage of using a well-known point. Of
eat and cold we can only judge by our feelings. The
oint, then, at which the scale should commence, ought to
'e one which can form to us a standard of heat and cold.
239
Such is the freezing point of water chosen by Newton ; for Thermo-
of all the general effects of cold it is the most remarkable, meter.
It therefore suits thermometers to be used all over thev—“v—
globe ; for even in the hottest countries there are mountains
perpetually covered with snow.
1 he thermometers at present in most general use, are Thermo-
f ahrenheits in Britain, Holland, and North America; Demeters ge-
1 Isle s in Russia; Reaumur’s and the centigrade in France ; nerally
and Celsius’s, the same as the last named, in Sweden. They used*"
are generally filled with mercury. But here it may be pro¬
per to observe, that the mercurial thermometer which goes
by the name of Reaumur’s, was not in use till long after
his^ time, and was first introduced by Deluc.
the relative values of the degrees of Fahrenheit F, of
Celsius C, and Reaumur R, are expressed by the following
formulee.
F = S2+|c = 32 + |r.
C_5(F-32)_5
9 4
b_4(F-32) 4
9 ~ 5 L’
These expressions are perfectly general, proper regard
being always had to the signs when any of the symbols be¬
come negative. The formulae usually given in books of
chemistry expressly for negative degrees are not simply
useless, but so wild that they cannot fail to mislead and
perplex those whom they are intended to guide. In Fah¬
renheit’s scale it is seldom necessary to use either fractions
or negative degrees, which is by no means the case with
tne other two. Instead of a single thermometer whose
scale would extend from the freezing to the boilino- point
of mercury, or through nearly 720° F., and which must
either be inconveniently long, or have exceedingly minute
degrees, it is better to have several thermometers, each of
which will in succession apply to a different part of the
whole range, so as to embrace or share the whole among
them. In this way, while the degrees may be large, the
stem of each thermometer, containing but a small propor¬
tion of the whole mercury, will occasion so much the less
error when its temperature differs from that of the bulb.
Fig. 3 shows a thermometer adapted to the ordinary at¬
mospheric temperatures. In thermometers intended for cor¬
rosive liquors, the divisions or degrees are sometimes mark¬
ed on the bare glass. In some, either the scale does not
extend quite down to the bulb, or a portion of it is made
to fold up with a joint.
It is not improbable that the freezing points of many old Change in
thermometers may have originally been marked too low, the freez-
either from using water cooled artificially, or the ice of^'S Point*
brackish or of other impure water. At any rate, it is now
found, that when placed in melting ice, they generally stand
above their freezing points. But supposing this to be a
real deterioration which has taken place during the lapse of
time, the following would seem to be the most probable of
the causes which have been assigned for it, particularly in
mercurial thermometers. 1. A permanent contraction of
the bulb, gradually induced by the excess of the atmosphe¬
ric pressure over that within, owing to the air havin0- been
more or less expelled. 2. If, after the air has been entire¬
ly expelled from the bulb, either some of it still remain in
the tube, although sealed, or the tube have been left quite
open, the air will gradually insinuate itself again between
the mercury and glass of the tube, till it at length enter the
bulb and form a complete lining to the inside of the glass.
By this means, the air, slightly displacing the mercury,
will raise it higher in the stem. 3. A rather question¬
able change, independently of the preceding, is supposed
gradually to take place for some time in the molecular
structure of the glass. But why this process should con-
THERMOMETER.
2!0
Thermo- tract rather than enlarge the bulb has never been explain-
meter. ecj. oniy we presume it could be prevented by previously
' ^ ”■ annealing it properly* However, such of the original alco¬
holic thermometers of the Academia del Cimento as have
been preserved and examined, are said to have undergone
no change in their freezing points during a period of more
than two hundred years, which rather argues against any
change in the dimensions of the glass.
Self-re^is- As in meteorological observations it is necessary to al¬
tering ther- tend to the greatest rise and fall of the thermometer, at-
mometers. tempts have been made to construct instruments which
might register the greatest degree of heat or of cold which
Lord C. took place during the absence of the observer. In 1757
Caven- Lord Charles Cavendish presented to the Royal Society a
dish’s. thermometer to mark the greatest heat, and another the
greatest cold. The first consists of a glass tube AB, fig.
5, with a cylindrical bulb B at the lower end, and capillary
at the top, over which is fixed a glass ball C. The bulb
and part of the tube are filled with mercury, the top of
which shows the degrees of heat as usual. The upper part
of the tube above the mercury is filled with alcohol, and so
is the ball C almost to the top of the capillary tube. When
the mercury rises, the spirit of wine is also raised, and runs
into the ball C, which is so made that the liquor cannot re¬
turn when the mercury sinks ; consequently the height of
the spirit of wine in the ball, added to that in the tube,
will give the greatest degree of heat to which the thermo¬
meter has pointed since last observation. To prepare for
a new observation, the instrument must be inclined till the
liquor in the ball cover the end of the capillary tube.
The thermometer for showing the greatest cold is repre¬
sented in fig. 6 by the crooked tube ABCD. It contains
alcohol, together with as much mercury as fills both legs of
the syphon, and part of the hollow ball C. The tempera¬
ture is shown by the rise or fall of the mercury in the leg
AB. When the mercury in the longer leg sinks by cold,
that in the shorter will rise and run over into the ball C,
from which it cannot return when the mercury subsides in
the shorter and rises in the longer leg. The upper part
of the shorter leg will therefore be filled with a column of
spirits, of a length proportional to the increase of heat;
the lower end of which, by means of a proper scale, will
show how much the mercury has been lower than it is ;
which being subtracted from the present height, will give
the lowest point to which the mercury has fallen. To pre¬
pare for a new observation, the mercury is made to run
back from the ball into the shorter leg, by inclining the
tube and heating the ball.
Six’s ther- Another self-registering thermometer was proposed by
-.r.ometer. Mr Six in 1782. It is principally filled with alcohol, though
mercury is also employed for supporting an index, ab,
fig. 7, is a thin tube of glass, sixteen inches long and five
sixteenths of an inch caliber : cde and fgh are smaller tubes,
about one twentieth of an inch caliber. These three tubes
are occupied with alcohol, except the space between d and
r/, which is filled with mercury. As the alcohol contracts
or expands in the middle tube, the mercury falls or rises
in the outside tubes. An index, represented in fig. 8, is
placed on the surface, within each of these tubes, so light as
to float upon it. A is a small glass tube three fourths of an
inch long, hermetically sealed at each end, and enclosing a
piece of steel wire. At each end l, m, of this small tube, a
short tube of black glass is fixed, of such a diameter as to
pass freely up and down within each of the outside tubes ce
or fh of the thermometer. From the upper end of the index
is drawn a spring of glass to the fineness of a hair, which
presses lightly against the inner surface of the tube, and
prevents the index from descending when the mercury
descends. When the alcohol in the middle tube expands,
it presses down the mercury in the tube hf, and conse¬
quently raises it in the tube ec; so that the index on the
left-hand tube is left behind and marks the greatest cold, Thera,
and the index in the right-hand tube rises and marks the me;,,'
greatest heat. ''"“Y*
Dr Rutherford’s register thermometers, wLich are more
generally used than any other, are described in the article
Meteorology, and in the Transactions of the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh, vol. iii.
The following ingenious contrivance by Mr Keith of Ra- Keitr.
velstone, besides being well adapted for marking the maxi-ther^
mum and minimum, may also be employed to register the ter.
temperature in a continuous form for almost any length of
time. AB, fig. 9, is a thin glass tube about fourteen inches
long and three fourths of an inch caliber, close or hermeti¬
cally sealed at top. To the lower end, which is open, is
joined the crooked glass tube BE, seven inches long and
four tenths of an inch caliber, and open at top. The tube
AB is filled with alcohol, and the tube BE with mercury.
This is properly an alcohol thermometer, and the mercury
is used merely to support a float E of ivory or glass, with
a wire EH for raising one index or depressing another, ac¬
cording as the mercury rises or falls. The float-wire, by
means of an eye at a, moves easily along the small harpsi¬
chord wire GK. L, L' are the two indexes, made of thin
black oiled silk, which slide up or down with a very slight
force. The one above the knee points out the greatest
rise, and the one below shows the greatest fall, of the ther¬
mometer.
To prepare for an observation, both indexes are brought
close to the knee H. It is evident, that when the mercury
rises, the knee of the float-wire will carry w ith it the upper
index L. When the mercury again subsides, it leaves the
index, which will not descend by its own weight. As the
mercury falls, the float-wire brings along with it the lower
index L', wdiich it leaves behind as it had formerly left the
upper. The scale to which the indexes point is placed pa¬
rallel to GK. A cylindrical glass cover is placed over the
part GF.
The continuity of the register is to be effected by attach¬
ing to the float-wire a soft pencil, which is to bear lightly
upon a cylinder covered with paper, and revolving on a
vertical axis by means of clock-work, once in a month. At
each month’s end the paper is to be removed and a clean
one put in its place. The paper is to be ruled horizontally
with a set of lines to mark the degrees, as on the scale of a
thermometer ; and also vertically with lines to note the days
of the month, and other smaller divisions of time. See
Transactions of Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. iv.
Owing to the moving force in metallic thermometers be¬
coming so exceedingly feeble at the outstretch, that the
least resistance will make them stop too soon, and then per¬
haps let them go too far by a start, they are not well suited
for register thermometers, though often recomrpended for
this purpose. But Dr lire’s “ thermostat,” for regulating
temperature (Dictionary of Manufactures), depends on the
same principle.
Various schemes have at different times been proposed Balance
for poising a thermometer so nicely across an axis, that athenw
very slight change of temperature should disturb the equi-ter’
librium sufficiently to produce a very sensible change in
the position of the instrument. Register thermometers in
this form are liable to the same objection as the metallic
sort. But the principle of the balance has been employed
in various forms, and on a large scale, for opening and shut¬
ting doors to regulate the temperature of apartments, by
admitting just the requisite quantity of cold air. For this
purpose, Dr Gumming suspended and counterpoised a large
ball and tube containing air, and having its open end im¬
mersed in a cistern of mercury. The arrangement was
such, that as the ball rose or fell with the expansion or con¬
traction of the included air, it closed or opened the door or
window of the apartment. To obviate the effect of changes
THERMOMETER.
2H
ni'.o* of atmospheric pressure, the counterpoise carried a large
terl| barometer tube, which also was immersed in mercury, and
N^-^had its upper part empty like any common barometer.
10I11 A species of thermometer contrived for observing the
* force of solar radiation, and named an actinometer, consists
of a large hollow cylinder of glass, having its upper end con¬
tracted and joined to a thermometer tube, terminated at
the top in a ball drawn out to a point, and broken off, so as
to leave a small orifice. The lower end of the cylinder is
closed by a silver or silver-plated cap cemented on it, and
furnished with a screw, also of silver, passing through a col¬
lar of waxed leather, which is pressed into forcible contact
with its thread, by a tightening screw of large diameter
enclosing it, and working into the silver cap by the aid of
a strong key or wrench. The cylinder is filled with a deep-
blue liquid, ammonio-sulphate of copper, and the ball at the
top being left purposely full of air, and the point closed with
melted wax, it becomes, in any given position of the screw,
a thermometer of great delicacy, the tube being furnished
with a graduated scale. The cylinder is enclosed in a
chamber blackened on three sides, and on the fourth or
i face defended from currents of air by a thick glass, remove-
jable at pleasure. The design of the screw is to vary at
1 pleasure the capacity of the cylinder, and thus to drive, if
necessary, a portion of the liquid up into the ball, which
acts as a reservoir, or, if necessary, to draw back from that
reservoir such a quantity as shall just fill it, leaving no bub¬
ble of air in the cylinder.
To use the instrument, examine, first, whether there be
any air in the cylinder, which is easily seen by holding it
level and tilting it, when the air, if any, will be seen to run
along it. If there be any, hold it upright in the left hand,
and the air will ascend to the root of the thermometer tube.
Then, by alternately tightening and slackening the screw
with the right hand, as the case may require, it will always
be practicable to drive the air out of the cylinder into the
ball, and suck down liquid, if any, from the ball to supply
its place, till the air is entirely evacuated from the cylinder,
and the latter, as well as the whole stem of the thermome¬
ter tube, is full of the liquid in an unbroken column. Then,
holding it horizontally, face upwards, slowly and cautiously
turn back the screw, till the liquid retreats to the zero of
the scale. The observer must station himself in the sun¬
shine, or in some sharply terminated shadow, so that with¬
out inconvenience, or materially altering his situation, or
the exposure of the instrument in other respects, he can
hold it at pleasure alternately in full sun and total shadow,
and by that means find the difference in the effects, or the
force of solar radiation. If placed in the sun, he must be
provided with a screen of pasteboard or tin plate, large
enough to shade the whole of the lower part or chamber of
the instrument, from which it should not be less than two
feet distant, and should be removeable in an instant. But
farther details and examples in the use of this and various
other meteorological instruments will be found in the
| Report of the Royal Society (August 1839), on the In-
I structions for the Scientific Expedition to the Antarctic
I Region.
y c; Ever since Dulong and Petit published their valuable
ir- I researches on heat (some of which have been particularly
^lom: discussed under the article Pyrometer), and in which they
■ have made the air-thermometer the standard of tempera¬
ture, their example in the latter respect has been so very
generally followed, as to render it of importance to ascer¬
tain whether the adoption of such a standard can consist
with other admitted principles; more especially since the
theory of the air-thermometer, as usually laid down in first-
rate books on the subject, is full of contradiction. We
shall therefore now endeavour to set the matter in a pro¬
per light, employing for this purpose the same data, and
nearly the same notation, as those with which Baron Pois-
vou. XXI.
son commences his memoir in the Annales de Chimie, tome Tbermo-
xxiii. p. 337. meter.
Let g be the density of the air, p the pressure, and 0 the ""^ v
temperature in degrees of any common scale of an air-ther¬
mometer; then a being ’OOgOS if Fahrenheit^ scale be em¬
ployed, and 6 another constant, we have p — bo (\ -f- ad).
This is commonly called the law of Mariotte, but was first
discovered by Hooke when assistant to Boyle. With the
centigrade scale, a would be 'OOSTfi; but both values of it
would need to be slightly lessened if they were wished to
agree with Rudberg’s experiments on the expansion of air
(Poggendorff’s Annalen, xli. and xliv.), which perhaps re¬
quire confirmation. Fortunately the present investigation
has no dependence on the precision in the values of any
constants. Let q be the difference between the total quan¬
tity of heat which a given mass of air may contain under
the pressure p and temperature i), and that which it contains
under a pressure and temperature chosen arbitrarily. Then
the specific heat of the air, or that which would raise its
temperature one degree, being directly as dq, and inversely
do
as dd, may be expressed by ~. When such rise takes
place under a constant pressure, we have from the above
equation, with p constant, dd — — do X —: and when
under a constant volume, or with g constant, dd = dp X
1 + ^Fhe specific heat, when the pressure is constant,
ap
will therefore be
clq
dg
dq ap
constant, X 7—r—;•
dp l + a0
X
ag
and with the volume
l+o0’
Now, from the experiments of
Gay Lussac and Welter, which were carried through a
great range both of temperature and pressure (Mecanique
Celeste, v. 97 and 127), it appears that the former of these
two specific heats always exceeds the latter in a constant
ratio, which, if it be called that of £ to 1, we shall have
.(A).
^ + *4=°' 
Thus far the process does not materially differ from that
pursued by Poisson and several other foreign mathemati¬
cians ; but on integrating this equation, their next step is
to modify the integral to suit the common theory of the
air-thermometer, which assumes the variations of absolute
heat to be proportional to those of the volume under a con¬
stant pressure. In this they do not seem to have been
aware that equation (A) is utterly incompatible writh any
such assumption, as we shall now endeavour to explain.
For it is evident that the value of dq in the first term
of the equation, is always to dq in the second, as -*
to whereas, if not only the differential of absolute heat
in air under a constant pressure had been proportional to
— -f, the differential of the volume, but if, in like manner,
f
(as the common theory, when coupled with the constancy
of the ratio of /e to 1, assumes), the differential of heat un¬
der a constant volume had varied as dp the differential of
the pressure, then the value of dq in the first term would
dp
necessarily have been to that in the second as — -7, to Ndp,
where N is a constant. Now each of the former ratios is
dg dp
obviously the same with that of — — to 7—, which cannot
£2 hp
dp 1
coincide with the ratio of — p- to N<7p, unless N = that
242 THE
Thermo- is, unless the product of the density into the pressure al-
meter. wayS form a constant quantity, which is extremely absurd.
' But it is equally clear, that if any other ratio which differs
from the first one wrere assumed to subsist among the dif¬
ferentials, it must lead to the like absurdity of requiring
some of the quantities to be both variable and constant at
the same time. Whoever therefore admits the law of Ma-
riotte, and the constancy in the ratio of the specific heats,
has no alternative but to reject the common graduation, and
indeed every other which would not make the differentials
of heat follow the same proportion as do those of the lo¬
garithms of the volume and of the pressure, compounded of
course with the ratio of k to 1. Hence the only function
of the integral of equation (A) which can consist with the
data is
q = A+ B ^ log. p — log. ^ (B),
where A and B are constants. This shows plainly that, un¬
der a constant pressure, air expands in geometrical pro¬
gression for equal increments of heat, as has been deduced
from the same data by a very different process under the
article Hygrometry, and where it is shown that the value
of k is most probably 1 3333.
Extravagant as are the inconsistencies which necessarily
result from coupling any of the common scales of tempera¬
ture with the two principles above specified, yet this sin¬
gular oversight, from its having originated in a work of no
less authority than the Mecanique Celeste (v. p. 128), has
been implicitly copied into almost every subsequent pro¬
duction on the same subject. For example, we find it per¬
vading the very valuable and extensive writings of Baron
Poisson, whose recent decease science has now to deplore ;
as also those of Navier, and of other eminent French writers,
whenever they have occasion to treat on heat or sound.
But a most notable instance of the sort is to be found in
Mr Lubbock’s recent treatise On the Heat of Vapours, as
will presently be noticed.
Since di will vanish and change its sign in the first term
of equation (A) just when dq in that term does so, it is evi¬
dent that, although the first term may occasionally take the
form of a vanishing fraction, it will never vanish nor change
its sign. For a similar reason, the second term of equation
(A) will never vanish nor change its sign. But since the
sum of the two values of dq, regard being had to their signs,
will be a measure of the rate at which the air may be gain¬
ing or losing heat; so it is only when those two values of
dq are equal, and with contrary signs destroy each other,
making, as it were, the decrement of heat annihilate the
increment, that the absolute heat can be constant. In that
case, which may imply the sudden compression or dilata¬
tion of air, equation (A) admits of being greatly simplified;
because both terms being then divisible by the same value
of dq, we have — ^ Hence k log. £ = log. jo -f C ;
so that if the initial values of g and p be called g' and p',
THE
the absolute is constant while the sensible heat varies. This,” The^
says he, “ is the most restricted hypothesis which can be «%'
made upon the nature of heat.” Now we presume that if ||
such an able mathematician as Mr Lubbock had only paid ^
a little more attention to the writings of these authors, he
would have found that they have restricted themselves to
no such hypothesis. For although they have not overlook¬
ed the particular case just alluded to, in which air may be
so suddenly compressed or dilated as to have its tempera¬
ture altered without the absolute heat having had time either
to gain or lose, they have treated the subject in a sufficient¬
ly general manner to include every other case. Thus it
was by means of the variable part of the integral of equa¬
tion (A) that they intended to express the change of abso¬
lute heat which may at any time accompany a change in
in p, or in both together; and this they might have done
quite consistently, had they not unfortunately modified the
integral into the form A-f-B —with the view of making it
embrace the common theory of temperature. But the most
curious thing in the whole is, that Mr Lubbock has, after
all, borrowed from them this very formula to be a principal
link in his investigation, and then coupled it of new with
an additional expression to embrace the theory just men¬
tioned, as if the latter had not already had a sufficient share
in it. See Phil. Magazine for May 1840, p. 439.
Since the constancy in the ratio of the specific heats en¬
ables us to distinguish between the heat which is absorbed
in the enlargement of the volume, under a constant pres¬
sure, and that w’hich alone raises the temperature; show¬
ing the latter to exceed the former in the constant ratio of
1 to A — 1 ; it is evident, that if at any stage of a very ex¬
tensive increase of temperature, the expansion were to cease,
the increment of heat which could add the next degree to
the temperature would be the same, no matter what volume
the air had by this time acquired ; and that such increment
would be equal to the decrement of heat for each succes¬
sive degree of a uniform scale, were the enlarged volume
of air now cooled down to the first temperature without suf¬
fering any contraction ; so that the specific heat is in all
cases independent of the magnitude of a constant volume.
However, Professor Kelland, without adducing any proof,
asserts in his Theory of Heat, that the specific heat is
greater with a greater volume, which we now see to be ut¬
terly incompatible with the constancy in the ratio of the
specific heats, a principle which he also admits and em¬
ploys. The like may be said of his coupling this principle
with the common scale of temperature, and also of his as¬
serting that, in the sudden compression of air, the increase
of temperature measured by that scale is proportional to
the diminution of the volume; whereas it is the changes
in their logarithms that are proportional, as is shown under
our articles Hygrometry and Sound. At first sight, and
indeed until some adequate means be used to test the sound¬
ness of such cases as the preceding, every thing in them
may seem to be quite correct. Perhaps opposite errors
may have destroyed each other, as sometimes happens from
discarding or adopting, at certain stages of the process,
quantities which may then seem quite inconsiderable, but
which ultimately have sufficient influence to change the
character of the final result. It is in this way that in the
1 heory of Heat (p. 93-95) results have been obtained
which it is utterly impossible to deduce from the same data
hy any legitimate reasoning; as will be found to have been
long since shown in the discussion of a similar case in the
Edinb. Phil. Journal for July 1827, p. 154. (e. e. e.)
Thermometer, Differential, See the preceding article,
and Barometer, Climate, Cold, and Meteorology.
THERMOPYLAE, a narrow pass or defile, between the
we shall have C ~ k log. g'— log. p’; and k log. - z=log.-,
S' P
(s\k P
°r \f/ := p” aS m'^1t ^^ew*se have been readily deduced
from equation (B). But we have taken this other method
that it might be clearly seen what a mistake some are in
who suppose equation (A) to be restricted to the case in
which the absolute heat is constant. For it is now evident
that under such a restriction there could have been no use
whatever in that equation containing dq, or indeed in its
having the partial differential form at all. However, through
some inadvertency, Mr Lubbock has so seriously miscon¬
strued the investigations of the foreign mathematicians as
to allege that their “ theorems rest upon the condition that
T H E
T H I
243
wali iSinus Maliacus on the east, and a steep branch of Mount
(Eta, covered with unpassable woods, on the west; leading
'i,jSa Mfrom Thessaly to Locris and Boeotia. These mountains
""^divide Greece in the middle, in the same manner as the
Apennine does Italy; forming one continued ridge from
Leucate on the west, to the sea on the east, with thickets
and rocks interspersed. The valley is of small breadth, and
completely occupied by a marsh, through which it is im¬
possible for horse or foot to penetrate. Through the mid¬
dle of this marsh a paved road was made by the Greeks,
which still remains, and affords the only path to Greece from
Thessaly. The Thermae or hot springs, from which the
place had its name, are near the narrowest part of the pass ;
and their temperature was found by Dr Clarke to be 111
degrees. At the south entrance of the defile is a small
eminence, on which he found a tumulus, with the remains
of a massive pedestal of red breccia much time-worn, and
evidently the tomb of the 300 Spartans to whose immortal
memories this monument was consecrated. The rising
ground on which the monument stands is the spot where
the Spartans fell. The remains of the wall which shut up
the pass are also yet visible.
THERWARA, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Gujerat, thirty miles north-west from Rahdunpoor.
THESEA, feasts celebrated by the Athenians in honour
of Theseus, consisting of sports and games, with mirth and
banquets. Such as were poor and unable to contribute to
them were entertained at the public expense.
THESEUS, a famous hero of antiquity, ranked among
the demigods, whose history is fabulous. He was the re¬
puted son of iEgeus king of Athens. He threw Sciron, a
cruel robber, down a precipice ; fastened Procrustes, tyrant
of Attica, to a bending pine, which being let loose, tore him
asunder; killed the Minotaur kept in the labyrinth by king
Minos, in Crete; and by the assistance of that prince’s
daughter, Ariadne, who gave him a clue, escaped out of
that labyrinth, and sailed with his deliverer to the isle of
Naxos, where he had the ingratitude to leave her. Theseus
afterwards overcame the centaurs, subdued the Thebans,
and defeated the Amazons. He assisted his friend Piri-
thous in his expedition to the infernal regions to carry off
Proserpine; but was imprisoned by Pluto, till he was re¬
leased by Hercules. He is also said to have established
the Isthmian games, in honour of Neptune ; to have united
the twelve cities of Attica ; and to have founded a republic
there, 1236 b. c. Some time after, taking a voyage into
Epirus, he was seized by Aidonus, king of the Molossians;
and in the mean time Menestheus rendered himself master
of Athens. But at length Theseus being released from
prison, retired to Scyrcs, where King Lycomedes caused him
to be thrown from the top of a rock. Theseus had several
wives ; the first of whom was Helena, the daughter of Tyn-
darus; the second, Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons; and
the last, Phaedra, sister to Ariadne, w'ho punished him for
his infidelity to her sister, by her incestuous passion for his
son Hippolytus.
THESIS, a general position which a person advances,
and offers to maintain.
THESPIS, a famous Greek tragic poet, and the first re¬
presenter of tragedy at Athens. He carried his troop from
village to village in a waggon.
THESSALY, a country of Greece, the boundaries of
which have been different at different periods. Properly
speaking, Thessaly was bounded on the south by the south¬
ern parts of Greece, or Graecia Propria; east, by the JEge-
an; north, by Macedonia and Mygdonia; and west, by II-
lyricuin and Epirus. It was generally divided into four se¬
parate provinces, Thessaliotis, Pelasgiotis, Istiaeotis, and
Phthiotis, to which some add Magnesia. It has been like¬
wise called /Emonia, Pelasgicum, Argos, Hellas, Argeia,
Dryopis, Pelasgia, Pyrrhasa, &c. The name of Thessaly is
derived from Thessalus, one of its monarchs. Thessaly is Thetford
famous for a deluge which happened there in the age of . fl
Deucalion. Its mountains and cities are also celebrated, I^0llv^lle]
such as Olympus, Pelion, Ossa, Larissa, &c. The Argo- v ^
nants were partly natives of Thessaly. The inhabitants of
the country passed for a treacherous nation, so that false
money was called Thessalian coin, and a perfidious action
a Thessalian deceit. Thessaly was originally governed by
kings, till it became subject to the Macedonian monarchs.
It is bounded by Macedonia on the north, by the Archipe¬
lago on the east, by Achaia or Livadia on the south, and
by Epirus on the west.
THETFORD, a town of the hundred of Shropham, in
the county of Norfolk, eighty miles from London. It stands
on a branch of the river Ouse, and consists of three parishes.
It was formerly much more extensive than it is at present,
and in the reign of Edward the Third it contained twenty
churches, eight monasteries, and six hospitals. Many of
the remaining buildings exhibit marks of great antiquity,
though the town is not otherwise remarkable. The county
assizes are held here once in each year. Thetford is a
borough, with a mayor, four aldermen, and eleven council¬
lors, and it returns two members to parliament. There is
some little trade by the Ouse with Lynn. The inhabitants
amounted in 1821 to 2922, and in 1831 to 3462.
THETIS, in Pagan mythology, the wife of Oceanus, and
the mother of Nereus and Doris, who were married to each
other ; and from this marriage sprung the nymphs of the
earth and sea. Among the sea-nymphs there was one
named Thetis the younger, who excelled all the rest in
beauty, and for whom Jupiter conceived such a passion,
that he resolved to espouse her; but being informed by the
Destinies that she would bring forth a son who would rise
above his father, he married her to Peleus. To their nup¬
tials all the gods and goddesses were invited except Dis¬
cord, who, to be revenged for this contempt, threw a golden
apple into the assembly, on which was engraven, For the
Fairest. Juno, Pallas, and Venus, disputed for this apple:
but Paris being chosen to decide the difference, adjudged
it to Venus. From this marriage of Thetis and Peleus
sprung Achilles.
THEURGY, ^eovgyiu,, a name which the ancients gave
to that sacred part of magic which we sometimes call white
magic, or the white art. The word is formed from Qd$,
God, and sgyov, work; q. d. the art of doing divine things;
or the power of working extraordinary and supernatural
things, by invoking the names of God, saints, angels, &c.
Accordingly, those who have written of magic in general,
divide it into three parts: the first of which is called the¬
urgy, as operating by divine or celestial means ; the second
natural magic, performed by the powers of nature; and the
third, comprehending necromancy, sorcery, and witchcraft
or magic, performed by the assistance of demons or de¬
parted men.
THIAGUR, a town of Hindustan in the Carnatic. It
is fifty-six miles west by south from Pondicherry. Long.
79. 12. E. Lat. 11. 45. N.
THIERS, an arrondissement of the department of the
Puy de Dome, in France. It is 334 square miles in extent,
and comprehends six cantons and thirty-nine communes,
having 70,657 inhabitants in 1836. The capital is the
city of the same name, and is built on the side of a hill, at
whose base flows the river Durolle. It contained in the
same year three churches, and 9982 inhabitants. It is a
seat of the hardware and cutlery trade; and at one time
fabricated considerable quantities of inferior jewellery and
gilt toys. Long. 3. 27. 47. E. Lat. 45. 51. 27. N.
THIMBRIC-KOUY, a village of Asiatic Turkey, in
Anatolia, on the site of the ancient Thymbra, where con¬
siderable ruins are still found.
THIONVILLE, an arrondissement of the department
244 T H I T H O
Thirl wall of the Moselle, in France, extending over 408 square miles.
T|-[L It divided into five cantons, and these into 117 com-
Order of munes> having a population of 87,520 persons in 1836.
the. capital is the city of the same name, situated on the
s——right bank of the Meuse. It is one of the strongest of the
frontier fortified places of France, and was attacked by the
Prussians in 1792, but without success. In 1836 it con¬
tained 5680 civil inhabitants, principally employed in the
manufacture of hats and hosiery. Long. 6. 5. 25. E. Lat.
49. 21. 30. N.
THIRL WALL, a hamlet within the parish of Halt-
whistle, in the w'est division of the ward of Tindal, in the
county of Northumberland. It is remarkable from being
situated on the Piets’ wall, at the place where the Scots
made gaps to force a passage into England. It has an an¬
cient castle built on the north side of the wall, about twenty
yards long and twelve broad, with walls nine feet thick. It
is curiously vaulted underneath, and on the top are six
small turrets. Though this place had in 1831 only 328
inhabitants, they have rapidly increased, and are still in¬
creasing, in consequence of the railway from Carlisle to
Newcastle, which passes by it, and from the extensive fields
of coal which are in its neighbourhood.
THIRSK, a town of the w apentake of Birdforth, in the
north riding of the county of York, 223 miles from Lon¬
don. It is situated on the river Coldbeck, by which it is
divided into two parts. The town has some trade in making
coarse linens and sackings. It is an ancient borough, and
returns one member to parliament. The church is a fine old
building. There are also various places of worship for dis¬
senters. There is a market on Monday, and several fairs.
The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 3502, and in 1831 to
3829.
THIRSTY Sound, an inlet or bay on the east coast
of New Holland. Long, of the northernmost point, 150.
0.10. E. Lat. 22. 6. 53. S.
I HIS FEE, Order of the, or of St Andreiu, a military
order of knighthood in Scotland, the rise and institution of
which are variously related by different authors. Lesley bi¬
shop of Ross reports, that the night before the battle between
Athelstan king of Northumberland and Hungus king of the
Piets, a bright cross, in form of that upon which St Andrew
(the tutelary saint of Scotland) suffered martyrdom, appeared
to Hungus ; who, having gained the victory, ever after bore
the figure of that cross on his banners. Others assert, that
A chains king of Scotland first instituted this order, after
having made the famous league offensive and defensive with
Charlemagne king of France. But although the thistle had
been acknowledged as the symbol of the kingdom of Scot¬
land from the reign of Achaius, yet some refer the begin¬
ning of this order to Charles VII. of France. Others place
the foundation of it as low as the year 1500. The chief
and principal ensign is a gold collar composed of thistles
and sprigs of rue interlinked with amulets of gold, having
as a pendant the image of St Andrew with his cross, and
the motto Nemo me impune lacesset, “ Nobody shall
provoke me with impunity.” The ordinary or common en¬
sign worn by the knights is a star of four silver points, and
over them a green circle, bordered and lettered with gold,
containing the said motto, and in the centre is a thistle ; all
which is embroidered on their left breast, and worn with
the collar, with a green ribband over the left shoulder, and
brought under the right arm : the pendent image of St An¬
drew, with his cross, in a purple robe, is within an oval of
gold enamelled vert, with the former motto ; but sometimes
they wear, encircled in the same manner, a thistle crowned
About the time of the Reformation, this order was dropped
and James II. of Great Britain resumed it, by creating eight
knights. The Revolution again unsettled it; and it lay ne¬
glected till Queen Anne, in 1703, restored it to the primi¬
tive design, of twelve knights of St Andrew.
THISTLE’S Island, an island on the south coast of TV ••
New Holland, at the mouth of Spencer’s Gulf. It is about IskJ
twelve miles long. Long, of the north end, 136. 3i £
Lat. 34. 56. N. ' TW
TFIOMAR, a corregimiento in the province ofEstrema- °| '■
dura, in Portugal, on the borders of Beira and Alentejo.
It comprises twenty-six cities and towns, seventy-nine vil-
lages, and 21,748 dwellings, with 108,740 inhabitants. The
capital is a city of the same name, on the small river Na-
bao, in a delightful country covered with olive and orange
trees. It is well and regularly built. It has an ancient
castle, four churches, four monasteries, a poor-house, a
hospital, and 1100 houses, with 5400 inhabitants. From the
oil produced there, they make abundance of soap ; and some
of them are occupied in making cotton goods. It stands on
the site of the ancient city Nabancia, which was destroyed
by the Moors.
THOMAS of Erceldoune, sometimes called Learmont,
and sometimes the Rhymer, has long been recognized in
the venerable character of a prophet and poet; but the
history of his life and writings is involved in that degree
of obscurity which may well be supposed to attend so re¬
mote an era of our literary annals. His very name is not
ascertained beyond all doubt or controversy. Accord¬
ing to Macpherson, the accurate editor of Winton, he re¬
ceived his surname of Learmont from Hector Boyce: but
it seems unnecessary to suppose that the inventive faculties
of this historian were so unprofitably exercised; and if
credit is due to an excellent genealogist, his family name is
sufficiently established by its occurrence in authentic docu¬
ments. In one charter, says Nisbet, he is called Thomas
Rymor, but in others of an earlier date, Thomas Lear-
mount of Ercildoun. Certain however it is that no writer
who preceded Boyce has yet been found to describe him
by the surname of Learmont: by Robert of Brunne, Bar¬
bour, Winton, Bower, and Mair, he is named Erceldoune,
while Henry the blind poet designates him Thomas the
Rhymer. In a charter granted to the Trinity House of
Soltra, the poet’s son describes himself as Thomas of Ercil¬
doun, the son and heir of Thomas Kymour of Ercildoun;
but whether this addition is to be considered as an ordi¬
nary surname, or as an epithet commonly applied in allu¬
sion to the father’s poetical character, cannot be positively
determined. It must at least be recollected that Rymer is
a surname in both parts of the island, and that it has been
traced to the poet’s owm age, and to the particular district
in which he resided. Thomas the Rhymer is the name by
which he continues to be best known among the common
people of Scotland. Erceldoune, from which he derived
his other appellation, is a village situate in the countv of
Berwick, at a small distance from Melrose ; and the west¬
ern extremity of this village still exhibits the ruins of a
tower which was once honoured by his residence. His
estate was afterwards acquired by the earl of March, who
at the opposite end of the village possessed qnother place
of strength, called the Earl’s Tower; and hence the ancient
name of Erceldoune is supposed to have been gradually cor¬
rupted into Earlstoun.
The period of his birth it seems impossible to ascertain;
but it is evident that he must have reached the height of
his reputation about the year 1286, the date of his famous
prophecy respecting the death of Alexander the Third;
and in the year 1299, his son and heir conveyed the estate
of Eiceldoune to the convent of Soltra. It is therefore ob¬
vious that his father must have died during the interval.
Patrick Gordon refers his death to the year 1307, but this
cannot be considered as any competent authority. An in¬
dividual who enjoyed the reputation of a prophet may
naturally be supposed to have attained a venerable age.
whether he himself aspired to the character of a prophet,
it must now be fruitless to enquire; but it is at least certain,
T H O
T H O
245
naa hat such a character was long attached to his name. Bar-
n> jjour, who wrote about the year 1370, makes a distinct al-
''"•usion to “ Thomas prophecy of Hersildoune.” Bower, the
:ontinuator of the Scotichronicon, who flourished about the
ear 1430, has furnished us with a circumstantial detail re-
pecting Thomas's prediction of the king’s premature death.
Vinton and Henry have likewise represented him as en¬
dowed with the spirit of divination; and they are equally
mbious as to the origin of the power which they acknow-
jpdge him to have possessed. Mair and Boyce have in-
Ijterted in their respective histories, the tale so circumstan-
ally related by Bower; but, with his usual good sense, the
)rmer subjoins, “ To this Thomas our countrymen have
jscribed many predictions, and the common people of Bri-
ain yield no slight degree of credit to stories of this nature ;
finch I for the most part am accustomed to treat with ridi-
ule.” Lesley commemorates Michael Scott and Thomas
.earmont as personages of an extraordinary character; and
e also hints at the famous prediction of the king’s death,
hit the period of the union of the crowns seems to have
een the crisis of his reputation as a prophet; for, as we
team from Robert Birrel, “ at this time all the haill comons
if Scotland that had red or understanding, wer daylie speik-
pgand exponeing of Thomas Rhymer his prophesie, and of
ther prophesies quhilk wer prophesied in auld tymes.” Of
he collection which includes the prophecies ascribed to
rhomas, the earliest edition that has hitherto been traced
i^as printed by Robert Waldegrave in the year 1603. It
j/as reprinted by Andrew Hart in 1615: the subsequent
iditions are very numerous ; and the collection still con-
jinues to be printed for the worshipful company of flying
tationers.
1 The claims of Thomas of Erceldoune to the character of
prophet, do not seem to require any further investigation ;
ut his claims to the character of a poet may perhaps be
lonsidered as more legitimate. That he was admired for
is poetical talents, is supposed to be established by the
testimony of a writer who approached very near his own
ge: Robert of Brunne, who flourished about th,e year 1303,
i believed to commemorate the same Thomas of Ercel-
joune as the author of an incomparable romance on the
i^tory of Sir Tristrem. A romance of this description, and
oubtless of a very early date, was discovered in the Auchin-
tck MS. belonging to the Advocates Library; and of this
fiery curious relique of British literature, an elaborate and
jaluable edition, including all the necessary illustrations, was
(ublished by Sir Walter Scott in the year 1804. The dis-
Inguished editor entertained no doubt of its being the
(enuine production of Thomas of Erceldoune; but the
opposition, we must confess, appears liable to many doubts
nd difficulties. This metrical romance, to whatever author
1 may be attributed, is deservedly regarded as a precious
elique of early British, we do not venture to say Scotish,
[oetry. It is highly curious as a specimen of language, and
tot less curious as a specimen of composition. The verses
ire short, and the stanzas somewhat artificial in their struc-
uire ; and amid the quaint simplicity of the author’s style,
1 e often distinguish a forcible brevity of expression. But
is narrative, which has always a certain air of originality,
i; sometimes so abrupt as to seem obscure, and even enig-
natical.1 (x.)
THOMASTOWN, an ancient borough in the county of
dlkenny, Ireland, situated on the river Nore, which is
ere crossed by a handsome stone bridge. Its position on
navigable river renders it well adapted for trade, and in
some degree it acts as the port to the city of Kilkenny. Thompson,
The town contains the ruins of an old monastery, to which Count
is attached the parish church. It is distant from Dublin ^Rmnfol(1-
sixty miles, and in the year 1831 its population amounted to v
2871.
THOMPSON, Sir Benjamin, Count Rumford, a well-
known natural philosopher and political economist, was born
in 1753, at a village in New Hampshire, then called Rum-
ford, and now Concord. His father died while he was very
young, and his mother married another man, who banished
him from her house almost in his infancy: he inherited only
a small pittance from an uncle, who died soon alter his father.
A clergyman named Bernard showed him great kindness, and
taught him some of the higher mathematics at an early age,
so that at fourteen he was able to calculate and delineate
an eclipse of the sun. He had been intended for some
commercial employment, but he preferred the pursuit of
literature in any form : he attended the lectures of Dr Wil¬
liams, and afterwards those of Dr Winthrop the astronomer,
at Harvard College ; and while he was still a stripling, he was
established in the temporary occupation of a village school¬
master ; hoping, however, for an early opportunity to en¬
gage in some more agreeable employment: and at nineteen,
he was fortunate enough to obtain the hand of Mrs Rolfe,
daughter of Mr Walker, a clergyman, who had been em¬
ployed with considerable credit in conducting some public
business. For a year or two he lived retired and happy ;
but having obtained a commission of major in the militia
from the governor of the province, together with some
other distinctions of a civil nature, he was consequently
led to adhere to the party of the Royalists ; and he was soon
obliged, by the success of the Independent forces, to take
refuge at Boston, then occupied by the English troops. It
was in November 1773 that he secretly quitted his resi¬
dence, leaving his wife, whom he never saw again, and his
infant daughter, who joined him twenty years after in Europe.
He was employed to raise a regiment for the king’s ser¬
vice ; but when Boston was evacuated in 1776, he was sent,
with some important despatches to England. Here he soon
acquired the confidence of Lord George Germaine, then
colonial secretary of state, and was appointed secretary of
the province of Georgia, though he never exercised the
office ; but he remained attached to that department of the
public service.
In 1777 he commenced his career as an experimental
philosopher, by employing his leisure hours, during a visit
to Bath, in making some experiments on the cohesive
strength of different substances; and upon his return to
London, he communicated them to Sir Joseph Banks, with
w'hom he formed an intimate acquaintance, which he kept
up throughout the remainder of his life. In 1778 he was
admitted a fellow of the Royal Society, and he made in
that year his first experiments on gunpowder. In order to
pursue these experiments, he went, in 1779, on board of
the Victory, of 110 guns, commanded by his friend Sir
Charles Hardy. He passed the whole campaign on board
the fleet; and the results of the observations which he then
made, furnished the materials of a chapter which he con¬
tributed to Stalkart’s Treatise on Naval Architecture. He
added to it a code of signals for the navy, which was not
published. In 1780 he wras appointed under-secretary of
state, and he was constantly employed, for some little time,
in the office on the business of the war. He succeeded, by
means of his American friends and agents, in raising a regi¬
ment of cavalry, called the King’s American Dragoons, of
Sir
kM
npov
U(
13,2
Sir I ristrem ; a Metrical Romance of the thirteenth century ; by Thomas of Erceldoune, called the Rhymer. Edited from the Auchin-
ck MS. by alter Scott, Esq. The third edition. Edinb. 1811, 8vo. Tristan : Recueil de ce qui reste des Poemes relatifs a ses Aventures :
Drapers en Francois, en Anglo-Normand, et en Grec, dans les XII. et XIII. siecles. Public par Francisque Michel. Londres, 1835, 2
an. 16to. Warton’s History of English Poetry, vol. i. p. 184. Price’s edit. Guest’s History of English Rhythms, vol. ii. p. 173. Lond.
,838, 2 vols. 8vo. Madden’s Notes on Syr Gawayne, p. 304. Lond. 1839, 4to. Foreign Review, vol. iv. p. 141.
346
T H O M P S O N.
Thompson, which he was appointed lieutenant-colonel commandant;
CoiinT_ and this success induced him to go to America to serve
Jtuimord.^ with it. At Charlestown he was intrusted with the com-
v mand of the remains of the cavalry of the British army. He
speedily restored the discipline of the corps, and gained its
confidence and attachment: he often led it against the
enemy, and frequently with considerable success. He pro¬
ceeded, in 1782, to New York, where he assumed the com¬
mand of his own regiment, having received the colours from
the hand of Prince William Henry. In the autumn, Gene¬
ral Clinton was succeeded by Sir Guy Carlton, whose friend¬
ship and confidence he speedily obtained. His regiment
was recruited from the fragments of several others, and he
was sent for the winter to Huntingdon in Long Island.
In 1788 he was chosen to conduct the defence of Ja¬
maica, which was then threatened by the enemy ; but the
general peace superseded the necessity of the intended
expedition.
After his return to England, he made great efforts in
the cause of the loyalist officers, and he was successful in
persuading the ministry to make a proper provision for
them. He was himself raised to the rank of colonel, upon
the recommendation of General Carlton, only two years
after his appointment as lieutenant-colonel. He had ac¬
quired a strong predilection for a military life, and was de¬
sirous of being sent with his regiment to the East Indies ;
and when the regiment was reduced, he wished to serve
with the Austrians in a war which was then meditated
against the Turks. With this view he left England in
September 1788, and on his passage to Boulogne, he had
an agreeable shipmate in the person of Gibbon the histo¬
rian, who did justice to his merits as a “ soldier, philo¬
sopher, and statesman.” At Strasburg, his appearance on
the parade in his uniform excited the attention of the late
king of Bavaria, then Prince Maximilian of Deux Fonts,
•who invited him to his table, and being delighted with the
accuracy and extent of his military knowledge, gave him a
strong recommendation to his uncle, then elector ; and in¬
stead of a day or two, as he had intended, he staid a fort¬
night at Munich. He was also very cordially received at
Vienna, and passed a part of the winter there ; but the
war against the Turks not taking place, he returned by
Venice and the Tyrol to Munich, where he arrived in the
winter of 1784; and being formally invited by the elec¬
tor to enter his service, he went to London to ask leave to
accept the proposal; and it was granted him, together with
the honour of knighthood. On his return to Bavaria, he
was made a colonel of cavalry, and aide-de-camp-general to
the elector. The first four years of his residence at Mu¬
nich were principally employed in acquiring information,
and in preparing his plans of reform; and in the mean
time he continued his physical researches. He made his
first experiments on heat in 1786, during a journey to
Manheim. In 1785 he was made chamberlain to the elec¬
tor, and member of the academies of Munich and of Man¬
heim ; in 1786 he received from the king of Poland the
order of St Stanislas ; in 1787 he took a journey to Ber¬
lin, and was made a member of the Academy of Sciences
of that city; in 1788 he was appointed major-general of
the Bavarian cavalry, and privy counsellor of state; and he
was placed at the head of the w7ar department, in order to
pursue his plans for the improvement of the army.
It was in 1789 that he established the House of Indus¬
try at Manheim. He founded also the Military Academy
of Munich ; he improved the military police of the coun¬
try ; he formed schools of industry for the wives and chil¬
dren of the soldiers; and he embellished the city by a new
arrangement of the public gardens. The House of Indus¬
try at Munich, which he has described at large in his
Essays, w^as founded in 1790 ; and from this period may
be dated the total abolition of mendicity in Bavaria. His
exertions were rewarded by the rank of lieutenant-generalTW,.
of the Bavarian armies, and by a regiment of artillery. In Com
1791 he was created a count of the holy Roman empire,
and obtained the order of the white eagle. His health "’"Vv
having suffered from constant application, he obtained per¬
mission to take a journey into Switzerland and Italy, and
he returned to Bavaria in 1794. He had a severe illness
at Naples, and he was not sufficiently recovered, upon his
return, to resume his active duties; but he employed him¬
self in writing the first five of his Essays. In 1795, be
came to England in order to publish the Essays, and in
hopes of exciting the public attention to the importance of
attempting a similar reform among the lowest orders in
Great Britain. He went to Dublin in 1796, to pay a visit
to Lord Pelham, afterwards earl of Chichester, then secre¬
tary of state for Ireland ; and he was of essential service in
the arrangement of several of the public institutions of that
country. He was made a member of the Royal Irish Aca¬
demy, and of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts;
and after having left the country, he received the public
thanks of the grand jury of the county of Dublin, and of
the lord mayor of that city, as well as of the lord lieutenant
at the head of the government. Upon his return to Lon¬
don, he superintended some improvements at the Found¬
ling Hospital, and presented several models of machines
and implements to the board of agriculture ; and he estab¬
lished two prizes, for discoveries relating to heat and light,
by placing two sums of L.1000 in the British and in the
American funds, to be adjudged biennially, for Europe by
the Royal Society of London, and for America by the Ame¬
rican Academy of Sciences.
He was recalled to Bavaria by the exigencies of the
moment, which were such as to cause the elector to take
refuge in Saxony ; General Moreau having advanced with
his army to the confines of Bavaria. After the battle of
Friedberg, Count Rumford was left in command of the
Bavarian army, with instructions to act according to his
discretion under the circumstances that might occur; and
his firmness, was such as to prevent either the Austrians or
the French from entering Munich. On the elector’s re¬
turn, he was placed at the head of the department of the
general police of Bavaria. His exertions in this office were
such as to impair the state of his health, and by way of an
honourable retirement, he was sent to London in the capa¬
city of envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary;
but being a subject of the king of Britain, he was judged
incapable of being received as the diplomatic agent of a
foreign court, and he therefore continued to live in Eng¬
land as a private individual. He was very active about this
period in projecting and superintending the establishment
of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, w hich was more
particularly intended for the application of science to the
conveniences and comforts of civil and domestic life, but
which has been no less successful in giving opportunity and
facility to some of the most refined researches in chemistry
and natural philosophy that have distinguished the age,
than in serving as a medium for making the treasures of
science accessible to the less studious part of the public,
and as a model for a variety of other similar undertakings
in different parts of the world.
Count Rumford was soon afterwards officially invited to
America by the government of the United States, with an
offer of an honourable establishment in a public situation;
but he considered it as inconsistent with his engagements
in Europe to accept the proposal. In the autumn of 1800,
when he went to Scotland, a visit of ceremony w-as paid to
him by the magistrates of Edinburgh. He was consulted
respecting the abolition of mendicity, and the measures w hich
he recommended were speedily executed with complete
success. He was made an honorary member of the Royal
Society and of the Royal College of Physicians of Edin*
ntirel
Irmir
ilenti
e cai
1 *incif
ird
ison.mrgh ; and he received a gold snulF-box as a compliment
br his assistance in reforming the culinary establishment
|jf Heriot’s Hospital.
After so active and diversified a career, it was not to be
r li it
Hepi
Aft
pec
jen
lab
ject
ar
ifor:
eni:
THOMPSON.
247
3. New Experiments upon Heat. Phil. Trans. 1786, p. Thompson,
273. These experiments relate principally to the conduct- Count
ing powers of various mediums for heat; but the results are Rumford-
unavoidably complicated with the effects of radiation, in
xpected that he would be satisfied with the monotony of consequence of which a vacuum is supposed to possess a
permanent residence in London. He was so accustomed conducting power more than half as great as that of com-
o labour for the attainment of some object, that when the
bject itself was completely within his reach, and the la-
our was ended, the prospect, which ought to have been
niformly bright, became spontaneously clouded, or the
orenity even became unenjoyable for want of some clouds
) afford a contrast. He had fitted up a small house at
rompton, with every contrivance for comfort and conve-
lience that could render it fit for the abode of hospitality
;nd of luxury ; and the arrangements are fully described in
ic Bibliotheque Britannique of his friend Professor Pictet;
kit after all he never was known to give a single enter
mon air.
4. Experiments on the Production of Dephlogisticated
Air from Water with various Substances. Phil. Trans. 1787,
p. 84. These experiments tend to show that the air ob¬
tained by Priestley and Ingenhousz, from plants under
water, was derived rather from the water itself than from
the substances immersed in it.
5. Experiments made to determine the Positive and
Relative Quantities of Moisture absorbed from the Atmo¬
sphere by various Substances. P. 240. He finds that wool
is more absorbent of moisture than any other substance
r.inment in it. The enthusiasm excited by the novelty of compared whth it; and hence explains the supposed advan-
»me of his inventions had subsided ; and he was even mor-
ified by becoming, in common with the most elevated per-
inages of the country, the object of the impertinent at-
£;ks of a popular satirist. It was partly, however, if not
tirely, the superiority of the climate of France, that de-
■mined him to remove to Paris in the spring of 1802. He
Tent in the summer to Munich, and the following year he
lade a tour in Switzerland and in Bavaria, accompanied
1' Mademoiselle Lavoisier, whom he married soon after
leir return ; but their habits were incompatible with ma¬
il monial comfort, and they separated soon after; Count
lumford retiring to Auteuil, about four miles from Paris,
Here he occupied a house which had formerly belonged
tHelvetius and to Cabanis, while his lady continued to live
i the metropolis. His latter years were passed almost
violly in solitude; he saw only his neighbour Mr Cane-
l ix, Mr Underwood, and a Mr Parker, an American. He
(SI not even attend the sittings of the Institute, though he
l|d been made one of its eight foreign associates some time
fcfore, and always retained a high esteem for its secretary
Civier, and for some others of its members. His income
Its abundantly sufficient for his own expenses ; for he had
(Ctained from the gratitude of the king of Bavaria a pen-
»n of L.1200 a year; and he was allowed by Bonaparte
U remain unmolested, though a British subject, when it
ws found that he had no intercourse with society, amusing
Wnself principally in walking about his garden, and in a
s^itary game of billiards. In the latter part of his life he
Bel so completely persuaded himself of the great superio-
ity of broad wheels above narrow ones, that he drove about
t o streets of Paris in a broad-wheeled chariot; and hav-
iig rediscovered, after Professor Leslie, that black bodies
mliate more heat than others, he wore, in the winter, a
Mite hat and a white coat, in order to economize the heat
dhis person. “ These peculiarities, and a peremptory un-
Ttlding disposition,” says one of his biographers, “ were
t'“ causes that set him apart from social intercourse, and
kail his connexions in life seem to have rendered him less
ije object of personal attachment than of esteem for his
tfents and activity.” He was about to return to England
vien he died, on the 21st of A ugust 1814, leaving only one
(fnghter, who afterwards resided in his house at Brompton.
1. Count Rumford’s first publication appears to have
ken the chapter on Marine Artillery which he furnished to
Filkart’s Treatise on Naval Architecture, 1780.
12. New Experiments on Gunpowder, with the Descrip-
t n of an Eprouvette. Phil. Trans. 1781, p. 230. The ef-
fvt of the powder on the ball was measured by the recoil
Ffthe piece, with a correction deduced from the recoil when
Ip piece was empty. It was observed to be sooner heated
j»en fired without ball than with it. The force of the
pvder is made at least 1300 atmospheres, upon Robins’s
pnciples.
tage of woollen worn next the skin.
6. Experiments on Heat. Phil. Trans. 1792, p. 48. The
author attributes the effect of loose substances in obstruct¬
ing the passage of heat to their attraction for air, and
to their impeding its circulation ; and he supposes this
to be the only manner in which elastic fluids communicate
heat.
7. Account of a Method of Measuring the Comparative
Intensity of Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. Phil.
Trans. 1794, p. 67.
8. Letter announcing a Donation for a Prize Medal.
Phil. Trans. 1797, p. 215.
9. Experiments to determine the Force of Fired Gun¬
powder. P. 272. This force he supposes to amount to be¬
tween 20,000 and 50,000 atmospheres, instead of 10,000,
as Bernoulli computed it; but he makes a great mistake in
supposing that the whole of the water which can possibly
be contained in the gunpowder would be sufficient to fur¬
nish as much steam as would be required, since steam, un¬
der a pressure of 20,000 atmospheres, must be considerably
more dense than water itself.
10. Inquiry concerning the Source of the Heat excited
by Friction. Phil. Trans. 1798, p. 80. The capacity of the
chips of iron afforded by friction in boring a cannon, was
found not to differ from that of the iron in its original state :
hence it is inferred that the heat could not have been fur¬
nished by them, and that it must probably have been gene¬
rated. Mr Flaldalt afterwards repeated the experiment un¬
der circumstances still more decisive ; and Sir Humphry
Davy showed that two pieces of ice rubbed together, in a
room below the freezing temperature, would melt each
other.
1L Inquiry concerning the Chemical Properties that
have been attributed to Light. P. 449. He attributes these
properties to the effect of an intense heat confined to a small
space; but the latter experiments on the chemical effects
of the spectrum are sufficient to supersede this opinion.
13. An Account of a Curious Phenomenon observed on
the Glaciers of Chamouny, with some Observations on the
Propagation of Heat in Fluids. Phil. Trans. 1804, p. 23.
An effect depending on the expansion of water in cooling
near the freezing point.
14. Concerning the Nature of Heat, and the Mode of its
Communication. P. 77. He conjectures that cold is a po¬
sitive quality, capable of being propagated by radiation.
Several of these memoirs were reprinted under the title
of Philosophical Papers, vol. i. Lond. 1802, 8vo.
15. Ihe Essays constitute four volumes 8vo. Lond.
1795-1800. Reprinted 1800. In French, 2 v. 8. Genev.
1799. Recueil de Rapports... sur les Soupes. Par. 1801.
1 hey are eighteen in number, i. Account of an Esta¬
blishment for the Poor at Munich. In Ital. 8. Venice,
1798. ii. On Establishments for the Poor in general, iii.
248
T H O
T II O
Thompson. Of Food, and of Feeding the Poor. iv. Of Chimney Fire-
''-'-v—places, v. Account of several Public Institutions formed
in Bavaria, vi. On the Management of Fire, and the Eco¬
nomy of Fuel. vii. On the Propagation of Heat in Fluids,
extending to Liquids the doctrine which he had before ad¬
vanced respecting Elastic Fluids, viii. On the Propaga¬
tion of Heat in various Substances. Phil. Trans, ix. Ex¬
perimental Inquiry concerning the Source of Heat excited
by Friction, x. On Kitchen Fire-places and Kitchen Uten¬
sils. xi. On Chimney Fire-places, xii. On the Salubrity of
Warm Rooms in Cold Weather, xiii. On the Salubrity
of Bathing, and the Construction of Warm Baths, xiv.
Supplementary Observations on the Management of Fires,
xv. On the Use of Steam for Transporting Heat. xvi. On
the Management of Light in Illumination, with an Account
of a new Portable Lamp. xvii. On the Source of the Light
manifested in the Combustion of Inflammable Bodies,
xviii. On the excellent dualities of Coffee, and the Art of
making it in Perfection.
16. There are several little papers on Steam Kitchens,
on the Strength of Soft Materials, and on some other simi¬
lar subjects, in the first numbers of the Journals of the
Royal Institution. 8. Lond. 1800.
17. The series of investigations relating to Heat and
Light, which Count Rumford began to communicate to the
Royal Society, were, continued, and rather more fully de¬
tailed, in several of the volumes of the Memoirs of the In¬
stitute, Mathematical Class; into which they were of course
admitted as the productions of a foreign associate. The
first of these is in the sixth volume. 4. Par. 1806, p. 71,
containing a Description of a new Instrument; a Thermo¬
scope, or a Differential Thermometer, resembling that of
Leslie. (18.) The second,p.74. Researches on Heat; show¬
ing the Effect of the Difference of Surface on Radiation.
(19.) iii. P.88. Further Experiments; on the Effect of
blackening the Surface. (20.) iv. P. 97. Researches
continued; on the different Properties of Bodies with re¬
spect to Radiation, and to Conducting Power. (21.) v. P.
106. Further Researches; some good Experiments on the
Passage of Heat through Solids. (22.) vi. P. 123. Experi¬
ments on the Heat of the Solar Rays; which was found not
to be affected by their convergence or divergence, or by
their having met in a focus and crossed each other. (23.)
vii. Vol. vii. i. 1806, p. 78. Remarks on the Tempera¬
ture of Water at the Maximum of Density; making it 41°
of Fahrenheit, or 5° centigrade. Phil. Trans. 1804. (24.)
viii. Vol. viii. i. 1807, p. 223. On the Dispersion of the
Light of Lamps by Screens of Ground Glass, Silk, and so
forth, with a Description of a new Lamp. (25.) ix. P. 249.
On the Cooling of Liquids in Vases of Porcelain, gilt and
not gilt; showing the utility of gilding them externally,
with some good reasoning on the nature of heat.
26. He was latterly engaged in composing a work on
the Nature and Effects of Order, which he never complet¬
ed, although no person was better qualified to write on the
subject.
Count Rumford certainly possessed considerable facility
of invention, and there was a very laudable spirit of origi¬
nality in his views and modes of reasoning, although he had
never leisure to acquire profound learning in any depart¬
ment of study. “ In person he was above the middle size,
with a dignified and pleasing expression of countenance,
and a mildness in his manner and his tone of voice. He
was ambitious of fame and distinction, and had too great a
propensity to dictate,” without sufficiently regarding the
opinions of others who were of equal authority with him¬
self. His mode of life was abstemious, and his health was Tiu
even supposed to have suffered from too great abstinence,
though his regimen was much more the result of medical
opinions respecting his health, than of his own peculiar
taste for temperance.1 (l. l.)
THOMSON, James, a poet of great eminence, was born
in the parish of Ednam and county of Roxburgh, on the
11th of September 1700. His father was minister of that
parish, which is contiguous to Kelso. The maiden name
of his mother was Beatrix Trotter, and she was co-heiress of
a small demesne in the county. In Dr Johnson’s lifeofthe
poet she is called Hume ; a mistake which is pointed out
by Boswell, who supplied the great biographer with some
materials for his narrative, which he either forgot or ne¬
glected. Mrs Thomson presented her husband with nine
children, whose maintenance and education may have been
a pleasing, but could not be a light burden, to parents cir¬
cumstanced as they were. At an early age James showed
great aptitude for learning; and Mr Riccarton,2 a neighbour¬
ing clergyman, furnished him with books, and took upon
himself the chief direction of his studies. The elementary
branches of knowledge Thomson acquired at Jedburgh
school. There he was inoculated with the love of versify¬
ing ; but how his thoughts were directed into that channel,
does not appear. Mediocrity is easily satisfled with its own
attainments, and cherishes its mean performances with pious
care. After the first gaze of parental fondness, the mens
divinior turns from its offspring with indifference or aver¬
sion, and endeavours to breathe life into a more perfect
progeny. On the first day of every year, Thomson com¬
mitted to the flames all the poetical effusions of the preced¬
ing twelvemonth. The master could perceive in his pupil
no indications of superior capacity ; but schoolmasters are
not unfrequently the most fallible of all prophets. One
youth, who was to enter upon a career of glory, often dwin¬
dles into insignificance; and another, who has been con¬
signed to perpetual obscurity, as often covers his oracular
preceptor with confusion by arriving at distinction.
From Jedburgh school Thomson was removed to the
university of Edinburgh. After he had prosecuted his
studies there for two years, he received a hasty summons
to attend his father in his last extremity, but did not arrive
in time to receive his dying benediction. His mother now
removed with her family to Edinburgh ; and in order to
carry this arrangement into effect, it became necessary for
her to raise money by the mortgage of her little estate.
Although somewhat of an enthusiast in religious matters,
she conducted her domestic affairs with great prudence and
economy, and lived to see her son distinguished by the fa¬
vour of the great. The friends of Thomson were desirous
that he should direct his views towards the church; but he
does not appear to have had any great predilection for the
clerical profession. At college he remained unnoticed,
until Mr Hamilton, the professor of divinity, bestowed a
mixture of praise and censure upon a probationary exer¬
cise of his, explanatory of one of the psalms. The profes¬
sor commended the fervour of his sentiments and the ma¬
jesty of his diction ; but added, that if he wished to be of any
use as a preacher of the gospel, he must descend to the
level of vulgar understandings. Whether the commenda¬
tion was cold, and the reproof warm, or whether Thomson
had anticipated unqualified applause, and was disgusted by
the modification with which it was administered, he now
abandoned all thoughts of continuing his theological studies.
His discourse had been censured as too poetical; and the
poems which he handed about at this time were condemn-
* Pictet,’ BiMiotheque Britannique. Baldwin’s Literary Journal. Gentleman’s Magazine, vol. Ixxxiv. Aikin’s General Biography, vol. x.
Chaimers s Biographical Dictionary, vol. xxix. t> r j
3 tIle name is given by Dr Murdoch ; but it may perhaps be doubted whether this was not the same individual whose works were pub-
'--tool0 °™TS 111 .e.: ‘ rhe ^orks of the Iate Reverend Mr Robert Riccaltoun, Minister of the Gospel at Hobkirk.” Edinb.
1,11-2, 3 vols. 8 vo. 1 he parishes of Hobkirk and Ednam are within a very moderate distance of each other.
T I I O M S O N.
249
d by some small critics of the city, upon what ground it
s unnecessary to inquire. That his youthful productions
ere not without their faults, it is very easy to conceive,
nd these were pointed out with laborious minuteness ; but
heir beauties, of which it is improbable that they were en-
drely destitute, passed unobserved. Finding that his coun-
.rymen had formed a standard of composition, both in prose
and verse, which he was unable to reach, Thomson resolv¬
ed to submit his productions to a tribunal of strangers. But
although the former were insensible to his merits when their
favour might have been of some use to him, they did not fail
[to praise him when their praise was of little value ; nor did
they neglect the accustomed tribute of lamentation when
iall tears were vain. Long after the tomb had closed over his
!remains, a society of gentlemen in the Scotish metropolis
was formed for the purpose of celebrating his birth-day
y a musical entertainment. These tuneful associates, who
ontinued their union for several years, were pleased to call
hemselves the Knights Companions of the Cape.
Thomson now repaired to London, carrying with him
etters of recommendation to various individuals of influ-
nce; but of these credentials he had the misfortune to be
obbed. They were tied up in a handkerchief, and when
e was staring at the wonders of the metropolis, he was
eased of his bundle by a pickpocket, who was probably as
much chagrined by what he had gained, as Thomson was
by what he had lost. To London it is said that he was
allured by the hopes excited in him by Lady Grizzel Bail-
lie, who promised much, and performed nothing. For the
supply of his numerous w'ants, and among others that of a
pair of shoes, his sole dependence was upon his poem of
Winter, which the booksellers manifested little eagerness to
'purchase. At last he sold it for a trifling sum, but it was
'long in finding admirers, and the publisher, “ J. Millan, at
Locke’s Head in Shug-Lane,” had some misgivings that his
parsimony savoured of rashness. It however fell in the
sway of some persons of taste and discernment, who spread
its fame, and it was finally received with very general ap¬
plause. It appeared in 1726, with a prose dedication to
Sir Spencer Compton.1 At this period of his history, the
indigent bard was much indebted to the friendship of Mal¬
let, who was then tutor to the sons of the duke of Montrose.
Mallet was a man of consummate dexterity, and very well
qualified to enlighten his countryman in the art of pushing
his fortune. In his zeal for the dignity of letters, Dr John¬
son remarks that Thomson at this time “ obtained the no¬
tice of Aaron Hill, whom, being friendless and indigent,
and glad of kindness, he courted with every expression of
servile adulation.” Hyperbolical encomium can expect
little sympathy from those who have never been obliged,
any more than raving resentment from those who have never
been injured ; but surely the eloquence of gratitude is not
so frequently heard as to create disgust. It appears from
the interchange of high-flown compliments in the corre¬
spondence between Hill and Richardson, that flattery seldom
came amiss to either; yet Hill was an ingenious and bene¬
volent man, upon whom much praise could be conscienti¬
ously bestowed. He was also a man of spirit, as Pope had
occasion to ascertain, when he provided him with a niche
in the Dunciad. A proof of all these qualities now appear¬
ed in his conduct to the young poet. Of the dedication
Sir Spencer Compton took no notice, until there appeared
in the newspapers a copy of complimentary verses, address¬
ed by Hill to Thomson, lamenting the miseries of genius,
and condemning the paltry Maecenases of the age. The
result of this memento was an interview with Thomson, in
which Sir Spencer, with much of the grace and delicacy of
one bestowing alms upon a mendicant, made the poet a
present of twenty guineas. The successful author of the Thomson,
present day has reason to be thankful that the multiplicity
of readers has placed him above dependence upon any other
patronage, whether private or political. A second impres¬
sion of Winter was now called for, and the author’s friends
began rapidly to increase. Among these was Dr Rundle,
afterwards bishop of Derry, who introduced him to the Lord
Chancellor Talbot. In 1727 appeared/SWzmer, wdiich was
followed by “ A Poem sacred to the Memory of Sir Isaac
Newton.’’ To this production he was enabled, by the in¬
struction of his friend Mr Gray, to impart a philosophic
spirit, worthy of the departed sage. This year also produced
Britannia, in which was echoed the general cry against the
ministry for remissness in vindicating the national honour,
which had been insulted by the maritime depredations of
the Spaniards. In 1728 was published Spring, dedicated
to the countess of Hertford, afterwards duchess of Somerset,
by whom the poet w^as invited to pass some time at the
family-seat. The countess was herself addicted to the muses,
and regaled her visitor by reciting to him many of her poeti¬
cal lucubrations. This species of pastime, however, Thom¬
son found somewhat insipid, and sought relief so frequently
in the jovial company which surrounded his lordship’s table,
that he forfeited the favour of his learned hostess, and this
invitation to become her guest, which was the first, was also
the last that he ever received. In 1729, the tragedy of
Sophonisba was acted at Drury Lane ; and in the following
year, by the addition of Autumn, the plan of “ The Seasons”
w as completed, and they w ere combined in a quarto volume.
The success of the play was much more moderate than
was anticipated by the author’s numerous and powerful
friends. The feeble verse,
O, Soplionisba, Sophonisba, O!
and the parody to which it gave rise,
O, Jemmy Thomson, Jemmy Thomson, O !
are still remembered; a fate which has attended few of his
other tragic lines. His genius does not seem to have been
dramatic: he is often flat, and when he rises, he seldom
rises above rant; even his declamation, into which his dia¬
logue too often degenerates, is not splendid, and his pa¬
thos is not afliecting. In this, and in all his other plays,
there is a perpetual repetition of the word glory, which
argues great poverty of sentiment; and Hurd did him little
injustice when he applied to his palpable and laborious art,
in tragedy the words of Horace, pronnssus grandia target.
Nor does he display any skill in depicting character, being
a more diligent observer of external nature, than of the
qualities of men. His heroine hates the Romans, and, with
little variation of expression, she says so every time she ap¬
pears upon the scene. Syphax is only another Bajazet, and
his rival Masinissa a common tragic lover, with whose rap¬
tures and lamentations no one has much sympathy.
About this time, Thomson is said to have been under
great obligations to the eccentric generosity of Quin, the
celebrated actor, who, as the story goes, relieved him from
a spunging-house in Holborn. After the publication of his
Seasons, one of his creditors had him arrested, judging that
a likely time to procure payment. The amount of the
debt was not forthcoming, and Thomson had every pro¬
spect of a lengthened sojourn in his involuntary retirement,
when he was visited by Quin, with whom he had no per¬
sonal acquaintance. The comedian gracefully apologized
for his intrusion, to which Thomson was easily reconciled.
The additional liberty of ordering supper was also taken in
good part. After they had supped luxuriously and drunk
freely, Quin informed his new associate that he w^as in¬
debted to him in the sum of one hundred pounds for plea¬
sure received in the perusal of the Seasons. He then de¬
void, XXI.
1 Winter; a Poem. By James Thomson, A. M. Lond. I72G, fol.
250
Thomson, posited the money on the table, and took his departure,
v—-v—' leaving the imprisoned bard full of gratitude and amaze¬
ment.
Thomson’s poetical labours were now agreeably inter¬
rupted by an invitation to attend the eldest son of Lord
Talbot upon his travels. For this advantageous opportunity
of extending his experience, he was indebted to the friend¬
ship of Dr Rundle. Upon his return to England, he was
made secretary of briefs ; the profits of which appointment
were fully adequate to all his wants and desires. When in
Italy, he conceived the idea of writing the poem of Liberty,
which was afterwards completed in five parts, successively
published in quarto ; the first, second, and third in 1735,
the fourth and fifth in 1736. This poem he dedicated to
the prince of Wales. One who has read the achievements
of the masters of the world, and seen their posterity sunk in
slavery and vice, is apt to imagine that he can say some¬
thing that is new on the blessings of freedom and the hor¬
rors of oppression. But his sensations, which have been
felt by all, have been described by many; and in the fer¬
vour of composition, mistaking the children of memory for
the offspring of fancy, a great writer may produce, upon
such an impracticable theme, nothing but a tissue of com¬
mon-places, when he dreams that he has been making an
invaluable addition to the treasures of knowledge. No
man, whether sane or otherwise, prefers darkness and
chains to light and the free range of creation; and when
Thomson proved, by a multiplicity of examples drawn from
the history of every age and nation, that the former were
to be shunned and the latter pursued, the reader was
neither amused nor instructed. By a species of infatua¬
tion not uncommon among authors, Thomson considered
this poem the best of all his productions. It was coldly re¬
ceived by the public when it first appeared ; and after the
poet’s death, when Sir George Lyttelton was collecting his
works for the press, he thought the best way of consulting
the reputation of his deceased friend was to abridge it; a
strange and unwarrantable proceeding, which no motives
can justify. In the mutilated condition to which it was re¬
duced by Lyttelton, it now appears.
The mortification of finding the public opinion of his
poem opposed to his own, was followed by the death of
Lord Talbot, an event which deprived Thomson of his
place. The new chancellor, Lord Hardwicke, kept it va¬
cant for some time, in order to afford him an opportunity of
applying, in the usual form, to be reinstated ; but no such
application was made, and his lordship bestowed it upon
another person. The silence of Thomson probably pro¬
ceeded from an incurable habit of neglecting his own affairs;
for his experience was sufficient to inform him, that the
dignity of a needy man who expects to be loaded with un¬
solicited benefits, will soon be his sole possession. His
great friends, however, did not desert him ; and soon after
he had ceased to be a placeman, he was introduced to the
prince of Wales, who, among other modes of courting po¬
pularity, professed himself a friend to men of letters. Be¬
ing questioned by the prince on the state of his affairs,
Thomson informed his royal highness that “ they were in
a more poetical posture than formerly.” This gay reply
produced what might have been denied to a tedious cata¬
logue of grievances, a pension of one hundred pounds a
year. This allowance, well-timed as it was, being insuf¬
ficient to support him in his former mode of living, he again
had recourse to his pen. In 1738 his tragedy of Agamem¬
non was acted at Drury Lane. The performance was
graced by the presence of Pope, who, on his entering the
theatre, received from the audience nearly all the applause
T H 0 M S 0 N.
of the evening; for although supported by the acting of Thoijj,,! 'i'
Quin in the hero, the play, to use the words of Johnson,
“ had the fate which commonly attends mythological stories,
and was only endured, but not favoured.” Being still com¬
pelled to write for the stage, Thomson next produced Ed¬
ward and Eleanora, to the first edition of which is pre¬
fixed the following advertisement: “ The representation of
this tragedy on the stage was prohibited in the year one
thousand seven hundred and thirty-nine.” Brooke’s Gus-
tavus Vasa was the first, and Thomson’s the second, play
prohibited by the operation of the new act for licensing
dramatic performances. In both cases this act seems to
have been exercised with very superfluous rigour. The
following lines, however, which occur near the beginning
of Thomson’s tragedy, may perhaps have arrested the eye
of authority, and sealed its fate.
In times like these.
Disturb’d and low’ring with unsettled freedom,
One step to lawless power, one old attempt
Renew’d, the least infringement of our charters.
Would hurl the giddy nation into tempest.
In conjunction with Mallet, he afterwards wrote the
masque of Alfred, which was played before the prince of
Wales. To the favour of that illustrious personage, who was
on bad terms with the court, it is probable that he owed,
in some degree, the prohibition of his former drama. The
tragedy of Tancred and Sigismunda, taken from the novel in
Gil Bias, was performed at Drury Lane in 1745. It was
the most successful of his dramatic efforts, and kept posses¬
sion of the stage until a recent period. This tragedy was fol¬
lowed by the Castle of Indolence, the last of his works that
was published in his life-time, and, in the opinion of many, •
the most brilliant effort of his genius. The frequent recur¬
rence of the rhyme in the Spenserian measure occasionally
produces a redundance both of sentiment and expression;
but this objection scarcely applies to any one stanza of the
first canto of this poem. Every line breathes the spirit of
seductive languor, to which every new image lends addi¬
tional force, until the mind is steeped in luxurious lethargy.
In the second canto the obvious reasoning of Sir Industry
is a feeble antidote to the eloquent sophistry of the wizard
Indolence in the first. The necessity for further literary
exertion was removed by his appointment to the office of
surveyor-general of the Leeward Islands, w-hich was pro¬
cured for him by the influence of Lyttelton. His clear
emoluments amounted to about three hundred pounds a
year, and the duties of his office he was suffered to perform
by deputy.1
Thomson had now every prospect of enjoying many years
of learned ease ; but he had scarcely ceased to be the sport
of fortune, when he was suddenly removed from the scene.
A cold caught upon the river between London and Kew,
was succeeded by a fever, of which he had partly recover¬
ed, when imprudent exposure to the evening dews induced
a recurrence of his malady, and terminated his life on the
27th of August 1748. His remains wrere interred in the
church of Richmond in Surrey ; and in 1762 a monument
was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. The
expense of this memorial wTas defrayed by an edition of his
wTorks, published during that year, in twro volumes quarto.
The king subscribed one hundred pounds. A life of the
author was prefixed by his intimate friend Dr Murdoch.
But the noblest tribute to the memory of Thomson is the
beautiful ode of Collins, beginning,
In yonder grave a Druid lies,
Where slowly winds the stealing wave ;
The year’s best sweets shall duteous rise
To deck its poet’s sylvan grave.
1 His friend Paterson, the author of the tragedy of Arminius, which was prohibited by the Lord Chamberlain soon after Edward and
Lleanora had met a similar late, was T homson’s deputy, and lived to succeed him in his office.
T H O
T H O
251
litir. The tragedy of Coriolarms, which he had prepared for
—' the stage, was after his death performed at Covent Garden.
The profits of the representation discharged his debts, and
left a considerable overplus, which was remitted to his sisters.
The principal character was supported by Quin, who also
delivered a prologue written by Lyttelton. When he had
t( I to utter the following lines, the great comedian, who had
long lived on terms of the most affectionate intimacy with
Thomson, was entirely overcome by his emotions:
He lov’d his friends—forgive this gushing tear—
Alas! I feel I am no actor here.
es
b?
lie
br
in!
fra
ne
in
fre
pr<
trii
six
sei
Mi
lat
tbi
pei
an
by
tlx
Jo
eyi
tin
tlx
am
int
bn
cbi
mi
of
in
«'0
•y
tbf
am
A
Tl
ai
tbi
Fi
Thomson was a man of a gross habit of body, and of a dull
aspect. In a mixed or numerous company he was ill at
ease, and appeared to disadvantage ; but when surrounded
by a few familiar faces, his embarrassment disappeared, and
he became frank, cheerful, and amusing. As a son and
brother, his conduct was exemplary. A letter to his sister,
inserted in Johnson’s narrative, breathes the purest spirit of
fraternal affection. He was warmly attached to his friends,
whom he inspired with the same degree of cordial tender¬
ness. He was not easily roused to personal exertion, either
in his own behalf or that of others ; but his money was
freely shared with those whom he loved or pitied. In his
prosperous days, he was never known to shake oft’ a humble
friend ; and even Savage, the most inconvenient of all as¬
sociates, whose pride, although he lived by borrowing, was as
sensitive as an unhealed wound, praised Thomson’s steady
friendship to the skies. Upon the same authority, as re¬
lated by Johnson, we learn that his habits of life formed ra¬
ther a ludicrous contrast to the delicacy of sentiment which
pervades his writings. The veracity of Savage was not his
most shining quality, but if Thomson had the failings im¬
puted to him, he had also the grace to be ashamed of them;
an example which might have been followed with advantage
by succeeding writers, who have endeavoured to earn money
and applause by making the world a confidant of their vices.
From Thomson, as an author, has never been withheld
the highest praise, that of originality. “ He thinks,” says
Johnson, “ in a peculiar train, and he thinks always as a
man of genius; he looks round on nature and life with the
eye which nature bestows only on a poet; the eye that dis¬
tinguishes, in every thing presented to its view, whatever
there is on which imagination can delight to be detained,
and with a mind that at once comprehends the vast, and at¬
tends to the minute. The reader of the Seasons wonders
that he never saw before what Thomson shows him, and
that he never yet has felt what Thomson impresses.” Where
intellectual eminence was not conspicuous, Johnson distri¬
buted commendation with a very sparing hand, whether the
character reviewed was dignified by rank, which he valued
much, or by virtue, which he valued more. Upon a lover
of liberty, a man of easy morals, and a writer of blank verse,
jin his estimation a delinquent almost as odious as either, he
would have bestowed no praise that he could conscientious¬
ly have withheld. This liberal encomium on Thomson,
therefore, ought to satisfy the warmest admirers of that poet,
and to silence those who woidd detract from his reputation.
1 he Seasons have been translated into several languages.
A translation into Latin verse was published by Brownell.
1 here are three different versions into French prose ; and
a version into French verse was published by J. Poullin in
the year 1802. Of Spring and Winter a Danish version
was executed by Peter Foersom, and was printed in the
posthumous collection of his poems.1
THOU, the eldest and bravest of the sons of Odin and
frea, was, after his parents, the greatest god of the Saxons
and Danes while they continued heathens. They believed
that Jhor reigned over all the aerial regions, which com¬
posed his immense palace, consisting of 540 halls ; that he
launched the thunder, pointed the lightning, and directed
the meteors, winds, and storms. To him they addressed
their prayers for favourable winds, refreshing rains, and
fruitful seasons ; and to him the fifth day of the week,
which still bears his name, wras consecrated.
THORDA, or Thorenburg, a district of the province
of Suabenburgen, in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary. It
is a long narrow district, extending nearly the length of the
whole province. It covers nearly 2000 square miles, but
scarcely contains more than 70,000 inhabitants, the north¬
ern part comprising a great portion of the sterile Carpa¬
thian Mountains; but the southern part produces good
corn, wine, and fruits, and rears some large flocks of sheep.
I he capital is a town of the same name, on the river Ar-
anyos, which divides it into the old and new town. It con¬
tains two Catholic and two Calvinist churches, a Lutheran,
a Greek, and a Unitarian church, and 7100 inhabitants.
The Unitarians have a college, and the Franciscan monks
a monastery. Near Thorda there are some mines of rock-
salt, yielding 25,000 tons of culinary salt annually. Long.
23. 42. 12. E. Lat. 46. 31. 53. N.
THORN, a city, formerly one of the most distinguished,
in the kingdom of Poland, but now the capital of a circle
of the same name in the government of Dantzig and the
province of West Prussia. It stands on the river Vistula,
which is there nearly two miles across. There is a bridge
of boats from the city to an island in the centre of the stream,
and another from that island to the right bank. Thorn
is a frontier town towards the Russian territory, is strongly
fortified on every side, and a large garrison is always quar¬
tered in it. The buildings are of an antique fashion, very
large and firm. There is a good market-place, but the
streets are crooked and narrow. It contains three Catholic,
one Lutheran, and one Reformed church ; a monastery, a
nunnery, a Catholic gymnasium with a good library, 800
houses, and 10,400 inhabitants, who carry on trade on the
river in corn, and make woollens, linens, leather, paper,
soap, and gloves. It was the birth-place of the celebrated
astronomer Copernicus, born in 1515. Long. 23. 44. 57. E.
Lat. 53. 1. 30. N.
IHORNBURY, a town of the hundred of the same
name in the county of Gloucester, 124 miles from London.
It is situated on a small stream that falls into the Severn,
and consists of one street about half a mile long, with a
large church resembling a cathedral, and the remains of a
magnificent palace, begun, but never finished, by the duke
of Buckingham in 1511. Thornbury is an ancient borough,
and has a market on Saturday. The inhabitants amount¬
ed in 1821 to 2764, and in 1831 to 4375.
THORNE, a town of the hundred of Straffbrth and
Tickhill, in the west riding of the county of York, 167 miles
from London. It is situated in a marshy district, being sur¬
rounded by the rivers Don, Ouse, and Aire, and being near
the canal of Headley. It has little trade except that of
ship-building, which of late has declined. There is a mar¬
ket on Wednesday. The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to
3463, and in 1831 to 3779.
THORNHILL, Sir James, an eminent English painter,
was born in Dorsetshire in 1676, of an ancient family, but
was constrained to apply to some profession by the dis¬
tresses of his father, who had been reduced to the neces¬
sity of selling his family estate. His inclination directed
him to the art of painting ; and on his arrival at London he
applied to his uncle, the famous Dr Sydenham, who enabled
* l!,lste a[ i>eter Foersom, kongelig Skuespiller : udgivne efter bans Dbd. Kiobenliavn, 1818, 8vo. It may not be superfluous to men-
,11 • a u lbeIa1ut'., edltlon of the Seasons was printed by Bodoni: “ The Seasons. By James Thomson.” Parma, 1794, 4to. It is de-
tated ' *° f^avid Steuart, Esquire of Cardneys, late Lord Provost of the City of Edinburg.”
Thorda
II
Thornhill.
T H R
competition of the north-country manufacturers. The po¬
pulation amounted in 1821 to 1317, and in 1831 to 1455.
THOTH, or Theut (called by the Phoenicians Taant,
by the Greeks Hermes, and by the Romans Mercury), was
a Phoenician of very superior talents, and one of the civi¬
lizers of mankind. He was prime minister to Osiris, whom,
after his death, he deified ; and he was himself deified by
his countrymen the Egyptians, for the benefits which he
had rendered to the human race.
THRACE, a country very frequently mentioned by the
252 T H O
Thornhill him to proceed in the study of the art under the direction Devon and the hundred of Hayridge, 175 miles from Lon-
II of a painter who was not very eminent. The genius of don. In former years the principal occupation of the inha-
Thorverton. Thornhil]> hovveverj made ampie amends for the insuffi- bitants was making serges and other coarse woollen goods ^
” ciency of his instructor ; and by a happy application of his for the Spanish market, and long ells for the East India ^
talents he made so great a progress, that he gradually rose Company; but both these branches have diminished by the^—^
to the highest reputation. His genius was well adapted to
historical and allegorical compositions; he possessed a fer¬
tile and fine invention; and he sketched his thoughts with
great ease, freedom, and spirit. He equally excelled in
portrait, perspective, and architecture; showed an excel¬
lent taste for design, and had a free and firm pencil. He
was so eminent in many parts of his profession, that he must
ever be ranked among the best painters of his time ; and
his performances in the dome of St Paul’s church at Lon¬
don, in the hospital at Greenwich, and at Hampton Court, . ....
are such public proofs of his merit as will convey his name Greek and Latin writers, deriving its name, accoiding to
to posterity with honour. This painter lived in general Josephus, from liras, one of the sons of Japhet. It was
esteem: he enriched himself by the excellence of his works; bounded on the north by Mount Haemus ; on the south by
wras appointed state-painter to Queen Anne, from whom he the iEgean Sea; on the west by Macedon and the river
received the honour of knighthood; had the singular satis- Strymon ; and on the east by the Euxine Sea, the Helles-
faction to repurchase his family estate; and was of suffi- pont, and the Propontis. Ihe Thracian Chersonesus is a
cient importance to be elected a member of parliament. He peninsula enclosed on the south by the /Egean Sea, on the
died in 1732. west by gulf of Melas, and on the east by the Helles-
Thornhill, a large and thriving village in the parish of pont; being joined on the north to the continent by a neck
Morton and county of Dumfries, is delightfully situated in of land about thirty-seven furlongs broad. The inland parts
a vale through which runs the river Nith. It consists of of Thrace are very cold and barren, the snow lying on the
a few streets, having in the centre a cross, erected by the mountains the greater part of the year ; but the maritime
last duke of Queensberry. It has of late been much im- provinces are productive of all sorts of grain and necessaries
proved by the proprietor, the present duke of Buccleuch,
who has had the streets levelled and paved, common sewers
formed, and a good supply of winter brought in. It contains
two dissenting places of worship. It possesses also a branch
of one of the Edinburgh banks, and a subscription library
established in 1814. In 1831 the population amounted to
1373.
THOROUGH BASS (Ital. Basso Continuo). See
Music. From an edition of Emilio del Cavaliere’s musical
drama, called La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo.
for life, and withal so pleasant, that Mela compares them
to the most fruitful and agreeable countries of Asia.
The ancient Thracians were deemed a brave and warlike
nation, but of a cruel and savage temper ; being, according
to the Greek writers, strangers to all humanity and good
nature. It was to the Thracians, however, that the Greeks
were chiefly indebted for the polite arts that flourished
among them ; for Orpheus, Linus, Musaeus, Thamyris, and
Eumolpus, all Thracians, were the first, as Eustathius in¬
forms us, who charmed the inhabitants of Greece with their
published by Guidotti in 1600 at Bologna, it appears that eloquence and melody, and persuaded them to exchange
Cavaliere was one of the earliest musicians who conceived their fierceness for a sociable life and peaceful manners;
the idea of writing an instrumental bass different from the nay, great part of Greece was anciently peopled by Ihra-
vocal bass, gave it the name of basso continuo, and accom- ‘ ^ ‘ r,M ’ ~~
panied it by numerals and signs intended to direct the
instrumental performers in the improvised accompaniments
which they executed. “ This fact,” says an eminent conti¬
nental writer, “ is proved by the instructions which Gui¬
dotti has given in that edition regarding those numerals and
1 numeri piccoli posti sopra le note del basso con-
tinuato per suonare, says Guidotti, signijicano la conso-
cians. Tereus, a Thracian, governed at Daulis in Phocis,
where the tragical story of Philomela and Progne was act¬
ed. From thence a body of Thracians passed over to Eu¬
boea, and possessed themselves of that island. Of the same
nation were the Aones, Tembices, and Hyanthians, who
made themselves masters of Bceotia ; and great part of At¬
tica itself was inhabited by Thracians, under the command
of the celebrated Eumolpus. Thrace was anciently divided
nanza e la dissonanza di tal numero, come il 3 terza, il 4 into a number of petty states, which were first subdued by
quarta, e cose di mano in mano.” Thus it would seem that Philip of Macedon. On the decline of the Macedonian
G. Sabbatini, who, in his work printed at Venice in 1628, empire, it fell under the power of the Romans, and conti-
claims the invention offigured bass, must yield the priority nued under subjection to them till the irruption of the
at least to Cavaliere. It appears however that G. Sab- Turks.
batini was the first person who published the precepts of THRAPSTON, a town in the hundred of Navisford
the so-called Rule of the Octave. Andrea Majer of Venice, and county of Northampton, seventy-five miles from Lon-
in his Discorso sulla Origins, Progressi, e Stato attuale don. It is built on the river Nen, by which it has some
della Musica Italiana, says, that in the Euridice and Ma¬
drigals of Caccini, and other compositions of the sixteenth
century, we find a basso continuo. But this does not over¬
turn L. Viadana’s claim, set forth as about 1597, in his
Cento Concerti, published in 1603; since the Euridice wras
trade with Lynn and with Northampton. There is a mar¬
ket on Tuesday. The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to
854, and in 1831 to 1014.
THRASHING, in Agriculture, the operation by which
corn is separated from the straw. This operation is per-
set to music by Perti and Caccini, and also performed in formed in a variety of ways, sometimes by the feet of am-
1600; while Caccini’s Euridice, set to music entirely by mals, sometimes by a flail, and sometimes by a machine
himself, and also his Madrigals, were first published in 1615.
See Music, sect. Harmony.
THOROUT, a market-town of the Netherlands, in the
province of West Flanders and arrondissement of Bruges.
It is on the chaussee leading from Menen to Bruges, and
contains 5160 inhabitants.
called a thrashing mill. See the article Agriculture.
THREE Hills Island, one of the Hebrides, in the
South Pacific Ocean, about twelve miles in circumference.
Long. 168. 35. E. Lat. 17. 7. S.
Three Hummock Island, a small island on the east
coast of New Holland ; also an island on the north coast of
THORVERTON, a decayed town of the county of Van Diemen’s Land. Long. 145. E. Lat. 40. 45. S.
THU
T
e Three Islands, small islands in the Eastern Seas, near
the east coast of Bintang. Long. 105. 2. E. Lat. 1. 10. S.
Three Kings, three small islands in the South Pacific
Ocean, near the north coast of New Zealand. Long. 172.
,wl2. E. Lat. 34. 13. S.
Three Points Cape, the north head of the entrance
into Broken Bay, on the east coast of New Holland. Long.
151. 23^. E. Lat. 33. 32|. S.
Three Rivers, the name of numerous small islands,
about eight in number, scattered over the Eastern Seas,
two on the coast of Celebes, one on the coast of Amboyna,
and one on the coast of Madagascar.
THRONE, a royal seat or chair of state, enriched with
ornaments of architecture and sculpture, raised on one or
more steps, and covered with a kind of canopy. Such are
thrones in the rooms of audience of kings and other sove¬
reigns.
THUANUS, Jacobus Augustus, an historian of great
and merited reputation, is better known by this classical,
than by his vernacular name of Jacques Auguste de Thou.
He was the son of Christophe de Thou, first president of
the parliament, and was born at Paris on the 8th of Octo¬
ber 1553. He received a very learned education, and be¬
came distinguished among men of learning. The highest
preferment which he obtained was that of president a mor-
tkr in the parliament of Paris. He died on the 7th of
May 1617, leaving behind him the character of one of the
most excellent men of his age and nation. Besides Latin
poems, and an account of his own life written in the same
language, he composed a very ample and valuable work,
entitled Historia sui Temporis. It is indeed a work unpa¬
ralleled in modern literature. The first eighteen books
were published at Paris in 1604; and the author continued
to make various additions till the year 1609, when he com¬
pleted the printing of eighty books, The fearless liberality
of his sentiments had excited so violent a clamour against
him, that he did not venture to publish the more recent
portion of his history. To his faithful friends Du Puy
and Rigault he left a copy of his entire history prepared
for the press; and as they found it could not be safely
printed at Paris, they sent it to Geneva, where the edition
was superintended by Lingelsheim. For the sake of greater
concealment, the imprint of Lyon was substituted for that
of Geneva; and the editor added a preface, stating that he
had in vain waited for an edition of Thuanus’s history from
the hands of his executors, and therefore determined to
publish it from a copy which had been transmitted to him
from the author. Under these circumstances, the work,
complete in one hundred and thirty-eight books, was first
published in the year 1620, together with the six books of
the author’s memoirs of his own life. Other two impres¬
sions proceeded from Frankfurt and Geneva ; but all these
have been superseded by the splendid and valuable edition
published at London by Samuel Buckley, in seven volumes
folio, in the year 1733.1
THUCYDIDES, a celebrated Greek historian, was
born at Athens, 471 b. c. He was the son of Olorus, and
grandson of Miltiades, who is thought to have been de¬
scended from Miltiades the famous Athenian general, and
to have married the king of Thrace’s daughter. He was
educated in a manner suitable to his quality, that is, in the
study of philosophy and eloquence. His master in the
former was Anaxagoras, in the latter Antiphon ; one, by
his description in the eighth book of his history, for power
of speech almost a miracle, and feared by the people on
that account. Suidas and Photius relate, that when Hero¬
dotus recited his history in public, a fashion in use then
and many ages after, Thucydides felt so great a sting of
H U 253
emulation, that it drew tears from him; insomuch that Thucy-
Herodotus himself took notice of it, and congratulated his dides.
father on having a son who showed so wonderful an affec- ^ v
tion to the Muses. Herodotus was then about twenty-nine
years of age, Thucydides about sixteen.
When the Peloponnesian war wras impending, he con¬
jectured truly that it would prove a subject worthy of his
labour; and it no sooner commenced than he began to
keep a journal. This explains the reason why he has at¬
tended more to chronological order than to unity of design.
During the same war he was commissioned by his country¬
men to relieve Amphipolis; but the quick march of Brasidas
the Lacedaemonian general defeated his operations, and
Thucydides, unsuccessful in his expedition, was banished
from Athens. He withdrew to Scaptesula, a town of Thrace,
from whence he had obtained a rich wife. His exile com¬
menced in the eighth year of this celebrated war; and in
the place of his banishment the general began to write an
impartial history of the important events which had hap¬
pened during his administration, and which still continued
to agitate the several states of Greece. This famous his¬
tory is continued only to the twenty-first year of the war;
and the remaining part of the time till the demolition of the
walls of Athens was described by the pen of Theopompus
and Xenophon. He spared neither time nor money to pro¬
cure authentic materials ; and the Athenians, as well as their
enemies, furnished him with many valuable communications,
which contributed to throw great light on the different
transactions of the war. His history has been divided into
eight books, the last of which is imperfect, and is supposed
to have been written by his daughter.
The historian of Halicarnassus has often been compared
with the son of Olorus, but each has his peculiar excellence.
Sweetness of style, grace and elegance of expression, may
be called the characteristics of the former; while Thucy¬
dides stands unequalled for the fire of his descriptions, the
conciseness, and at the same time the strong and energetic
manner, of his narratives. His relations are authentic, as
he himself was interested in the events he mentions; his
impartiality is indubitable, as he nowhere betrays the least
resentment against his countrymen, and the factious par¬
tisans of Cleon, who had banished him from Athens. The
history of Thucydides was so admired by Demosthenes,
that he transcribed it eight different times, and read it with
such attention, that he could almost repeat it by heart. He
had returned from exile in the year 403 b. c.; but it is con¬
sidered as doubtful whether he died at Athens, or in Thrace,
the country of his wife. The time of his death has not been
ascertained.
The work of Thucydides was first printed by Aldus, Ve-
net. 1502, fol. And the Greek scholia issued from the
same press in 1503. The next edition of the history was
printed by Junta, Florent. 1526, fol. An edition by Junta
in 1506 is commonly mentioned by bibliographers, but this
date is supposed to be erroneous. Other editions were pub¬
lished, by Camerarius at Basel in 1540, by Stephanus at
Paris in 1564 and 1588. The latter added the Latin ver¬
sion of Laurentius Yalla, which had been twice printed be¬
fore the year 1500. His editions were follow ed by that of
JSmilius Portus, Francof. 1594, fol. After an interval of
a century, a valuable edition was published by Dr Hudson,
Oxon. 1696, fol. Another edition was undertaken by Jo¬
seph Wasse; but the task, which his death left imperfect,
was completed by Duker, Amst. 1731, 2 tom. fol. Some
useful editions succeeded, before the appearance of that
revised by Bekker, and containing the scholia, together with
the annotations of Wasse and Duker, Oxon. 1821, 4 tom.
8vo. Nor must we omit the edition of Goeller, Lipsise, 1826,
3 Collioson’s Life of Thuanus, with some Account of his Writings, and a Translation of the Preface to his History. Lond. 1807, 8vo.
254
THU
TIB
Thule 2 tom. 8vo. A valuable edition, with English notes, chiefly
it historical and geographical, has more recently been pub-
Ihurocz. lished by Dr Arno]dj Oxford, 1830-5, 3 vols.'Svo. Pop-
po’s very elaborate edition of Thucydides is now in the pro¬
gress of publication. The first volume was printed at Leip-
* zig in 1821, and nine or ten have successively appeared.
Here we must not neglect to recommend another work to
the reader’s attention, Dodwell’s “ Annales Thucydidei
et Xenophontei, praemisso adparatu, cum Vitae Thucydidis
Synopsi chronologica.” Oxon. 1702, 4to.
Thucydides has been translated into many of the modern
languages. In 1550 an English translation, not however
from the Greek text, but from the French version of Claude
Seyssel, was published by Thomas Nicolls, “ citezeine and
goldsmyth of London.” A translation of the original was
published by Hobbes in 1628, and another by Dr William
Smith in 1753-4. A new version, illustrated with copious
annotations, has very recently been published by Dr Bloom¬
field, Lond. 1829, 3 vols. 8vo.
THULE, or Thyl/e, in Ancient Geography, an island
in the most northern parts of the German Ocean. Its situ¬
ation was never accurately ascertained by the ancients,
hence its present name is unknown by modern historians.
Some suppose that it is the island now called Iceland, or
part of Greenland, and others that it is Foula.
THUNDER, the noise occasioned by the explosion of a
flash of lightning echoed back from the inequalities on the
surface of the earth, in like manner as the noise of a cannon
is echoed, and in particular circumstances forms a rolling
lengthened sound. See Electricity.
THUNDERBOLT. When lightning acts with extra¬
ordinary violence, and breaks or shatters any thing, it is
called a thunderbolt; which the vulgar, to fit it for such ef¬
fects, suppose to be a hard body, and even a stone.
THURGAU,or Thurgovia, acanton of Switzerland. It
is bounded on the north-west by the Rhine, on the north¬
east by the lake of Constance, on the south-east by St Gall,
and on the south-west by Zurich. It extends over 265
square miles, is divided into eight circles, and in 1838 con¬
tained 84,124 inhabitants, of whom 72,191 were of the re¬
formed church, and 18,500 adhered to the Roman Catholic
profession. The canton has five cities, six market-towns,
and 284 villages. The force required as the contingent to
the general confederation is 1520 men, and the pecuniary
contribution amounts to L.2280. The capital is the town of
Frauenfeld, on the river Murg, with 1600 inhabitants. In
the northern part the face of the country is either level or
undulating, but in the south is rather hilly than mountain¬
ous, none of the elevations exceeding 2500 feet. The
Rhine is the main stream, which receives the waters of the
Murg, the Thur, the Sitter, and the smaller brooks. The
climate is healthy and temperate. The chief pursuit is
agriculture, which alfords a sufficiency of corn, good crops
of hemp and flax, and abundance of fruit and wine. There
is some coal near Frauenfeld. The pasturage feeds up¬
wards of 25,000 cows, and supplies large quantities of but¬
ter and cheese. The fishing on the lake of Constance is
highly productive of salmon and other fine fish.
1 HURINGIA, a division of the circle of Upper Saxony,
in Germany. It is a fruitful tract, abounding in corn, es¬
pecially wheat; in black cattle, sheep, and horses. It is
about seventy-three miles in length, and as much in breadth.
THUROCZ, a palatinate or district of the province of
the Hither Danube, in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary.
It extends over 460 square miles, but contains only about
45,000 inhabitants, of whom two thirds are Lutherans, and
the remainder of the Greek church. The soil is poor, and
the climate mountainous and raw ; and the country better
adapted for breeding cattle than for growing corn. The chief
- corn raised is buckwheat; but excellent crops of turnips and
carrots are produced. The district produces no wine. The
chief article for sale is the cheese of the milch cows. The Thurroc;,
district comprises four circles, six market-towns, and nine- grajs*
ty-eight villages, besides a few hamlets, and it confers the II
dignity of a palatine on the noble family of Erbober. The v ^
capital is St Martin, a town situated on the river which
gives its name to the palatinate, and contains about 2000
persons.
THURROCK-GRAYS, a small town of the hundred of
Chafford, in the county of Essex, twenty-five miles from
London. It stands on the banks of the Thames, near 8t
Clement’s Reach, It has a market on Thursday. In 1831
the inhabitants amounted to 1248.
THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Christian week, but
the sixth of that of the Jews.
THURSO, a seaport town, borough of barony, and pa¬
rish on the north-west side of the county of Caithness.
The town is situated on the river Thurso, which here
falls into the bay of the same name, and by it is divided
into two parts. The old portion of the town is irregu¬
larly built and ill paved; but the new part is built on a
regular plan, and contains a better class of houses, with a
handsome new church, town-house, and other buildings for
carrying on the public business connected with the cus¬
toms, excise, and banking. The harbour will only admit ves¬
sels often feet draught of water at stream tides; the entrance
is also much obstructed by a bar, and, for want of a pier
or breastwork of stone, vessels, after getting over the bar, can
only unload or load at low water. Besides this inconveni¬
ence, the bay of Thurso is too dangerous to admit of its ever
being a resort for shipping. Notwithstanding these disad¬
vantages, there is a considerable coasting trade, and the in¬
habitants of the town and immediate neighbourhood are
extensively engaged in fisheries, tanning, bleaching, and
spinning. Thurso is a place of great antiquity, but was
not erected into a borough of barony until the year 1633,
when Charles I. granted a charter with the usual powers
and privileges. It is governed by two bailies, a dean of
guild, and twelve councillors. The population of the town
amounted in 1831 to about 2700, and of the parish to 4679.
THYRSUS, in Antiquity, the sceptre which the poets
put into the hand of Bacchus, and w ith which they furnished
the Menades in their Bacchanalia.
TIARA, an ornament or dress with w hich the ancient
Persians covered their head, and with which the Armenians
and the kings of Pontus are represented on medals; these
last, because they w^ere descended from the Persians. Latin
authors call it indifferently tiara and cidaris. Strabo says
the tiara was in the form of a tower; and the scholiast on
Aristophanes affirms that it was adorned with peacocks’
feathers.
I iara is also the name of the pope’s triple crown. The
tiara and keys are the badge of the papal dignity ; the tiara
of his civil rank, and the keys of his spiritual jurisdiction.
As soon as the pope is dead, his arms are represented
with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara
was a round high cap. John XXIII. first encompassed it
with a crown. Boniface VIII. added a second crown, and
Benedict XII. a third.
IIBER, a great river of Italy, which runs through the
pope’s territories, passing by Perugia and Orvietto; and
having visited Rome, falls into the Tuscan Sea at Ostia,
fifteen miles below that city.
1IBET, a country of great extent, in Independent Tar*
tary, stretching from east to west 1500 miles in length. It
extends from the sources of the Indus to the borders of
China, and from Hindustan to the great desert of Gobi, in
Central Asia. It is of unequal breadth, and many parts of
it are unknown. It is distinguished by different names.
It is called I ibbet in Bengal ; but in Nepaul, Lower
1 ibet receives the appellation of Kutchar, and in Hindu¬
stan that of Potyid. In the native language of the inhabi-
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i
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t
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t
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i
t
i
t
i
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f
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Tibi.
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h' eneratts
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ti mate)
TIBET.
255
tants it is called Pue, or Puekoachim; the first being the
' term for northern, and the latter for snow; thus indicating
the severity of the climate. The distinguishing feature of
this country is its great elevation, being for the most part
a table-land, in which the rivers of India and China which
run south and east, and those also which run north¬
ward into Siberia and Tartary, take their rise. Tibet is
separated, about the twenty-eighth degree of north latitude,
from Bootan by the Sumoonang Mountains, part of the
great Himalaya chain ; and the boundaries are marked by
a long row -of little inscribed flags, fixed in rude heaps of
stones, which were seen by Turner when he passed, flut¬
tering in the wind. The summit of one of the mountains,
Chumularee, constitutes the highest land in what is called
Little Tibet. It is highly venerated by the Hindus, who
resort thither for the purpose of paying their adorations to
the snow-clad summit.
Tibet appears at first under a most unfavourable aspect
to travellers, and to be in a great measure incapable of cul¬
ture. It is mountainous towards its frontier bordering on
Bootan. Here perpetual winter may be said to reign ; the
great mountain of Chumularee is for ever clothed with snow.
Its elevation is not precisely known, but this circumstance
indicates a height of several thousand feet. In other
parts the country exhibits low rocky hills, where no vege¬
tation is visible, and extensive arid plains, of the most stern
and stubborn aspect, and extremely barren. Where the
country is capable of cultivation, the usual crops are wheat,
pease, and barley. In many parts the grain never ripens.
About fourteen miles from Phari, on the frontier moun¬
tains, Turner saw a small enclosure of green wheat, which
had just strength enough to give out its ear, but which, he
was told, would proceed no farther, the cold being too in¬
tense to admit of its ripening. It is cultivated merely as
forage for cattle, when the plains become bare of grass, and
they are hindered from going abroad during the depth of
winter. The periodical rains give birth to a little herbage,
whose growth stops immediately as they cease: from the
extreme dryness of the air, the grass then begins to wither,
so that it may be crumbled between the fingers into dust.
Yet large droves of cattle are fed in this neighbourhood,
the pasture, though short and dry, being extremely sweet
and nutritive; and animals ranging in a state of nature are
found to prefer it to the more exuberant herbage of milder
climates. These plains accordingly, as well as the adja¬
cent mountains, are frequented by large droves of cattle,
shawl-goats, deer, musk-deer, horses, great multitudes of
foxes, and other wild animals; also by many coveys of part¬
ridges and pheasants, and some quails. It is the practice
of the cultivators in Tibet to flood the low- lands on the ap¬
proach of winter with water, which freezes and covers their
surface with a sheet of ice, and thus shelters them from
the violent wands, which would strip off the scanty soil.
In some parts they pluck up the corn by the root, and
afterwards place it in small bundles to dry. From Phari,
in the mountains, however, to Nainee, a distance of fifty
miles, the country is very little removed in its aspect, po¬
pulation, or culture, from a perfect desert. The hills are
bare, and composed of a stiff, dry, mouldering rock, which
splits and shivers with the frost; and, on account of the
severity of the climate, the inhabitants are obliged to seek
for shelter in the valleys and hollows. The north winds,
meeting with no interruption in the wide and barren plains,
sweep along in furious blasts of the most cutting severity ;
and so uniform is the intense cold, that the inhabitants are
in the practice of killing their meat at the beginning of win¬
ter, and keeping it for three months, at the end of which
period it is perfectly fresh.
In Tibet the temperature and seasons exhibit a remark- Tibet,
able uniformity, both in their periodical duration and in —v—
their return; and they exactly resemble those in the more Sefli:0ns*
southern region of Bengal. Variable weather prevails in
the spring from March to May ; the climate is warm, with
thunder-storms and occasional refreshing showers. From
June to September is the season of rains, which being heavy
and continued, refresh the country, and cause the rivers to
overflow, and, descending with rapidity from the mountains
in their progress to the sea, to assist in inundating Bengal.
From October to March the sky is uniformly clear; it is nei¬
ther obscured by fogs nor clouds ; and a much more intense
degree of cold prevails than is known in the same latitudes
in Europe. In these elevated plains the most boisterous
winds perpetually prevail, in the dry summer months raising
clouds of dust, almost intolerable to the traveller; and in
other seasons, says Turner, “ conveying a degree of cold
unknowm even in the severest winters in Europe. Such is
sometimes the intenseness of the frost here, though in so
low a latitude as twenty-eight degrees, that animals expos¬
ed in the open fields are found dead with their heads abso¬
lutely split by its force.”1
The country, though barren, is not, as already observed, Animals,
destitute of animal life; it abounds in a great variety of wrild
fowl, game, beasts of prey, flocks, droves and herds of cat¬
tle. Among the most remarkable animals is the Yak of
Tartary, named also the Soora Goy, or bushy-tailed bull of
Tibet. This animal resembles an English bull in height,
the general figure of the body, the head, and the legs. He
is the fosp'rawmeHs of modern naturalists. See Mammalia.
These cattle, though not large boned, yet, from the profuse
quantity of hair with which they are provided, seem to be of
great bulk. They have a downcast heavy look, and appear,
as indeed they are, sullen and suspicious, discovering much
impatience at the approach of strangers. They pasture on
the coldest parts of Tibet, on the short herbage peculiar to
the summits of mountains and to bleak plains; their favourite
haunt being the chains of mountains situated between twen¬
ty-seven and twenty-eight degrees north latitude, whose
summits are usually covered with snow. During the seve¬
rity of winter they take shelter in the southern glens; and
in milder seasons they take a wider range on the northern
aspect of the mountains. They form a very valuable pro¬
perty to the tribes of itinerant Tartars, who live in tents,
and tend them from place to place: they at the same time
afford their herdsmen an easy mode of conveyance, a good
covering, and wholesome subsistence. These animals are
strong, sure footed, and carry a great weight. They are
never employed in agriculture ; but are extremely useful as '
beasts of burden. They afford an abundance of rich milk,
the butter produced from which is excellent. It is the cus¬
tom to preserve this in skins and bladders, and the air be¬
ing excluded, it will keep in this cold climate throughout
the year. The musk-deer is another animal which abounds
in Tibet, in the vicinity of the coldest mountains, and
produces a valuable article of revenue. He delights in
the most intense cold, and in places which border the line
of perpetual snow. He has two long curved tusks, which
proceed from the upper jaw, and, being directed down¬
wards, seem intended principally to serve him for the pur¬
pose of digging roots, his usual food; or they may be also
given as weapons of defence. These animals are about
the height of a moderately sized hog, to which they bear a
resemblance in the bigness of the body; but they are still
more like the hog-deer. They have a small head, a thick
and round hind quarter, no snout, and extremely delicate
limbs. The body is covered with prodigiously copious hair,
which grows erect all over the body, between twro and three
1 Turner’s Embassy to the Court of Teshoo Lama in Tibet, p. 210.
256
TIBET.
Tibet.
containing a large portion of quicksilver, is found in Tibet, Til*!
and might be advantageously extracted by distillation it'"—y1
fuel were more plentiful; but it is remarkably scarce, which
inches long, lying smooth only where it is short, on the head,
legs, and ears. On examination it seems to partake more
of the nature of feathers, or of the porcupine’s quills, than   7--- r  • ,, - , • -
of hair, though it is thin, flexible, and not straight, but un- is a great disadvantage ; and they are often forced to sub-
dulated. The musk is a secretion formed in a little bag or stitute for fire-wood the dried dung of animals. I he most
tumour, resembling a wen, situated at the navel, and is valuable discovery that could be made for libet would be
found only in the male. The musk-deer is here deemed a coal-mine ; and this mineral is found in some parts of the
the property of the state, and hunted only by the permission country bordering on China. I wo days journey from l e¬
af the government. Another animal of great importance shoo Loomboo there is a lead-mine. . The ore is much the
in Tibet is the goat, whose coat affords materials for that same as that found in Derbyshire, mineralized by sulphur,
exquisitely fine and beautiful manufacture, the shawl. Cap- and the metal is easily obtained, namely, by the simple opera-
tain Turner saw numbers of this valuable animal feeding, tion of fusion. Copper-mines are found, which furnish ma¬
in laro-e flocks, upon the thin dry herbage that covers those terials for the manufacture of idols, and all the ornaments
naked"lookin°-’hills. It is the most beautiful species among disposed about the monasteries on which gilding is bestow-
the whole tribe of goats ; of various colours, black, white, of ed. Iron is more frequently to be found in Bootan than in
a faint bluish tin^e, and of a shade somewhat lighter than a Tibet; and it is not a branch of industry which could be
(V
fawn. They have straight horns, and are of a lower stature
than the smallest sheep in England. I he outward covering
of the animal is of coarse long hair ; but the wrool that is next
the skin is of a light fine texture; and its softness is preserved
by the external coat. This delicate creature is indebted for
the softness of its coat to the nature of the climate which it
inhabits; and it will not thrive in the hot atmosphere of
Bengal, nor will it bear transportation by sea. A breed of
wild horses is found in Tibet, which are distinguished for
their fleetness, and which are never taken alive, so as to be
rendered serviceable, or domesticated; and even when they
are taken young they pine away and die, being vicious,
stubborn, and untameable. They are said to be hunted,
and, when they are killed, their flesh is esteemed a great
delicacy. The domestic horses which they use are ex¬
tremely docile. They are not natives of Tibet, but are
brought from Eastern Tartary and the borders of Toor-
kistan as merchandise. They are never shod. Before
they are permitted to be transported, care is taken to de¬
prive them of the power of propagating their species, and
mares are never met with in the country. They are quiet,
sure-footed creatures, but slow and ugly. Among the
valuable animals of Tibet, their breed of sheep merits a
distinguished place. Their flocks are numerous, and their
chief reliance is placed on them for present support, as well
as for winter food. A peculiar species seems indigenous
in this climate, marked almost invariably by black heads
and legs. They are of a small size, with soft wool; and
their flesh, which is almost the only animal food eaten in
Tibet, is of a very fine flavour. They are occasionally em¬
ployed as beasts of burden, and numerous flocks of them are
often to be seen laden with salt and grain, each carrying
from twelve to twenty pounds. They are the bearers of
their own wool to the best market, where it is usually fabri¬
cated into a narrow cloth resembling frieze, or a thick coarse
blanket. When slaughtered, their skins are most commonly
cured with the wool on, and form a most excellent defence
against the winter cold to the peasant and the traveller.
The skins of lambs are also cured with the wool on, and
constitute a valuable article of traffic; and to obtain the
skin in its highest perfection, the dam is sometimes killed
before her time of yeaning, by which a silky softness is se¬
cured for the fleece, which gives it a very high value. It
serves particularly for lining vests, and is in equal estimation
all over Tartary, as well as in China.
Minerals. Though the soil of Tibet is in general barren and unim¬
provable, and though no great return can ever be expect¬
ed from agriculture, the country abounds in mineral wealth,
and industry and skill are only wanting to turn these sources
to account. Gold is found in great quantities, and fre¬
quently very pure. It is obtained sometimes in large masses,
lumps, and irregular veins. It is also found in the beds of
rivers in the form of gold dust, and at their several bend¬
ings generally attached to small pieces of stone, with every
appearance of its having been a larger mass. Cinnabar,
followed in Tibet, owing to the w^ant of fuel for smelting the
valuable ores. Rock-salt is obtained in great abundance;
and tincal is found in the bed of a lake about fifteen days’
journey from Teshoo Loomboo. The country contains in¬
exhaustible quantities Of it. It is brought to market in the
state in which it is dug out of the lake, and afterwards re¬
fined into borax in this country.
Tibet carries on trade with the surrounding states, though Count
not to any great extent; the inhabitants not being either®1111®1
commercial or industrious, and the surplus produce of thelac 1111
country being besides inconsiderable. Neither is commerce
favoured by the government, the first member of the state
being a merchant, who enjoys a monopoly for himself and
others of all the chief branches of trade. The exports con¬
sist of gold, musk, tincal, goats’ hair, and rock-salt. The
goats’ hair is conveyed to Cashmere, and is of that superior
sort of which the celebrated shawls are manufactured; and
the salt is exported to Nepaul and Bootan. A consider¬
able commerce is carried on with China, for the most part
at a garrison town on the western frontier of China named
Silling or Sinning. The exports are gold dust, precious
stones, musk, and woollen cloths ; in return for which are
received gold and silver brocades, silks, teas, tobacco, quick¬
silver, China wrare, furs, and some silver bullion. Gold dust,
musk, and tincal, are exported to Bengal; and the imports are
broad cloth, trinkets, spices, particularly cloves, pearls, coral,
amber, kincobs, Maulda cloths, Rungpoor leather, tobacco,
and indigo. British manufactures of woollen would furnish
a considerable article of import. The extreme rigour ot
the climate requires warm clothing ; and the dress of the
lower classes consists of woollens of an inferior kind, and
in winter of sheep or foxes’ skins cured with the wool and
fur on. When they travel, they carry a weight of clothing
that bids defiance to the most piercing winds. Having no
other manufactures, they are obliged to encumber them¬
selves with a heavy load of their own rude clothing. When
woollen cloths of a better description are brought to the
country by the travelling merchants who frequent it, they
are bought up with great eagerness. The better classes
are dressed in silks and furs. A trade is also carried on
with Russia, though not to any great extent. This prin¬
cipally consists in hides, which are prepared in the adjacent
districts, and are brought also from Kalmuc Tartary to the
same mart, where all the rich and valuable furs that pass in
merchandise between the Russians and Chinese may be
procured on easy terms. There are few manufactures, and
those only such as are of the coarsest kind and required
for domestic use. They are famous, however, for the ma¬
nufacture of images. At Teshoo Loomboo there is an ex¬
tensive board of works established under the direction of the
monastery, which is constantly employed in this manufacture.
Respecting the religion of the inhabitants of Tibet, little Rdi
is known. It seems to be a schismatical offspring of the re¬
ligion of the Hindoos, deriving its origin from one of the
followers of that faith, a disciple of Buddh, who first broach-
TIBET.
257
>et..
1-®
ed the doctrine which now prevails over the wide extent of
Tartary. It is reported to have been first received in that
part of Tibet adjacent to India, which hence became the
seat of the sovereign lamas; to have traversed over Mant-
chieux Tartary, and to have been ultimately disseminated
over China and Japan. However it may differ from the
Hindoo in many of its outward forms, it still bears a close
affinity with the religion of Brahma in many important par¬
ticulars. The principal idol in the temples is the Buddha
of Bengal, worshipped under the denomination of Maha-
moonie, a Sanscrit term meaning “ great saint,” and under
various other epithets over all Tartary, and among the
nations to the east of the Brahmapootra. The same
places are considered sacred in Tibet and in Bengal, and
are resorted to by pilgrims; and the water of the Ganges,
which is considered holy, is carried in loads from the river
over the mountains of Tibet, on the shoulders of men, who
are hired by enthusiasts for this pious purpose. Their ritual
or ceremonial worship differs, however, materially from the
Hindoo; the Tibetians assemble in chapels, and in pro¬
digious numbers, to join in chanting alternate recitative and
chorus, with the accompaniment of an extensive band of
loud and powerful instruments ; so that it forcibly impressed
on those who heard it, the solemn sounds of the popish mass.
The people play in private on many other musical instru¬
ments; and Turner mentions, that on a visit to the mother
of Teshoo Lama, she sung a very pleasing air, which she
accompanied on the guitar, and her husband on the fla¬
geolet. The religion of Tibet is entirely free from the
illiberal and perplexing distinctions of castes. A Brahmin
would deem it a profanation of the deepest dye even to
eat in presence of one of an inferior caste, much more to
partake of the same repast with a person of a different re¬
ligion. But the inhabitants of Tibet have no such scru¬
ples ; even the sovereign lama has no objection to drink
tea from the same vessel with any foreigner. Turner men¬
tions, also, that in the great variety of visitors that came
to him, he never observed the slightest scruple to partake
either of tea or of other liquors prepared by his own ser¬
vants. The Hindoo pays the blindest reverence to the Brah¬
min classv This reverence is only paid, in the ignorant ido¬
latry of the Tibetians, to the sovereign lama, immaculate,
immortal, and omnipresent, esteemed the vicegerent of the
only God, the mediator between mortals and the Supreme.
They view him as perpetually absorbed in religious duty,
and when called upon to attend to the concerns of mortals,
as being employed only in the benign office of distributing
comfort and consolation, forgiveness and mercy. He is
also the centre of all civil government, which derives from
his authority all influence and power. He is the head of
the whole system, wffiich is a regular gradation from the
most venerated lama, through the whole order of gylongs, to
the young noviciate. The inferior gradations, from the pre¬
sident, who is always styled lama, are gylong, tohba, and
tuppa. For the performance of daily service in the temple
at IeshooLoomboo there are 3700 gylongs or priests; and
lour lamas chosen from amongst them superintend and direct
their religious ceremonies. Youth intended for the service of
the monastery are received into the establishment at the age
ot eight or ten years. They are then called tuppa, and are
occupied in receiving instruction suited to their age. At
fifteen they are usually admitted into the order of tohba,
it found sufficiently qualified; and thence into the order of
gylong between the age of twenty-one and twenty-four.
1 hey are then eligible to the superintendence of some en¬
dowed monastery, of which there are multitudes spread all
over Tibet, with lands assigned them for their support;
their promotion depending on their interest or their cha-
racter. In this station, as chief of a flock, they are honour¬
ed with the appellation of lama. Those who enter the
religious order are enjoined sobriety, celibacy, and all the
VOL. XXI.
austere practices of the cloister. There is a considerable Tibet,
number of nunneries as well as monasteries ; and the strict- ''“"V—
est prohibitions exist against any woman even accidentally
passing a night within the walls of the one, or a man with¬
in those of the other. The ecclesiastical class, who hold
intercourse with heaven, are entirely divided from the lay
class, who carry on the business of the world; and no in¬
terference ever interrupts the regulated duties of the clergy.
Their religion is divided into two sects, who are extremely
hostile to each other, and one of whom was forced to seek
shelter from the persecution of their opponents in that
tract of country bordering on Tibet towards the south, and
marked by a high ridge, inhospitable in the extreme, but
which was thought capable of affording them a safe retreat.
Here they fixed their abode, while others of the same sect
still live in tents, and tend their flocks, rambling from place
to place. The priests are habited in long robes of yellow
cloth, with a conical cap of the same colour; and this pe¬
culiarity of colour is adopted as a distinction to mark one
of the two religious sects that divide almost the whole
of Tartary, from Toorkistan to the eastern limits of this
continent. The other colour is red; and the tribes are
known as belonging to the red or the yellow cap. The
former differ principally from the sectaries of the yellow in
admitting the marriage of the priests; but the latter are
considered as the more orthodox, as well as possessed of
greater influence. The emperor of China is decidedly a
votary of the yellow sect, and has sanctified it by a sump¬
tuary law, which limits it to the service of religion and the
imperial use. Dalai Lama, Teshoo Lama, and Taranaut La¬
ma, preside over the yellow, who have their residences at Poo-
talah, Teshoo Loomboo, and Kharka. This sect prevails over
a great part of Tibet, and a branch of it is said to be esta¬
blished in the Deccan. In like manner, three lamas pre¬
side over the red sect. The principal of the red class in
Tibet has his residence in Sakia. The dress of these reli¬
gious orders is the regular costume of every attendant at
court, consisting of a vest of woollen cloth, with sleeves of
a deep garnet colour; and a large mantle, either of the
same or of a thinner texture, resembling a shawl, a sort of
philibeg, and huge boots of bulgar hides, lined either with
fur or cloth, complete their equipage.
Of the diseases in this country, the most singular is a Theses,
glandular swelling in the throat, which is found in Europe
among the inhabitants of mountainous countries, and is
generally ascribed to an impregnation of the water from
snow. This, however, is a doubtful theory, as it is some¬
times seen where snow is not to be found. It has been
little attended to, as it is not painful, is seldom fatal, and is
only common among the poorer class of the people. The
small-pox is a most fatal disorder in Tibet It is not less
dreaded than the plague, and is hardly less fatal; for they
neither know nor use any remedies for it, but, as soon as
it appears in any village, the healthy desert the sick, and
leave them to chance and the natural course of the dis¬
ease. There is little variety in their other diseases. Coughs,
colds, and rheumatisms are more frequent than in Bengal.
Fevers arise occasionally from temporary causes, but sel¬
dom prove fatal. The hot bath is used in many disorders,
particularly in bowel complaints and cutaneous eruptions.
The hot wells of Tibet are resorted to by thousands.
A singular and licentious practice is said by travellers to Customs,
prevail here, namely, of one woman cohabiting with a whole manners,
family of brothers. Turner states, that one v/oman was
pointed out to him who lived with five brothers, to each of
whom she was married; and he states that this custom, so
contrary to purity of morals and any idea of social happi¬
ness, is common among all ranks; and that families are
seen living happily in this impure manner. He even en¬
deavours to find out plausible reasons for the practice,
founded on the danger in a poor country of the too ranid
2 K.
258
T I B
T I B
History.
increase of population. It cannot be considered, however,
in any other light than as a mark of gross barbarity and
licentiousness; and it agrees well with the author’s account
of their loose conduct before they marry, and the want of
chastity in the women. Their marriage ceremonies are
simple, consisting only in the mutual consent of the two
parties; and neither the one nor the other is at liberty to
withdraw, unless, as Turner expresses it, “ the same union
of sentiment that joined their hands should prompt their se¬
paration.” In other words, they are considered to be bound
until they tire of each other, when they are left at liberty
to form a new alliance ; a proof, along with former facts, of
their want of morals. In their manners they are mild, hu¬
mane, and kind; and always obliging without being ser¬
vilely officious.
It is the custom in Tibet to preserve the mortal remains
of the sovereign lamas ; but, with this exception, every
other corpse is consumed by fire, or exposed in the open
air to be devoured by ravens, kites, and other carnivorous
birds. In the most populous parts of the country the dogs
are also allowed to prey upon this extraordinary carrion.
A chief lama, as soon as he expires, is placed upright in an
apparent attitude of devotion, his legs being folded under
him with each thigh resting on the instep, and the soles of
the feet turned upwards. In this posture they are deposit¬
ed in shrines. The inferior lamas are usually burned, and
their ashes deposited in little metallic idols; but common
subjects are treated with less ceremony, as already men¬
tioned.
The history of Tibet is involved in obscurity. They
have no annals of their public transactions, nor of the an¬
cient extent of their kingdom, or of their religious institu¬
tions. It is known, however, that about the year 1720
the emperor of China acquired the sovereignty of Tibet by
interfering in the quarrel of the two contending parties.
In 1792 the country was invaded by the Nepaulese with¬
out provocation, and they made such a rapid and unex¬
pected progress, and appeared so suddenly before Teshoo
Loomboo, as scarcely to allow the lama and his gylongs
time to effect their escape across the Brahmapootra. The
Nepaulese army having carried off a large plunder, the ac¬
cumulated contributions of ages, from Teshoo Lomboo,
and having despoiled the tombs of their most valuable or¬
naments, withdrew to their own country, whither they
were pursued by the Chinese, defeated, and forced to sue
for peace, of which one of the conditions was the restora¬
tion of the plunder they had taken at Teshoo Loomboo,
and the payment of an annual tribute. Since this period
the country has enjoyed profound peace. But the spiritual
influence of the lamas has been much weakened by that
of their earthly protectors, the emperors of China. They
retain officers or residents at the court of Lassa, styled
umbas, invested with all real authority; and maintain
a constant intercourse with the court of Pekin by means
of jacoos, which means “ communicators of intelligence,”
and who duly report to China every thing that takes place
in Tibet. (f.)
TIBULLUS, Albius, a very elegant poet, was born
at Rome about the year of the city 690. He belonged
to the equestrian order ; but as his father had espoused
the cause of Pompey, his estate was impaired in the issue
of the unhappy contest which ensued. About the age of
twenty-two, the son retired to his villa at Pedum, and by
the cultivation of his demesne endeavoured to retrieve his
fortune. Love and poetry likewise occupied no inconsi¬
derable share of his attention ; and the names, real or fic¬
titious, of his mistresses, Delia, Neaera, and Nemesis, are
familiarly known to all classical readers. He had contract¬
ed a friendship with Messala Corvinus, who was distinguish¬
ed by his eloquence as well as by his military talents. The
inhabitants of Pannonia having revolted in the year of Rome
718, Augustus employed this general to reduce them to 7% ,
subjection. He invited Tibullus to accompany him, nor
did the poet shrink from the toils and dangers of such an
expedition. When Messala was soon afterwards raised to
the consulship, he composed the panegyric which appears
at the beginning of his fourth book of Elegies. It is how¬
ever written in hexameters, and in a style inferior to that
of his elegiac verse. The same distinguished individual
was in 725 intrusted with an extraordinary command in
Syria, and was again accompanied by Tibullus ; but he
soon became so seriously indisposed, that he was sent on
shore and left in the island of Phaeacia. This was poetic
ground, and here he composed the third elegy of his first
book. Having afterwards been enabled to resume his voy¬
age, he attended his friend through Cilicia, Syria, Egypt,
and Greece. Aquitania revolted in the course of the en¬
suing year, when Messala was despatched on another expe¬
dition, being still attended by the poet; and having reduced
this province, he in 727 obtained the honour of a triumph,
in which the military services of Tibullus entitled him to
some share. This was the last of his warlike expeditions,
and he now returned to his favourite pursuits. He lived
on terms of intimacy with Horace, who has addressed to
him one of his odes and one of his epistles. Macer and
Valgius were likewise among the number of his poetical
friends. He appears to have cherished the love of freedom,
and to have scorned to advance his fortunes by flattering
Augustus. According to the authority of Domitius Mar-
sus, a poet of that age who wrote his epitaph, he died nearly
at the same time with Virgil:
Te quoque Virgilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,
Mors juvenem campos misit ad Elysios,
Ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores,
Aut caneret forti regia bella pede.
Virgil died in the year of Rome 735 ; and if Tibullus
died in the same year, he may have attained the age of
forty-five. As he is represented by Marsus as a young
man, he must have been under the age of forty-six. His
loss was bewailed by Ovid in an affectionate elegy.
Flebilis indignos, Elege'ia, solve capillos :
Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit!
Ille tui vates operis, tua fama, Tibullus
Ardet in extructo, corpus inane, rogo.
Horace has described him as handsome in his person, as
blessed with riches, and the art of enjoying them. Tibullus
is always classed among the most tender and elegant of the
Latin poets who have written in elegiac verse. He has
more correctness, though certainly not more fancy, than
Ovid, and is less mythological than Propertius. The ca¬
dence of his verse is often very pleasing.
The poems of Tibullus have very frequently been print¬
ed along with those of Catullus and Propertius. In this
form, they were first printed at Venice in quarto about the
year 1472 ; and several other impressions followed within
a brief interval. Two editions issued from the press of Al¬
dus, Venet. 1502-15, 8vo. And in the mean time appear¬
ed the edition of Junta, Florent. 1503, 8vo. An edition
was published by Janus Dousa, several by Joseph Scaliger;
and others which deserve particular notice are those of
Morel in 1604, and of Passerat in 1608. Omitting other
editions of the three poets, we hasten to state that the first
separate edition of Tibullus was printed in quarto about the
year 1472. This was speedily followred by at least other
two editions without dates ; and by a third, “ cum commen-
tario Bernardini (Cyllenii) Veronensis,” Romee, 1475, 4to.
An edition with a commentary was published by a learned
Portugueze, Achilles Statius, Venet. 1567, 8vo. For a
more recent and valuable edition we are indebted to Janus
Broukhusius, Amst. 1708, 4to. Another edition, sometimes
described as the best, was published by Vulpius, Patavii,
1749, 4to. The next deserving particular notice is the
T I I)
T I D
259
Ml
Jas.
third edition published by Heyne, Lipsiae, 1798, 8vo. We
sliall close this enumeration by mentioning the edition of
Wunderlich, Lips. 1817, 2 tom. 8vo. A supplement to it
'was published by Dissen in 1819.
An English translation of Tibullus was produced by Mr
Dart in 1720. A more elegant version, accompanying the
original, and illustrated with copious notes, was published
by Dr Grainger in 1759, in 2 vols. 12mo. The translator,
a'man of literature.and taste, soon afterwards distinguished
himself by the publication of The Sugar Cane ; a classical
poem founded on a subject which it required no mean ta¬
lents to invest with the graces and allurements of poetry.1
TIB UR, a town of ancient Latium, pleasantly situated
on the Anio. Here Horace had his villa and house, and
here he wished to end his days.
TICAO Isle, one of the Philippine Islands, situated due
south of the large island of Luzon, about twenty-eight miles
in length by seven in average breadth. Here the Spanish
o-alleon used to take in water and provisions before setting
sail for Acapulco. Long. 123. 40. E. Lat. 12. 36. N.
TICHFIELD, a town of the hundred of that name, in
the division of Portsdown, in Hampshire, seventy-eight miles
from London. The parish is very extensive, and includes
a good roadstead for vessels in the bay of that name, near
the mouth of Southampton water. Near to it are the re¬
mains of a Cistertian abbey. There is a market on Satur¬
day. The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 3528, and in
1831 to 3712.
TICKARY, a town of Hindustan, province of Bahar,
fifty miles south by west from Patna. Long. 84. 55. E.
Lat. 24. 58. N.
TICKELL, Thomas, an English poet, was the son of
the Rev. Richard Tickell, and was born in 1686, at Bride-
kirk in Cumberland. He was educated at Queen’s College,
Oxford, of which he became a fellow. While he continued Tickhill
at that university, he addressed to Addison a complimentary II
copy of verses on his opera of Rosamond, which introduced Tides-
him to an acquaintance with that gentleman, who, discover-
ing his merit, became his sincere friend. On Addison be¬
ing made secretary of state, he appointed Tickell bis under
secretary; and on his being obliged to resign that office on
account of his ill health, he recommended him so effectually
to Mr Craggs, his successor, that he was continued in his
post till that gentleman’s death. In 1724, Tickell was ap¬
pointed secretary to the lords justices in Ireland, and en¬
joyed that place as long as he lived. He wrote some poems,
which, when separately published, met with a favourable
reception, and passed through several editions. After Mr
Addison’s death, Tickell had the care of the edition of
his works printed in four vols. 4to; to which he prefixed an
account of the author’s life, and a poem on his death. Tickell
died in the year 1740.
TICKHILL, a town of the hundred of Strafforth and
Tickhill, in the west riding of the county of York, 156 miles
from London. The church is a large and ancient building.
The town was fortified, but its defences were destroyed in
the civil wars. It has at present little or no trade. There
is a market on Friday. The inhabitants amounted in 1821
to 1830, and in 1831 to 2018.
TICOO, a cluster of small islands near the west coast of
Sumatra. These islands were frequented by the early voy¬
agers for pepper, and the Dutch and English had factories
on them, but they were expelled in 1621. They are small
and woody, and are about a mile and a half distant from each
other. . Long. 99. 13. E. Lat. 0. 6. S.
TICOS, a small island in the Pacific Ocean, near the
east coast of the island of Luzon. Long. 124. E. Lat. 14.
10. N.
*
TIDES.
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The alternate rising and falling which are observed to
take place in the surface of the waters, generally twice in
the course of a lunar day, or of 24h- 49m- of mean solar time,
on most of the shores of the ocean, and in the greater part
of bays, firths, and rivers which communicate freely with
it, are the phenomena denominated the tides. These form
what are called a flood and an ebb, a high and low water.
The whole interval between high and low water is called
a tide; the water is said to flow and to ebb ; and the rising
is called the flood tide, and the falling the ebb tide. This
rise or fall of the waters is exceedingly different at different
places, and is also variable everywhere. At Plymouth,
for instance, it is sometimes twenty feet between the
greatest and least heights of the water in one day, and
sometimes only twelve feet. These different heights of
tide succeed each other in a regular series, diminishing from
the greatest to the least, and then increasing from the least
to the greatest. The greatest is called a spring tide, and
the least a neap tide. This series is completed in about
fifteen days. More careful observation shows that two se¬
ries are completed in the time of a lunation. For the spring
tide in any place happens at a certain interval of time, ge¬
nerally between one and two days, after new or full moon ;
and the neap tide at a certain interval after the quarter:
or, more accurately speaking, the spring tide occurs when
the moon has got a certain number of degrees eastward
either from the line of conjunction with the sun or of oppo¬
sition to him, and the neap tide when she is at a certain
distance from her first or last quadrature. Thus the whole
series of tides appears to be chiefly regulated by the moon,
and seems to be only to a small extent under the influence
of the sun ; for it is further observed that high water hap¬
pens when the moon has nearly a certain position with
respect to the meridian of the place of observation, pre¬
ceding or following the moon’s southing by a certain in¬
terval of time ; which, at new and full moon, is generally
not far from being constant with respect to the same place,
but very different in different places ; whereas the interval
between the time of high water and noon changes almost
everywhere about six hours in the course of a fortnight.
The interval between two succeeding high waters is va¬
riable. It is shortest about new and full moon, being then
about 12h- 19™-; and about the time of the moon’s quadra-
ratures it is J2h- 30m- But these intervals are somewhat
different at different places. The tides in similar circum¬
stances are greatest when the moon is in the equator, and
at her smallest distance from the earth, or in her perigee;
and, gradually diminishing, are smallest when she is in her
apogee, and farthest from the equator.
Such are some of the more general and regular pheno¬
mena of the tides. In certain places there are four tides
in the lunar day, in others but one; and in some there is
scarcely any perceptible variation of level, which regularly
keeps time with the moon. The tides being important to
all commercial nations, great exertions have recently been
made to obtain the means of predicting them. Some account
1 Dr Grainger published a professional work, which has escaped the notice of some of his biographers : “ Historia Febris Anotnalse Bata-
ya>, annorum 1746, 1747, 1748, &c. Accedunt Monita Siphylica. Auctore Jacobo Grainger, M.D.” Edinb. 1753, 8vo. The latter tract
is a reprint of his inaugural dissertation, on taking his degree. An edition of this volume was subsequently published in Holland.
260
TIDES.
Tides, of these and other empirical researches, which have of late
^ been conducted on an extensive scale and with great care,
will be given in the latter part of this article.
History. It is of tides, most probably, the Bible speaks, when God
is said to set bounds to the sea, and to say, “ thus far shall it
go, and no farther.” Homer would be the earliest profane
author who notices the tides, if indeed it be to them he refers
(in the 12th book of the Odyssey) when he speaks of Cha-
rybdis rising and retiring thrice a day. Herodotus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus speak more distinctly of the tides in the Red Sea.
Pytheas of Marseille is the first who says any thing of their
cause. According to Strabo, he had been in Britain, where
he must have observed the tides of the ocean. Plutarch
says expressly that Pytheas ascribed them to the moon. It
is remarkable that Aristotle says so little about the tides.
The army of Alexander, his pupil, were startled at first seeing
them near the Persian Gulf; and Aristotle would probably
be well informed of all that had been observed there. But
in all his writings there are only three passages concern¬
ing them, and these are very trivial. In one place he speaks
of great tides in the north of Europe ; in another, of their
having been ascribed by some to the moon ; and in a third,
he says, the tide in a great sea exceeds that in a small
one.
The Greeks had little opportunity of observing the tides.
The conquests and the commerce of the Romans gave them
more acquaintance with them. Caesar speaks of them in
the fourth book of his Gallic War. Strabo, after Posido¬
nius; classes the phenomena into daily, monthly, and annu¬
al. He observes, that the sea rises as the moon approaches
the meridian, whether above or below the horizon, and
falls again as she rises or falls ; that the tides increase at
the time of new and full moon, and are greatest at the sum¬
mer solstice. Pliny explains the phenomena at some length,
and ascribes them to the sun and moon dragging the wa¬
ters along with them (b. ii. c. 97). Seneca {Nat. Quest, iii.
28) speaks of the tides with correctness ; and Macrobius
(Somn. Scip. i. 6) gives a tolerable description of their
motions. Such phenomena naturally exercise human cu¬
riosity as to their cause. Plutarch {Placit. Phil. iii. 17),
Galileo (Si/st. Mund. dial. 4), Riccioli in his Almagest, ii.
p. 374, and Gassendi, ii. p. 27, have collected most of the
notions of their predecessors on the subject; but they are
of so little importance as not to deserve our notice. Kep¬
ler, in accounting for the tides {De Stella Martis, and
Epit. Aslron. p. 555), had evidently been aware of the
principle of gravitation, but not of the law. He says that
all bodies attract each other, and that the waters of the
ocean would all go to the moon Avere they not retained by
the attraction of the earth. He then proceeds to explain
their eleATition under the moon and on the opposite side,
because the earth is less attracted by the moon than the
nearer waters, but more than the waters which are more
remote. The honour of a complete explanation of the tides
in a general way was reserved for Sir Isaac Newton. He
laid hold of this class of phenomena as the most incontest¬
able proof of universal gravitation, and has given a most
beautiful and synoptical view of the whole subject; con¬
tenting himself, however, with merely exhibiting the chief
consequences of the general principle, and applying it to the
phenomena with singular address. *
Theory of The investigation of the phenomena of the tides has been
the tides, justly considered as uniting some of the greatest difficulties
that occur in the various departments of natural philosophy
and astronomy. It implies, first, a knowledge of the laws
of gravitation, concerned in the determination of the forces
immediately acting on the sea, and of the periods and dis¬
tances of the celestial bodies, which modify the magnitudes
and combinations of these forces ; and, secondly, of the hy¬
draulic theories of the resistances of fluids, and of the mo¬
tions of waves and undulations of all kinds, and of the theo¬
retical determination of the form and density of the earth
as well as of the geographical observation of the breadth
and depth of the seas and lakes which occupy a part of its
surface ; so that the whole subject affords abundant scope
for the exercise of mathematical skill, and still more for the
employment of that invention and contrivance which en¬
ables its possessor to supersede the necessity of prolix com¬
putations wherever they can be avoided.
The history of the theory of the tides is naturally divid¬
ed into several periods in which its different departments
have been progressively cultivated. The ancients from the
times of Posidonius and Pytheas, and the moderns before
Newton, were contented with observing the general de¬
pendence of the tides on the moon, as following her transit
at an interval of about two hours, and their alternate in¬
crease and decrease not only every fortnight, but also in
the lunar period of about eight years. The second step con¬
sisted in the determination of the magnitude and direction
of the solar and lunar forces, by which the general effects
of the tides were shown, in the Principia, to be the neces¬
sary consequences of these forces. The third great point
was the demonstration of Maclaurin, that the form of an
elliptic spheroid affords an equilibrium under the action of
the disturbing forces concerned ; while the further contem¬
porary illustrations of the subject by Euler and Bernoulli,
though they afforded some useful details, involved no new
principle that can be put in competition with Maclaurin’s
demonstration. The fourth important step was made by La¬
place, who separated the consideration of the form afford¬
ing mere equilibrium, from that of the motion occasioned
by the continual change of that form ; while former theorists
had taken it for granted that the surface of the sea very
speedily assumed the figure of a fluid actuated by similar
forces, but remaining perfectly at rest, or assuming in¬
stantly the form in question. Laplace’s computation is
hoAvever limited to the case of an imaginary ocean, of a
certain variable depth, assumed for the convenience of cal¬
culation, rather than for any other reason. Dr Thomas
Young has extended Laplace’s mode of considering the
phenomena to the more general case of an ocean covering
a part only of the earth’s surface, and more or less irregular
in its form; he has also attempted to comprehend in his
calculations the precise effects of hydraulic friction on the
times and magnitudes of the tides. As far as the resistance
may be supposed to vary in the simple ratio of the velocity,
Dr Young’s theory is sufficiently complete, and explains se¬
veral of the peculiarities which are otherwise paradoxical in
their appearance ; but there still remains a difficulty to be
combated with respect to the effects of a resistance propor¬
tional to the square of the velocity, and this, it is hoped,
will be in great measure removed in the present article,
which, however, from»the space that is allotted to it, must
be considered rather as a supplementary fragment than as a
complete treatise. This theory will be divided into four sec¬
tions : the first relating to the contemporaneous progress of
the tides through the different seas and oceans, as collected
from observation only ; the second to the magnitude of the
disturbing forces tending to change the form of the surface
of the earth and sea; the third to the theory of compound
vibrations with resistance; and the fourth to the applica¬
tion of this theory to the progress and successive magni¬
tudes of the tides, as observable at any one port.
Sect. I.— Of the Progress of Contemporary Tides, as in¬
ferred from the limes of High Water in different Ports.
i he least theoretical consideration relating to the tides,
is that of their progress through the different parts of the
ocean, and of its dependent seas. The analysis of these
ought to be very completely attainable from direct obser-
TIDES.
261
vation, if the time of high water had been accurately ob-
/ served at a sufficient number of ports throughout the world ;
and, on the other hand, if the earth were covered in all
parts with a fluid of great and nearly uniform depth, the
tides of this fluid would be so regular, that a very few ob¬
servations would be sufficient to enable us to deduce the
whole of the phenomena from theory, and to trace the great
waves, which would follow the sun and moon round the
globe, so as to make its circuit in a day, without any mate¬
rial deviation from uniformity of motion and succession.
Having collected, for the actual state of the sea and conti¬
nents, an abundant store of accurate observations of the
precise time of high water with regard to the sun and moon,
for every part of the surface, and having arranged them in
a table according to the order of their occurrence, as ex¬
pressed in the time of any one meridian, we might then
suppose lines to be drawn on a terrestrial globe, through all
the places of observation, in the same order; and these lines
would indicate, supposing the places to be sufficiently nume¬
rous, so as to furnish a series of tides very nearly contempo¬
rary, the directions of the great waves, to which that of the
progress of the tides in succession must be perpendicular.
If, however, we actually make such an attempt, we shall Tides,
soon find how utterly inadequate the observations that have's—“v—
been recorded are, for the purpose of tracing the forms of
the lines of contemporary high water with accuracy or wuth
certainty, although they are abundantly sufficient to show
the impossibility of deducing the time of high water at any
given place from the Newtonian hypothesis, or even from
that of Laplace, without some direct observation. It might
at least be supposed very easy to enumerate the existing
observations, scanty as they may be, in a correct order; but
there is a number of instances in which it is w holly uncer¬
tain whether the time observed at a given port relates to
the tide of the same morning in the open ocean, or to that
of the preceding evening. This inconvenience may, how¬
ever, in some measure be remedied, by inserting such
places in two different parts of the table, at the distance of
twelve and a half hours from each other. The following
table is the result of an approximation obtained in this man¬
ner, the principal hour-lines having been partially traced on
a map of the world, in order to afford some little direction to
the correct insertion of the times of high water without the
material error of half a day.
Time of High Water at the Full and Change of the Moon, reduced to the Meridian of Greenwich.
S. Georgia 
Cape of Good Hope..
St Helena 
Cape Corse 
Rio Janeiro 
I. Martin Vaz 
I. Ascension 
Christmas Sound 
St Jago 
Port Ddsird 
St Helena, S. A 
Quibo 
Sierra Leone 
Easter I 
St Julian’s 
Maragnon Mouth ....
St John’s, Newf 
Guadaloupe 
Panama 
Tortugas 
Cape Blanco 
Bermudas 
Martinique 
Guayaquil 
Senegal 
Callao 
Halifax 
Marquesas |
Quebec 
Cape La Hogue 
Gibraltar 
Tahoga, Pan. Bay 
Funchal 
Portobello 
Cape Bojador 
Churchill R. )
P. of Wales Fort f
Terceira 
New York 
Cape Henlopen, Virg.
Cadiz 
Karakakooa Bay..
Virgin Cape, Pat.
Valparaiso 
Cape Charles 
Goree Island 
York Fort 
Lisbon 
Nantes, Rhe 
Tanna 
Longitude. H. W. Gr. T.
H. M.
2.2GW
I. 14 K.
0.23 W
0. 7
2.53
1.5G
0.57
4.46
1 34
4.20
4.40
5.20
0.53
7.19
4.35
3.20
3.30
4. 7
5.21
4.51
8.1G
4.14
4. 5
5.17
1. G
5. 8
4.14
0.16 to
9.17
4.44
0. 8
0.20
5.22
1. 8
5.10
0,58
6.17
1.49
4.57
5. 1
0.25
10.24
4.32
4.49
4.57
1.10
6. 9
0.37
0. 6
11.19
H. M.
I. 24
1.20
5.13
3 35
4.58
5.41
6.27
7.10
13.34
8.35
8.40
8.50
9. 8
9.19
9.20
9.20
9.20
10. 7
7.47
10.51
10.54
11.14
11.35
11.17
11.36
10.55
11.44
11.46 to
12.16
12.14
12.38
12.50
13.10
13.42
13.10
13.28
13.37
16.10
13.33
14. 1
14. 5
14. 9
14.32
14.21
14.57
15.10
15.19
15.22
15.26
15.41
Brest 
Bayonne 
C. St Vincent 
Corunna 
Belleisle 
Palmiras Ft 
Port Cornw'allis 
Rochelle 
Vannes 
St Paul de Leon \
Morlaix f
Rochfort 
Bear Island 
Christmas Island 
Chiloe  
Cape Clear 
Annamocka 
St Peter and Paul 1
Awatsha / *
Kin sale 
Eddistone 
Falmouth 
Rotterdam I 
Drake’s I. Plymouth
Plymouth 
Avranches 
Eaoowe 
St Maloes  
Londonderry  
Tonga Taboo....,  
Granville  
Pudyona 
St Francisco 
Cork 
Bristol 
Barfleur  
Cherbourg 
Venus Pt. Utah 
Mauritius  
Lizard 
Nootka Sound  
Guernsey 
Pulo Condore 
Calcutta 
Seychelles Aim 
Stromness 
N.Zealand^yl;
Honfleur.
Havre.
Caen...
Longitude
H. M.
0.18
0. 6
0.36
0.37
0.12W,
18.12
17.49
0. 5
0.11
0.16
0. 4
5.20
19.24
5. 0
0.38
11.39
13.25
0.34
0.18
0.20
12.21
0.17
0.17
0. 5
11.38
0. 8
0.29
12.20
0. 6
13. 1
8. 8
0.34
0.10
0. 5
0. 6
9.58
20.10
0.21
8.27
0. 9
18.53
16. 6
20.18
0.14
12.13
12.55
0. 1 E.
0. 0
0. 1
H. W. Gr. T
H, M.
15.3G
16. 6
16. 6
16. 7
16.12
16.12
16.19
16.20
16.24
( 16.38 or
\ 18. 0
16.49
17-20
17-24
17-30
16.48
17-39
18. 1
17- 3
18- 18
18-20
18-21
17-32)
17- 47 J
18.3-5
18- 38
18.3830ft
18- 59
19- 10
17-48
19-31
19-33
17-10
19- 10
20- 55
19-24
22. 0
21- 12
20 45
20.47
20.54
21. 9
21.11
21.12
21.20
21-23
23-54
21.29
21.30
21.31
Socotora and C.)
Guardafui )  
Ulietea 
Huaheine  
Shoreham 
Foul Pt. Mad 
Botany Bay  
St Valery en Caux...,
Macao 
St Valery sur Somme
Dunnose 
Brighton 
Dublin 
Abbeville 
Beachy Head 
Cowes 
Needles 
Anholt 
Boulogne 
Hastings 
Deal Castle 
Dover. 
Dungeness 
Dieppe 
Almirantes | Curreuse
Portsmouth 
Ostend 
Nieuport 
Gravelines 
Alderney 
Bergen 
P’alse Bay 
Drontheim 
Rouen 
Aberdeen 
North Cape 
Leith and Edinburgh
Amsterdam 
Rotterdam 
London Bridge 
Archangel  
Bordeaux 
Hamburg 
Bremen 
Antwerp 
Scolt Head 
Lynn 
Hague 
Leostoffe 
London Bridge 
Longitude. H. W. Gr. T
H. M.
20.30W,
10. 6
10. 4
0. 1
20.41
13.55
0. 3 E,
16.2GW
0. 6 E.
0. 5W.
0. 1
0.25W.
0. 7 E.
0. 1 E,
0. GW
0. 6W.
0.47 E.
0. 6
0. 3
0. 6
0. 5
0. 4
0. 4
21.28W.
21.17
0, 4 W.
0.12 E.
0 11
0. 8 E.
0. 9W.
0.21 E.
22-45W.
0.41 E
0- 4W.
0. 9
I. 43 E
0 13W.
0 19 E
0.18
0. 0
2.36 E.
0. 2W.
0-40 E-
0.35 E.
0.18 E.
0. 3
0. 2
0 17
0- 7
0. 0
H. M.
21.30
21.39
21.55
22. 1
22. 1
21.55
22.12
22.16
22.24
22.20
22 31
23.35
22.57
22.59
23. 5
23- G
23.13
22.33
22-21
22.36
22- 40
22.26
22 46
23- 48
25-27
23.3 G
24. 8
23.44
24.22
21. 0
22. 3
25.16
25.34
25.41
25.34
26. 1
26.33
27-11
27 12
27-15
27-24
27 32
29 20
29.25
28.46
30.17
30.43
31.58
34.23
(39-45)
282
TIDES.
Tides. It may be immediately inferred from this table, first,
—v—-^ that the line of contemporary tides is seldom in the exact
direction of the meridian, as it is supposed to be universally
in the theory of Newton and of Laplace; except, perhaps,
the line for the twenty-first hour in the Indian Ocean, which
appears to extend from Socotora to the Almirantes and
the Isle of Bourbon, lying nearly in the same longitude.
Secondly, the southern extremity of the line advances
as it passes the Cape of Good Hope, so that it turns up
towards the Atlantic, which it enters obliquely, so as to ar¬
rive, nearly at the same moment, at the Island of Ascension,
and at the Island of Martin Vaz, or of the Trinity. Thirdly,
after several irregularities about the Cape Verd Islands,
and in the West Indies, the line appears to run nearly east
and west from St Domingo to Cape Blanco, the tides pro¬
ceeding due northwards ; and then, turning still more to the
right, the line seems to run north-west and south-east, till
at last the tide runs almost due east up the British Chan¬
nel and round the north of Scotland into the Northern
Ocean, sending off a branch down the North Sea to meet
the succeeding tide at the mouth of the Thames. Fourthly,
towards Cape Horn, again, there is a good deal of irregula¬
rity ; the hour-lines are much compressed between South
Georgia and Tierra del Fuego, perhaps on account of the
shallower water about the Falkland Islands and South Shet¬
land. Fifthly, at the entrance of the Pacific Ocean, the
tides seem to advance very rapidly to New Zealand and
Easter Island; but here it appears to be uncertain whether
the line of contemporary tide should be drawn nearly north
and south from the Gallapagos to Tierra del Fuego, or
north-east and south-west from Easter Island to New Zea¬
land ; or whether both these partial directions are correct:
but on each side of this line there are great irregularities,
and many more observations are wanting before the pro¬
gress of the tide can be traced with any tolerable accuracy,
among the multitudinous islands of the Pacific Ocean, where
it might have been hoped that the phenomena w'ould have
been observed in their greatest simplicity, and in their most
genuine form. Lastly, of the Indian Ocean the northern
parts exhibit great irregularities, and among the rest they
afford the singular phenomenon of one tide in the day, ob¬
served by Halley in the port of Tonkin, and explained by
Newton in the Principia: the southern parts are only re¬
markable for having the hour-lines of contemporary tides
considerably crow ded between New Holland and the Cape
of Good Flope, as if the seas of these parts were shallower
than elsewhere.
These inferences respecting the progress of the tides are
not advanced as the result of any particular theory, nor
even as the only ones that might possibly be deduced from
the table. Thus the supposion that the direction in which
the tides advance must be perpendicular to the hour-lines
of contemporary tides, is not by any means absolutely with¬
out exception, since a quadrangular lake, with steep shores
in the direction of the meridian, would have the times of
high water the same for every point of its eastern or western
halves respectively, and there could be no correctly defined
direction of the hour-lines in such a case. But if any por¬
tion of the sea could be considered as constituting such a
lake, its properties would be detected by a sufficient num¬
ber of observations of high water; and the existing table
does not appear to indicate any such cases that require to
be otherwise distinguished than as partial irregularities.
I here may also be some doubt respecting the propriety of
the addition of twelve and a half hours that has been made
to the time of high water in the north-eastern parts of the
Atlantic: but it seems extremely improbable that the same
tide should travel north-easterly into the English Channel
and into the Northern Ocean, and at the same time wes¬
terly across the Atlantic, as it must be supposed to do, if it
were considered as primarily originating in the neighbour¬
hood of the Bay of Biscay. On the other hand, the bending T;L„
of the great wave round the continents of Africa and Eu-
rope seems to be very like the sort of refraction which takes
place on every shelving coast with respect to the common
waves, which, whatever may have been their primitive ori¬
gin, acquire always, as they spread, a direction more and
more nearly parallel to that of the coast which they are ap¬
proaching : and the suppositions which have been here ad¬
vanced respecting the succession of the tides in different
ports, allowing for the effect of a multitude of irregularities
proceeding from partial causes, appear to be by far the most
probable that can be immediately inferred from the table,
at least in its present state of imperfection.
#
Sect. II.— Of the Disturbing Forces that occasion the Tides.
n
tl
Since the phenomena of the tides, with regard to their
progress through the different oceans and seas, as they exist
in the actual state of the earth’s surface, appear to be too
complicated to allow us to hope to reduce them to compu¬
tation by means of any general theory, we must, in the next
place, confine our attention to the order in which the
successive changes occur in any single port; and having
determined the exact magnitude of the forces that tend to
change the form of the surface of the ocean at different
periods, and having also examined the nature of the vibra¬
tory motions of which the sea, or any given portion of it,
would be susceptible, in the simplest cases, after the cessa¬
tion of the disturbing forces, we must afterwards endeavour
to combine these causes, so as to adapt the result to the
successive phenomena which are observed at different times
in any one port.
Theorem A. (“ E.”—Nicholson’s Journal, July 1813.)
The disturbing force of a distant attractive body, urging a
particle of a fluid in the direction of the surface of a sphere,
varies as the sine of twice the altitude of the body.
The mean attraction exerted by the sun and moon on
all the separate particles composing the earth, is exactly
compensated by the centrifugal force derived from the earth’s
annual revolution round the sun, and from its monthly re¬
volution round the common centre of gravity of the earth
and moon ; but the difference of the attractions exerted at
different points of the earth, must necessarily produce a dis¬
turbing force, depending on the angular position of the point
with regard to the sun or moon, since the centrifugal force
is the same for them all; the disturbing force being con¬
stantly variable for any one point, and- depending partly on
the difference of the distance of the point from the mean
distance, and partly on the difference of the direction of the
luminary from its direction with respect to the centre, or,
in other words, on its parallax.
In the case of a sphere covered with a fluid, it will be most
convenient for computation to consider both these forces as
referred to the direction of the circumference of the sphere,
which will differ but little from that of the fluid; and it will
appear that both of them, when reduced to this direction,
will vary as the product of the sine and cosine of the dis¬
tance from the diameter pointing to the luminary, that is, as
half the sine of twdce the altitude : for the difference of
gravitation, which depends on the difference of the distance,
will always vary as the sine of the distance from the bisect¬
ing plane perpendicular to that diameter, and will be re¬
duced to the direction of the surface by diminishing it in
the ratio of the cosine to the radius; and the effect of the
difference of direction wall be originally proportional to the
sine of the distance from the diameter, and will in like man¬
ner be expressed, when reduced, by the product of the sine
and cosine; and each force, thus reduced, will be equal,
where it is greatest, to half of its primitive magnitude, since
sin. cos. 45° = “ Thus, the gravitation towards the
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: Tide
TIDES.
moon at the earth’s surface, is to the gravitation towards
''the earth as 1 to 70 times the square of 60^, or to 256 217 :
and the former disturbing force is to the whole of this as 2
to 60£ at the point nearest the moon, and the second as 1
to 60£ at the equatorial plane, and the sum of both, re¬
duced to the direction of the circumference, where greatest,
as 3 to 121, that is, to the whole force of the earth’s gra¬
vitation, as 1 to 10 334 000 ; and in a similar manner we
find, that the whole disturbing force of the sun is to the
weight of the particles as 1 to 25 736 000.” Or, if we call
the moon’s horizontal parallax p, and substitute - for the
V
distance, the whole of the lunar disturbing force in the di-
3 3
rection of the surface will be - • ^ rr
pp; or, if z be
the moon’s zenith distance from any point of the surface,
j — — p* sin. cos. z.
Theorem B. [F.] The inclination of the surface of an
oblong spheroid, slightly elliptical, to that of the inscribed
sphere, varies as the sine of twice the distance from the
circle of contact; and a particle resting on any part of it,
without friction, may be held in equilibrium by the at¬
traction of a distant body [situated in the direction of the
axis].
If a sphere be inscribed in an oblong spheroid, the ele¬
vation of the spheroid above the sphere must obviously be
proportional, when measured in a direction parallel to the
axis of the spheroid, to the ordinate of the sphere, that is,
to the sine of the distance from its equator ; and when re¬
duced to a direction perpendicular to the surface of the
sphere, it must be proportional to the square of that sine ;
and the tangent of the inclination to the surface of the
sphere, which is equal to the fluxion of the elevation di¬
vided by that of the circumference, must be expressed by
twice the continual product of the sine, the cosine, and the
ellipticity, or rather the greater elevation e, the radius be¬
ing considered as unity : so that the elevation e will also
express the tangent of the inclination where it is greatest,
since 2 sin. cos. 45° = 1 ; and the inclination will be every¬
where as the product of the sine and cosine.
If, therefore, the density of the elevated parts be con¬
sidered as evanescent, and their attraction be neglected,
there will be an equilibrium, when the ellipticity is to the
radius as the disturbing force to the whole force of gravi¬
tation ; for each particle situated on the surface will be
actuated by a disturbing force tending towards the pole of
the spheroid, precisely equal and contrary to that portion of
the force of gravitation which urges it in the opposite di¬
rection down the inclined surface. Hence, if the density
of the sea were supposed inconsiderable in comparison with
that of the earth, the radius being 20 839 000 feet, the
greatest height of a lunar tide in equilibrium would be
2-0166 feet, and that of a solar tide -8097 : that is, suppos¬
ing the moon’s horizonal parallax about 57', and her mass
7c7 of that of the earth.
Theorem C. [G.] The disturbing attraction of the thin
shell contained between a spheroidical surface and its in¬
scribed sphere, varies in the same proportion as the incli¬
nation of the surface, and is to the relative force of gravity
depending on that inclination, as three times the density of
the shell to five times that of the sphere.
We may imagine the surface of the sphere to be divided
by an infinite number of parallel and equidistant circles,
beginning from any point at w'hich a gravitating particle is
situated, and we may suppose all these circles to be divided
by a plane perpendicular to the meridian of the point, and
consequently bisecting the equatorial plane of the spheroid:
it is obvious, that if the elevations on the opposite sides of
the plane be equal at the corresponding points of each
circle, no lateral force will be produced; but when they are'
unequal, the excess of the elevated matter on one side
above that of the other side will produce a disturbing or
lateral force. Now, the elevation being everywhere as the
square of the distance x from the equatorial plane, we may
call it ex2, and the difference corresponding to any point of
that semicircle which is the nearer to the pole of the sphe¬
roid, will be e (x* — x"z) = e (V+ x") — x"). But
x' + x" is always twice the distance of the centre of the
supposed circle from the equatorial plane ; and the distance
of this centre from that of the sphere will be cos. if 4<
be the angular distance of the circle from its pole ; and
calling <p the distance of this pole from the equatorial plane
of the spheroid, the distance in question will be cos. 4/ sin.
p, and x' + x" — 2 cos. 4 sin- p; and the difference*'—*"
is twice the actual sine of the arc 6 in the supposed circle,
that is, twice the natural sine, reduced in the ratio of unit
to the radius of this circle, which is sin. 4* reduced again
to a direction perpendicular to the equatorial plane; whence
x' — x" = 2 sin. 3 sin. 4 cos. <p ; and x'2 — x"2 = 4 sin. 6
sin., cos. 4 sin. cos. <p. Hence it follows, that, in different
positions of the gravitating particle, the effective elevation
at each point of the surface, similarly situated with respect
to it, is as the product of the sine and cosine of its angular
distance <p from the equatorial plane, the other quantities
concerned remaining the same in all positions. But the
inclination of the surface of the spheroid, as well as the
original disturbing force, varies in the same proportion of
the product of the sine and cosine of the distance p; con¬
sequently the sum of this disturbing attraction and the ori¬
ginal force will also vary as the inclination of the surface,
and may be in equilibrium with the tendency to descend
towards the centre, provided that the ellipticity be duly
commensurate to the density of the elevated parts.
Now, in order to find the actual magnitude of the dis¬
turbing attraction for a shell of given density, w-e must com ¬
pute the fluent of 4 e sin. 0d0 sin. cos. 4^4 sin- cos, <p, re¬
duced first according to the distance and direction of each
particle from the given gravitating particle; and we must
4
compare the fluent with - <r, the attraction of the whole
sphere at the distance of the radius, or unity. But for the
angle 6, the portion of the force acting in the common di¬
rection of sin. 6 is to the whole attraction at the same dis¬
tance as sin. 6 to 1, so that the attractive force of any point
of the semicircle will be 4e sin.2 0 sin. cos. 4 sin. cos. <p,
and its fluxion will be as sin.2 6d6, of which the fluent is
— £ sin. cos. d, or when 0 = 180°, and ^ir sin. 4 will
express the effect of the disturbing attraction of the semi¬
circles, of which sin. 4 is the radius, reduced to the direc¬
tion of the middle point, of which the distance is 2 sin. 4,4;
the reduction for this distance is as its square to 1 : ancf for
the direction, as the distance to sin. 4> together making
sin. 4
the ratio of
8 sin.3 ■4/
and the ultimate fluxion of the
force will be 2ev sin. 4 sin. cos.
sin.3 4 cos. 4
, sm. 4
p sm. cos. 4 —
r 8 sin.3 £4
cl\p — dev——.———-— sin. cos. ®d4; but sin. 4/ = 2 sin.
8 sin. 4,4
cos. ^4) and the fraction becomes —Y cos. 4, _
8 sin.3 -|4
cos.3cos. 4 — cos.3 ^4 (cos.2 ^4 — sin.2 £4) = cos.5 £4
— cos.1' -|4 + cos.0 44 — 2 cos.5 ^4 — cos.3 4,4. Now, tak¬
ing the fluent from 4 = 0 to 4 = IS0°, we have 2f'cas*
i'l-Sd'A = andy' cos.3 Vy X f the tliffer-
263
Tides.
264
TIDES.
Tides* 3 4 4
- ence being-^ whence the fluent of the force is found
4 1 .1
2eT sin. cos. p x 5 x calling the density of the fluid
4 ev
d n
or, where it is greatest, sin. cos. p being = , while
4 4 £<7T
the attraction of the sphere itself is - v, which is to as
o o
3e
1 to ; and since the elevation e expresses also the maxi¬
mum of the relative force of gravity depending on the tan¬
gent of the inclination (Theorem B), it is obvious that the
Se
disturbing attraction — must be to the relative force e as
3 c
- to 5.
n
Corollary 1. If » = 1, as in a homogeneous fluid sphere
or spheroid, the disturbing attraction becomes ^ e, and this
attraction, together with the primitive forcemust express
3 . 2
the actual elevation e, or - e whence/ =r -rC, ande
— g'vinS 2*024 and 5*042 for the magnitude of the
solar and lunar tides, when f — *8097 and 2*0166 respec¬
tively. But this is obviously far from the actual state of the
problem.
Corollary 2. Supposing n = 5*4 (see Quarterly Journal
Se- • 27/
of Science, April 1820), we have f — e’ anc^ e — 9^
9
= 5/; 80 that the height of the primitive tides of an ocean
o
of water, covering the whole surface of the earth, such as
it actually is, ought to be *911 for the solar, and 2*27 for
the lunar disturbing force; that is, supposing the sea with¬
out inertia, so as to accommodate itself at once to the form
of equilibrium. But, in the actual state of the irregularities
of the seas and continents, it is impossible to pay any re¬
gard to this secondary force, since the phenomena do not
justify us in supposing the general form of the surface of
the ocean such as to give rise to it.
Theorem D. [H.] When the horizontal surface of a
liquid is elevated or depressed a little at a given point, the
effect will be propagated in the manner of a wave, with a
velocity equal to that of a heavy body which has fallen
through a space equal to half the depth of the fluid, the
form of the wave remaining similar to that of the original
elevation or depression. Dr Young’s Elementary Illustra¬
tions of the Celestial Mechanics of Laplace, 378, p. 318.
Scholium. The demonstration of this theorem implies
that water is incompressible, and that the pressure of each
particle placed on the surface is instantaneously communi¬
cated through the whole depth of the fluid to the bottom.
These suppositions are not indeed strictly accurate in any
case, but they introduce no sensible error when the surface
ot the wave similarly affected is large in comparison with
the depth of the fluid. A modern author of celebrity
seems to have taken it for granted that the pressure is pro¬
pagated with the same velocity downwards and laterally;
at least, it such is not his meaning, he has been somewhat
unfortunate in the choice of his expressions ; but there
seems no reason whatever why water should communicate
force more slowly when it is perfectly confined, than ice
would do ; and the divergence of the pressure of a certain
portion of the surface of water, elevated a little, for exam¬
ple, above the rest, may be compared to the divergence of
a sound entering into a detached chamber by an aperture
of the same size with the given surface, which is probably 1
small in comparison with its direct motion, but equally rapid, ^—-A,
and in both cases depending on the modulus of the elasti¬
city of the medium.
Theorem E. [I.] A wave of a symmetrical form, with
a depression equal and similar to its elevation, striking
against a solid vertical obstacle, will be reflected, so as to
cause a part of the surface, at the distance of one fourth of
its whole breadth, to remain at rest; and if there be an¬
other opposite obstacle at twice that distance, there may
be a perpetual vibration between the surfaces, the middle
point having no vertical motion. Dr Young’s Natural Phi¬
losophy, vol. i. p. 289, 777.
Scholium 1. The elevation and depression of a spheroid,
compared with the surface of the sphere of equal magni¬
tude, exhibits a symmetrical w^ave in the sense of the pro¬
position ; and it is not necessary that the shores should be
very rocky or perpendicular, in order to produce a strong
reflection; for even the vibration of the water in the bot¬
tom of a common hemispherical basin is considerably per¬
manent.
Corollary 3. The vibrations of the wrater supposed to be
contained in a canal, following the direction of the equator,
and 90° in length, would be synchronous with the passage
of a wave 180° in breadth, over any point of a canal of the
same depth, and surrounding the w'hole globe.
Scholium 2. It has been usual to consider the elevation
of the tides as identical with that of an oblong spheroid,
measured at its vertex, and therefore as amounting to twice
as much as the depression of the same spheroid at the equa¬
tor, considered in relation to the mean height belonging to
a sphere of the same magnitude; but the supposition is by
no means applicable to the case of a globe covered partially
and irregularly with water, so that in almost all cases of ac¬
tual tides, the elevation must be considered as little if at all
greater than the depression, as far as this cause only is con¬
cerned ; there are, however, some other reasons to expect
that the elevation of the great wave might often arrive at a
distant port in somewhat greater force than the depresssion.
Theorem F. [K.] The oscillations of the sea and of
lakes, constituting the tides, are subject to law's exactly si¬
milar to those of pendulums capable of performing vibra¬
tions in the same time, and suspended from points which
are subjected to compound regular vibrations, of which the
constituent periods are completed in half a lunar and half
a solar day [or in some particular cases a whole day].
Supposing the surface of the sea to remain at rest, each
point of it would become alternately elevated and depressed,
in comparison with the situation in which it might remain
in equilibrium ; its distance from this situation varying ac¬
cording to the regular law of the pendulum (see Theorem
B) ; and, like all minute vibrations, it will be actuated by
forces indirectly dependent on, and proportional to, this
distance; so that it may be compared to a pendulous body
remaining at rest in the vertical line, about which its point
of suspension vibrates, and wfill consequently follow the
motion of the temporary horizon, in the same manner as
the pendulum follows the vibration of its point of suspen¬
sion, either with a direct or a retrograde motion, according
to circumstances, which will be hereafter explained: the
operation of the forces concerned being perfectly analogous,
whether we consider the simple hydrostatic pressure de¬
pending on the elevation, or the horizontal pressure de¬
rived from the inclination of the surface, or the differential
force immediately producing elevation and depression, de¬
pending on the variation of the horizontal pressure, and
proportional to the curvature of the surface. It becomes
therefore necessary, for the theory of the tides, to investi¬
gate minutely the laws of these compound and compulsory
vibrations, which, together with the resistances affecting
them, will be the subject of the next section.
TIDES.
Sect. Ill-—Of the Effects of Resistance in Vibrating Mo¬
tions, whether Simple or Compound.
Theorem G. If dw + Ads + Bsds + Dwds = 0, we
—^ = c; hie being = 1.
Ds l B AD
have e ' (w + Ti 5 +
D
DD
Scholium. For the better understanding of the mode of
investigation which will be employed in these propositions,
it will be proper to premise some remarks on the investi-
o-ation of fluxional equations, by means of multipliers. A
person unacquainted with the language of modern mathe¬
maticians, would naturally understand by a “ criterion of
integrability,” some mode of distinguishing an expression
that would be integrated, from one that was untractable;
while, in fact, this celebrated criterion relates only to the
accidental form in which the expression occurs, and not to
its essential nature. If we take, for instance, the well-
known case of the fluxion of hi - = hlx — hh/, we have
' —  — yd,r xdy, anc[ making this = 0, we have
^ x y xy
also ydx — xdy — 0 ; and this expression no longer fulfils
the conditions of integrability, until we multiply it again
by —, and restore it to its perfect form. The direct in-
xy
vestigation of such a multiplier is generally attended by in¬
superable difficulties; and the best expedient, in practical
cases, is to examine the results of the employment of such
multipliers as are most likely to be concerned in the pro¬
blem, with indeterminate co-efficients, and to compare them
with the equations proposed. In common cases, the find¬
ing of fluents, when only one variable quantity is concerned,
requires little more than the employment of a table of
fluents or integrals such as that of Meier Hirsch; and the
truth of the solution is in general tested at once, for each
case, by taking the fluxion of the quantity inserted in the
table: but for the separation of different variable quanti¬
ties, where they are involved with each other, the employ¬
ment of proper multipliers is one of the most effectual ex¬
pedients; and it is still more essential to the solution of
equations between fluxions of different orders, or their co¬
efficients. Such equations require in general to be com¬
pared with some multiple of the exponential quantity e mt,
which affords fluxions of successive orders, that have
simple relations to each other, especially when d£ is consi¬
dered as constant. The multiples of sin. Ct, and cos. Ct, are
also very useful in such investigations, and for a similar
reason; but the solutions that they afford are commonly
less comprehensive than the former, though they are often
simpler, and more easily obtained. It is not however ne¬
cessary that the exponent of the multiplier should flow
uniformly, as will appear from the first example of a pro¬
blem which has been solved by Euler in his Mechanics:
the subsequent examples will possess somewhat more of
novelty.
Demonstration. The fluxion of ens (w -j- ps + 9) is
e"s (dw + pds -}- (nw nps + nq) ds) = ens dw + (/> + nq)
■ "IDs ,
2Z>s
D
, B B
and if 0 when s = X, we have ^ + ^DD
ce27Jx _ orj putting ^ ^ + g/)u — & ce~I)x _ 0,
and c — _/3e~2Dx; /3 being also = ^ 7 = 1 +
2/A. We may also substitute tf for X—s, and ce~Ds,
= — f3e2l) will become — — fie 2'D'r, and w =
2D<r
B
B
B
DS + 2DD
fie
— IDa
B
(1 —ye
Now e “ 2Z)' = 1 _2Z><r + 2W
and (1 + 2Z)X) e
+ 2Z>2<r2 + EDAo2
(2Z>s — 2D(f —
(ID2/.* — 2W —
— 2Z><r
2DD
|Z)3(r3+ —
= 1-}- 2D'k — 2D<s —
Wcr3 — . ..; whence w —
+ 2Ds).
<s) + 4Z)A<r — 2D‘l<5
■ 4DA<r2 . . .) = B (2Xff
ds 4- ?«dsds -f nwds); and comparing with this ens (dw Dya3 — -ZFytf4 4. . . . )
+ Ads 4- Z?sds 4- Dwds), we have n = D, np = B, and
B B , , , . A — p
V-~ —-jy and, lastly, p 4- nq — A, q — —-— =
AD—B Ds f B
—5 consequently the fluxion of e \w Jj s
VOL. XXI.
265
4. ^ jjd e(lua^ t0 n°ddng, and that quantity is s
constant, or equal to c.
Example. Let the given equation be that of a cycloidal
pendulum, moving with a resistance proportional to the
dds T. t', ds2
square of the velocity, or Bs — ^ _ U.
Scholium 2. The space s being supposed to begin at the
lowest point of the curve, the fluxion ds is negative during
the descent on the positive side, and the force dds is con¬
sequently negative, and equal, when there is no resistance,
to Bs, B being a positive co-efficient, equivalent, in the
2q 32
case of gravitation, to -j- or -y, l being the length of the
pendulum, and g the descent of a falling body in the first
second. The co-efficient — Z) is negative, because the re¬
sistance acts in a contrary direction to that of the force Bs,
as long as s remains positive, and coincides with it on the
negative side. But in the return of the pendulum the signs
are changed, so that the equation can only be applied to a
single vibration ; since the two forces in question oppose
each other in the same points of the curve in which they
(Js2
before agreed, while the square ^ must always remain
positive.
Solution. If we multiply the given equation by ds, and
ds2
make the square of the velocity, or vv — w — —j-j, we
have ds 4- Bsds — D ds = 0 = £ dw 4- Z?sds —
dt2 dt2
Dwds, and dw 4- 2Bsds — 2Dwds = 0 ; which, compared
with the theorem, gives us 0 for A, 2B for B, and — 2D
for D ; and the solution becomes
/ B B \ _ ^ , 5 ,
\w~~~DS~~2Dd) - c’ or w ~ jjs + +
Tides.
4Z)2X<r
B
2DD
; “ 2DD
„ 2
7*' + 5
Corollary 1. From this solution we obtain the point at
which the velocity is greatest; and, by reversing the equa¬
tion, we may also find the extent of the vibration. For
when dw — 0, we have i5sds = Dwds, and Bs — Dw,
which is the obvious expression of the equality of the re-
2 L
266
TIDES.
Tides, sistance to the propelling force. Putting the greatest value
of w = x, and the corresponding value of s — $, we have x =
B
B
D 5
^2lJD + = S' Since Bs = DX’ and ^Sd
B
B
2DD
__ — ce2Ds =: e2D(s ^; whence - = e2D^
2DD 7
and 7 = e2D ^ ^; consequently hl7 = 2D (>. — g) =
hi
conveniences, by supposing the time to begin at the point Ti^
where the velocity is a maximum ; and it will be necessary,
in this investigation, to follow his steps, with some slight
variations.
Corollary 3. In order to find the time of vibration, we
take 5—g — r, and x — w—z,\hens = r-\- g, <s=zX—g—T,
B (1 — ye ^ (x 1 i + 2.D [s + ’'])> and x
2DD
(1 + 2D\), and 2Dg = 2D\—h] (1 + 2DX), and g =
JL ^2D2X2DJX3 + . . . ^ = Z>X2 — | DW + . . •
B
And since x = -jj g, we have x
B
2DD
(2DX — hi [1 +
beino- - —c z~ — Br + -^-~e2Dk — ^e2Br-
being _ -^g,z— 2DD Dr + 2DD
but we have seen that e2D (g—X)=: —, and — z becomes
2DD e ^ =T)‘t~~2DD (2Dr + W r~
B B
B
B
2DD + DT
2Z)X]).
Lemma. For the reversion of a series, or of a finite
equation, if z — ax bx1 + cx3 + . ., we have x — -z —
+1DV + nI>v + ---) = 25 75—^-
BDr3 — — Br' — ^ BDr3
^ BDW
r^2 +
262 — ac
5b3 — 5abc 4- a^d .
.  4 z* 4-
2=^ + |l5^+iDV +
•.., and
In order to reverse
1W — 21 ab2c Qrrbd 3«2c2 — a3e
The proof of this well-known formula is the most readily
obtained by means of a series with indeterminate co-effi¬
cients, such as a; Az -f- Bz2 , which, by actual in¬
volution, and by comparison with the pi’oposed series, w ill
give the required values of the co-efficients, as expressed
in this Lemma.
Corollary 2. When w == 0, wTe obtain from its value,
2 ^ o 1
divided by Bs, the equation 2X — ys — - Dys1 -f- -
2X
D2y<s3   ; and, by reversing this series, we have s — —
jy- • 1 3~ ‘3
this series, we must put ^ = y2, and r zz Ay + By2 cy3
+ ...; and by substituting the powers of this series for
those of r in the value of -^ — y2 — r2-\- vr3 — qt4 +
we find a rr 1, B = — |p, c P2 — ...; and r — y
Hence dr =. dy — - Bydy
+ - D2y0dy — . . .; and this fluxion, divided by the velo¬
city v — */(x — z), will be the fluxion of the time; or, since
+ 37w + ^B!x3---’or<r = 2x-|w + -
d i = 2ydy and Ay =
the difference of the arcs of descent and ascent being
dz
D
dz
B2
4
- Hx?, and the difference of two successive vibrations
B 2^/(xz — zz) SBy/(x—z)'6B*/B
zdz .... .. 1
- DX2, when the resistance is very small; this difference
\/{xz — zz)
and the fluent becomes t —
2S/B
being also - g; so that the displacement of the point of
greatest velocity is — of the difference of the successive vi-
o
2z 2D 7)2 / 2z
v sin- H - ‘IB ^ - 2) + 6EVB (i’1 arc ”sin- 7 -
— *’])...; the value of which, taken from a = 0 to
brations.
Scholium 2. If K be the value of w when Dw would
be equal to the force of gravity, and DK — Bl ■=. 2y, we
2q
have D — or H being the height from which a body
must fall to acquire the velocity */K, since K — fyH,
. Q * 2D Z)2 n . T,
2: = x,xs2-^—(Ixt). .. If we now
make r negative, for the ascent of the pendulum, the co-effi¬
cients p, R, ..., b, D,..., will change their signs, and the
n 2D D2
value of t will be 7, , „ + */x + - ■ xrr -\-
2</B r ‘SB
\2B^B
D= jL and 225 =1.
the sum of both being —'‘Jr* + • • • > which is the
^B ^ f>B^B
4Z)
Scholium 3. It is natural to imagine that wre might ob¬
tain the time from the equation expressing the velocity in
terms of the space, if we merely expanded the value of
into a new series, by means of the Newtonian theorem;
but the fluents thus obtained for the expression of the time
are deficient in convergency; and a similar difficulty would
occur if we expressed s in terms of w by reversing the
series, and divided its fluxion by y'w’. The ingenuity of
Euler has, however, devised a method of avoiding these in¬
time of a complete vibration, and the difference \/x +. • •
The effect of the resistance on the whole time involves,
therefore, only the second and the higher powers of the co¬
efficient of the resistance D ; and it also disappears with
the arc, as x, the square of the greatest velocity, becomes
inconsiderable with respect to the velocity itself, and to
r
the time
r] r 1 o r 1 c
Theorem H. If -3-5 4- A —1- j5s = 0, d^ being con-
dr d£
TIDES.
de.
slant, we have ew<(ds + a^d/) — c ; m being — dbz
— B), and a = ^A=fz V(%A2 — B).
Demonstration. The fluxion of ew/(d,s -j- asd<) is emt
mt
(d2s + a&sCit + (wds -f* owsd/)d/) = e (d2s + (a + m)
did< ams<\P); and, comparing this fluxion with the pro¬
posed equation, we have, for the co-efficients, a m — A,
and am — B ; whence — A- m — A, rri1 — Am — — jB,
m
m = ±A + V(iA2 — B), and a = \A^z ^{\A2 — B).
Example, Let the equation proposed be that of a cy¬
cloidal pendulum, vibrating with a resistance proportional
to the velocity ; that is, 4- ^4 t" + -Bs = 0.
dr
Scholium 1. The resistance is here adequately expressed,
ds
in all cases, by the term A so that the equation is per¬
manently applicable to the successive vibrations. Thus, in
the second descent, on the negative side of the vertical line,
Bs being negative, and — s becoming nearer to 0, the
d£
fluxion ds is positive, and J ^ is of a contrary character to
Bs, as it ought to be.
Solution. Since m — \A — B), and a — ±A
=fz ^/(}A2 — B), it is obvious that the two radical quanti¬
ties will be either possible or imaginary, according as ^A2
is greater or less than B.
Case i. If A2 is greater than 4B, the resistance being
very considerable, the solution becomes
eiAt ± ^A'2 ~ + t±A zp V(±A2 - £)>) = c ;
cl 9
and the velocity v — — — = (±A — x/[iA2 — BJ)s —
j- a, -V(M2- m>= (iA + _ b]), _
('—'i-lL+JUA R)*. ant| jf the velocity be supposed to
vanish when s — X, and £ = 0, we have 0 — ^Ax — V(jA2
— B)X — c - 1 4X + V(iA2 — B)k — e'.
Corollary 1. Hence it appears that such a pendulum
would require an infinite time to descend to the lowest
point, since the velocity cannot have a finite value when s
vanishes, the exponential quantity never beginning nega¬
tive.
Scholium 2. The co-efficient B may also be written for
an actual pendulum, as measured in English feet, —, or
~j, if we call g the descent of a falling body in the first se¬
cond, which is, however, denoted in the wrorks of some
, , , . , rr. ^ dds 32
authors by ±g, or even by {g. It we make s =r U;
when s — l, the force becomes such that — d2s — 32d£2,
and — ^ = 32, which is the true velocity generated by
such a force in a second of time. Supposing h to be the
velocity with which the resistance would become equal to
the weight, we must have for A in order that the
force represented by A may become equal to that of gravi-
ty, and A and if h be the height from which a body
ft
must fall to gain the velocity h, since h — —, A2 — —- — .
Ag hk h
Hence it follows, that when A2 = AB, which is the time of
the possibility of alternate vibrations, j — and h — -l,
ft i o
the resistance becoming equal to the weight when the body
has fallen freely through one eighth of the length of the
pendulum.
Case ii. Supposing now the resistance to be more mode¬
rate, and ^A2 to be less than B, and making B — %A2 = C2;
we shall have \/(^A2 — B) = ^/( — C2) = \/~ 1C; the
solution of the equation, + .4 ^ -f- -Bs zr 0, will then be
d ia[^ + A As zp V~i Cs^j) zz 0; whence,
by taking the two different values in succession, and adding
together their halves, wre obtain dfe2 j  
— J~lCt
(ds ^As) -| — — 1 Cs^j j — 0; or,
— jUTct ,
2 (d< + *ASJ
267
Tides.
since \/— 1 zz
J~\Ct —
+ e- =4-
2
J—ICt
V-_}_
V— ict
— {At
Cs = ce .Now the imagi-
2V— 1
nary exponential quantities, thus combined, are the well-
known expressions for the sine and cosine of the arc Ct
{Elem. Illustr. § 358); and the last equation may be written
thus, cos. Ct ^As^ -f. sin. CtCs zz ce~ ‘iAt; whence
d v oin Ct ce 2
v — — y- zz A As -j yy Cs yy. This fluent, if
d£ 2 ' cos. Ct cos. Ct
t were made to begin when v zz 0, would only afford us
such expressions as have hitherto been found intractable ;
but nothing obliges us to limit the problem to this condi¬
tion, and it is equally allowable to make the time t begin
when v zz ^As, the corresponding value of s being called g,
then ±Ag — v — ^Ag — c ; consequently c zz 0. The equa-
d«9 sin.
tion will then become — 4- C Ct + kAdt zz 0; whence
s cos.
s ~
his — hi cos. Ct zz c' —A At zz hi  y, and
2 cos. Ct
cos. Ct
d _ {At r. c
e , or s zz cos. Ct • e
bAt
(f &
e zz g ; consequently ~ zz cos. Ct • e
; and, when £ zz 0, s zz
At
iAt+bjV—kAV +
zz cos. Ct (^ \ —
But since f zz — ds zz s
8 “ " 48
C Ct" dt ^Adt j, it follows that must vanish when
((
\ cos.
ever C Ct -j- -{A — 0, or when ta. Ct = that is, in
cos.
2C
— A
the first instance, very nearly when Ct zz and l =
— A
and — AAt
AA
, and e
bAt
= 1 +
AA
very
2CC  2 “ 4CC’ i 4CC>
nearly; so that, calling the primitive extent of the arc of
vibration s zz X, we have ^ zz cos. Ct ^1 -}- » cos* ^
TIDES.
being also, in this case, = \/^l
A A \
4CC/
= 1
AA J
8CC’and
. . AA , s SCC
- + SCC' X” 8(7(7 + AA
8B — 2AA
SB — AA
-1
corresponding to the verse sine of the time
 4
or to the arc in the circle represented by Ct,
Corollary 2. It follows that both v and s must vanish
continually at equal successive intervals, whenever ta. Ct —
■ and when cos. Ct — 0, respectively ; the descent to
the lowest point will therefore occupy the time correspond-
. t A , , . ft A
ing to - -f- —and the subsequent ascent to - — ^ : tne
extent of the vibrations being always proportional to e
Corollary 3. The greatest velocity must take place at the
(]$
point where A — — 0, and^ICta. Ct + ^A2 — B, or
ta. Ct —
B — ^AA
AC ’
and cot. Ct =z
A
gleet A2, cot. Ct = y,
Y -O
AC
B — ±AA’
or, if we ne-
cos. Ct — very nearly.
Corollary 4. The diminution of the successive vibra¬
tions is expressed by the multiplier e
— \At
Ct ~ 2ft, the whole circumference, is 1 — ft, and
C
which, when
A
AftX
Scholium 3. Although the isochronism of a pendulum, Tifc
with a resistance proportional to the velocity, was demon- s-vv
strated by Newton, yet Euler appears to have failed in his
attempts to carry the theory of such vibrations to perfec¬
tion ; for he observes {Meehan, ii. p. 312), Etsi ex his op-
par eat, tempora tam ascensuum quam descensuum inter se
esse cequalia, tamen determinari non potest, quantum sit
tempus sive descensuum sive ascensuum : neque etiam tem¬
pora descensuum et ascensuum inter se possunt comparari.
AEqualio enim rationem inter s et u dejiniens ita est com-
plicata, ut ex ea elementum temporis —, per unicam vari-
abilem non possit exprimi.
Scholium 4. In confirmation of the solution that has
been here proposed, it may not be superfluous to show the
truth of the result in a different manner. Taking s — ^nt
— 3600, and M — whence A ~
1
1800
X -4054651
— -00022526, and A" — -000 000 050 75; and since B
= ^ = 9-81, C- "D 1 aax _ ^ .C AA\
= =: v'— TS^s) ’ t^le fracti°n being
only rr -000 000 000 65 ; or about one second in
millions, that is, in about fifty years.
cos. Ct, we have
ds
Tt
= {emt
(m cos. Ct — C
O),
dds
and ^ = 56
Cl — (72 cos.
Ct — Cm sin.
dds
Ct — Cm sin.
+ a is
dt
-f- Bs
mt
or ——- is the diminution of the value of s when the pen-
\/13
dulum returns to the place from which it first set out, that
is, the difference between the lengths of two vibrations,
each corresponding to a semicircumference, and this differ-
A A
ence is to or —^ X, the displacement of the point of
greatest velocity, which measures the greatest resistance,
as a- to 1, or as 3-1416 to 1. We have seen that, for a re¬
sistance varying as the square of the velocity, this propor¬
tion was as 8 to 3, or as 2*667 to 1.
Corollary 5. If the pendulum be supposed to vibrate in
a second, the unity of time, the diminution of the arc 2X in
each vibration will be \A X 2X, and the successive lengths
will vary as e — 2X, e A 2X, and so forth ; and after
the number N of vibrations, the extent of the arc will be
reduced from 2X to e 2X; so that if we makee — \NA-
— M, we have h\M = — ^NA, and A = ~ hi Thus,
2
if in an hour the vibrations were reduced to - of their ex¬
tent, which is rather more than appears to have happened
in any of Captain Eater’s experiments, we should have N
Ci); whence , „
dr
(m2 cos. Ct — 2 Cm sin. Ct — C" cos. Ct + Am cos.
Ct— AC sin. Ct B cos. Ct) — 0, and (m2— C2 q.
Am -f B) cos. Ct— {2Cni + AC) sin. Ct=.Q : an equa¬
tion which is obviously true when the co-offlcients of both
its terms vanish, and 2Cm = — AC, ov m =. ±A; and
again C2 = m2 + Am fl- B — % A2 — £ A2 -\- B — B
— 1- A2. The former mode of investigation is more gene¬
ral, and more strictly analytical; but this latter is of readier
application in more complicated cases, and it will hereafter
be further pursued.
Lemma. If a moveable body be actuated continually by
a force equal to that which acts on a given pendulum, the
body being in a state of rest when the pendulum is at the
middle of its vibration, the space described in the time of
a vibration will be to the length of the pendulum as the
circumference of a circle is to its diameter. For the force
being represented by cos. Ct, or cos. x, for the pendulum,
it will become sin. x with regard to the beginning of the
supposed motion, and the velocity, instead of sin. x, be¬
comes — cos. x, or 1 — cos. x ; so that the space, instead
of 1 — cos. a:, is a: — sin. x, which, at the end of the se-
. ft
mivibration, is x zz -, instead of 1 — cos. a: r= 1, the
space described by the simple pendulum, which is equal to
its length.
Scholium 5. There is a paradox in the relations of the
diminution of the vibration to the distance measuring the
greatest resistance, which it will be worth while to consider,
in order to guard ourselves against the too hasty adoption
of some methods of approximation which appear at first
sight unexceptionable. The pendulum, if it set out from
a state of rest at the point of greatest resistance, would
perform a vibration to the extent of double the distance of
that point, or 2 X, the initial force being measured
by that distance. Now, when the resistance is very small,
its magnitude may be obtained without sensible error from
the velocity of the pendulum vibrating without resistance
at the corresponding part of the arc; and the velocity
may be supposed to vary as sin. Ct, and the resistance,
in the case of this proposition, as sin. Ct or sin. x also.
Hence it may be inferred by means of the Lemma, that
A
the whole diminution of the space will be to —rr: X as ‘3*
1600
A
to 1, or that it will be equal to - <rX, which has already
y' B
be,l
ttf
.hi. been found to be the actual difference of two successive
semivibrations. The accuracy of this result, however,
must depend on the mutual compensation of its errors; for
the approximation supposes, that if the resistance vanished
at the lowest point, the subsequent retardation would be
such as to diminish the space by the effect of the diminu¬
tion of the velocity acting uniformly through the remainder
of the vibration, while in fact the diminution of the space
from this cause would be simply equal to a part of the arc
proportional to the diminution of the velocity, since the
arc of ascent is simply as the velocity at the lowest point.
Hence it is obvious, that the effects of the resistance are
too much complicated w ith the progress of the vibration to
allow us to calculate them separately; and accordingly,
when the resistance is as the square of the velocity, or as
sin.2 x, the diminution of velocity is expressed by ^
sin. cos. x, and that of the space by %x2 —£ sin.2 x, w'hich,
at the end of a vibration, becomes |w2 instead of t ; that is,
since the distance of the point of greatest velocity is here
g — £)X2, -^V/A2 = 2*467 Dx2, while the more accu¬
rate mode of computation has shown that the true diminu¬
tion of the space is 2*667 Z>X2. (Theorem G.) If we
! chose to pursue the mode of approximation here suggest¬
ed, with accuracy, it would be necessary to consider the
resistance as a periodical force acting on a pendulum ca¬
pable of a synchronous vibration, as hereafter in Theorem
K, Schol. 1.
Theorem J. If ^ ^ ^ sin* ^ = 0, we may
M
satisfy the equation by taking s =. sin. (VB.t) -f
TIDES.
sin. Ft.
Demonstration.
The value of s here assigned gives us
B
d.?
— VB cos. VBt
FF
MF „ , dds
 gCos.W.and^
MFF
FF — B
MB .
dds 7)
sin. Ft; so that — Bs
Ft-
df2
B sin. VBt —
dt
i?sin.
B sin. VBt
MFF .
FF—B*™
Ft =
sin. Ft — — M sin. Ft.
+ FF—B “
MB —MFF
FF — B
Corollary 1. If, in order to generalize this solution, we
make s — a sin. ^/Bt + /3 cos. VBt + y sin. Ft -}- s cos.
Ft, we may take any quantities at pleasure for a and /3,
according to the conditions of the particular case to be in¬
vestigated ; but s must be = 0; that is, the motion will
always be compounded of two vibrations, the one depen¬
dent on the length of the pendulum, or on the time requir¬
ed for the free vibration, indicated by VBt, the other syn¬
chronous with Ft, the period of the force denoted by M;
the latter only being limited to the condition of beginning
and ending with the periodical force.
Corollary 2. In the same manner, it may be shown that
the addition of any number of separate periodical forces,
indicated by the terms M' sin. F't, M" sin. F'f, . . ., will
M'
add to the solution the quantities    sin. F't
M"
, sin. F"t, and so forth.
B
F"F"
B
y32
—, which determines the spontaneous vi- >
bration of the pendulum.
Example 2. But if the ball of the pendulum be supposed
to begin its motion at the moment that the centre of sus¬
pension passes the vertical line, we must make s —
(sin. Ft — cos. */Bt)', and the subsequent motion of the
pendulum will then be represented by the sum of the sines
of two unequal arcs in the same circle; and if these arcs
are commensurate with each other, the vibration will ulti¬
mately acquire a double extent, and nearly disappear in a
continued succession of periods, provided that no resistance
interfere. And the consequences of any other initial con¬
ditions may be investigated in a manner nearly similar.
Thus, if the time of free vibration, under these circumstances,
w'ere ^ of the periodical time, the free vibration, in which
the motion must be supposed initially retrograde, in order
to represent a state of rest by its combination with the
fixed vibration, would have arrived at its greatest excur¬
sion forwards, after three semivibrations, at the same mo¬
ment with the fixed vibration, and after three complete
vibrations more would be at its greatest distance in the op¬
posite direction, so as to increase every subsequent vibra¬
tion equally on each side, and permanently to combine the
whole extent of the separate arcs of vibration. But in this
and in every other similar vibration, beginning from a state
of rest in the vertical line, that is, at the point where the
periodical force is evanescent, the effect of the free or sub¬
ordinate vibration with respect to the place of the body will
obviously disappear whenever an entire number of semi¬
vibrations has been performed.
Corollary 3. The paradox stated in the fourth scholium
on the last theorem may be illustrated by means of this pro¬
position, and will serve in its turn to justify the mode of
computation here employed in a remarkable manner. It
has been observed in Nicholson’s Journal for July 1813,
that the mode of investigating the effects of variable forces,
by resolving them into parts represented by the sines of
multiple arcs, and considering the vibrations derived from
each term as independent in their progress, but united in
their effects, may be applied to the problem of a pendulum
vibrating with a resistance proportional to the square of the
velocity; and that for this purpose the square of the sine
may be represented by the series sin.2 x = *8484 sin. x
— • 1696 sin. 3a; — *0244 sin. 5x — *00813 sin. lx — *0029
sin. 9a: — *0013 sin. 11a; — ... Now, if we employ this
series for resolving the resistance supposed in Theorem G
into a number of independent forces, the greatest resist-
A A
ance being measured by shall have *8484
for the part supposed to be simply proportional to the velo-
city, whence, from Theorem H, we have *8484crfor
the corresponding diminution of the vibration ; that is,
A
2*6653 —rnA* But it has been obseiwed, in the preceding
V B
corollary, that the place of the pendulum will not be at all
affected by any subordinate vibration after any entire num¬
ber of complete semivibrations; and the slight effect of the
velocity left in consequence of these subordinate vibrations
may here be safely neglected, so that 2*6653 maY be
considered as the whole effect of the resistance with re¬
spect to the space described, which differs only by of
Example 1. Supposing a pendulum to be suspended on
a vibrating centre, and to pass the vertical line at the same
moment with the centre, we may make a and — 0, and
M
s = jppr sin. Ft only ; the vibration being either di¬
rect or reversed, according as F is less or greater than
269
Tides.
270
Tides.
TIDES.
, the whole from 2’666 -X, the result of the more direct
v
computation of Theorem G.
Scholium. An experimental illustration of the accuracy
of the theorem may be found in the sympathetic vibrations
of clocks, and in that of the inverted pendulum invented
by Mr Hardy, as a test of the steadiness of a support (art.
Pendulum, vol. xvii. p. 218); for since the extent of the
M
regular periodical vibration is measured by
r> ll: 18
FF—B
evident, that however small the quantity M may be, it will
become very considerable when divided by B k —B, a.?, F
and VB approach to each other ; and accordingly it is ob¬
served, that when the inverted pendulum is well adjusted
to the rate of a clock, there is no pillar so steady as. not
to communicate to it a very perceptible motion by its re¬
gular, though extremely minute, and otherwise impercep¬
tible change of place.
Theorem K. In order to determine the effect of a pe¬
riodical force, with a resistance proportional to the velocity,
dds . ds
the equation —^A Bs — M sin. Gt — 0, may
d<
be satisfied by taking s — a sin. -f- /3 cos. Gt, « being
GG — B „ , „
and p zz
- (GG— By + AAGG
(GG-^+AAGG- s bein8 also =^sin-
(„ (3\ M
+ arcta- J - P([GG — Ef + AAGG) Sin‘
AG \
ds 0
Since s — u sin. Gt (3 cos. Gt, = a Geos. Gt — pG
sin. Gt, and —- = — a G2 sin. Gt—(3G2 cos. Gt = — G2s ;
d*
13
AG
5, also (3 =
+ vA G rr 0 ; whence - = „  ,,,
a GG — B
 -g and (G2 — B)M—(G- —
(GG — B)M
M— (GG — B)c
AG
B)2a = aA"G2; consequently a
AGM
and /3 ~
h — ta. b, sin. x b cos. xz=V(l-\-b2) sin. (a? + b) ; sin.
(a; + b) being = sin. x cos. B + sin. b cos. x — cos. B (sin.
x -J- ta. b cos. x), and therefore sin. a: -j- ta. b cos. x ■=.
sin. (a; 4- b) . . .
—: sin. (x -J- b) sec. b sin. (a; + b) 1 + :
cos. b
arc ta. 4" ^
arc ta.
B — GG\
Scholium 1. Supposing B to approach very near to G2,
a case very likely to occur in nature, because the effects
which are produced, where it is found, will predominate
over others, on account of the minuteness of the divisor-
we may neglect the part of the denominator (G2 — Bf, in
comparison with A2 G2, and the co-efficient determining $
will then become t^e extent of the vibrations being
inversely as A the co-efficient of the resistance ; and, in¬
deed, when the whole force of the periodical vibration is
expended in overcoming a resistance proportional to the
velocity, it may naturally be imagined that the velocity
should be inversely as the resistance. It follows also from
A G
the proposition, that in this case the arc ta. ^ p— ap-
B — G G 1
proaching to a quadrant, the greatest excursions of the pe¬
riodical motion and of the free vibration will differ nearly
one fourth of the time of a complete vibration from each
other.
Scholium 2. Since 5 is a line, and B its numerical co¬
efficient, making it represent a force, and since sin. Gt is
properly a number also, the co-efficient M, both here and
in Theorem J, must be supposed to include another linear
co-efficient, as fi, which converts the sine into a line, to be
added to s, the distance from the middle point; that is, M
must be considered as representing Bfj,, in which /i is the
true extent of the periodical change of the centre of sus-
%
pension, and B —
as in other cases; so that M is
= = 32 and
consequently the equation becomes (/?—G2) (a. sin. Gt
-}- (3 cos. Gt) -\-aAG cos. Gt — (SAG sin. Gt -{- Msin. Gt
—0, and (B — G2) a — (3AG + Mz= 0, and (B — G2)(3
E-Lmi
Corollary. In order to obtain a more general solution
of the problem, we may combine the periodical motion
thus determined with the free vibrations, as computed in
Theorem H, the different motions, as well as the resist¬
ances, being totally independent of each other; but the
most interesting cases are those which are simply periodi¬
cal, the free vibration gradually diminishing with the mul¬
tiplier e mt, and ultimately disappearing.
Theorem L. If there are several periodical forces, the
dds . ds
equation ^ ^
-\-AT.+Bs + Msin. Gt + iVsin.Ft + ...
~ ( GG — B)’1 + A2 G-’
(GG~— Bf + A2G‘2‘ And since’in genera1’ if
= 0, may be satisfied by taking s = a sin. Gt (3 cos. Gt
M
-|~ a! sin. Ft (3' cos. Ft—
Gt
sin. ^
sin. ^Ft —
arc ta.
AG
+
V([G2 — BJ + AW)
N
^([F-BJ + A*P)
arc ta.
it follows that a sin. Gt + (3 cos. Gt = a(s\n. Gt + arc ta. -j
B— GGJ
B — FFj ^
For, the equations expressing the space described being
simply linear, the different motions and resistances are
added or subtracted without any alteration of the respec¬
tive relations and effects.
V
(GG — B)2 + A2G2
AI =
M
([GG — By -f AzG‘l)‘lM V(\_GG—Bf -f A2G2)‘
Corollary. If we put M cos. Gt instead of M sin. Gt,
w-e shall have s — at sin. Gt -f- /b' cos. Gt; a’ beino- —
AGM
- (GG — Bf + AHF and B —a-
B — GG /
TGG — Bf^AA G G M' and 5 “ + P') sin. [Gt
Scholium. A free vibration may also be combined with
this compound periodical vibration, by means of Theorem
H ; but it will gradually disappear by the effect of the re¬
sistance.
Lemma. For the addition of the arcs a and h, begin¬
ning with the well-known equation sin. (a rdt: b) — sin. a cos.
^ sin. b cos. a, we have, by addition, sin. (« -j- i) -j- sin.
(a — b) — 2 sin. a cos. b, and sin. a cos. b — ± sin.
+ ^ sin. (a — b). Then, if c = & + 90°, cos. b =. sin. c, whence
sin. a sin. c = x sin. (a + c — 90°) + i sin. (a_c + 90°);
but sin. (x + 90°) — cos. x and sin. (x — 90°) = — cos x,
consequently sin. a sin. c = i cos. (a — c) — | cos. (a+^)-
F
if.
In
i
we i
"it!
this
h
=2
of til
^oi
TIDES.
s. Again, ifc = a — 90°, cos. c = sin. a, and cos. c cos. & = i
Kin. (a + b) + i sin. (a—Z») = ^ sin. (c + 90° + 6) + ^sin.
1 vc + 90°——2 cos.(c + Z») + z2COs. (c—6). Also, since
;os. a cos. b — \ cos. (a+ b) + ^ cos. (a — b), and sin. a
;in. & = ^ cos• (a—— 2 cos' (a + ^)» we have, by subtrac-
ion, cos. (a -\-b) — cos. a cos. b — sin. a sin. b, and, by ad-
lition, cos. (a — ^) = cos. a cos. b -}- sin. a sin. b.
Corollary. a b — c and a — b — d, cos. c cos. d
„ c-\-d c — d
— 2 cos. ——cos. —-— :
and cos.rf-
_ . c-^-d
■ cos. c — 2 sin. —g—
:os. ■
■d . . . • , „ • a + b a—b
—; also sin. a + sin. £> = 2 sin. cos. —~ ; and
7. _ . a — b a4-b
-ojzr 2sin.——cos. —•
in. a — sin. b — sin. a + sin. (-
cid ? d e
Theorem M. The equation, -j^ + ^4 q- -j- i?
in. Fl sin. Gt = 0, may be solved by taking s — a sin.
[F— G~\t + p) — /3 sin. ([/''' -J- G~\t q)-, a being
V([(F— Gf — Bf + A1 (F~— Gfy
in
= V([(^ + cy—Bf + a* (F + cyy
B — (F — G)2 , B—(F+Gy
B=arc ta- ~~a(f— Gj ■and?=arcta-~a(T+g) ■
For since sin. Ft sin. Gt = % cos. (F— G) t— 1 cos.
F G)t, the equation becomes ^ ^ + Bs —
at2 1 d^ ‘
Rcos. (F G) t % R cos. (F — G)t z= O', whence we
btain the solution by comparison with Theorem K and its
orollary.
ECT. IV.—Astronomical Determination of the Periodical
Forces which Act on the Sea or on a Lake.
In order to compute, by means of the theory which has
een laid down in the two preceding sections, the primitive
des of any sea or any portion of the ocean, we must com-
are its spontaneous oscillations with those of a narrow pris-
latic canal, situated in a given direction with respect to
ie meridian, which in general must be that of the greatest
ngth of the sea in question, neglecting altogether the ac-
uil breadth of the sea, which, if considerable, may require
) have its own distinct vibrations compounded with those
f the length, each being first computed independently of
ie other. Now, supposing the time required for the prin-
! pal spontaneous oscillation of the sea or lake to be known,
e must find the length of the synchronous pendulum, and
i. „ 2g 32
iKing = -a- — we must next find a series for ex-
"essing the force in terms of the sine, or cosines of multi-
'e arcs, increasing uniformly with the time.
^ Now the force is measured, for the direction of the meri-
| an of the spheroid of equilibrium, by sin. cos. z (Theo-
in A), z being either the zenith distance or the altitude;
% id it is obvious that, when the canal is situated obliquely
1 ith respect to the meridian of the spheroid, the inclination
the surface, and with it the force, will be diminished as
j ie secant of the obliquity increases, or as the cosine of the
niquity diminishes; so that the force will varyas sin. cos.
^ sin. Az. if the canal be in an easterly and westerly di-
ition ; or if it deviate from that direction in a given angle,
’ Sin. cos. Alt. sin. (Az. + Dev.): and it is obvious that
as oi ce will vanish both when the luminary is in the ho-
zon, and when it is in the vertical circle, perpendicular to
>e direction of the canal; that is, if we consider the force
> acting horizontally on a particle at the middle of the
Lat. sm. Long.; and since cos. p = 1
\ sin.
9 i(j s^n‘S P "t* •••> ^ie true value of cos. Decl. might
be expressed, if x-equired, by means of this series, and its
second and fourth powers wrould in general be sufficient fo**
the computation.
But it will be more convenient to suppose the sun and
moon to move in the ecliptic, and the ecliptic to be at the
same time so little inclined to the equator, that the longi¬
tude may be substituted for the right ascension; a substi¬
tution which will cause but little alteration in the common
phenomena of the tides. Then, if the sun’s longitude be
O, and the moon’s }) , the horary angles t and tr, and the
sine of the obliquity of the ecliptic ce, we shall have sin.
Decl. = ce sin. ©, or a? sin. ]) ; and cos. Decl. — 1 sin.2
3
Decl. + - sin.4 Decl. — 1
O
- ^ ce2sin.2 © -f- ^ a?4 sin.4 © ...,
and sin. cos. Decl. — ce sin. ©
•3 © + ^
sin.° 0 ...; also cos." Decl. — 1 —ns2 sin.2 © ; whence the
sun’s force becomes l sin. t (ce sin. © — 1 sin.3 © -}- -
8
© ...) + i/ ^ sin. 2t (I — ce2 sin.2 0) = l sin. t
ce5 sm.
sm.
i<z2
(a sin. O - J (| sin. O - i sin. 3 ©) + |«’ R
5 1 "*1 \
©— — sin. 3© + —sin.5© J + £1/sin.2*(l —
+ ^ os2 cos. 2 0) — l sin. t (ce' sin. © ce" sin. 3 © + cd"
sin. 5 ©) + (J L — 1 1/ a?2) sin. 2t + J l' a;2 sin. 2t cos.
3 15
20 ; os' being = a? — g 053 + — os5 ... ; or about -3645;
os" = ^ «?3 —’ii ... - .0078j and ^ a5 ... =
•00002, and a? = -1585. But sin. t sin. © = 1 cos. (t—O)
— £ cos. (t + ©), and sin. 2 t cos. 2 © — £ sin. 2(t + Q)
+ 2' sln* ^ (t -— © ). Hence the sun’s force becomes S
(h OS' [1 COS. (<_ ©) __ 1 COS. (t + ©)] + L (B" [1 cos.
(t— 3 0) — 1 cos. (£ -{- 3 ©)] + l ce''' cos. (t — 5 ©)
— 1 cos. (* + 5©)] + |(l_|o32) sin. 2t + |(e2[^sin.2
(£+ ©) -f- sin. 2 (t— ©)]^ ; and that of the moon may
be expressed in the same manner, by substituting M, t', and
D , for S, t, and ©.
271
length of the given canal; and the same force may be con- Tides,
sidered as acting vertically, with a proper reduction of its y'”“
magnitude, at the end of the canal; for the horizontal oscil¬
lations at the middle must obviously follow the same laws
as the vertical motions at the end.
The case, however, of a canal running east and w est, ad¬
mits a very remarkable simplification; and since it approaches
nearly to that of an open ocean, which has been most com¬
monly considered, it will be amply sufficient for the illus¬
tration of the present theory. For, in general, sin. Az.
_ cos. Decl. sin. Ilor. <f
— cos~Alt an^ ^le expression, sin. cos. Alt.
sin. Az., becomes in this case sin. Alt. cos. Decl. sin. //or.
<• But sin. Alt. = sin. (Lat.) sin. Decl. + cos. (Lat.) cos.
Decl. cos. Hor. <, and calling sin. (Lat.) for the given
canal L, and cos. (Lat.) l', the force becomes L sin. cos.
Decl. sin. Ilor. <^ -{- 1/ cos.2 Decl. sin. cos. Hor. . Now,
sin. Decl. — cos. Obi. Ed. sin. Lat. + sin. Obi. Ed. cos.
3 . A
p + - sin.4
2T2
Tides.
TIDES.
The effect of that part of the hydraulic resistance, which
is proportional to the square of the velocity, must be ex¬
pressed by an approximation deduced from the periodical
character of the force, as depending on that of the primitive
forces concerned; taking, however, the precaution to use
such expressions only as will always represent this resist¬
ance in its proper character as a retarding force : for if we
simply found for it an equivalent expression, denoting ac¬
curately the square of the velocity, this square, being always
positive, would imply a force acting always in the same di¬
rection. Now, we have already seen (Theorem J, Cor. 3),
that sin.2 x may be considered, with respect to its principal
effect, as equivalent to *8484 sin. x: and if we neglect, in
the determination of the resistance, the effect of the smaller
forces, and compute only that of the principal terms ^ l'
sin. 2t, and \ l' sin. 2t', we may call the velocities depend¬
ing on these forces /S'cos. (2t -f- s') and M' cos. (2t' m');
S' and M' representing not exactly the proportion of the
primitive forces of the sun and moon, but that of the tides
depending on their combination with the conditions of the
given sea or lake. The resistance will then be as the square
of /S' [cos. (2t + s') + cos. (2tr -f- w')] -f- (/¥' — S') cos.
(2t' -f- m') ; and when least, it will be D (M' — /S')2, and
when greatest, D -f /S')2, the difference being kDM'S'-,
so that the difference may be sufficiently represented by
ADM'S' [cos. (2t 4- s') -}- cos. (2t' -f- m,)~\ X •8484, or ra¬
ther X (•8484)2, because the value of cos. t cos. f — 2
t i t t!
cos. ~T— cos. —^—, which is to be squared, requires the
reduction from 1 to •8484 for each of its factors ; and in this
manner we obtain a perfect representation of the period and
quality of the resistance, and a very near approximation to
its magnitude.
It will, however, be still more accurate to consider the
resistance thus determined as comprehended in the value
of the co-efficient A, substituting for it, in the case of the
solar tide, A! — A 2*88 DM', and for the moon A" —
A 4- 2-88 DS' 4- *8484 D (Mf— S'); this latter part ex¬
pressing that portion of the resistance D which observes the
period of the lunar tide, and which may therefore be con¬
sidered as added to the resistance A for that tide only.
Hence, collecting all the forces concerned into a single
dds ds
equation, the expression will become 4- A'"' -j- -\-Bs 4-
(*—3 0)
O)
■ cos.
J cos. (< 4- 3 ©)] 4- ce'" [| cos. (t
;. (< 4* ^ ©)] + ^ (1 —ce*) s'n' ^ -f- ^ 662 [2 s^n
(< 4- O ) -f- ^ sin. 2 (t — © )]^ 4- M os' [^ cos.
(*'—») —J cos. (<' 4. j )] 4- L ce" [i cos. (*__ 3 D ) — 1
cos. (<' 4- 3 j) )] 4- l ce"' [£ cos. (/' — 5 ]) ) — ^ cos.
>* :
ed, will not differ much from the proportion of the forces, Tife
except when their periods approach nearly to that of the sJ- 4
spontaneous oscillation, represented by J3. Thus, since |
cos. (t — ©) — £ cos. (£ 4- ©) is the representative of sin.
t sin. O, and since these terms will afford results in the
form ^ a cos. (t — © ) 4" 2 ^ s*n* ® )’ anc^ 2 a' c°s.
(^ + ©) + 2 ^ sin. (£ + ©), and if we neglected the
S Of [^ COS. (t  O)  | COS. (£ -{- ©) -}- L OS" [-^ COS.
-te2) sin. 2t' ^ ^ [2 s^r1, 2 4- ]) )
(£' 4_ 5 j))] 4- - (1
4- sin. 2 (t' — ]) )]^ = 0; and from each of these terms
the value of the corresponding pair of terms in the value of
& may be obtained independently, by comparison with the
M sin. Gt or JV cos. Gt of Theorem K, which gives us
(GG — B) sin. Gt AG cos. Gt ,,
(G G~Bf-+ A A G G and
AG sin. Gt + (B— GG) cos. Gt „
-xv, respectively.
(GG — B)2 4- AAGG
But without entering minutely into the effects of all the
terms of the equation of the forces, it may be observed in
general that their results, with regard to the space describ-
slight difference of a and a', which is that of ^1 — —B,
and
^’f bel"S 36M5i
only, we should
have [cos. (t — a) — cos. 4. ©)] 4. J/3 [sin. (£—©)
— sin. (£ 4- 0 ) := a sin. t sin. ©4-/3 cos. t sin. Q = sin,
© (a sin. £4-/3 cos. £)]; which is the same as if we consi¬
dered the effect of the force sin. t separately, and afterwards
reduced it in the proportion of sin. 0. Hence it is obvi-
ous, that for all modifications of the forces greatly exceeding
in their periods the period of spontaneous oscillation, the
effects may be computed as if the forces were exempt from
those modifications, and then supposed to be varied in the
same proportion as the forces ; but we cannot be quite cer¬
tain of the magnitude of the error thus introduced, unless
we know the exact value of B, which determines the time
of spontaneous oscillation.
Considering, therefore, in this simple point of view, the
correct expression of the force l sin. cos. Bed. sin. Hor.
< + l' cos.2 Bed. sin. cos. Hor. <, or sin. 2 Bed
sin. Hor. < cos.2 Bed. sin. 2 Hor. <© we may ob¬
serve that the phenomena for each luminary will be ar¬
ranged in two principal divisions, the most considerable
being represented by ^l' cos.2 Bed. sin. 2 Hor. <© and
giving a tide every twelve hours, which varies in magni¬
tude as the square of the cosine of the declination varies,
increasing and diminishing twice a year, being also propor¬
tional to the cosine of the latitude of the place, and disap¬
pearing for a sea situated at the pole. The second part
is a diurnal tide, proportional to the sine of the latitude of
the given canal, being greatest when the luminary is far¬
thest from the equinox, and vanishing when its declination
vanishes.
From these general principles, an attentive student may
easily trace for himself the agreement of the theory here
explained, with the various modifications of the tides as
they are actually observed. It however remains for us to
inquire more particularly into the cause of the hitherto un¬
intelligible fact, that the maximum of the spring tides in
the most exposed situations is at least half a day, if not a
whole day, later than the maximum of the moving forces.
Now it is easy to perceive, that since the resistance ob¬
serving the lunar period is more considerable than that
which affects the solar tide, the lunar tide will be more re¬
tarded or accelerated than the solar; retarded when the
oscillation is direct, or when G2 — B is positive, and acce¬
lerated when it is inverted, or when that quantity is nega¬
tive ; and that in order to obtain the perfect coincidence of
the respective high waters, the moon must be farther from
the meridian of the place than the sun; so that the great¬
est direct tides ought to happen a little before the syzygies,
and the greatest inverted tides a little after; and from this
consideration, as well as from some others, it seems pro¬
bable that the primitive tides which affect most of our har¬
bours are rather inverted than direct.
If we wish to apply this theory with precision to the
actual state of the solar and lunar motions, we must deter¬
mine the value of the co-efficients, from the tables of those
luminaries. And, first, making the unit of time a whole
solar day, in which the horary angle t extends from 0° to
360°, the sun’s mean longitude © will be
added to
365-254
the longitude at the given epoch, and the moon’s approxi-
TIDES.
mate horary angle t’ will be found from the variation, or the
moon’s age in space.
Now, in Burekhardt’s Tables, p. 87, we find the varia¬
tion for the midnight ending 1823, by adding the constant
quantity 9° to the epoch for 1824<, and (llSi 14° 44' 44")
Ip 9° r= IIs' 23° 44' 44", or — (6° 15' 16"), according to
the time of Paris. The movement for 12 hours is 6° 5' 43";
consequently at noon, or 1824 Jan. 1, Oh. astronomical time
at Paris, the variation is —(9' 33"), corresponding to the
movement of 18m- 49s- in mean time, and the mean con¬
junction will take place at 18m- 49s- Parisian time, which
may be more compendiously expressed by calling it the
true mean noon, in the time of the island of Guernsey or
a of Dorchester; and the movement in 24 hours being
12° IP 26-5"= 12-19°, we shall have t‘ = 360°— 12*19°
— 347,81° when t — 360°, or t' — ^ 1/ ;v~ ^ — '96614<; and
360
the moon’s horary angle, considered in relation to the cir¬
cumference as unity, will always be •96614^, if t be the num¬
ber of days elapsed from the noon of 1st January 1814 at
-i Guernsey.
The sun’s mean longitude for the same epoch is
'(279° 35' 23-1") = -77666; his longitude for any other time
will therefore be -77666 + -002738* = 0, and that of the
moon D = -77666 + -03386*.
We may compute, with sufficient accuracy, the effect of
the modifications produced by the change of the moon’s
distance, or the inequality of her motion in her orbit, or of
the periodical change of the inclination of her orbit to the
equator, which takes place from the revolution of the nodes,
by simply considering the changes which will be produced
in the forces concerned by these inequalities, and suppos-
‘ ing the effects simply proportional to their causes. If, how¬
ever, it were desired to determine these modifications with
still greater precision, we might deduce approximate for¬
mulas for expressing them from the elements employed in
the fables.
The epoch of the moon’s mean anomaly for 1824 is
(4s- 29° 25' 23-3") -f 2° = 151° 25' 23-3"; the movement
^ for 12h- 18m- 49s- is (6° 3P 57") + (9' 47-9") + 27" = 6°
42' 12", which gives 158° 7' 35" for the mean anomaly at
noon in the island of Guernsey. The daily movement be¬
ing 13° 3-9' = 13-065°, the mean anomaly will always be
158-127° + 13-065°*, reckoning * from the supposed epoch
or day. The principal part of the central equation will
then be, according to Burckhardt, 22692-4" sin. An., or
(6° 18-2') sin. (158^° 13-©65°*), and its sine will be very
nearly -11 sin. (13-065°* + 158-127°), which wall represent
the principal inequality of the longitude and of the varia¬
tion, so that the variation, instead of 12-19°*, will become
12-19°* 4- 6-3° sin. (13-065°* + 158-127°), and this sub-
cracted from 360% leaves 347-81°*—6-3° sin. (13-065°*
-{- 158-127°), the sine of which is nearly sin. 347-81°* — cos.
347-81°* -11 sin. (13-065* 4- 158-127°).
The equatorial parallax is nearly 57' 4- 187" cos. An.,
or 57' 4- 3-1' cos. (13-065°* 4- 158-1270); and the disturb¬
ing force, which varies as the cube of the parallax, or of
57'[1 4- -0544 cos. (13-065°* -f 158-127°)], may be ex¬
pressed, with sufficient accuracy, by 1 4- ‘1632 cos. (13-065°*
4- 158-127°).
The supplement of the node for 1824 is (2-10-56)
4- 2' = 70° 58', to which we must add (S'-10-6") * for the
time elapsed ; and the longitude J) will be 279° 35' 23-1"
4- (13° 10' 35") *.
Although the value of the co-efficient B is not directly
discoverable, we may still obtain a tolerable estimate of its
magnitude in particular cases, by inquiring into the conse¬
quences of assigning to it several different values, equal,
tor example, to the co-efficient of the solar or lunar tide, or
greater or less than either ; while we assume, also, for the
VOL. XXI.
•93442, I, or 4
- J
10,
3,
1-3324,
1-3252 ;
1-3036,
1-2968,
•3672
and
•30160
respectively, giving us 69° 50' and 72° 40' for the angles
themselves; and if B = -9, these angles become 45° and
70° 24' respectively; the difference in the former case
2° 50', and in the latter 25° 24', which corresponds to a
motion of more than twenty-four hours of the moon in her
orbit.
It appears, then, that, for this simple reason only, if the
supposed data were correct, the highest spring tides ought
to be a day later than the conjunction and opposition of
the luminaries; so that this consideration requires to be
combined with that of the effect of a resistance proportional
to the square of the velocity, which has already been shown
to afford a more general explanation of the same pheno¬
menon. There is indeed little doubt, that if we were
provided with a sufficiently correct series of minutely ac¬
curate observations on the tides, made, not merely with a
view to the times of low and high water, but rather to
the heights at the intermediate times, we might by de¬
grees, with the assistance of the theory contained in this
article, form almost as perfect a set of tables for the mo¬
tions of the ocean as we have already obtained for those of
the celestial bodies, which are the more immediate objects
of the attention of the practical astronomer. There is
some reason to hope that a system of such observations
will speedily be set on foot by a public authority; and it
will be necessary, in pursuing the calculation, on the other
hand, to extend the formula for the forces to the case of a
sea performing its principal oscillation in a direction ob-
2 M
273
co-efficient of the resistance, A, a great and a smaller value, Tides.
for instance 4 and supposing D to be inconsiderable.v v—■
We then find, from the expression \Z(a? 4- /32) M =
-j- /32) By, (Theorem K, Schol. 2) =
,/r(gff-iy + AAGCJ {m the solar tide’ G beins
1, if
B =
T_, _ -980, — 7-550,
( i ; —-832, —2-742,
and for the lunar, G being -96614, and
A- JiV; — M22, 10, 8-197,
^ ~ \ 1 ; — -913, 3, 2-942,
respectively.
Hence it appears, that the resistance tends greatly to di¬
minish the variation in the magnitude of the tides, depen¬
dent on their near approach to the period of spontaneous
oscillation, and the more as the resistance is the more con¬
siderable ; and supposing, with Laplace, that in the port of
Brest, or elsewhere, the comparative magnitude of the tides
is altered from the proportion of 5 to 2, which is that of the
forces, to the proportion of 3 to 1, the multipliers of the
solar and lunar tides being to each other as 5 to 6, we have
, . 36M 25BB
the equation Bf + A!t = +^.
we find that B must be either -9380 or -6328; and the for¬
mer value making the lunar tide only inverse, we must sup¬
pose the latter nearer the truth ; and the magnitude of the
tides will become 1*663 and 1-998. And it appears from
the same equations, that, n remaining — -93442, A cannot
be greater than -632, and B would then be -78540; and if
A 0, the values of-S would be -9617 or -6091. It seems
probable, however, that the primitive tides must be in a
somewhat greater ratio than this of 2 to 1 and 5 to 3, when
compared with the oscillations of the spheroid of equili¬
brium ; and if we supposed B = "9 and A still = -Ty, we
should have 7-071 and 9-756 for their magnitude. Now if
B — -6328, the tangents of the angular measures of the
, (3 AG , 1 , -96614
displacement, ^ __ ^ ^ become
274
TIDES.
Tides.
lique to the meridian, as stated in the beginning of this
section.
For such a sea, the calculations would be somewhat com¬
plicated, except in the case of its being situated at or near
the equator. We should then obtain, by proper reduction,
for the volume of the force, putting d the sine of the du¬
ration, or of the angle formed by the length of the canal
with the equator, and D' its cosine, the expression D sin.
cos. Dccl. cos. Hor. <^ -{- d7 cos.2 Decl. sin. cos. Hor. ;
and the order of the phenomena would be less affected by
the alteration of the situation of the canal than could easily
have been supposed, without entering into the computation.
This expression, when d = o, becomes, as it ought to do,
identical with the former, making l r= o. (l. l.)
The preceding theoretical part of this article is that which
the late Dr Thomas Young contributed to the Supplement
to the former edition of this work, nearly at the time when
the concluding volume of the Mecanique Celeste appeared,
treating on the same subject. But we presume that, on
a close examination, Dr Young’s mode of investigation
will be found to be of a far more elementary and intelli¬
gible description than that of Laplace ; and not only so,
but it accords much more closely with the phenomena, with¬
out requiring the aid of certain very questionable assump¬
tions, which are indispensable in the method followed by this
illustrious foreigner. Indeed, under so many different as¬
pects had Dr Young at one time or another studied the sub¬
ject, that even in his earlier writings are to be found some
of the speculations on the tides, which have recently been
advanced as entirely new. But in his time, as he was well
aware, the real facts recorded and published were so scanty,
and the rest so uncertain, that he had no proper data on
which to speculate with confidence.
Considering how important it must be for the purposes of
navigation and commerce that the tides should be predict¬
ed with some degree of certainty, it might have been ex¬
pected, that when once Newton had furnished a satisfactory
mode of explaining in a general way the phenomena of the
tides, attention would immediately have been directed, in
the maritime parts of all civilized countries, to obtain if
possible such an acquaintance with the actual state of the
tides as might, with the aid of theory, have served for
predicting them, at least approximately. So far, however,
were Newton’s speculations from being immediately fol¬
lowed up by extensive and accurate observations in every
trading port, that during a whole century which succeeded
to his time, the subject had been most unaccountably ne¬
glected, observations having been made in but very few
places, and those only during portions of that long period ;
nor had any proper efforts been made to deduce from
them so much as the empirical laws of the tides. Thus
it was only in 1829 that the very general interest which
is now taken in the subject may be said to have com¬
menced, with Mr Lubbock’s examination of the tide obser¬
vations which are regularly made and recorded at the Lon¬
don docks. 1 he discussion of these he undertook with the
view of obtaining correct tables for predicting the time and
height of the tides for the British Almanac. When, how¬
ever, the principal inequality of the tides, the half-monthly
or semimenstrual inequality, had been determined with suf¬
ficient accuracy for practical purposes, the further researches
in this difficult problem could not have been so soon under¬
taken, but for the interest felt in the subject by some other
distinguished men of science, particularly by Mr Whewell,
and for the pecuniary assistance afforded by the British As¬
sociation.
The publication of the above-mentioned researches of
Mr Lubbock in the Philosophical Transactions for 1831,
drew the attention of mathematicians as well as of naviga¬
tors to the subject of the tides; but it was Mr Whewell who
aroused more general interest, and, assisted by the Admi¬
ralty, engaged the co-operation of observers in various parts
of the world. The subject is well deserving the attention
and assistance of every enlightened maritime and commer¬
cial nation ; for, to do it justice, the study of the tides ought
to be pursued in the same manner as that of the other pro¬
vinces of astronomy ; that is, constant and careful observa¬
tions of the phenomena should be made, reduced, and dis¬
cussed, at the public expense, so as both to test the accu¬
racy of the tables already framed, and to supply the means
of rendering them still more accurate. In this manner also
any new corrections, and any changes in the elements of
the old corrections, would be brought into view as soon as
there were evidence of their existence. Till the problem of
the tides is thus treated in a manner worthy of its scientific
importance, and of the promise which it now holds forth, it
must be regarded as a blot in that system of the national
cultivation of astronomy, of which our public observatories
afford, in other departments of that science, such effective
and magnificent examples.
Mathematicians have not yet succeeded in referring the
phenomena of the tides to mechanical principles by rigor¬
ous reasoning ; and, considering the difficulties of the sub¬
ject, there is reason to suppose it will be some time before
this problem can be fully solved. In the mean while we
have an intermediate type of comparison in the equilibrium
theory of Daniel Bernoulli, as given in his treatise Du Flux
et Reflux de la Mer ; for, by modifying the epochs and other
elements which enter into the formulae furnished by that
theory, these may be made to represent in an approximate
manner the laws of the phenomena.
The equilibrium theory supposes, that if the earth were a
perfect sphere completely covered by water, this fluid would
assume the same form at any given instant as it would do
if the forces then acting upon each particle were invariable
in magnitude and direction. Although our globe, being
only partially covered by wmter, does not admit of this sys¬
tem accurately taking place, the distribution of the land is
such as to allow a closer approximation to it in the southern
hemisphere than in northern latitudes and on our coasts;
so that if we further suppose the tide-wave nearly to fol¬
low such a law at the Cape of Good Hope, or in some still
more southern region, and that it is thence propagated
northward along the Atlantic Ocean, and round our island,
preserving all the while a certain proportion of the magni¬
tude and velocity which it had when first formed under the
action of the sun and moon ; then, upon these suppositions,
which are virtually those of Bernoulli, formulae may be
framed which will admit of being adjusted by comparison
with observation, so as to express the variations in the time
and height of high water at any given place, if the time
in which the tide-wave is propagated do not vary. But
although to a certain extent this equilibrium theory seems
thus to suggest and express the law's of the various inequa¬
lities of the tides, it must not be rated above its value. It
is not the true theory, but a very inaccurate and insufficient
substitute for it, which we are compelled to adopt in the
present imperfect state of the science of hydrodynamics.
The tides are a problem of the motion, not of the equili¬
brium, of fluids; and wre can never fully explain the cir¬
cumstances of the phenomena till the problem has been
solved in its genuine form. Mr Whewell however thinks it
is not too much to expect that it may hereafter be rigorously
shown from mechanical principles, that the form of an irre¬
gular fluid mass constantly dragged along by certain forces,
shall at every instant resemble the form of equilibrium
which the forces would produce at some anterior epoch,
the anterior epoch being somewhat different for the different
features of the fluid form. If such a hydrodynamical pro¬
position could be established, almost all the facts hitherto
discovered respecting the tides would be fully explained.
TIDES.
275
'ideii In the able article by Mr Lubbock, we have the first
31-y—'accurate comparison of Bernoulli’s theory of the tides,
with the results of observation as deduced from a period
of nineteen years in the port of London. The results are
important, not merely as furnishing materials and general
rules for constructing tide-tables, but also for their gene¬
ral accordance with the theory in question, particularly as
regards the semimenstrual inequality. This agreement
was the more important, as affording the indication of a sort
of physical connection between that theory and observation,
and consequently as justifying such a further examination
of its consequences as might lead to the discovery or sug¬
gestion of such modifications as would conduce to its gene¬
ral accordance with the laws of all the facts observed. In
a subsequent discussion of the tides of Liverpool, in the
Phil. Trans, for 1835 and 1836, Mr Lubbock found further
evidence in favour of the sort of law to which we have al¬
ready alluded, and which had indeed been previously sug¬
gested by Mr Whewell in his papers on the tides of Lon¬
don and Liverpool; that by referring the tide, not to the
lunar transit immediately preceding, but to a transit anterior
to the tide by one, two, or more days, the formulae furnish¬
ed by the equilibrium theory of Bernoulli would be brought
into a very near accordance with the observed inequali¬
ties in the heights and times of the tides which are due to
the changes in the moon’s parallax. This was in some re¬
spects an important step, particularly as affording conve¬
nient expressions for the corrections, since it has been found
to apply to a considerable extent to all the periodical ine¬
qualities, and seems to be in conformity with the idea that
the tides are primarily generated in the Southern Ocean, and
thence reach our coasts in the derivative form only. But
in one respect it is not satisfactory ; for even at the same
place very different anterior epochs are required for the se¬
veral inequalities. Thus, though each formula furnished
by the theory can be separately adjusted by trial to repre¬
sent generally the results of observation for one particular
correction at any assigned station, yet since, in the seve¬
ral expressions, the same symbol requires a different value
for almost every different correction, such formula; cannot
consistently represent the laws of nature ; so that Bernoulli’s
theory, even when thus modified, is quite incompetent to
assign any physico-mathematical reasons for the adjustments
in question. The complete solution of the problem would
therefore probably require a far more thorough knowledge
of the laws of hydrodynamics.
Mr Whewell’s researches, on which he has now publish¬
ed a dozen papers, have been chiefly directed to the three
following points ; first, the motion of the tide-wave at dif¬
ferent parts of the ocean ; secondly, the comparison of the
observed laws at certain places wit!) the theory; and, last¬
ly, the laws of the diurnal inequality of the tide, which
seem the most intricate of all. His first memoir, entitled
an “ Essay towards a first Approximation to a Map of Coti-
dal Lines,” appeared in the Phil. Trans, for 1833. By a co-
tidal line is meant such as may be drawn through all those
points of the ocean which have high water simultaneously.
The cotidal line for any hour may be considered as repre¬
senting the summit or ridge of the tide-wave at that time ;
meaning by the tide-wave, that protuberance of water upon
the surface of the ocean which moves along the seas, and
by its motion brings high water and low water to any place
at the time when the elevated and the depressed parts of
the watery surface reach that place. The cotidal lines for
successive hours represent the successive positions of the
summit of this wave ; so that if a spectator were detached
from the earth to perceive the summit of the wave, he
w'ould see it travelling round the earth in the Southern
Ocean once in twenty-four hours, accompanied by another
at twelve hours distance from it, and both sending branches
into the narrower seas; and the manner and velocity of all
these motions will be assigned by means of a map of co- Tides,
tidal lines. By analysing the movements of the tides ac-
cording to the most simple considerations of the laws of
fluid motion in open seas and in channels, and by explain¬
ing the circumstances of their convergence or divergence,
their interference with each other, their retardation in shal¬
low water, and their consequent tendency to sweep around
the coasts, and to approach them almost perpendicularly;
and further, by discussing very carefully all the materials
with which nautical surveys and books of navigation could
furnish him, Mr Whewell was enabled to construct a map,
which not only represented the general circumstances of
the tides of the coasts of Britain, but likewise, as he sup¬
posed, of the movement of the great tidal wave from the
Southern Ocean to the coasts of Europe through the At¬
lantic ; as also its progress in the Indian Seas, and on the
coasts of New Zealand.
In order to correct his first approximation to a map of
cotidal lines, the British Association, at the instance of Mr
Whewell, procured a very extensive series of observations
to be made on the coasts of Britain and Ireland, at 537
stations of the coast-guard, in June 1834. These were not
only repeated in June 1835, but simultaneous observa¬
tions were also made, at the request of our government,
by the other great maritime powers of Europe and North
America. The chain of places of observation extended
along the coast of North America, from the mouth of the
Mississippi, round the keys of Florida, and nortlward as
far as Nova Scotia; and along the shores of Europe, from
the Straits of Gibraltar to the North Cape of Norway. The
number of stations was, twenty-eight in America, seven in
Spain, seven in Portugal, sixteen in France, five in Bel¬
gium, eighteen in the Netherlands, twenty-four in Den¬
mark, and twenty-four in Norway; and observations were
made by the coast-guard of this country at 318 places in
Britain, and at 219 in Ireland. The observers were direct¬
ed to record the times of high and of low water, and the
height of the surface at each of these times, measured from
a fixed point. At each place, the differences between the
time of high water, and the time of a preceding transit of
the moon, w'hich differences Mr Whewell calls the luni-
tidal intervals, were taken for the whole series of observa¬
tions. The immense mass of observations thus furnished
was reduced under Mr Whewell’s directions; and some of
the results, which are extremely important and interesting,
have been published in the Phil. Trans, for 1835 and 1836.
The last of these publications is accompanied by a second
map of the cotidal lines of the coasts of Europe, and by a
chart, which shews, by means of a peculiar notation, the
range, in yards, of the spring tides at the different stations
of observation.
Among other remarkable conclusions which have re¬
sulted from these observations, may be mentioned the rota¬
tory motion of the tide-wave, which, entering the German
Ocean between the Orkneys and Norway, sends a southerly
detachment along the coasts of Britain, which is reflected
from the projecting coast of Norfolk upon the north coast
of Germany, and meets the tide-wave again on the coast of
Denmark. Owdng to this interference of different tide-
waves, the tides are almost entirely obliterated on the coast
of Jutland, where their place is supplied by nearly perpetual
high water. Indeed this must always be the case wherever
one tide-wave continually arrives about six hours later than
another, or where more tide-waves successively arrive at
still shorter intervals.
Mr Whewell’s second object was to compare the observ¬
ed laws of the tides with the theory, or to propose such
modifications of the forms of the theory as would reconcile
it with observations. In his very ingenious memoir “ On
the Empirical Laws of the Port of London,” he attempts to
deduce from observation, and from very simple considera-
276
TIDES.
Tides, tions, the character of the formulae for determining the es-
s"“,~tablishment, the semimenstrual inequality, the corrections
for lunar and solar parallax and declination, both as affect¬
ing the times and the height of high water. His papers on
the “ Empirical Laws of the Tides of the Port of Liver¬
pool,” and on the “ Solar Inequality and Diurnal Inequali¬
ty” of the tides at the same place, are full of valuable sug¬
gestions, which the subsequent investigations of Mr Lub¬
bock have in some cases very remarkably confirmed and
extended. Several of the last of Mr Whewell’s papers re¬
late to the constancy of the half-tide level, and the diurnal
inequality of the heights and intervals of the times of the
tide. The discussion of the Liverpool observations had exhi¬
bited this last, though under circumstances much less strik¬
ing than those which characterize its appearance at other
places, as will be noticed more particularly afterwards.
His first memoir on this subject relates to the diurnal in¬
equality at Plymouth and Sincapore ; at the last of which
places its magnitude is very remarkable, making a difference
of not less than six feet in the height of the morning and
evening tides, and quite sufficient to obliterate, under cer¬
tain circumstances, one of the semidiurnal tides, and ex¬
plaining certain peculiarities in the phenomena which have
hitherto been considered as cases of interference.
The researches of Mr Lubbock and Mr Whewell on the
tides, and their discussions of the observations made at va¬
rious ports, have now reached such an extent as to be dis¬
tributed through ten successive volumes of the Phil. Trans.
(1831-184)0). Some shorter articles have been also pub¬
lished in the Reports of the British Association, and ab¬
stracts in the Philosophical Magazine and other journals.
Mr Lubbock has besides published a small Elementary
Treatise on the Tides. Before these gentlemen took up the
subject, which they have done with great credit to them¬
selves and advantage to the public, the theory of the tides,
though little cultivated and little known, was in advance of
observation. Tide-tables were constructed by unpublish¬
ed rules, which, though generally very imperfect, formed a
profitable possession to those to whom they w'ere known;
and the distinctive characters of the tides in the different
ports of this kingdom, that of Liverpool perhaps excepted,
were confined to the experience and tact of those who were
accustomed to use them ; but how different is the case at
present. The rules for the construction of tide-tables are
not only public property, but are based upon the most ex¬
tensive observations ; laws whose existence was hardly sus¬
pected, are now distinctly laid down; the progress of the
waves in the most frequented parts of the ocean is begin¬
ning to be accurately developed; theory, which formerly
was in advance of observation, though greatly improved in
those parts of it which do not involve the hydrodynamical
laws of the ocean, is now greatly behind it; and such a basis
of facts has been laid down as may enable the mathematician
to commence such a series of investigations as may termi¬
nate in enabling some one to give to the theory of the tides
a form more closely resembling, in the certainty of its pre¬
dictions, the almost perfect theory of physical astronomy.
Inaccuracy Mr Lubbock and Mr Whewell have, among other sub-
cords6 re" ^ec^s’ treated at considerable length on the causes of in¬
accuracy in tide records and observations. We shall here
endeavour to notice the chief of these; and it will serve
two purposes if we give a popular account of them, in con¬
nection with the principal empirical corrections which these
gentlemen have found requisite to compensate for the va¬
rious inequalities of tidal phenomena. On comparing the
times of the tide at different places, as hitherto stated by
the best authorities, w'e find very many cases which seem
quite incompatible with any notion of obvious continuity
and simple laws prevailing in this class of facts. For in¬
stance, if the time of high water at Plymouth were five
o’clock, and at Eddystone eight, as usually stated, the
water must be falling for three hours on the shore, while it
is rising at ten or twelve miles distance, and this through a
height of several feet. It is difficult to conceive how any
elevation at the one place should not be transferred to the
other in a much shorter time. In fact, eight o'clock, in¬
stead of being the time of high water at Eddystone, is the
time of slack water, or when the current changes. Thus
there is reason to think that very many, if not the whole,
of such inconsistencies have originated in confounding two
different phenomena, namely, the time of high water, and
the time of the change from the flow to the ebb current.
In some cases the one, and in some cases the other, of these
times has been recorded as the hour of the tide. The time
of slack water, or of the change of current, only coincides
with the time of high water very near the shore, and with¬
in its influence, and especially in harbours which have only
one opening. The difference between these times is gene¬
rally considerable, and great confusion has arisen from not
properly distinguishing between them. The persuasion,
that in waters affected by tides, the water always rises while
it runs one way, and falls while it returns in the opposite
direction, though very erroneous, has long been quite ge¬
neral. For example, it has been usual to state that the
time of tide in the British Channel must be three hours
later in the mid sea than near the shore, because the cur¬
rent continues running eastward three hours after the time
of high water on the coast. Many instances could be given
of the perplexities which have arisen from this assumption.
The times most usually recorded as the tide-hours for
different places, are those of the tides on the days of new
and full moon; which times are often called the establish¬
ments of the places to w hich they belong, and are supposed
to regulate the times of the tide on all other days of the
lunation, because the tide is primarily governed by the moon.
This, however true as a first approximation, assumes that the
tide always occurs at the same hour-angle from the moon.
But the hour of the tide on any day expresses its hour-angle
from the sun ; and as the moon changes her right ascension
by about forty-eight minutes every day, the observed hour
of the tide being given on the day of full and new moon, the
hour-angle from the moon may be different according to
the time of the day when the conjunction takes place, com¬
pared with the time of the observed tide. Thus, if the con¬
junction take place at one o’clock in the morning, and the
observed tide at eleven at night, the distance of the tide
from the sun is eleven hours; but at eleven at night the
moon is to the east of the sun by her motion in twenty-two
hours, which is forty-four minutes of hour-angle, and there¬
fore the tide is only ten hours sixteen minutes behind the
moon. But if the observed tide occur at one in the morn¬
ing, and the conjunction at eleven at night, the moon, at the
time of the tide, is forty-four minutes to the west of the sun,
and the tide occurs at one hour forty-four minutes. In the
former case the establishment is forty-four minutes less, in
the latter forty-four minutes more, than the observation
of the hour of the tide gives it. If the observed hour of
tide were six in the evening, and the conjunction occurred
at one in the morning, the true establishment would be
5h- 26m-; but if the tide be at six in the morning, and the
conjunction at eleven at night, the true establishment will
be 6h- 34ra- Thus, an observation of the hour of the tide
on the day of new or full moon leaves an uncertainty of at
least lh- 8m- as to the establishment, if we do not take into
account whether the morning or afternoon tide w'as observ¬
ed, and at what hour the conjunction or opposition of the
moon took place. Besides, the time of high water may
often be doubtful to the extent of ten or fifteen minutes,
from inaccuracy in the observation; and as this error may
occur in opposite directions at two different observations,
and may be combined with that of the observation just men¬
tioned, we may thus have two establishments, differing above
TIDES.
277
r- hour and a half, and yet collected from observations at
tie same place.
In the determination of the establishment little accuracy
ito be expected, unless numerous observations be used;
id in this case, the mean of the morning and evening tide-
li urs may be taken, the effect of the intervals by which the
(injunctions and oppositions of the moon precede and suc-
ced noon being supposed to compensate each other. But
iien the establishment is to be collected from only a few
c>servations, it will be proper to calculate in each case the
llnitidal interval or hour-angle by which the tide is distant
fun the moon.
The time of high water does not follow the moon’s transit
It the same interval at every period of the lunation; on the
contrary, this lunitidal interval is sometimes greater and
sometimes less than that corresponding to the new and full
moon, and is regulated by the distance of the moon from
the sun. The difference between this and the mean inter¬
val is called the half-monthly or semimenstrual inequality.
When the moon and sun are in conjunction, the corre¬
sponding tide follows the moon by its mean interval. When
the moon is at various hour-angles after the sun, the fol¬
lowing are the mean corrections of the mean interval, ne¬
gative and positive. But the law and magnitude of such
numbers depend on the relative effect of the sun and moon
upon the tides: the amount is different at different places,
and varies with the declinations and parallaxes of the lumi¬
naries.
Tides.
Hour-angle of the moon 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 hours.
Correction of establishment...0, —16,—31,—41,—44, — 31, 0,+31,+44,-f 41,+31,16, 0 minutes.
*5ius, if the establishment corresponding to the new and
111 moon be six hours, the time of the high water, when
He moon is one hour from the sun, will be 5h- 44m- after
lie moon’s transit; when the moon is two hours from the
sn, the time of tide will be 5hi 29m- after the transit; and
a on. When the moon is six hours from the sun, the cor-
issponding time of high w’ater will again coincide with the
Bean, after which the lunitidal interval will exceed the
lean, till the next conjunction or opposition, and then the
sme cycle recurs. Hence if the establishment were col-
Ibted from any observation of the tide not corresponding
lithe day of new or full moon, it would be liable to an error.
3the establishment were six hours by an observation made
men the moon’s hour-angle was four hours, and compared
nth the time of the moon’s transit, it would appear to be
it 16m-; but by an observation made when the moon’s hour-
agle was eight hours, it would appear to be 6h- 44m- This
(fcference in the results would be avoided by taking the
tie which corresponds to new or full moon, or by applying
te proper correction according to the preceding table when
£y other tide was observed. Some authors make this cor-
Etion depend on the day of the moon’s age ; but as this is
every inaccurate mode of determining the angular distance
c the sun and moon, the proper way is to make the cor-
uction depend on the difference of right ascensions of the
sn and moon, that is, on the time of the moon’s transit
r pressed in apparent time as above. The chance of error
jlmld be removed more effectually by taking the mean of
the intervals between tide and transit, during a half Ill¬
ation, or any whole number of half lunations.
Although, according to theory, the semimenstrual ine-
cality of the time depends on the ratio of the force of the
ition to that of the sun, yet the observations shew’ it to be
afferent at different places. The total amount of this ine-
uality, that is, the difference between the greatest and least
Unitidal intervals, is 95 minutes at Plymouth and 93 at
Jristol, which exceed its values at many other places. It
ii90 minutes at London and Sheerness, 86 at Liverpool
M Howth, 84 at Leith, 83 at Portsmouth and Pembroke,
• at Ramsgate, and only 80 at Brest. Each of these is
ttermined from observations so numerous as to be certain
Uhin a minute or two. We see, therefore, how different
<fe mass of the moon would be found to be when deduced
llrni the observations of different places; so that the near
fireement of the mass deduced by Laplace from the tides
v Brest, with the mass obtained from other phenomena,
Bust have been merely accidental; and this also puts an
«d to all attempts to correct the tables of the tides by
leans of the mass of the moon.
The semimenstrual inequality of the height of the tides,
!ien compared at different places, gives a similar I’esult.
■ is not, however, the actual amount of this inequality, but
ii proportion to the mean tide, that is to be taken. At
brtsmouth, the mean range of the tide is 12*5 feet; the
total semimenstrual inequality, or difference between the
high waters at neap and spring tides, is 2-5 feet; that is,
only jth of the mean tide. But at Plymouth, where the
mean tide is also 12-5 feet, the total semimenstrual inequa¬
lity is 3-4 feet, and thus the fraction is -^-r. At Bristol,
again, where the mean range of the tide is 33 feet, the semi¬
menstrual inequality is 10 feet, or ^ of the mean tide.
In tide records, as formerly kept, it is often uncertain whe¬
ther the height marked, mean that of the stream tide, or only
the high water on the days of new or full moon.
From the general observations made simultaneously in
Europe and America in June 1835, it appears that the
amount of the semimenstrual inequality of the time is very
different at different parts of the world; and though these
observations were of too rude a kind to give the amount of
the difference, they are sufficient to prove its existence;
especially when coupled with a reason for the difference,
namely, that the spring tides being higher than the neaps,
the tides of the two kinds may travel with velocities which
at different places have different relations. Mr Whewell
conceives that the observations afford evidence of a local
as well as a general semimenstrual inequality. The changes
of this inequality are not obviously explicable. On the
coast of North America, the amount of the difference of
the greatest and least lunitidal intervals is small, being ge¬
nerally less than 80 minutes, and at Newport as low as 56.
On the coast of Portugal, at several places, this difference
is so small as almost to throw doubt on the accuracy of the
observations. At Pera in Algarve it is only 42, at Lagos
Bay 24, while at Peniche it is 130. On the greater part
of the French coast it ranges with great steadiness from
80 to 100, except at the little harbour of Abrevrak, where
it is 125 minutes. At Torr Head, on the north coast oi
Ireland, it is 146, and at Rachlin Island 240; but these are
cases of extreme irregularity. On many parts of the south
coast of England it is small, being from 70 to 74, as at
Exmouth, Weymouth, St Alban’s Head, St Lawrence,
Swanage Bay, Brighton, and Hastings.
From the same observations, it appears that the amount
of the semimenstrual inequality of the height also varies.
In general, the greatest range is twice or twice and a half
the smallest; but this is so far from being a universal rule,
that many of the cases which at first seem to agree with it,
really differ widely when allowance is made for the diurnal
inequality. Thus, at Mount Desert Island, near the coast
of America, the whole amount of the semimenstrual inequa¬
lity of high water is about three feet in a tide of thirteen
feet, thus reducing the smallest range to eleven: but the
diurnal inequality reduces it further to eight feet.
If, as is generally believed, the most of the tides be ge-
278 TIDES.
Tides, ncrated in the Southern Ocean, the tide which is produced
under the more immediate influence of the new or full
< orrection moon cannot, at most places, be that which takes place on
the 'tide' daY new or full nioon ; and in reading the preceding
sketch of the phenomena, these must not be confounded.
The latter, however, is that which has commonly been ob¬
served for the purpose of determining the establishment;
but it often differs materially from the former, and in the
tide-records anomalies frequently occur which seem refer¬
able to this difference. It has already been mentioned, that
the agreement between the empirical law's of the tides and
the equilibrium theory is much improved, by referring the
tides to a transit anterior to their occurrence by two or
three days. To illustrate this, Mr Lubbock denotes the
successive transits of the moon (at intervals of about twelve
hours) by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F ; F being the transit
which immediately precedes, by about two hours, the high
water at London: and he finds that the law's of the tides
at London and Liverpool agree best with theory when they
are referred to the transit B. The tide which reaches
London at two hours after the transit F, was at Plymouth
about six hours after the transit E; and as from transit B
to transit E is about thirty-eight hours, if we refer the
Plymouth tides to B, we take a transit about forty-four
hours before the tide. Transits A and C are about fifty-
six and thirty-two hours anterior to the tide. Nearly the
same may be said of Bristol. The general result is, that
the transit B gives the best tables.
We cannot, however, in this way completely reconcile
observation and theory, even as regards the semimenstrual
inequality. From Mr Lubbock’s researches on the Liver¬
pool tides (Phil. Trans. 18136, p. 57), it appears, that while
the transit A very nearly reconciles the theoretical and
observed times, wre must take a still earlier transit if we
wmuld obtain the like agreement in the heights. Nor does
that selection of a transit which best represents the semi¬
menstrual inequality bring about an agreement with theory
in the parallax and declination corrections. Hence, al¬
though there appear to be in the actual laws of the tides
inequalities corresponding to all those which arise from the
supposition of the equilibrium tide of an anterior epoch
transmitted along the ocean to our shores, we cannot so
assume the epochs to produce all the inequalities at once
even for the same place. The epoch is of one value for
the times, of another for the heights ; different for the
parallax correction, and again for the effect of declination.
The relation between a change in the epoch and the
semimenstrual inequalities may be examined as follow's.
The successive lunar transits occur at intervals of about
twelve hours twenty-four minutes of solar time. The
semimenstrual inequality, both of interval and of height, is
referred to the solar time of the moon’s transit. The
height is the same whether it be referred to the transit E
immediately preceding, or to the transit B a day and a
half sooner. If the moon moved uniformly in her orbit,
the inequality of the interval between the tide and tran¬
sit would be the same, w'hether the tide were referred to
the transit E, or any anterior one, as B ; for the inter¬
val is increased by the constant quantity twelve hours
twenty-four minutes nearly for every transit that we go
back. But though the inequality of the interval for any
given tide would be the same, it would not occupy the same
place in the table or curve, since it would be referred to a
different hour of the transit. For example, if the mean
interval of transit and tide at Bristol referred to E be 7h-,
and if, when the moon’s transit is 2h-, the tide be at 8h-,
the interval is 6h-, and therefore in this case the inequality
is minus one hour. If now we refer this tide to the tran¬
sit B a day and a half sooner, the interval of the transit
and tide will be 6h- -{- 36h- -j- 72m', and the mean interval
will be 7h- 36h- -p 72m-; and therefore, as before, the
inequality is minus one hour. But the moon’s transit E ^
taking place at 2h- solar time, the transits D, C, B willvJ^
take place at lh- 36m-, lh- 12ra-, 0h- 48m- respectively; and
therefore the inequality of minus one hour, which was re¬
ferred to the transit happening at 2h- when transit E was
used, is referred to the transit at 0h- 48ra- when we em¬
ploy the anterior epoch B. Thus, by referring to an an-
terior epoch, the whole semimenstrual inequality is shifted
backward through twenty-four minutes of lunar transit, for
every step of one transit backwards. This is the mean
result, supposing the moon’s motion uniform, and neglect¬
ing all other inequalities ; on which suppositions nothing
would be gained or lost in accuracy by the change of the
epoch. But in the actual case, this mean result is modi¬
fied by the influence of the other inequalities, which make
one transit a better epoch than another.
The tide which comes to the shores of narrow and long
seas is not immediately produced by the luminaries, but is
derived from the tide in the main ocean. Its circumstances
are governed by those of the primary tide from which it is
derived ; and whatever interval may elapse during its trans¬
fer, it is regulated by the position which the sun and moon
had at the time w'hen they determined the primary tide. Now
this time may have been one, two, or more days before
the tide reaches the place where it is observed. Thus the
tide on the shores of North America and Spain, conform¬
ably w'ith its being supposed to be generated in the South¬
ern Ocean, and sent up the Atlantic, seems to correspond
to the configuration of the sun and moon at a day and a
half previous. The tide in the port of London appears to be
two days and a half old when it arrives. The time spent in
the transfer of the tide is very different in different parts of
the world, and has not yet been ascertained for many
places. But it affects the determination of the establishment
from observations, in a manner which maybe thus explained.
If the tide at London be determined by the position of the
sun and moon two and a half days before it occurs, the
moon must then have been more to the west of the sun
by an angle of two hours (her motion in AR in two and a
half days) than she is when the tide arrives. Hence the
tide which happens on the day of full moon, corresponds
to the period when the moon was in AR, two hours west of
the point opposite to the sun, or ten hours east of the sun.
Therefore, by the preceding small table, the tide is thirty-
one minutes later than the mean interval between the tide
and moon’s transit. The tide at London takes place nearly
at two o’clock on the days of new and full moon ; and there¬
fore lh- 29m- is the corrected establishment for London.
The establishment is usually defined to mean the hour
of high water at new and full moon. Mr Whewell calls
this the vulgar establishment. Observations of tides have
most commonly been made with the view of determining
this vulgar establishment, which it now appears is not a
corresponding quantity at different places. The mean of
all the lunitidal intervals for a half lunation, he calls the
corrected establishment. Hence the vulgar establishment
seems to be greater than the other by a quantity depend¬
ing on what Mr Whewell calls the age of the tide ; namely,
the length of time which has elapsed since its real or theo¬
retical origin. This is also what Mr Lubbock, following Ber¬
noulli, calls the retard. It is considered as the principal rea¬
son why the greatest tides do not occur on the days of new
and full moon, nor the least at the quadratures, but one, two,
or more days after. Both Mr Lubbock and Mr Whewell
frequently use the term epoch in the same sense as the age
of the tide, or at least as the time during which any parti¬
cular inequality has been transferred from the Southern
Ocean to the place of observation.
The doctrine of the age of the tide, as thus laid down,
not unfrequently leads to inconsistencies, some of which are
only apparent, being referable to the mixture and inter-
Dllllt
TIDES.
ide*. Terence of different tides ; but another reason for some of
them, we presume, is, that the luminaries, after generating
the primary tides, are not, as they are usually assumed to
be, mere idle spectators of the derivative tides, but often
continue to act upon them in various ways, accelerating
some and retarding others.
Although the observations make the parallax corrections
both of height and time vary as the parallax, yet some of
the observations do not make the height of the tide itself
proportional to the cube of the parallax, as theory requires,
but make it more nearly proportional to the square of the
parallax, being as the 2'2 power. The declination correc¬
tions both of height and time are found by observation to
vary as the square of the sine of the declination, which, ac¬
cording to theory, they should do.
nal jj But the difference between the tidal phenomena of the
itjr. morning and evening of the same day, called the diurnal
inequality, is often so considerable, and at some places so
remarkable, that it is far less perfectly understood than any
of the other inequalities, and furnishes, as we shall after¬
wards see, a source of far greater uncertainty in the de¬
termination of the establishment than any yet mentioned.
,It had not till of late been introduced, and still very spar¬
ingly, into tide-tables. To it, or rather to a want of the
knowledge of it, are no doubt owing many of the uncer¬
tainties or ambiguities and errors which occur in recorded
tide observations. It is of great importance both to the
theory of the tides and to the purposes of navigation, that
this diurnal inequality should be fully analysed. Mr Whe-
well’s researches have opened a wide field, but here we can
only notice them in a very general manner.
Were the earth wholly covered by water, the diurnal
inequality of the heights of high and low water wrould de¬
pend on the semidiurnal transits of the poles of the equili¬
brium spheroid being alternately north and south of the
equator. For example, if the moon had 20° north declina¬
tion, the tide spheroid would have one pole in lat. 20°
north, and the other in 20° south: and while the earth re¬
volved, a place in lat. 50° north would have the tide which
belongs to these two poles alternately ; and being 30° from
the one pole and 70° from the other, the two tides would
be very unequal. On the same principles, in northern la¬
titudes the tide which belongs to an upper transit of the
moon should be the greater (of the two on the same day)
when the moon’s declination is north : when the moon
crosses the equator, the difference of the two tides should
vanish ; when she has south declination, the tide which be¬
longs to her upper transit should be the smaller. The con¬
trary (as to greater and smaller) should be true of the tide
which belongs to the inferior transit. The diurnal inequality
may therefore be conceived to arise from a wave oscillating
n the direction ol the meridian, and of which the maximum
height comes to each place once in twenty-four lunar hours ;
the minimum height arriving, of course, at the intermediate
twelve hours. For such oscillations the Atlantic and Pacific
aoth afford the most ample scope. If the time of the maxi¬
mum height of this wave arriving at any port coincide every
lay with the time of high water, the alternate high water be¬
ing at twelve hours interval, will be affected alternately with
the greatest and least heights of the diurnal wave; and the
intermediate low waters w ill coincide w ith the mean height
:)f this wave, and will not be at all affected. In this case
'here will be a decided diurnal inequality in the height of the
liigh wmter, but none in that of the low water. In like man¬
ner, if the time of the maximum height of the diurnal wave
coincide with the time of low water, the height of low w a-
ter will be marked with a diurnal inequality, while the height
nt high water will exhibit no such feature. But if the di-
irnal wave arrive every day at a time intermediate between
high and low wrater, it will raise both the high and the low
water which are nearest it, and will depress both the high
and the low water which happen in the other half of the
day. Hence both the high waters taken separately, and
the low waters taken separately, will be marked by a diur¬
nal inequality; and this inequality wdli be greater for high
water or for low water, according as the time of the maxi¬
mum of the diurnal wave is nearer to the time of high or
low water.
There are various places at which it has long been known
that there is commonly a difference in the morning and
evening tide of the same day. It is stated by Colepress in
1668 (Phil. Trans, vol. iii. p. 633), that at Plymouth the
tides, from about the end of March till the end of Septem¬
ber, are about a foot higher in the afternoon than in the fore¬
noon, and vice versa the rest of the year. But we shall soon
see that this way of expressing the fact, by speaking of
evening and morning tides, is quite inaccurate. The other
inequalities of the tides having been found to follow the
laws of the equilibrium theory (although the constant ele¬
ments, the magnitudes and epochs, can be determined only
by observation), and Mr Whewell having found the diurnal
inequality very clearly marked in the Plymouth observa¬
tions, he attempted to trace its laws by assuming a similar
correspondence with the equilibrium theory. The result
confirmed the assumption in a striking manner, the age
or epoch of this inequality for Plymouth being about four
days.
At Sincapore the diurnal inequality of low water is of a
magnitude which could not have been anticipated, the
height of the evening and morning tide often differing six
feet; although the whole rise of the mean tide is only seven
feet at spring tides, and the difference of mean spring and
neap tides not more than two feet. The epoch at that place
is about a day and a half. It is a curious circumstance,
that the sun affects the low water at Plymouth more than
the high water; and that the moon’s declination at Sinca¬
pore affects the low water four times as much as the high
water, while at Plymouth it affects it less.
It is easy to conceive the diurnal inequality carried a
little farther than it is at Sincapore, so that at a certain
stage of it the alternate tides would entirely vanish. This
is equivalent to supposing the highest low water and the
lowest high water to have the same height, of which exam¬
ples will afterwards be given.
Captain Fitzroy having caused observations be made at
King George’s Sound, on the south coast of New Holland,
every half hour for some days, and for a portion of the time
every quarter of an hour, found that on March 7th and 8th
1836 there were two very unequal tides, and that on the
9th and 10th there was only one tide; but a recession and
return in the high water, which had been barely percep¬
tible on the 11th, became more and more marked on the
12th, 13th, and 14th, so as again to give two tides each
day. Thus at this place it appears to be only at one par¬
ticular period of the semilunation that we have a single-day
tide. That of Tonquin was referred by Newton to the in¬
terference of two tides which arrive by different channels.
The great diurnal inequality of Sincapore, which is in the
same seas, appears to be clearly due to the effect of the
moon’s declination ; and the determination of this point,
and the circumstances ascertained to occur in the reputed
single-day tide of King George’s Sound, throw some doubt
on the explanation just referred to ; nor can this doubt be
removed till the tides of those seas have been more fully
observed.
That this inequality cannot properly be called an excess
of the evening tide at one season of the year, and of the
morning tide at another, must now be evident from the
circumstance that the high water at Plymouth is on the
average five hours after the moon’s transit. Suppose the
moon to move in the ecliptic, which is her average path
when the sun’s right ascension is five hours (that is, about
•280
TIDES.
Tides. June 7), the tide which follows the moon’s transit will fol-
—■v-*-' low the sun’s transit also as soon as the moon is north ot
the equator; that is, if the diurnal inequality were regu¬
lated by the moon’s place on the same day, the afternoon
tide would be greatest, and so it would continue till the
moon was seven hours after the sun, and the tide follow¬
ing the moon would become the morning tide : but at
the same time the moon would pass to the south of the
equator, and so the tide following the moon would be the
smaller. In this situation, therefore, the evening tide would
be the greater during the whole lunation.
It wTas only of late that the diurnal inequality of the tides
began to be attended to as it deserves; for however imper¬
fectly understood, it is no doubt a regular change, consi¬
derable in its amount, and almost universal in its preva¬
lence. It would be easy to adduce many cases in which
the safety or loss of a ship has been determined by it.
Though the existence of such an inequality in particular
places has long been knowm, its laws have been sadly mis¬
understood. For example, it has been supposed always to
affect the morning and evening tides in opposite ways,
w hich is only an accidental and local expression of its rule.
In the Phil. Trans, for 1836, p. 57, Mr Lubbock has de¬
scribed how he obtained it lor Liverpool; while Mr By¬
water, who has introduced it into his tide-tables for that
port, and Mr Bunt into those for Bristol, have also col¬
lected it from observations. But the connection of this
inequality, as it exists in different parts of the world, was
never brought into view till Mr Whewell discussed together
the European and American observations of June 1835.
The laws which the inequality follows, when thus considered
on an extensive scale, appear to be very curious, though
they are still but very imperfectly known.
In some cases this inequality is most clearly seen in the
heights of high water, in others in the low water, and in
some cases it greatly affects the times of both. Mr Whe¬
well exhibited the results of June 1835 in curves, by erect¬
ing a series of equidistant ordinates to represent the heights
of the successive tides above a fixed point at each place;
and these curves generally showed a series of parallel zig¬
zags (the tides being alternately higher and lower); and
they were so regular and similar as to prove both the good¬
ness of the observations and the existence of the diurnal
inequality. This was so remarkable on the coast of Ame¬
rica, that scarcely any exception occurred. Next to this,
it was conspicuous, especially during a portion of the ob¬
servations, in Spain and Portugal; then on the west of
France, the coast of Cornwall, and parts of the west of Ire¬
land. In the German Ocean this inequality was obvious,
but, owing to the mixture of different tides, it was less
steady and regular.
Although the diurnal inequality is generally believed to
depend upon the sun or moon’s being north or south of the
equator, yet, as we shall afterwards see, there are cases
which it seems very difficult to explain on this principle.
Nor does the sign of this inequality, as was long supposed,
depend on the place being north or south of the equator.
Its maximum corresponds to, but is not necessarily simul¬
taneous with, the moon’s greatest declination ; nor does the
period of its vanishing everywhere coincide with the time
of the moon’s passing the equator, but more generally is
somewhat later. Between periods corresponding to, or
rather at equal intervals after, two such passages, the in¬
equality increases from 0 to a maximum, and decreases to 0
again, alternately. The curves which represent the heights
really exhibit such alternate increase and diminution; and
the inquiry naturally occurs, after how long a time does the
moon’s position show its effect in the diurnal inequality ?
In the case of Liverpool, Mr Whewell has endeavoured to
show that this inequality expresses the effect of the forces
upon the equilibrium spheroid, as they existed six days pre¬
viously. But this interval is very different at other places, Tife
and its range is curious.
From the general tide observations made in Europe and
America in June 1835, the results of which have been given
by Mr Whewell (Phil. Trans, for 1836, p. 302), it appear¬
ed that the diurnal inequality on the east coast of Scotland
was, during that semilunation, irregular, passing over a tide
in the middle of the series. This and others of its anoma¬
lies on the coasts of the German Ocean, appear to show that
the waters in that region are affected by the mixture of
different tides. On the east coast of America, the changes
of this inequality seem contemporaneous with those of the
moon’s declination; so that the epoch there is zero. On
the coasts of Spain, Portugal, and France, it is successively
two and three days, which is quite consistent with this epoch,
being four days on the coast of Cornwall and Devonshire.
A circumstance not less remarkable in the progress of
the diurnal inequality is, that it is seen much more distinctly
and steadily at some places, than at others which are near
them ; nor does it seem easy to assign any rule which it fol¬
lows in this respect. It is very marked, and almost univer¬
sal, on the coast of the United States, and was conspicuous
in the observations of June 1835 in Spain and Portugal,
the west of France, and part of the west of Ireland; yet
at intermediate places it could not be detected. It is large
on the east coast of New Holland, as we knowr from Cook’s
getting his ship oft' a reef by means of it; and the north and
south coasts of Australia appear to exhibit the extreme case
of it. We might suppose it to affect the whole of the Indian
Ocean; yet at Keeling Island, in the middle of that ocean,
it did not decidedly show itself in Captain Fitzroy’s obser¬
vations from the 2d to the 8th April 1836.
The epoch of the diurnal inequality being different in
different parts of the world, is a very curious fact, and not
easily reconcileable with the notion of a tide-w ave travelling
to all shores in succession. In accordance with this view,
the tide on the shores of America had been considered as
identical with the almost contemporaneous tide on the coasts
of Spain and Portugal; nor does it seem easy to imagine the
form of the tide-waves, so that this shall not be the case.
Yet we find that the tides on these two sides of the Atlantic
cannot be identical in all respects ; for on the 9th, 10th, and
11th of June 1835, when the diurnal inequality was great
in America, it was nothing in the west of Europe; and on
the 18th and 19th, when this inequality had vanished in
America, it wTas great in Europe. It would seem as if the
tidal phenomena on this side the Atlantic corresponded to
an epoch of the equilibrium theory, two or three days later
than the same phenomena in America; and different kinds
of phenomena do not seem to travel at the same rate. Thus
the equilibrium theory, though it may explain the general
form of the inequalities, cannot give their epochs and amounts
by any possible adjustment of constants. The notion of the
progress of the tide-wave from south to north in the Atlan¬
tic is still further involved in difficulties by its appearing,
from the observations of Sir John Herschel, that at the Cape
of Good Hope the diurnal inequality showed itself most
clearly on the 17th, 18th, and 19th of June, that is, as late
as in Spain and Portugal. The diurnal inequality appears
also, but not so generally, in the curves which represent the
times; nor is this difference always in the same direction.
Thus on the coast of America, at some places, the afternoon
tides were later than the mean, and those of the forenoon
earlier than the mean, for a great part of June 1835, while
at other places the reverse was the case.
From certain tide observations made in the Indian Seas, and
examined by Mr Whewell, we select the following as striking
features in those of Surat Roads in the Gulf of Cambay, Go-
gah on the opposite side of the same gulf, and Bassadore in the
Island of Kismis at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. In the
first two places there is an enormous diurnal inequality ot
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TIDES.
281
.esfl lie heights, amounting sometimes to seven or eight feet. It
Appears that this inequality vanishes and changes its sign
ibout two days after the moon’s declination does so. At
Bassadore there is a very large diurnal inequality of the
imes, sometimes exceeding two hours, and sufficient to dis-
)lace the tides. For instance, about the 23d November
.834, the tide-hour of the forenoon was greater by almost
wo hours than that of the afternoon, the former "being at
8h- 33m- a. m. and the latter at 3h- 41m- P. m. What makes
his anomaly still more remarkable is, that at this place there
s little or no diurnal inequality of the heights, which is a
nost curious tidal feature, in addition to those already re¬
narked in the Indian Seas.
From observations made at Petropaulofsk, in the Bay of
Awatcha, latitude 53° F N., long. 158° 44' E. in 1827 and
1828, by the Russian Admiral Liitke, and transmitted to
Mr Whewell, it appears that the high wrater there is affected
n its time by a very large diurnal inequality, while the height
Is only slightly affected by an inequality of that kind. The
height of the surface was carefully observed every ten mi-
uites, day and night; and when near its maximum, every
;wo minutes. This great care and labour, which wTould have
seen superfluous at most places, w7as quite necessary in this
instance; for if the observations had not been thus conti-
I nued, they would not have enabled Mr Whewell to detect
the very curious laws of the phenomena about to be de-
scribed. This diurnal inequality of the time reaches the
■enormous amount of above four hours. Thus the intervals
between moon’s transit and high water, on October 11 and
12,1827, were as follows: 5h- 381"-, 1h- 39m-, 5h- 20m-, 0h- 56m-;
on June 23 and 24, 1828, they w'ere 7h- 9m-, 3h- 9™-, 7h- 21m-,
2h- 51m’; on October 15 and 16, 1828, they were 5h- 13™‘,
;2h- 0m-, 6h- 7™-, 2h- 46m-; showing an alternate increase and
[diminution to the extent above mentioned. The greatest
alternate inequalities of the heights of high water during
these series of observations, were something more than a
foot. But the observations of low water are marked by ad¬
ditional features still more curious. For though in these
the diurnal inequality of the times really appears, it is nei¬
ther so large nor so regular as that of high w'ater; it seldom
exceeds an hour. The diurnal inequality of the height of
low water, on the other hand, is much larger than that for
high water, amounting to three or even four feet; and this
in a tide of which the whole range rarely exceeds five feet.
The diurnal inequality is supposed to depend principally
upon the moon’s declination ; and its maximum and its dis¬
appearance have been found, at most places hitherto exa¬
mined, to follow at a short interval (one or two days) the
maximum and the vanishing of the moon’s declination. On
|. examining the Petropaulofsk observations with regard to
: this point, we find that the greatest and most regular of the
diurnal inequalities above noticed (the inequality of the
time of high water and of the height of low water) corre-
■jspond with the moon’s declination; so that the epoch or
| age is zero. On the contrary, not only is the epoch of the
fj ether tw'o inequalities, that of the heights at high water and
of the times of low water, different from that of the preced-
1 ing, but they alternate with them, vanishing when the others
reach their maxima, and showing their maxima when the
1 others vanish. This is a very perplexing circumstance ; for
ii if the diurnal inequality depend upon the moon’s declina¬
tion, it is difficult to conceive how its effect upon the height
of high water and the time of low water should be greatest
just when the moon is in the equator, gnd that the reverse
should hold in respect to the other two inequalities.
1 he tides of Petropaulcfsk show7 more clearly than any
yet examined, how the diurnal inequality may be so large
as to lead to the appearance of only one tide in the twenty-
four lunar hours. The heights of the high waters are alter¬
nately greater and less; as are also, in a still greater degree,
the heights of the low waters. Thus some of the high w’aters
VOL. XXI.
le-diJ
are depressed, and some of the low waters elevated, till there
is little vertical difference between the two. On the 17th v
of June, the rise from low to high water in the afternoon
was only eight inches, although the rise in the forenoon had
been four feet. In the same manner the fall from high to
low water in the afternoon of June 22 was only two inches,
and in the forenoon of June 23, only one inch, although the
intermediate fall in the afternoon of those days was above
four feet. From 6h- to 8h- on the 24th the surface remain¬
ed stationary. Thus one of the tw'o half-day tides being
obliterated, we have only one tide in the twenty-four hours.
It is to be recollected, however, that this takes place only
at a particular period of each lunation, depending upon the
declination of the moon. When, therefore, a traveller meets
with such a phenomenon, if he wxmld pursue his tide obser¬
vations for a few7 days with assiduity, he would probably
find the single-day tide resolve itself into the usual case of
two daily tides.
The term establishment ceases to be applicable when the
diurnal inequality affects the time of high wrater to so very
large an amount as we have seen it does at Petropaulofsk;
because at almost any time of the lunation the interval of
moon’s transit and high water may vary very much from
one tide to another, and this uncertainty deprives the esta¬
blishment of all utility in such cases, unless w7e also take
into account the diurnal inequality.
If the usual diurnal inequality at any place be the effect
of a tide-wave arriving at the shore once a day and super¬
imposed upon the semidiurnal tide-w7ave, it is natural to
ask whether such a mode of representation can be ap¬
plied to the tides now under consideration. Mr Whewell,
after attempting at considerable length to effect this, ac¬
knowledges that he is fairly outdone by the inequalities
alternating in their vanishing and maxima, as above de¬
scribed.
The tides at the Isle of Sitkhoe, latitude 57° 2' N. and
longitude 135° 18' W., exhibit a very great diurnal in¬
equality both in the heights and times. The amount of
this in the time of high water reaches an hour (30m- posi¬
tive and 30m- negative) ; at low water it is somewhat less.
The diurnal inequality of the height of high w7ater is two
and a half feet, at low water its maximum amounted to five
feet; the greatest rise from low to high water being about
fifteen feet. In other respects this case is similar to that of
Petropaulofsk, except that the tides never become single.
The same communication of Admiral Lutke contained an
account of the great diurnal inequalities of Port de la Co-
quille and of Port Lloyd, as also of the establishments of
several other places in the North Pacific; but, as already
stated, the term establishment becomes extremely vague,
and almost unmeaning, when applied to seas in which the
phenomena of the tides are such as above described.
From the account of Admiral Freycinet’s voyage, it ap¬
pears that at several places in the North Pacific, the tides,
as observed in that expedition, exhibit features similar to
those here noticed. It has often been lamented that so
few tide observations have been made in distant parts of
the world ; but it is now sufficiently clear, that if, in places
such as those now noticed, the observations are not made
with great care, and continued for a length of time, they
can only serve to mislead.
The Rev. John Williams, who, from observations conti¬
nued during several years’ residence in the islands of the
Pacific Ocean, had it in his power to furnish more certain
information than could be obtained by any transient visitor,
however profound in knowledge or diligent in research, has
given a very intelligent account of certain tides in those
regions in his “ Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the
South Sea Islands,” p. 200. It is a fact well known to
the missionaries, that the tides in Tahiti and the Society
Islands are uniform throughout the year, both as to the time
2 N
Tides.
282
TIDES.
Tides, of the ebb and flow, and the height of the rise and fall; it
being high water invariably at noon and midnight, and low
water at six in the morning and evening. The total range
from low to high water seldom exceeds eighteen inches or
two feet. Generally once, and frequently twice in the
year, a very heavy sea rolls over the reef, and bursts with
great violence upon the shore. But the most remarkable
feature in this periodically high sea is, that it invariably
comes from west and south-west, which is just the opposite
of the trade-wind. The eastern sides of the islands are
never injured by these periodical inundations. Mr Wil¬
liams is anxious to call the attention of scientific men to
this remarkable phenomenon, which he believes to be re¬
stricted to the Tahitian and Society Island groups in the
South Pacific, and the Sandwich Islands in the North. But
he cannot speak positively respecting the islands eastward
of Tahiti; but at all the islands he has visited in the same
parallel of longitude to the southward, and in those in the
same parallel of latitude westward, the same regularity is
not observed, but the tides vary with the moon, both as to
the time and magnitude of the tide, which is the case at
llarotonga. He is also anxious to correct the erroneous
statements of some scientific visitors, particularly of Kot¬
zebue, who asserts that “ every noon the whole year round,
at the moment the sun touches the meridian, the water is
highest, and falls with the sinking sun till midnight!” Ac¬
cording to Captain Beechy, “ the tides in all harbours
formed by coral reefs are very irregular and uncertain, and
are almost wholly dependent upon the sea-breezes. At
Oututaunoa, it is usually low water about six every morn¬
ing, and high water half an hour after noon. To make
this deviation from the ordinary course of nature intelli¬
gible, it will be better to consider the harbour as a basin,
over the margin of which, after the breeze springs up, the
sea beats with considerable violence, and throws a larger
supply into it than the narrow channels can carry off in the
same time, and consequently during that period the tide
rises. As the wind abates, the water subsides; and the
nights being generally calm, the water finds its lowest level
by the morning.”
“ This statement,” says Mr Williams, “ is certainly most
incorrect; for not only have I observed for years the un-
deviating regularity of the tides, but this is so well under¬
stood by the natives, that the hours of the day and night
are distinguished by terms descriptive of its state : as, for
example, instead of asking ‘ What is the time ?’ they say
‘ Where is the tide ?’ Nor can the tides, as Captain B.
observes, be 4 wholly dependent upon the sea breeze for
there are many days during the year when it is perfectly
calm, and yet the tide rises and falls with the same regu¬
larity as when the trade-winds blow ; and we very fre¬
quently have higher tides in calms than during the preva¬
lence of the trade-wind ; besides which, the tides are
equally regular on the westward or leeward side of the
islands, which the trade-wind does not reach, as on the
eastward, from which point it blows. But the perfect fal¬
lacy of Captain Beechy’s theory will be still more apparent,
if it be recollected that the trade-wind is most powerful
from mid-day till about four or five o’clock, during which
time the tide is actually ebbing so fast, that the water finds
its lowest level by six o’clock in the evening ; and that in
opposition to the strength of the sea-breeze, Captain Beechy
adds, ‘ that the night being calm, the water finds its lowest
level by morning;’ whereas the fact is, that the water finds
its highest point at midnight when it is perfectly calm.
How then can the tides be dependent on the sea-breeze ?”
Mr Lubbock thinks some of these extraordinary anoma¬
lies may perhaps be accounted for by considering the con¬
tinent of South America as a dam, preventing the derived
tide-wave from flowing freely into the Pacific from the great
Southern Ocean.
Owing to the tide-wave which enters the German Ocean Tfe fir
by the north coast of Scotland, not reaching the mouth of">-Vv 'Icf
the Firth of Forth at. the same time with the other tide- Jla
w’ave which comes through the Straits of Dover, there are ;n<
frequently four, and sometimes six tides a day, observed in jtii
the upper part of the Firth of Forth. These peculiarities P
are most conspicuous about the time of spring tides, and P
gradually decrease till the neaps, wdien they vanish alto- ®
gether. For the particulars, we beg to refer to the Re- ini
ports of the British Association on Waves, by Sir John in
Robison and Mr Russell. But so long ago as the year "1
1750, peculiarities had been observed in the tides of the A
Forth, as described by Wright in the Phil. Trans, for that
year.
When a tide-wave arrives at the mouth of a river, it en-Rjw
ters in a manner similar to that of a derivative tide into atides.
narrow sea; and though there are generally some features
peculiar to each river in the entrance of the tide-wave, it
afterwards assumes a direction at right angles to the cur¬
rent, and advances regularly up the stream. If the chan¬
nel gradually narrows upward like a funnel, the height of
the tides will be increased by this convergence. Where
the width is nearly uniform, the tide will gradually die away,
and still more rapidly if the channel spreads out. In the
Amazons the tide continues to ascend for several days
against the stream, and is still sensible at 200 leagues
from its mouth. Seven or eight tides, with intermediate
low waters, follow in continual succession up this mighty
river. Something similar takes place in the St Lawrence,
the tides reaching 432 miles up the main channel to a point
between Montreal and Quebec. Among other plausible
reasons to account for the tide not ascending the Missis¬
sippi, its crookedness has been assigned as a very sufficient
one. But the best of all reasons seems to be, that there
is next to no tide in the sea at its mouth : the total rise
there being only about eighteen inches. When the tide,
on entering a river, is made to rise greatly by the contrac¬
tion of the channel, the part of the water so affected may
be abruptly terminated on the inland side, owing to the
depth and quantity of the water on that side not admitting
of the surface there being immediately raised by means of
transmitted pressure. A tide-wave thus rendered abrupt
has a close analogy with the waves which curl over, and
break on a shelving shore, and is called a bore. In many
places it occurs in such magnitude as to produce great
noise by the violent intestine motion of the water. Though
it appears to travel with great rapidity, it in fact moves
more slowly than the tide-wave under any other circum¬
stances. The hore which enters the Severn is nine feet
high ; that in the creek of Fundy is said to be still higher.
In the Garonne this phenomenon takes place near Bor¬
deaux, and is called there the Mascaret; at Cayenne it is
called the Barre. It occurs on a grand scale in the river
Amazons, at the junction with the Arawary, having there a
face twelve or fifteen feet in height, and producing a noise
which may be heard at two leagues distance. The Indians
of the neighbourhood call it Pororoca. Ships are often ex¬
posed to considerable danger from the bore, especially in
the more shallow parts of a river, and near the shore.
The range of the tide, that is, the height of high water
above low water, is very different at different places, and istbe^
affected by circumstances which it is often very difficult to
analyse. It is however clear that the configuration of the
coast exercises a very considerable influence upon the
amount of this range, according as it makes the tides con¬
verge or diverge. Thus the range is very much increased in
deep in-bends of the shore, which are open in the direction
of the tide-wave, and gradually contract like a funnel, such
as the Bristol Channel, the Gulf of Avranches, the Bay of St
Malo, and the Bay of Fundy, where sometimes it very con¬
siderably exceeds seventy feet, some say 100. On the con-
i 'iB
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TIDES.
283
. rarVj the tide is much diminished at promontories under
ertain circumstances. Thus at the south-east point of Ire-
and (at Arklow, Glynn, and Cahore) the greatest range is
lot more than three feet, while at a little distance along
he coast each way it becomes twelve or thirteen feet; and
his small amount of the tide on one side of the channel is
he more remarkable, because it is just opposite the enor-
nous range which occurs in the Bristol Channel, amount-
ng at Chepstow to sixty feet. The smallness of the tide
n the middle of wide oceans, as at the islands of the Pacific,
vhere it amounts only to two or three feet, affords no proof
hat this would be the amount on a globe entirely covered
vith water; for the interruption produced by the continents
ntirely modifies the direction, height, or other circum-
tances of the general tide. This interruption will dimi-
iish, and in some cases entirely obstruct, the original tide-
rave; and when a derivative tide does enter the oceans in
uestion, it is diffused over so wide a space that its height is
;;reatly reduced ; so that in the same manner as the tides are
ugmented by convergence, they are diminished by diffu-
ion.
Mr Lubbock and Mr Whewell seem to have adopted the
Joost promising mode of advancing our knowledge of the
ides. This is to examine the laws which can be collected
rom observations, taking so great a number of these that
he effects of all accidental causes may disappear in the ave-
age results. The collection registered at the London docks,
nd first discussed by Mr Dessiou under the direction of
dr Lubbock, afforded an admirable opportunity for such an
xamination, since it included 13,073 observations, and a
period of nineteen years, from January 1, 1808, to Decem¬
ber 31, 1826. But it is very unlikely that the discussion,
however systematical, of observations at any one place,
hould exhibit clearly the true principles of the theory; and,
• icsides, with respect to the phenomena of the tides at Lon-
J on, they are in some measure masked by a curious com-
ination of circumstances, namely, by the mouth of its river
being in a sort of inland sea, and at a part of an island turn-
d away from the side against which the tide-wave impinges,
|'nd so situated, too, that the progress of the tide round the
I ne end of this island occupies about half a day more than
hat round the other. These two tides, being thus of dif-
jrent ages, and meeting near the mouth of the Thames,
lust affect the character of the tide at London. It will no
i oubt require the accumulation and discussion of many
irge collections of observations at various places to put us
\ h the certain possession even of the empirical laws of the
henomena; and whether or not this be the only practi-
able way of arriving at the true theory, it is at least that
3 which, founding our expectations on the past history of
cience, we may look with most hope. When we consider
lie enormous accumulation of observed phenomena and
mpirical laws which preceded the discovery of the true
rinciples of the celestial motions, we may reasonably sup-
ose that we are only at the outset of what is requisite to
btain the same success with regard to the tides. It is
jlierefore to be wished that such additional observations
iay be made and discussed as may most speedily lead to a
oniplete and scientific knowledge of the subject.
The object, in examining a large collection of observa-
ons, being to ascertain the manner in which the positions
nd distances of the heavenly bodies affect the time and
eight of the tide, the mode of proceeding is to examine
ow these two quantities depend upon the right ascension,
eclination, and parallax of the sun and moon, and upon
ther astronomical elements, should such be required. The
lean time of high water will be found to be affected by
^equalities depending on the elements just mentioned ; and
ie law and amount of these inequalities for any particular
lace may be collected from observations made there, with-
ut any reference to theory, provided the observations be
sufficiently numerous, and their circumstances sufficiently Tides,
varied. For it was in this manner that the greater inequa- ^
lilies of the moon’s motion, the variation, the evection, and
annual equation, were detected by observation, long before
the celestial motions were referred to their true causes.
Indeed, in the history of science, the instances seem to be
comparatively few in which the general laws of the pheno¬
mena have been pointed out by the theory, before they had
been gathered, at least approximately, from observation.
The laws thus empirically obtained, besides serving for pre¬
dicting the tides, may be used either as tests of the exist¬
ing theories, or as suggestions for the improvements of
those portions of mathematical hydraulics on which the
true theory may be expected to depend. This, besides, is
the way in which we are most likely to discover how the
theory must be applied.
I he best mode of obtaining from a considerable series of Reduction
tide observations, at the same place, the establishment and the ob-
age of the tide, which are the principal elements necessary servat*ous'
for constructing tide-tables of the time for any particular
place, appears to be that which was employed by Mr Lub¬
bock and Mr 'Whewell. The times of high water are ar¬
ranged according to the half-hour of the moon’s transit on
the day of the tide. Thus, all those tides which took place
when the moon passed the meridian between 0h- and 0h- 30m-
apparent time, are put in one class; all those when the moon
passed between 0h- 30m- and lh- in another class, and so on.
I he mean of all the times of transit in each class is taken,
and the mean of the lunitidal intervals, or those between the
times of transit and high water. We have thus a series of
times of transit, with the corresponding lunitidal intervals.
The interpolation for other times is most easily performed
by means of a curve drawn on paper, ruled into small
squares. The times of transit being laid down as abscissm,
the lunitidal intervals are erected as ordinates, and a curve
is drawn approximating, as far as a regular form will allow,
to the points thus found. This curve gives the intervals
for any times of transit, and a table may be constructed by
means of it. A similar course is followed for the heights ;
but for this and various particulars, we beg to refer to the
Philosophical Transactions.
It has hitherto been usual, in discussing tide observa¬
tions for obtaining from them the laws of the phenomena,
to proceed upon the supposition that a series of several
successive years was requisite, in order that the accidental
irregularities might be compensated in the meayxs of the
observations, and the effects of the lunar inequalities thus
come clearly into view. But in the Phil. Trans, for 1838,
p. 231, Mr Whewell has shown that the laws of the phe¬
nomena, and the effects of the inequalities, may be deduced
with considerable exactness from shorter series of observa¬
tions ; for example, from those of one year. He conceives
that such an investigation will be of value in several ways.
If the principal elements of tide-tables for each particular
place can be obtained with moderate accuracy from short
series properly discussed, the formation of such indepen¬
dent tide-tables for different places and times will become
far less laborious, and may therefore be expected to be far
more commonly practised. This will be a great advan¬
tage, not only because the tide-tables will thus become
better, but also because several important questions may
thus be settled ; for instance, whether and how far the laws
of tide phenomena change from place to place, and from
time to time. But it is besides desirable to compare the
results of short series with those of long ones, in order to
appreciate the practical accuracy of our tide-tables. If,
for instance, the mean of nineteen years gave a very exact
rule for the effect of lunar parallax, while each single year
deviated widely from this rule, it would be clear that the
individual observations must be commonly affected by
casual irregularities considerably greater than the parallax
284
TIDES.
Tides.
Tide-
table.
correction; and therefore the practical accuracy of the tables
would be very little improved by introducing into them
the parallax correction. But Mr Whewell has shown that
the general law and the approximate amount of the parallax
correction may be traced in the observations of a single
year; and that thus the tables are rendered practically as
well as theoretically better by such a correction being
employed. The same is true, though less conspicuously, of
the correction for lunar declination.
Although the establishment and mean range of tide were
known or given for every several port, yet no general
tables have yet been framed, which, even with the help of
those data, would equally apply to the computation of the
several times and heights of their tides. So extremely im¬
perfect is the present state of the general theory, that each
place still requires to have its own particular tables for this
purpose. Mr Lubbock has constructed auxiliary tables from
which both the times and heights may be computed for Ply¬
mouth, Portsmouth, Sheerness, London, Pembroke, Bristol,
Liverpool, and Leith, and the times for Brest and Howth.
The hydrographer royal, Captain Beaufort, has actually com¬
puted and published the tide-tables to that extent for all
those places, with the addition of the time for Ramsgate.
Mr Lubbock’s tables are also used for computing the tide-
tables of the British and the Nautical Almanacs. With re¬
gard to the accuracy of the tide predictions so computed,
Mr Lubbock says they will sometimes, though rarely, deviate
an hour from the observed time of high water, owing to ac¬
cidental causes. Generally, however, they may be depend¬
ed on to within ten minutes; and it should be recollected
that it is difficult to ascertain within five minutes the instant
of high water, the fluctuations of height being then so very
minute that the water is said to hang. The predicted
amount of the height is liable to still greater uncertainties;
which is the more to be regretted, because disastrous effects
often arise from unexpected and unusually high tides, which
are occasioned by storms and reduced atmospheric pressure.
Tolerably accurate tide-tables have long been published
annually for London, and still better for Liverpool. But
it has been the practice in this country to form tide-tables
for other places, merely by taking the time which is stated
in the London or Liverpool tables, and, if necessary, to add
or subtract some constant quantity, according to the place.
Even without this alteration the Liverpool tables have
been generally used for the whole of the wrest coast of
England. But tables are published, professing to give the
hours at most of the principal ports of England in parallel
columns, the times for different places having constant dif¬
ferences. Thus the hour of high wrater at Plymouth is
stated as always lh- 55111- later than the hour in the same
half day at London, although they belong to different tran¬
sits. The like may be said of the American Almanac,
which in a similar manner professes to predict the tides for
a great many places. Nor does the British Almanac or
Edinburgh Almanac follow a more correct course. Indeed
the tides in the latter have as yet been computed from the
obsolete rules of Laplace. The assumption of a constant
difference in the tide-hours at different places is by no
means correct, as we might expect it to be from consider¬
ing how the tide is transmitted from place to place, and as
it appears to be from observation.
According to Mr Lubbock, the great obstacle to perfec¬
tion in calculations or predictions of the tides, consists in
the fluctuations of the establishments. Suppose the esta¬
blishment to change a minute per annum, and that, having
determined it from all the observations of twenty-one years,
w'e employ it in calculations of the time of high water for
the eleventh year, and compare the calculated times with''
the observed, they will not be affected with any constant
error; but if we calculate for the twenty-first year, the
calculated times will have a constant error of ten minutes.
Similar remarks apply to the height. If the channel be¬
come deeper, the tide-wave travels with greater velocity,
and the high w^ater happens sooner. From a very ancient
tide-table discovered by Mr Yates, and copied by Mr Lub¬
bock into the Phil. Trans, for 1837, p. 103, it would ap-
pear that the tide at London had formerly been fully an
hour later than at present. The argument or entry of the
table is the day of the moon’s age, which runs up to thirty
days. The tide-hour on the first day is 3h- 48m-; and with
a daily increase of forty-eight minutes, it occurs just at 3h-
on the thirtieth day.1 But Mr Lubbock finds that the esta¬
blishment of the port of London has been subject to changes
even within the present century; and he notices the diffi¬
culty of predicting the time of high w^ater with certainty,
unless these changes can be accounted for. The high wa¬
ter appears now to be nearly as late as in 1804; in 1821 it
was fully ten minutes earlier. The removal of the Old
London Bridge appears to have affected neither the time
nor the height of high water; but it has made the low wa¬
ter sink about eighteen inches more than formerly. The
following table shows the establishment of the port of
London, and mean height of tide when the moon’s transit
occurs at 0h-; in other words, the mean time and height of
tide at newT and full moon from 1802 to 1835; supposing
the moon’s horizontal parallax 57', and declination 15°.
Tifc,
Year. Establishment.
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
5- 9
61
7’4
4-5
6- 3
0-9
4-7
4-4
4-2
0-8
00
58-7
59 8
59 8
58-5
57-2
570
Height.
Feet.
21- 90
22- 14
22-42
2217
22-11
2215
22 07
22-39
22-21
22-43
22-48
22-30
22-33
2219
22-34
22-31
22-40
Year. Establishment.
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
h. m.
1 57-1
1 56-7
1 56-5
1 57-8
2 11
1 57 9
2 10
2 2-9
1 59-9
59-9
59-9
56-7
59-6
2 5
5-3
4-2
4-4
Height.
F eet.
22-20
22-38
22-51
22-35
22-48
22-51
22-43
22-40
22-38
22-66
22-60
22-56
22 53
21- 95
22- 26
22-28
22-29
In 1832 none of the low7er portions of the Old London
Bridge, which obstructed the natural flow of the tidal waters,
was removed excepting tw-o piers ; and in the following
year almost the whole of that structure was cleared away
as regarded the masonry and starlings, although the course
of the river was far from being completely cleared, many
portions still remaining a foot or two above low-water mark,
and which were finally removed in 1834.
Hitherto no care has been taken to specify to which tran¬
sit of the moon the tide at any place is referred, and various
mistakes have originated in this want of precision. It seems
desirable that some conventional agreement were adopted
upon this point. Mr Lubbock has employed the transit
which precedes a given high water at London by about two
days three hours, and which, according to the notation al¬
ready described, he terms transit B. If transit A, which
occurs about twelve hours and twenty-five minutes sooner,
1 On this however we have to remark, that since the mean lunation consists of little more than twenty-nine days and a half, almost half
the number of new moons would occur on the thirtieth day; so that, although the table had been in every other respect correct, it would not
make the mean time of “ flod at london brigge” on the day of new moon to have exceeded 311- 26m\ Flamsteed, in 1683, made it just S’1-, ffi8
tables were the first which gave the time of the tide for the moon’s lower transit, or twice a day.
TIDES.
285
after transit B, when the moon
is in syzygy.
’jsl ,e preferred, he does not object. This latter transit cor-
esponds in syzygy to the average interval. At this period
^f the moon’s age, the lunitidal interval changes rapidly,
/hereas the height of high water is stationary ; so that it
; impossible to determine directly and with accuracy, how
mg, after a given transit, the highest tide takes place.
From Mr Lubbock’s examination of the progress of the
de-wave, the vulgar establishments of the following places
re, at
h. m.
Irest  3 48, reckoned from transit D
Mymouth dockyard  5 33,   D
sle Brehat  5 52,   D
Sfembroke dockyard  6 4,   D
iristol, Cumberland Gates, 7 .15,   D
lowth harbour   11 8  D
/iverpool dock 11 25,   D
’ortsmouth dockyard 11 40,   D
,eith  2 0,   FI
.ondon docks  1 57,   F
From this it is evident that the establishments of ports as
iven in various works, often very inaccurately, are besides
eferred to different transits of the moon without distinc-
on, thereby creating great confusion.
Hence also it is found that the tide arrives at
Days. h. m.
Srest 1 4 27'j
’ortsmouth 1 12 21 |
averpool 1 12 2
ieith 1 15 15 [
.ondon Docks..2 3 1G J
10 that the tide takes twenty-three hours forty-nine mi-
utes in travelling from Brest round the north coast of
icotland to the London docks. We are deficient of in-
lirmation with respect to the course of the tide-wave in the
’acific Ocean ; and even on our own coasts the number of
laces of which the establishment is accurately known is
robably very small. The tide takes about twelve hours
jii proceeding from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Blanco;
hence it reaches Brest in about four hours. The crest of
he tide-wave thus travels over the open ocean with im¬
mense rapidity, and gives rise to a slow current, with which,
owever, it must not be confounded.
At the instance of Mr Whewell, the British Association,
1 "Bpith the view of ascertaining what surface ought to be taken
is the permanent level of the sea, caused a level line to be
arried with great accuracy from the north shore of Somer-
flptshire to the south shore of Devonshire ; and the position
1 this line has been fixed, so as to be recognised at any
iture time, by means of marks at Axmouth, at East Quan-
ockshead, at Stolford, and at Portishead. This line has
Iso been referred to the sea at its extremities ; and the ob-
ervations show that the mean between the heights of high
rid low water coincides, at least very nearly, at different
laces, as well as at the same place at different times.
Vhile the difference of the levels of low water at Axmouth
l n the English Channel, and Wick Rocks on the Bristol
I Channel, is not less than twelve feet, the mean water at
iiose two places coincides in level within a few inches,
igainst these conclusions, Mr Thomas has, in the Philoso-
I'ical Magazine for August 1840, alleged various facts, which
■ e have no means of testing or deciding upon. To one part
owever there seems a more serious objection than any that
e has stated ; for though we should think the mean water
ery likely to be nearly constant everywhere, it cannot be
11 on the same level if there be perpetual high water at
ome places, as Mr Whewell himself alleges.
from six years’ observations made at Plymouth, it ap-
'ears that the height of mean water is constant from year
o year within two or three inches. It appears also that
he mean w ater for each fortnight has a semimenstrual ine¬
quality amounting to six or seven inches, the height of the Tides,
mean water being greatest when the moon’s transit is at •v—''
Gh- and least when it is at 12h- The immediate cause of
this is, that the semimenstrual inequality of low water is
greater than that of high water at Plymouth. The result
of one year’s observations made at Dundee is, that the half¬
tide level is constant within P5 inch, except at eleven and
twelve o’clock, when it deviates two inches on a tide of
fourteen feet. At any rate, Mr Whewell’s scheme of tak¬
ing the half-tide level as a standard must be an immense
improvement on the old system, in which the heights of
buildings and mountains are referred to the level of the sea,
or to high or low water mark. The heights of spring or
neap tides, although not subject to so much uncertainty, are
also quantities too vague to be used with propriety as stand¬
ards of reference.
It had been long observed by the people about Stock-Influence
holm, that when the water in the harbour, which is an in-of
let of the Baltic Sea, subsides so as to allow the waters 0fsPhenc
the Malar Lake, which has almost the mean level of the of
sea, to have free exit, the air is clear and dry ; but when the sea/
the reverse occurs, or the sea flows into the Malar, wind
and rain are likely soon to follow. This phenomenon was
investigated by N. G. Schulten, who, after he had ascer¬
tained the truth of the popular belief, and compared it with
the corresponding state of the barometer, explained it at
considerable length in the Transactions of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Stockholm for 1806, by referring it to opposite
changes taking place simultaneously in the atmospheric
pressure at Stockholm and in that at some considerable
distance. The increment of pressure at the one place tend¬
ing to depress the water there, just wdien the decrement of
pressure at the other allows the water to rise, and the to¬
tal pressure over the whole ocean being supposed constant,
a tendency to equilibrium will result. Schulten’s explana¬
tion, of which we suppose this to be the substance, is em¬
barrassed w ith some irrelevant considerations ; but there can
be no doubt that it at the same time involves the true prin¬
ciple. His ideas, although wrell known at Stockholm, have
not in other countries met with the attention they deserve.
Some years ago they received a confirmation from M. Daus-
sy, who, without being aware of Schulten’s researches, has,
from his own observations made at Brest, deduced the ef¬
fects due to the changes of atmospheric pressure. Some
account of these, accompanied by barometric tables, has
been published (Connaissance des Terns for 1834, and An-
nales de Chimie, tome Ixii.), and clearly exhibits the con¬
nection between the phenomena in question.
Mr Lubbock verified the same fact both at Liverpool and
at London. At Liverpool he found the water rise eleven
times as much as the barometer falls: and therefore the
range of the barometer being three inches, the correction
due to change in the atmospheric pressure may there amount
to thirty-three inches. At London the water rises seven
times as much as the mercury falls, and hence the range of
the correction there is about twenty-one inches. On the
coasts of Cornwall and Devon, Mr Walker found, that in
ordinary cases a change of one inch in the barometer cor¬
responds to sixteen on the height of the sea; but that in
very sudden changes of pressure, one inch of mercury cor¬
responds to twenty of sea-water. This last has been ac¬
counted for by considering that a sudden impulse given to
the water would cause a rise or fall in the manner of a w ave,
beyond that strictly due to mere change of pressure. But
this would at best hold good near the time of such change;
and Mr Lubbock has remarked that it is sometimes very
difficult to distinguish between the effects of pressure and
those of the wind. Both wind and pressure may require to be
attended to, especially w^here tide observations are continued
during only a limited period. From the facts above stated,
it would rather seem that the more confined the situation.
286
TIDES.
T ides.
Influence
of the
wind.
Tide-
gauge.
Fitzroy’s
theory of
tile tides.
the less is the effect of change of pressure; though this
may, after all, be no general rule. But since the effects
of variations of pressure do not accurately follow the in¬
verse ratio of the specific gravities of water and of mercury,
it is doubtful if the tides and these effects be independent
of each other.
The effects of wind on the level of the sea do not seem
to have been much attended to; but Mr Lubbock has
collected some important facts regarding its influence on
the Thames. During strong north-westerly gales, the tide
in the port of London marks high water earlier than other¬
wise, and does not give so much water, while the ebb tide
runs out later, and marks lower ; but upon the gales abat¬
ing and the weather moderating, the tides put in and rise
much higher, while they also run longer before high water
is marked, and with more velocity of current, nor do they
run out so long or so low. The reason assigned for all this
is, that the strong noi'th-west v/inds drive the sea along
the Dutch coast, through the Straits of Dover*, and conse¬
quently away from the mouth of the Thames; so that the
tides during north-west winds are always much higher
(producing frequently ruinous flooding) on the Dutch than
upon the English coast. A south-westerly gale generally has
a contrary effect, and an easterly one gives some water ;
but the tides in all these cases always improve the moment
the weather moderates. This is the opinion of those most
competent to form one from their daily experience, and is
no doubt correct. The subject is one of considerable im¬
portance as regards the accuracy of which tide predictions
are susceptible, and merits further inquiry, in order to
ascertain if possible the error which may be expected for a
wind of a given force and direction.
The progress of the tide-wave in most places must obvi¬
ously be liable to be disturbed by great storms. Thus,
during a violent hurricane, January 8, 1839, there was no
tide at Gainsborough, twenty-five miles up the Trent, a
circumstance unknown before. At Saltmarsh, only five
miles up the Ouse from the Humber, the tide went on ebb¬
ing, and never flowed, till the river was dry in some places;
while at Ostend, towards which the wind was blowing, con¬
trary effects were observed. It has been supposed, that,
owing to the sheltered situation of the port of London, the
great undulations produced by the winds will be less sen¬
sible there than on the coasts of France, as, for example, at
Brest. But it should be recollected, that if the tide at Lon¬
don come from the Atlantic, the irregularities felt at Brest
will equally tend to affect it at all those places which it
subsequently reaches.
In the Phil. Trans, for 1838, p. 249, there is a particular
description of a very complete machine, by Mr Bunt, for
registering, in a continuous form, the rises and falls of the
tides, or their height for any instant of time. The prin¬
cipal parts are, an eight-day clock, which turns a vertical
cylinder revolving once in twenty-four hours; a wheel, to
which an alternate motion is communicated by a float rising
and falling with the tide, in an almost close chamber, and
connected by a wire with the wheel, which is kept con¬
stantly strained by a counterpoise; and a small drum, on
the same axis with the wheel, which by a suspending wire
communicates one eighteenth of the vertical motion of the
float to a bar carrying a pencil, which marks a curve on the
cylinder, or on a sheet of paper wrapped round it. The lead¬
ing principle is obviously the same w ith that which Mr Keith
first applied to the register thermometers and barometers.
Various tide-gauges on similar principles have been con¬
structed by others, particularly by Captain Lloyd, Mr Mit¬
chell, and Mr Palmer, and are described in previous vo¬
lumes of the Philosophical Transactions.
Hitherto the phenomena of the tides have to a certain
extent been referred to the equilibrium theory, the actual
elevation of the waters being compared with the elevation
which the moon would produce if the earth and moon were Ti,
both at rest. But on account of the interruption of the^-y*
land, the general motion of the waters of the ocean cannot
conform to this theory, or admit of a fluid elevation re¬
sembling that of the equilibrium spheroid following the
moon from east to west, except in some parts of the southern
hemisphere. The Pacific, the largest ocean of all, has very
small tides in its central parts; and at its eastern shore,near
Cape Horn, the tide-wave runs from west to east, although
there is apparently nothing to prevent its following the usual
course. From such considerations, viewed in connection
with various tide observations on the eastern and western
sides of the Pacific and of the Atlantic, Captain Fitzroy
(Voyage of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. ii. appendix,
p. 279) has been led to propose a considerably different
theory, in which the tide of each large ocean is considered
to be nearly as independent of the tides of other waters as
if it were a lake. The central area of each ocean is further
supposed to be occupied by a lunar wave oscillating so as
to keep time with the moon’s transits, and having its mo¬
tion kept up by the attraction of that luminary acting at
each return. From the skirts of this oscillating central
area, tides are supposed to be carried on all sides by free
waves, the velocity of which would depend upon the depth
and local circumstances of the sea; and thus the littoral
tides may travel in any direction, while the oceanic tides
near the centre of the oscillating area may be small, or may
altogether vanish. Such we take to be the substance of
this theory, as explained, with some improvements, to the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, by Mr Whewell. Single
observations, as that gentleman has remarked, can be of
little use in deciding upon such a theory. More light would
be thrown upon it if the real forms and positions of the co-
tidal lines could be ascertained for the shores of the Pacific.
With this view it is desirable that numerous and connect¬
ed observations were made on the eastern shores of Aus¬
tralia, the Indian Archipelago, the Philippine Isles, the Loo
Choo Isles, and those of Japan. But we suspect that the
magnitude and peculiarities of the diurnal inequality in
some of those regions would throw great difficulties in the
way of determining the cotidal lines, if they even admit of
them at all.
Some of the facts which Captain Fitzroy considers most
difficult to be reconciled with the theory which deduces
tides in the Northern Atlantic from the movement of a tide-
wave originating in the Southern Ocean are, 1st, the com¬
parative narrowness of the space between Africa and Ameri¬
ca, with the certainty, that the sea is neither uniformly nor
excessively deep in that space, and the trifling rise of the
tide, not only upon each nearest shore (where it does not
exceed four or five feet), but at Ascension Island, where
the highest rise is not quite two feet; 2dly, the absence
of any regular tide about the wide estuary of the river
Plata, the situation and shape of which seem so well dis¬
posed for receiving an immense tide ; 3dly, the flood-tide
moving towards the w-est and south along the coast of Bra¬
zil, from near Pernambuco, to the vicinity of the river
Plata ; and, lastly, the almost uniformity of the time of high
water along that extent of the coast of Africa which reaches
from near the Cape of Good Hope to the neighbourhood of
the Congo.
Against the supposition that a tide-wave travels south¬
ward along the west coast of America, are the facts, that
the flood-tide impinges upon Chiloe and the adjacent outer
coast from the southward of west; that it is high water
within half an hour of the same time at Cape Pillar and at
Chiloe, including the intermediate coast; that from Valdi¬
via to the Bay of Mexillones (differing 18° in latitude), there
is not an hour’s difference in the time of high water; that
from Ariea to Payta, and Irom Panama to California, the
times change gradually as the coast trends westward; ana
T I D
r r>l» tat from forty to sixty north latitude, high water takes place
t one time.
In about 55° south latitude is the only zone of ocean
rliich could follow any thing like the law that would go-
prn its undulations if the globe were wholly covered with
rater. In other zones (taking about ten degrees in lati-
1 tde as the breadth of a zone), it is high water, generally
1 teaking, at one side of an ocean near the time it is low
«i the other. In oceans about 90° wide, this happens very
j'arly ; but as the width diminishes, so do the times of high
I Titer at each side approach ; and as the wddth increases
B-yond 90°, as in the case of zones of the Pacific, the times
1 « high water still approach, in consequence of the tendency
1 it high water simultaneously at opposite sides of the globe.
1 Along the east side of the Atlantic, from the Canary Isles
1 f Scotland, it is high water within an hour of four o’clock
a the salient points of the coast; and if the opposite
(tast were straight, like that of Chili, and uninfluenced by
«rivative tides or by currents, we might expect that it
Tould be high water there at about 7h-, allowing that the
1 fese-wave moved as it is found to do generally. But it is
1 1 ,rh water at about lh- from 30° to 40°, the times increas-
\ inorthward from 40° N. to the Bay of Fundy, and also
1 Creasing southward from 50° N. to that bay, where the
): ties probably rise higher than in any other part of the
v.irld. This sequence of times, each ending in about 43°
!, the adjacent gulf-stream, and the excessive accumula-
tn of water, show that w'e cannot there expect to find
r (fcta for tidal rules. In that quarter it is evidently a mark-
e c exception, caused by the conflux of at least two primary
' t:es, two derivatives, and a powerful current, aided by the
1 jrculiar configuration of the land. On the west coasts of
Jliland and Scotland, the hour of high water is from 5h- to
(i; on the coast of Labrador, it is from I0h- to llh- in the
£ ssne parallels. The meridian distances are from three to
i fir hours ; but as we approach the parallel of 60° N., the
1 Eirthern Ocean and Davis Straits open, which probably af-
3 t t the tide between Ireland and Labrador.
The Indian Ocean appears to have high water on all
t s=es at once, though not in the central parts at the same
tie. Thus, it is high water at the north-west extremity
t ([ Australia, on the coast of Java, on that of Sumatra, at
, fylon, at the Laccadiva Islands, at the Seychelles, on
a te coast of Madagascar, and at Amsterdam Island, at
ii Jlh-; but at the Chagos Islands and Mauritius it is high
TIG 287
water at about 9h-, and at the Keeling Isles about 1 lh-. It Tiga
is to be observed, that the various tide-hours above men- .11 .
tioned are meant to be in Greenwich time. Tigris.
High water taking place within an hour of the same'
time all along the east coast of Africa, shows that the rise
of the sea or tide-wave there moves westward or east¬
ward, and the times of high water at the islands are further
confirmations ; for the wave is at Chagos and at the Mau¬
ritius three or four hours before it is high water on the
African coast. The Keeling time shows that there the
water rises longer, in consequence of that part of the ocean
being affected by the advancing swell of the Pacific.
Such is the substance of a few of the ingenious statements
which Captain Fitzroy has advanced in favour of his
theory ; for we have not room for one fourth of them, and
they do not readily admit of abridgement. He seems
however to proceed upon the supposition that the moon
could keep detached oceans of any dimensions in a state of
perpetual oscillation ; whereas it is easy to conceive oceans
of exceedingly different dimensions, and yet not so much
as one of which the moon could make oscillate to an extent
deserving the name of a tide, or in fact produce in it any
motion which would both continue till, and have the proper
direction at, the next transit; because the times of oscillation,
which naturally belonged to these oceans, might neither be
equal to the intervals between the lunar transits, nor yet have
any other ratio or relation to them which would tend to con¬
tinue the movement. Some of Captain Fitzroy’s reasoning,
it is true, seems to imply that without any previous oscilla¬
tion in the water, a single transit of the moon could produce
a sufficient tide; and should it be able to effect this, which
is very improbable, the above objection would rather be ap¬
plicable to that theory as explained by Mr Whewell. The
circumstance however of the tide-hour varying but little
along a great extent of coast, instead of arguing much in
favour of the new scheme, is quite in conformity with the
principles upon which Mr Whewell has laid down his cotidal
lines. But whatever may be the merits of Captain Fitzroy’s
theory, we have some doubts if it has much novelty to re¬
commend it; something very similar having been proposed,
and rather more systematically, by Dr Young, considerably
above thirty years ago (Natural Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 343)”;
and he has also comprehended it in an improved form in
the theoretical part of the present article, more particularly
in the fourth section. (e. e. e.)
TIDESWELL, a market-town of the hundred of High
t Ifak, in the county of Derby, 160 miles from London. It
i kn a lofty situation, and takes its name from a well near
i which, like the sea, ebbs and flows at intervals, rapidly
i wet, but slowly in dry seasons. It is an ill-built place,
v :h a large old church, and has a market on Wednesday.
1 Hie inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 1543, and in 1831 to
|53.
1 jjllDORE, one Of the Molucca Isles, in the Eastern Seas,
t aout twenty-one miles in circumference, situated on the
a v st coast ot Gilolo, three leagues south of Ternatc, from
t wich it is separated by a safe channel, wfith good anchorage
nr the town. It is mountainous towards the centre; the
i >fountains are high, and generally covered with clouds; and
» lower country is well watered by streams which flow
i km the elevated ground. It is populous, and formerly
i Cntained twenty-five mosques. The Mahommedan faith
] gnerally prevails. The island was first visited by the Spa-
' irds undfr Magellan. Here they formed a settlement in
a ||l 1’ arid in 1327 they were driven out by the Portuguese.
; -f 1607 the Dutch arrived in those seas, and soon after ex-
I Pled the Portuguese; from which time till its capture by
ij ! English, it remained in their hands. The sultan was
at one period a very considerable potentate, but was entirely
under the power of the Dutch, who elevated or deposed
sultans according to their pleasure. The island carries on
a considerable trade with New Guinea, Gilolo, the north¬
ern islands^ and the Chinese. In 1579 Drake arrived at
Tidore. Long. 127. 25. E. Lat. 0. 45. N.
TIGA, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near the north¬
west coast of the island of Borneo. Long. 112. 14. E. Lat
6. 25. N.
TIGRIS. This large and celebrated river, which flows
along the boundaries of the Turkish and Persian empires,
has its rise in the mountains of Armenia, about fifty miles
to the north-west of the valley of Diarbekir, and fifteen
to the east of the source of the Euphrates. It derives its
ancient Persian name of Tir or Teer, the arrow, from the
swiftness of its stream, its average rate being about seven
knots an hour. Not being within the range of the periodi¬
cal rains, its waters begin to rise in April, with the melting
of the winter snows in the mountains; its second rise takes
place in the beginning of November, with the setting in of
the winter rains. The spring inundation is however the
greatest, and it is then only that a complete inundation
covers the land, and that by the conflux of the waters of
288 TIL
Tiguil the Tigris and the Euphrates. Bagdad stands like an island
II in the midst of a wide ocean. To the annual overflowing
jrillotson. ^ these two streams the country is indebted tor its fertility.
The Tigris is not navigable above sixty miles beyond Bag¬
dad for vessels of more than twenty tons burden; though
the intercourse is still maintained much higher up, by a kind
of float called a kelek, which was used in ancient times, and
which carries both passengers and merchandise, chiefly corn
and copper, from Mosoul to Bagdad. It is singularly well
adapted for its purpose, consisting of a raft in the form of
a parallelogram. The trunks of two large trees crossing each
other are the foundations of its platform, which is composed
of branches of osier twigs ingeniously fastened to the stems
below. To this light bottom are attached sheep-skins filled
with air, and on these the floor is laid. These vessels are
floated down to Bagdad with the current, where, after their
cargoes are disposed of, they are taken to pieces and sold,
it being impossible to return with them against the stream.
Between Bagdad and Korna the Tigris is about 200 yards
wide. At the latter place it joins the Euphrates ; and the
united stream, under the new name of Shat-el-Arab, falls
into the Persian Gulf. This river was particularly famed
in antiquity; and many of the greatest cities, as Nineveh,
Seleucia, and Ctesiphon, were built upon its banks. The
Tigris and the Euphrates, though they rise within fifteen
miles of each other, soon separate, and running parallel,
but at a greater distance, enclose the extensive province of
Algesira." At Bagdad they again approach within thirty
miles, and afterwards separate, forming the rich district of
Irak Arabi. (f-)
TIGUIL, a river of Kamtschatka which falls into the
Penjinskaia gulf. On its banks is the fort of I iguilskoi,
the strongest in the country, where a Russian garrison is
maintained, to keep in awe the wild tribes of the country.
TILBURG, a city of the Netherlands, in the province
of North Brabant. It has been only of late years raised
from the class of towns to that of cities. It stands on the
river Lay, in a healthy district, chiefly flourishing by the
extension of its manufactures, which provide fine broad
cloths, casimeres, common cloths, beavers, and military
cloth. In 1833 it contained 11,726 inhabitants, most of
of them adhering to the Romish church.
TILBURY, a village of the hundred of Barnstaple, in
the county of Essex. It is only remarkable for the strong
fortifications constructed there to command the course of
the river Thames. It contains a regular work, which can
be surrounded by water, and has more than 100 cannon,
from twenty-four to forty-eight pounders, directed towards
the stream. It is nearly opposite to Gravesend in Kent, on
a bend of the river. Near it are the vestiges of the camp
formed by Queen Elizabeth at the time of the expected in¬
vasion by the Spanish Armada. The population in 1821
amounted to 249, and in 1831 to 276.
TILLOTSON, John, archbishop of Canterbury, was the
son of Robert Tillotson of Sowerby, in the parish of Halifax
in Yorkshire, clothier; and was born there in the year 1630.
He studied at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and in 1651 became
a fellow. In 1656 he left the university, in order to become
tutor to the son of Edmund Prideaux, Esq. of Ford Abbey in
Devonshire. He was afterwards curate to Dr Hacket, vicar
of Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire. In 1663 he was presented by
Sir Thomas Barnardiston to the rectory of Ketton or Ked-
dington, in the county of Sulfolk; but was the next year
chosen preacher to Lincoln’s Inn, when he procured Ketton
to be bestowed on his curate. He was greatly admired in
London for his sermons; and in the same year wras chosen
Tuesday-lecturer at St Lawrence’s church, where his lec¬
tures were frequented by all the divines of the city, and by
many persons of quality and distinction. In 1666, he took
T I M
the degree of D. D. at Cambridge ; in 1669, was made pre- Till,,,,
bendary of Canterbury ; in 1672, w-as admitted dean of that i
cathedral; and three years afterwards, was made a preben- Ti[l*
dary of St Paul’s cathedral. In 1679, he became acquaint-N"‘Vv
ed with Charles earl of Shrewsbury, whom he converted
from popery ; and the next year he refused to sign the clergy
of London s address of thanks to King Charles II. for not
agreeing to the bill for excluding the duke of York. In
1683, he visited the unfortunate Lord Russell when under
condemnation, and attended him in his last moments on
the scaffold. In 1689, he was installed dean of St Paul’s;
made clerk of the closet to King William and Queen Mary;
and appointed one of the commissioners to prepare matters
to be laid before the convocation, in order to a comprehen¬
sion of all Protestants, as well dissenters as churchmen;
but this attempt was frustrated by the bigotry of those mem¬
bers of that body who refused to admit of any alteration in
things confessedly indifferent. In 1691, Dr Tillotson, not¬
withstanding the warmest remonstrances and entreaties on
his part, was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury, and
four days after was swrorn one of the privy council; their
majesties always reposing an entire confidence in his pru¬
dence, moderation, and integrity. In 1694, he was seized
with a palsy, of which he died in the 65th year of his age.
He was interred in the church of St Lawrence Jewry, where
a handsome monument is erected to his memory. This
learned and pious divine, while living, was greatly inveighed
against by the enemies of the revolution. After his death
there w^as found a bundle of bitter libels which had been
published against him, on which he had written with his
own hand, “ I forgive the authors of these books, and pray
God that he may also forgive them.” It is remarkable,
that while this truly great man was in a private station, he
always laid aside two tenths of his income for charitable
uses. One volume in folio of Dr Tillotson’s sermons was
published in his lifetime, and corrected by his own hand.
They were translated into French by Barbeyrac. fihose
which were published after his death by his chaplain Dr
Barker, form twro volumes in folio, the copy of which was
sold for L.2500. This was the only legacy he left to his
family, his extensive charity having consumed his yearly
revenues as constantly as they came to his hands. King
William however gave two grants to his widow'; the first
of which was an annuity of L.400 during the term of her
natural life, and the second of L.200 as an addition to the
former annuity. Tillotson wrote some other works besides
his Sermons; and also published Dr Barrow’s Works, and
Bishop Wilkins’s Principles and Duties of Natural Religion,
as well as a volume of that prelate’s Sermons.1
TILLOUTA, a town of Hindustan, province of Bahar,
and district of Rotas, pleasantly situated on the north-west
bank of the river Soane. Long. 84. 15. E. Lat. 21.48. N.
TILSIT, a city of East Prussia, in the government of
Gumbinnen, the capital of a circle of its name. It stands
on the river Memel, where the Tilse falls into that stream.
It contains three churches, a hospital, 860 houses, and
12,800 inhabitants, who conduct manufactories of linen
goods, hosiery, and gloves, and have many distilleries and
breweries. The trade is considerable. At this place the
emperors of Russia and France met on a raft in the middle
of the river, and concluded, in 1807, the peace which bears
the name of this town. Long. 21.49. E. Lat. 55. 4. 30. N
TIMAAN, or Timoan, a small island, high and woody,
situated off the east coast of the Malay peninsula. I here
are several other smaller islands lying to the westward.
Long. 104. 5. E. Lat. 2. 52. N.
TIMAHET, a town of Flindustan, in the nizam’s terri¬
tories, in the province of Boeder, fifty-four miles south-west
from Hyderabad. Long. 78. 27. E. Lat. 16. 30. N.
  —r
1 Birch’s Life of Dr John Tillotson, Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. Lond. 1752, 8vo.
289
TIMBER.
ft,er. The term “ timber” is applied to wood of sufficient size
'-o be adapted for building purposes, whether it be standing
( !n the forest or after it is felled. While the timber forms
' portion of the growing tree, it is distinguished as “ stand-
‘ mg timber when felled, it is called “ rough timber.” Af-
” ler the rough log is converted, that is, sawn into the forms
ijpr which it appears best adapted, the various conversions,
e is the produce is called, are designated according either to
1 i ieir shape or their dimensions, as sided timber, balk, thick-
I i uff, plank, or board. These several terms will be advert-
,d to in a more advanced portion of this article, where they
1 ill either be defined or incidentally explained.
Timber is of such incalculable value as the material for
:( tie construction of our fleets, and it ministers also so
; rgely and in such numerous forms to our every-day
'> ants, that it is not surprising the best means for its suc-
1 lessful cultivation should have occupied much of the atten-
Ion of enlightened horticulturists; while it is certainly a
iibject of much wonder, and has been occasionally one
ausing no little anxiety, that the maintenance of an ade-
uate supply should be almost wholly left to accident, and
1 mat it consequently should be greatly neglected.
( The species of timber which are chiefly used for build-
! Big are oak and fir. Our supply of fir is for the greater
1 art drawn from abroad, as the climate of Great Britain
1 oes not appear to be favourable to the growth of the
test varieties of this species of timber; but with oak the
> ise is different. There is no doubt that England was
i; i iginally, almost from one extremity to the other, covered
I i ith forests, in which the oak predominated ; and per-
t aps the best oak in the world is indigenous to England.
1 Ye learn from the Doomsday-Book, that even in the
ieign of William the Conqueror, timber was so plentiful
! mt the woods were not valued according to the quantity
■ anding in them, nor according to the quantity which might
n lie annually felled. In fact, the woods, as timber, were com-
i Ljratively valueless, and their worth was estimated by the
i( number of swine which could be supported by the acorns,
i t present the produce of oak from our forests is not in
( ny adequate proportion to the demand for it; and we are
2 S (bilged to resort to foreign markets for this useful tim-
o Ibr, or for substitutes. This is to be regretted, because
u ndoubtedly it is very desirable that we should be indepen-
o ient of other nations for our supplies of so important a com-
i mnent of our naval supremacy; and it is the more desir-
1 )le, because in general the substitutes which we are able
< ) procure are not equal in quality to the produce of our
s wn soil. The oak of Great Britain is, for ship-building
:i ? specially, superior to most timber which we can thus ob-
un. The reason that the maintenance of the supply of
t | ik timber does not meet, with the attention which is re-
t j aired by the demand for it, evidently is, that although the
i I emand is present and urgent, the advantages to be derived
a i y any attempt to provide a supply are too prospective to
il “mpt the cupidity of individual speculators. The home sup-
s 1 ly is therefore almost wholly left to be provided by those
1 ho have a hereditary interest in the produce of the soil,
l le great landholders. There are, it is true, large tracts of
ind which, as royal forests, are available for the services of
5 )e state; but it is only within a recent period that sufficient
a ttention has been paid to planting them, while the enormous
j emand for oak timber during the late long naval war had
j ompletely exhausted the stock which was previously grow-
t 1 upon them. It may not be deemed irrelevant to state
e ie extent of this forest-land; at the same time premising,
(at there is much of it which is but ill adapted for the
(1 VOL. XXI.
growth of good timber. The following account of these Timber,
forests is taken from the Seventh Report of the Commis- -—y——
sioners of Lands Revenue. It states the extent of the land
in which the timber belongs to the crown in each of the
forests to be :—
Acres. R. P.
In New Forest 66,94:2 3 26
Dean  23,015 3 29
Aliceholt and Woolmer  8,694 1 31
Whittlewood  4,850 3 32
Salsey  1,847 0 23
Whichwood  3,709 3 5
Waltham  3,273 3 2
Sherwood  1,466 3 10
Bere  926 2 13
Sulehay Walk in Rockingham Forest 860 3 23
115,594 0 34
“ Of which total quantity about 70,000 acres are fit for
the growth of oak timber.” The Report also gives a state¬
ment, which we shall quote, as forming a criterion, founded
on authority, to judge of the produce of forest-land: “ If
700 acres, or of this land were enclosed and planted
every year, until the whole 70,000 acres shall be completed,
they will, if kept under proper management, furnish a per¬
petual supply of at least 35,000 loads of oak timber annu¬
ally, from the time that the first planted trees arrive at 100
years growth.” Table V. will give a good idea of the enor¬
mous consumption of timber which is entailed upon us by
the extent of our navy. It may also be observed, that since
the alterations in the system of registry at Lloyd’s, mer¬
chant-ships consume nearly as much timber in their con¬
struction as ships of war of similar burthens.
The effect of the gradual destruction of the forests is a
question of a speculative nature ; a question too specula¬
tive, and involving consequences too far distant from our
own time, to admit of discussion in this article : still it nmy
be thus casually adverted to, because it is not a stretch of
the imagination to suppose the time must arrive wrhen the
forests which furnish the present supplies will be exhausted
by the unceasing and increasing demand upon them, and
by the rapid spread of popuktion. But a very few years
have passed since it was comparatively easy to procure fir
trees from the north of Europe, of sufficient size to make top¬
masts for the largest classes of men of war. Now there are
no trees from thence to be purchased which will make such
topmasts. Until about thirty-five or forty years ago Riga
inch-masts were to be obtained as large as twenty-five inches
in diameter. At that time, from the increased difficulty in
procuring them, Canada yellow-pine sticks were substituted,
which could then be got with ease as large as thirty inches
in diameter; but now it very rarely happens that a stick
of larger diameter than from twenty-five to twenty-seven
inches is imported, and even this timber of these sizes is
gradually becoming more scarce. Until lately timber of
sufficient scantling to make stern-posts for the largest
ships was to be procured; now such logs are not in the
market.
The first English writer on timber was the celebrated
Evelyn, who published his “ Sylva, or Discourse of Forest
Trees,” in 1664. This book still continues one of the
standard works on the subject in our language. In 1774 a
new edition of it, with most extensive notes, and also en¬
gravings of the trees mentioned in the text, was published
by the celebrated Dr Alexander Hunter of York. The
last edition with these notes was published in 1825. In
2 o
290
T I M B E R.
Timber. France the two celebrated philosophers BufFon and Du Ha-
' n- mel have both devoted a great portion of their useful lives
to the investigation of the physiology of timber, and theii
writings on the subject have long been the text-books of
arborists. In modern times the phenomena of the growth
of plants have occupied the attention of many men, some
of whom have eminently distinguished themselves in this
particular branch of natural history, and to whose works
we shall have occasion to refer in the course ot this article.
The master-mind, however, in these researches, and the
one whose indefatigable labours have left but few of the
mysteries of vegetable physiology undeveloped, is Mr
Knight, who was for several years president of the Horti¬
cultural Society, and whose valuable papers on the growth
of plants in the Philosophical Transactions leave little scope
for further investigation on several of the most important
questions.
Botanists divide plants into two classes; exogenous, w hich
are those that increase in their growth by an annual acces¬
sion of matter externally ; and endogenous, which are those
that increase in their growth by an annual accession of mat¬
ter internally : therefore in exogenous plants the exter¬
nal parts are the younger; and in the endogenous it is, on
the contrary, the internal parts which are ot the latest
growth. It is almost entirely of the exogenous plants that
we shall have occasion to treat in this article, the whole ol
the timber trees classing under that head.
The horizontal section of the stem of a plant of this de¬
scription shows the perfect or heart wood occupying the
central and larger portion of the area of the section. 1 his
wood must evidently, from what has been already stated,
be of the oldest growth in the centre of the tree, and
the several concentric layers must be younger in propor¬
tion to their distances from this centre. Around this per¬
fect wood there is seen a concentric belt of yet younger
growth; so young as not yet to have attained to the ma¬
turity of the perfect wood. This belt is called the albur¬
num or sap-wood; around it is another concentric belt,
called the liber ; and this again is enclosed in the bark, or
cortical substance, the liber forming an internal coating to
the bark. The centre of the heart-wood is occupied by the
pith; and there is a communication between the pith and
the bark, that is maintained by what are called the me¬
dullary rays, which, as their name expresses, radiate from
the pith, in the centre of the perfect wood, to the external
coating of the tree, the bark. The outer covering of the
bark is sometimes called the epidermis.
We shall now proceed to describe, in a general manner,
the process of the growth of the plant, and the gradual for¬
mation of these several portions. The germination of the
seed is a mystery of nature yet undeveloped ; but when the
seed has germinated, and the existence of the plant has
commenced, the labours of physiologists have enabled us
to trace the various processes by which its increase is ef¬
fected. Mr Knight has related, in the papers which we have
already mentioned as having been published in the Philo¬
sophical Transactions, a series of most conclusive experi¬
ments made by him, in order to ascertain the course of the
sap, the manner of its deposition, and the method of its in¬
fluence on the growth of the tree. He removed a ring of
bark about half an inch in breadth, from a number of trees,
and compared the growth of these trees with that of others
not so treated. This was done early in the spring. The
effects were, that although the branches shot, and the parts
above the incisions in the incised trees did not appear to
suffer, there was no increase in the parts below the incisions;
and that while the upper lips made considerable advances
towards establishing a reunion, the lower lips of the wounds
remained without alteration. In the course of the summer's-v, A
the wood from which the rings of bark had been stripped,
became dry and lifeless to some considerable depth beneath
its surface, and several buds made their appearance below
the incisions. In those trees in which a shoot produced by
one of these buds was suffered to remain, the parts of the stem
below the shoot very soon began to increase in size, while
the part between the shoot and the annular incision still re¬
mained so nearly stationary as to be, in the autumn, almost
a year’s growth less in diameter than the part of the stem
above the incision. Mr Knight varied these experiments
in many different ways, but in every case he found the re¬
sult to be the same ; that is, those parts of the stem and
branches which were above the incisions, and had a com¬
munication with the leaves through the bark, increased ra¬
pidly ; while those below the incision scarcely grew at all,
but remained with little perceptible change, until a new
communication was obtained through the bark with the
leaves of a shoot from some bud below the incision; the
increase of the timber thus evidently depending upon the
growth of the leaves.
These experiments were so far conclusive as to establish
that the current of sap which ran upwards from the roots,
wras not impeded in its passage by the annular incisions and
the removal of the belt of bark ; but that it was probably
the downward current which w'as interrupted, and also that
it was this dowmward current by which the annual increase
of the tree was effected. By a series of experiments with
coloured infusions, Mr Knight traced the upward current
through the pores of the wood beyond the annular incisions
in the bark, and found that it had neither coloured the bark
nor the sap betwTeen it and the wmod. He traced the co¬
loured infusion along the leaf-stalk into the leaf, through one
series of vessels ; and he observed another series of vessels
which wTere conveying a colourless fluid in an opposite di¬
rection, that is, out of the leaf. He traced this second se¬
ries of tubes downwards, and found that they entered the
inner bark, and, without having any communication with
the tubes of the wood, descended through the inner bark from
the very extremities of the leaves, apparently to the points
of the roots. Mr Knight considers that there are two series
of these descending tubes, one of which forms the new an¬
nual layer of alburnum, and the other the new annual layer
of internal bark. It thus appears that the sap is conveyed
upwrards through the pores of some part of the wood, into
the leaves, and that when there, probably by its exposure
to light and air, and by the evaporation which takes place,
it undergoes some peculiar process of elaboration which tits
it for contributing to the sustenance and growth of the tree.
It also appears that the cause of the grow th is the deposi¬
tion which takes place in the downward passage of this per¬
fected sap. The sap, after this curious preparation in the
leaves, is called cambium.
The same persevering physiologist then pursued his in¬
vestigations a step farther. He took trees, and not only
removed a ring of bark, but also a ring of the younger wood,
to such a depth as to cut through and remove the whole ol
the alburnum. These trees did not exhibit the slightest
symptom of vegetation in the ensuing spring; which fact
evidently proved that the ascent of the sap had been pre¬
vented, and also that it had been prevented by the removal
of the alburnum; for the previously-mentioned experiment
had shewn that the removal of the bark was not attended
with such an effect.1 ,
It is the generally received opinion that the ascent ot
the sap through the alburnum is the reason that this gra-
1 This experiment is continually making on a far more extended and therefore more conclusive scale, in the removal of the whole of the
bark excepting the liber, from the cork oak, Quercns Suber, which takes place once in about eight or ten years, not only without injury,but
with actual advantage, to the tree, which vegetates with increased luxuriance.
<113
tilt
Lx
tiie
,
TIMBER.
291
,r. f ^lally becomes perfect wood, in consequence of the de-
iisition of matter which then takes place, and fills up its
pres; so that the rationale of the process appears to be,
rat the sap of one year deposits nourishment, in its up-
rard passage, which strengthens the sap-wood or alburnum
previous years ; that then, after being elaborated in the
;aves, it becomes cambium, and in its descent adds bulk
jith to the alburnum and the bark. It must however be
iserved, that there is not in timber any appearance of
i gradual change from alburnum to perfect wood. On
1 e contrary, in all cases the division is most decided ;
ne concentric layer is perfect wood, the next in succes-
lon is alburnum. Mr Knight gives it as his opinion, that
towards the conclusion of summer, the true sap, that is,
,e cambium, simply accumulates in the alburnum, and
us adds to the specific gravity of winter-felled timber, and
creases the quantity of extractive matter.” He says he
us “ reason to believe that the true sap descends through
ue alburnum as well as through the bark ; that is, that the
iperabundance of true sap is there deposited, and enriches
ie upward current of aqueous sap, or the sap of the ensu-
jig spring.” In confirmation of this, he tested the ascend-
Lg current of spring sap, extracted from the trunks of trees
[i; various heights, and found that the specific gravity in-
i-eased with the height, and that the taste also very sen-
bly altered. He argues from the foregoing facts, that by
irdling trees in the spring, and suffering them to grow un-
1 the ensuing winter, the wood above the girdling would
e increased in specific gravity. In one experiment, in
Inch the belt of bark had been abstracted for several
ears, he found that the specific gravity of the wood above
as 0*590, while below it was only 0-491, and also that the
Iburnum had acquired a greater degree of hardness, and
onsequently of durability. This is important, for Du Ha-
icl established by experiment very conclusively, that the
trength of timber of the same species varied very nearly
s its weight. There are many other theories as to the
rowth of plants, founded also on experiment, but we can-
ot, within the limits of this article, enter into the rationale
if the whole of them. We have therefore taken this of
4r Knight, because, although there may be some points in
It which may be objected to, we conceive that, as a whole,
t probably approaches more nearly to the truth than does
ny other, and indeed leaves but little doubt upon the
nind as to its general correctness.
i There are not less than 140 species of oak known, and
dthough there are many sorts cultivated and growing in
ingland, botanists and arborists agree that there are prin-
:ipally two varieties ; these are, the Durmast oak, and an¬
other, which is commonly called the old English oak, al-
hough both are supposed to be indigenous. In the Dur-
nast oak, the Quercus sessihflora, the acorns grow in clus-
;ers close to the twig, and the leaves are set on short leaf¬
stalks : while in the old English oak, the Quercus Robur, or
Quercus pedunculata, the acorns grow generally singly, at
nost two together, on stalks of from one to two inches
n length, and the leaves are close to the twig, without
die intervention of any length of leaf-stalk. These are
:he principal distinguishing marks between the two varie-
:ies. Many writers attempt to draw distinctions from the
1 :olour and shape of the leaves, and the colour and appear-
mce of the bark ; but it is doubtful whether these may be
depended upon, as, from a careful examination of the evi¬
dence, it is more than probable that the colour and appear¬
ance vary much with the soil and locality. There is no
doubt, however, as to the comparative inferiority of the tim¬
ber of the Durmast oak. Almost all the English writers on
timber have asserted it, and both Buffon and Du Hamel cor¬
roborate their assertions, and give a most decided prefer¬
ence to the oak bearing large acorns on separate stalks,
over the oak bearing acorns in clusters; which characteris¬
tics are just the distinguishing differences that have been Timber,
particularized as existing between the English and the Dur-
mast oaks.
In favourable soils the old English oak has seldom more
than twelve to fifteen concentric layers of alburnum; but in
the Durmast oak there are frequently from twenty to twenty-
five or even thirty. This proves at once, by analogy, the
inferiority of the Durmast oak ; for it is an established fact,
that the best hard-wood timber is that in which the propor¬
tion of heart-wood to sap is the largest; besides which, the
numerous layers of alburnum form the basis of a propor¬
tion which shows the greater age the Durmast timber must
attain before it becomes perfect wood. And therefore it is
evident, that in order to attain large scantling, comparatively
older timber must be felled, and consequently a greater risk
be incurred of its being overgrown. The following table of
the number of concentric layers of sap-wood observed in
various species of timber trees is extracted from a valuable
work on Naval Timber by Patrick Matthew ; a work which
abounds in much sound practical information, though mixed
up with many things irrelevant to its subject.
Trees of Rome Growth.
Common oak, some trees 10, others 14, others 18.
Spanish chestnut,  2,   5,   6.
Scotch elm, U. Montana 16,   25,   32.
English elm, U. Campestris  0,   10,   0.
Red-wood willow  8,   14,   0.
Laburnum  3,   5,   0.
Wild cherry 16,   24,   0.
Black Italian poplar  9,   0,   0.
Scotch fir 20,   30,   40.
Pinaster    0,   10,   0.
White larch  5,   12,   18.
Trees of Foreign Growth.
Memel fir  0, others 44, others 0.
Red Canada pine    0,   100,   0.
Yellow Canada pine 38,   44,   0.
Several of these, which are not cultivated generally as tim¬
ber trees, are yet valuable, and are made available for local
building purposes, and for the manufacture of the convey¬
ances and implements for agriculture. Of these, the red¬
wood willow may claim the first rank in utility. It is a tim¬
ber much used in France in cottages and farm buildings,
and it has the advantage of being very easily worked. The
numerous varieties of the willow tribe are also useful in the
manufacture of baskets. The woods of the laburnum, the
cherry, and the apple and pear trees, are greatly used by
cabinet-makers for articles of furniture.
Although in most parts of England there is soil favour¬
able to the growth of timber, it may well be supposed that
all soils are not equally favourable to all timber, nor will
they produce timber of equally good quality. Thus in Eng¬
land the Sussex oak has always been celebrated as being
superior to all other ; and in France the oak of Provence
enjoys a similar reputation. Still, an oak tree grown in a
soil but ill adapted for it, as, for instance, a marshy soil,
will retain its superiority of species over the inferior tim¬
bers, as the willow and the poplar, to which such a soil is
less unfavourable, although in quality it will fall very short
of the standard of perfection for oak timber. In fact, oak
grown on such soils will in some measure partake of the
qualities of the timber to which they are better adapted, and
be of more open texture, of softer fibre, and of less dura¬
bility than average oak timber. Oaks of slow growth,
those, for instance, from the mountains of Scotland, and from
Cumberland and Yorkshire, are proverbially hard and du¬
rable. The oak from marshy soils is often of a dull-red
colour, or has “ foxey” stains in it, as this incipient decay is
292
TIMBER.
Timber, called. These stains are generally around the heart of the
'""'-v'"'"'''' tree. Timber grown in loose soils is often what is termed
“quaggy;” that is, the centre of the tree is full of shakes
and clefts. Sometimes a shake will extend around a great
portion of the trunk, between two of the annual concentric
layers, so as to divide them from each other. This is call¬
ed a cup-shake, and the timber is said to be “ cuppy.” It
is not attributable to the soil, but is supposed to originate in
the effect of frosts on the aqueous sap in its ascent. When
the alburnum of a tree has been wounded, or a branch im¬
properly lopped or damaged, the subsequent growth of the
tree will cover it, and it is then called a rind-gall, which,
should the injured part have had time to become decayed, or
partially so, or even sodden with the rains, will frequently
cause an extensive rottenness in the plant. This is remark¬
ably the case with elm timber. Doatiness, probably dotti¬
ness, which is a spotted or speckled appearance, like small
stains in the wood, is most commonly a disease of beech
timber; it is, however, occasionally seen in all, and fre¬
quently in the American oak. These diseases are in general
incidental to the soil.
In treating of soils in connection with the qualities of the
timber which grows upon them, it may be necessary to re¬
member that the object is not to compare various sorts of
timber, but to compare the differences in the same species in
connection with the soils which produced them. It may
also be observed, that as oak is by far the most valuable
timber of English growth, the general inquiries we may
enter into in the course of this article principally apply to it,
unless other species of timber are particularized.
We have already casually adverted to marshy soils, and
to the state of the timber grown on them. The grain of
such timber is open, its colour of a deep yellow, sometimes
with a tinge of red, especially towards the heart; the texture
is soft, and the fibre coarse. The quantity of alburnum, and
also of bark, is large in comparison with the quantity of per¬
fect wood, and the outer surface of the bark is very coarse
and rough. The wood splits easily, and when split it has
not the same bright and varnished appearance possessed by
the best timber. The chips from the axe do not cling well
together, but fall into separate fragments; and a shaving
or a small splinter may be easily crumbled between the
finger and thumb. When such timber is weighed, although
it is far more saturated with moisture, it is of less specific
gravity; and when weighed after seasoning, the weight lost
will be comparatively greater. Such timber, it is evident,
will be more subject to decay, and to become worm-eaten,
the softness of its texture inviting the attacks of these insects.
1 hese peculiar characteristics attach more or less to tim¬
ber grown in all soils which are of a moist nature, whether
they are marshy, or wet from long-continued periodical in¬
undations. Ihey also apply to timber grown in deep sandy
soil, in which almost the only nutriment for the roots is the
water which percolates downward, and the bottom damps
which rise upward through it. In all these soils the timber
is of rapid growth, and the trees attain early to a large size.
A similar result attends the timber grown in sandy soils on
a clay bottom, for the water which falls not being able to
penetrate the clay, cannot escape, and the roots of the trees
are therefore virtually in the same circumstances as if they
w'ere growing in marshy land. As a general axiom, timber
trees have an antipathy to stagnant waters; and therefore
these observations on marshy soils, and on sandy soils with
clayey bottoms, refer themselves to this fact. The soil gene¬
rally the best adapted for the growth of timber appears to be
a rich loam. This may have a considerable admixture of sand,
without any apparent detriment to the timber. In such
soils roots can penetrate and spread without difficulty, while
the loam is capable of retaining sufficient moisture to dis¬
solve and hold in solution the various substances that are
found combined with it, so as to fit them to be absorbed as
food by the roots of the plants. If the soil be too sandy, it TiKL
neither retains the moisture sufficiently long in it, nor does'1—y*
it contain adequate nutriment. If, instead of a loam, some
of the very stiff clays be mixed with the sand, they do not
counteract this quality; for although such clay is capable
of combining with a great quantity of water, it will not easily
absorb and mix with it; and the tender roots have great
difficulty in penetrating the masses of clay. For these
reasons, soils composed wholly of stiff clay are not favour¬
able to the growth of good timber, but the lighter clayey
earth produces very fine oaks. As has been before stated,
sand or gravel, with a large mixture of rich loamy earth, is
precisely that sort of dry generous soil which affords ample
nourishment to the roots of trees, and allows of their spread¬
ing themselves freely in search of it. Of all timber, how¬
ever, oak accommodates itself most easily to soil; growing
in almost every thing but sterile sand, if there be sufficient
depth of stratum. Wherever oak will grow, even in those
soils the least genial to its growth, it is a valuable timber.
This fact cannot be too often pressed upon the attention of
landholders. It is admirably adapted for planting in hedge¬
rows between arable fields, because it is found to be less
destructive to the undergrowth than almost any other tim¬
ber ; and as its roots seek their nourishment deep in the
soil, they not only do not impoverish the ground for the
growing crop, but are themselves protected from any injury
which they might otherwise sustain from the tillage. Oaks
so planted require, however, to be protected during several
years, as their early growth is slow. The timber grown in
such exposed situations is seldom large; the trees are stunted
and crooked ; but this rather increases their value for ship-
building purposes, as they convert as compass or knee tim¬
ber. The timber of hedge-row oak is very close grained;
that of park-grown oak is more open, and the trees being
better protected, spread more freely and grow to a very
large size, with strong lateral branches; while forest oak
will frequently grow to a great height without pushing out
any lateral shoots. Forest oak is invariably inferior in qua¬
lity to that which grows singly; and in forests the trees
that grow on the skirts are always the best timber. The
oak flourishes in variable climates, which is probably the
cause of the superiority of the English oak.
In whatever soil planted, each vegetable will retain its
own peculiar characteristics. These apparently result from
some property inherent in the plant itself, which leads it to
extract only that nourishment from the soil which is appro¬
priate to it. This has been illustrated by the example of a
pea and a grain of wheat both planted in the same soil, and
both treated in exactly the same manner: the corn will have
absorbed silex from the earth, which will visibly form a com¬
ponent of its stalk, while the pea will not have taken up
any. This indicates that at least a degree of selection with
respect to their food is inherent in vegetables, without
which indeed it would be difficult to account either for
plants of various sorts all flourishing equally well in the
same soil, or for others which cannot be reared in certain
soils. This selection of food is however limited; for it is a
well-ascertained fact that vegetable life is destroyed by the
same poisonous substances that are fatal to animal lift)
and that plants do not possess the power of refusing to ab¬
sorb such substances when mixed with the food in which
their roots are plunged. Although the root of corn would
absorb silex and the pea refuse it, they would both perish
from the unavoidable absorption with their food, of sub¬
stances inimical to animal and vegetable life. This is,
however, merely saying that the vegetable is not possess¬
ed of greater powers of discriminating the beneficial from
the hurtful, than is the animal under similar circumstances.
A curious fact connected with the supply of food for trees
is also established, proving that there is not only a proportion
between the spread of the roots and that of the branches of
TIMBER.
ecrJ i tree, but that the branches on any one side of the trunk
‘—'if the tree are dependent for their support on the roots
I I Inch protrude from the trunk on that same side. Both
II ; uffon and Du Hamel found experimentally, that when the
imbs and branches of any part of a tree showed symptoms
: |rf decay, the corresponding roots were invariably in a dis¬
used state. They also found that on that side of a tree
" i om which the roots had pushed most vigorously, the annual
1 oncentric layers of wood were thicker, and that’consequent-
I the form of a section of the tree would be eccentric to-
ards that side.
e The facility with which the roots of plants seek out for
i ; emselves the best localities, is surprising. If two trees of
'I I fferent species be growing on the edge of a marshy space,
! i at tree which requires most moisture will push its roots
1 i wards the marsh, while that which requires a dry soil will
I psh its roots into the dry firm ground. Du Hamel relates
51 u instance in which he dug two trenches crossing each
£ (her at right angles ; he then returned the soil into these
II renches, and planted a tree at the point of their intersec-
nn. Some years after, upon examining the roots, it was
1 fund that they had invariably pushed into the four lines of
1 'Inches, leaving the intermediate undisturbed earth wholly
ntouched by them.
An equally important consideration with the quality of
1 te soil, is its quantity, that is, its depth from the surface.
1 I fact, in speaking of soils in connexion with the growth
« timber trees, it must of course be understood that it is
e nt merely the surface-soil which is meant, but that soil in
r iich the roots of the trees would push and spread,—the
1 til for several feet in depth. It often happens that the
^ trface-soil may be well adapted for tillage and for vegeta-
tin, and yet the sub-soil, that which is essential to the
i jowth of timber trees, may be totally incapable of supply-
£ ig them with nourishment. Trees which grow singly, as
1; i hedge-rows or in parks, do not require equal depth of
t ii'il with those which grow in forests, because they have the
I pwer of spreading their roots in search of food. But for
‘ Test trees, either oak, chestnut, or beech, a depth of at least
'< :t ir feet of appropriate soil is absolutely necessary to pro-
fi ftce fine timber trees. Elm and ash do not require so
i , jeat a depth.
II Buffon has given a scale for the ages at which it is desir-
> |ile to fell timber. It is dependent upon the depth of soil in
jjmch it grows. He says that a depth of from two to three
i jfct will not support a tree in a thriving condition for a
' .fciger period than fifty years. From three to four feet of
il tiil will enable the tree to continue improving until about
• wventy years old ; and in a soil from four to five feet deep it
) fill flourish for a century. These periods are for strong and
■; Hvourable soils. In lighter soils at least ten years must be
“Iken from each period, and the timber will then also be
) ifcrior in quality. As a general rule, the more generous
i’ nd favourable to the growth of the timber the soil may be,
n «e longer it is advantageous to wait before felling it. Trees
1 flould never be allowed to become stag-headed, that is, to
t live their upper branches bare of leaves. It is in the top
1 Handies that the first symptoms of the decline of the tree
;le to be perceived. The leaves have a faded, weakly ap-
n Jarance, gradually diminish in number, and finally the
li lanches become barren of foliage, and decay. The least
r fpearance of want of vigour in the vegetation of the top
t * a tree should be the signal for its being felled; and
t 13 on then it is also a sure token that the timber is past its
Ifime. 1
e Ihe nature of the soil in a tract of country may be ob-
1 jlrved, either by opening it, or by examining the products,
i I nisj’ at ab times of the year, if plants which grow only on
i; firshy land are found on any tract, we may evidently as-
I yme that tract to be marshy land, whatever its temporary
i t-oarance may be. rIhe nature of the sub-soils may often
293
be ascertained by the ditches. The goodness of earth is Timber,
easily tested by making an excavation in it. If the whole ■'■'-'“•v—'
of the excavated earth can be returned into the cavity, the
soil is poor, but if, on the contrary, there is an excess, its
quantity is a sure criterion by which to judge of the rich¬
ness.
In the preceding observations as to soil, moisture has been
decried as unfavourable to the growth of good timber; but
it must be observed, that a deficiency of moisture has also its
evils, although they are not of the same kind as those which
arise from a superabundance of it. Water is absolutely ne¬
cessary to the growth of timber; for even if the soil be rich,
and light, and well adapted for the reception of the roots,
and for affording them nourishment, there must be suffici¬
ent moisture in it to form a vehicle for a supply of that
nourishment, otherwise the trees will be of very slow growth,
not from the lack of proper nourishment, but from the want
of a suiiicient supply. The timber does not appear to suffer
from this in its quality, but in its size. On the contrary,
indeed, wood of such growth is extremely heavy, hard, and
dense, as, for instance, the Scotish mountain oak. Where
there is a greater supply of moisture, the growth of the
timber will be more rapid; and, in consequence, although
its fibre will be tough, its grain even, and its colour the
same as the other, the concentric layers will be thicker,
and therefore there will be fewer of them in the same space;
but, to compensate for this, we have in a less number of
years an equal sized tree, which has the advantage when
felled of being in its prime, while the tree of slower growth
may have already, from great age, the defects attendant on
what is called overgrown timber. There is also another
point to be considered ; the quicker the growth of the tree,
the more it will shrink when converted as timber. Trees
of rapid growth, therefore, are not fitted for any thing but
large conversions. Timber of slow growth, and of con¬
siderable age, is by far the best adapted for panelling and
for furniture.
These remarks afford an idea of the difference in the
appearance of timber grown on good soil from that produ¬
ced on bad soil. As to this difference, it may however
be desirable to enter more into detail. An oak tree,
grown on the soil adapted to the development of its best
properties, not only has its concentric layers thin and close
together, but they are also of very uniform thickness, and
the texture of the grain is fine. When the wood is split it
has a glossy varnished appearance, and is of a very pale yel¬
low or straw colour. There is sometimes as much as one
fourth difference in weight between samples of oak timber;
and the heaviest loses a much less proportion of its weight
in drying, and will also, if immersed in water, absorb less,
than the lightest. The alburnum of the best timber is
small in quantity, and the bark thin and of an even smooth
texture. In breaking such wood, it produces a sharp de¬
cided noise. Having comparatively little moisture in its
composition, and being less hygrometric in its nature than
wood of more open texture, it is little subject to decay; and
its grain being hard, it is not easily pierced by insects.
The great size to which oak trees will attain when fa¬
vourably situated as to soil and locality, is truly astonishing.
We vyill mention two instances as examples of this fact.
One is the celebrated chapel-oak of Allonville in the Pays
de Caux in France, which is still standing. The other is
that of an oak which was felled in Monmouthshire in 1791.
The oak of Allonville measures at its base thirty-five feet
in circumference, and at six feet above the level of the
ground it is twenty-six feet in girth. It is hollow, and the
interior is fitted up as a chapel. This transformation was
effected in 1696. The computed age of the tree is between
eight and nine centuries. The other instance, the Mon¬
mouthshire oak, produced, when it was converted, the fol¬
lowing enormous quantity of materials:—
291
timber.
Timber. The main stem, 91 feet long, when sided, 330 cubic feet.
A branch 29 feet long, sided 17 inches,
_ 24, — 19 —
— 19 — 17 —
The two main slabs produced 86J feet of
3 inch-plank; other conversions ; in all,
13 sided knees, taken together,
Other minor but useful conversions,
58
60
38
216
217
276
Total,
1195
the weight of which was nearly 30 tons. The bark
weighed 3 tons 17 cwt. 3 qrs. There were 31 £ cords of
cord-wood, 84 hogshead, 67 barrel, and 106 kilderkin staves,
256 coopers’ ends: 28 hogshead, 38 barrel, and 49 kilder¬
kin heads were also converted from the slab wood.
The largest oak on record grew in Dorsetshire. It was
called Damory’s Oak, and was used as an ale-house. It was
sixty-eight feet in circumference, and the room formed in it
was sixteen feet in length. This tree was blown down in 1703.
As a general average of the size of oak timber, 56 cubic
feet for each end or log of rough timber, and 30 cubic
feet for each end of sided timber, may be assumed as to¬
lerably correct. In order to convert rough timber into
sided timber, about two thirds the diameter of the rough log,
in the middle of its length, is assumed as the most advan¬
tageous siding; and, on an average, it is estimated that
not above one third of each log or end of rough timber
well in moist declivities, provided the land be not too 1,
rich. The trees grown on too damp a soil either die pre-v'-\Xy
maturely, or their timber is of a soft spongy nature, and
prone to decay. There are two British varieties of this
timber, the Ulmus Montana, or Wych elm, and the UU
mus Campestris, or, as they are sometimes called, the
Scotish and the English elms. Of these the Wych elm is
decidedly the most valuable as timber, and, when used in
situations where it is kept constantly moist, is extremely
durable; but no elm timber will bear the trials of change
of temperature and moisture to which oak in all its varieties
is comparatively insensible. The close and interwoven grain
of elm, the absence of decided longitudinal fibre, and its
power to resist rending from exposure to the heat of the
sun, and the alternations of weather, cause its timber to be
very useful for small articles, such as the blocks used in
the rigging of a ship. It is valuable in many parts of the
millwright’s machinery, where the wood is subjected to
great friction. It is also valuable and much used both for
the timbers and for the planking of ships below the surface
of the water ; and the planks of clinker-built boats are very
generally of elm. There is one peculiarity about elm tim¬
ber, namely, that the alburnum or sap-wood is possessed of
nearly equal powTer to resist decay with that which is ma¬
tured ; that is, when both are used in situations where they
are not exposed to alternations in moisture. A variety of
timber has of late years been introduced into the market
under the name of Canada elm, or American rock elm.
is used in the principal conversion from it, and this prin- It is a smooth, even textured, pale coloured, and strongly
cipal conversion is estimated to be about three fourths of
the total conversions.
In consequence of the great value of the bark of oak, it
is the practice to fell the timber in the spring of the year,
because then the bark is easily detached from the tree,
while the bark of winter-felled timber is lost. There can
be little doubt, however, that the durability of the wood is
much deteriorated by this practice. It was a received opi¬
nion among the ancients that timber should be felled in the
fibrous wood, almost devoid of knots, and admirably adapted
for boat-building, and all works which require a flexible
and close-textured wood. The Canada elm appears to
have many of the peculiarities of toughness and flexibility
which distinguish the ash.
Chestnut, Fagus Castanea, and Beech, Fagus, appear to
suffer the least of all the timber trees from being planted
in moist sandy soils; but as the chestnuts push their roots
far downwards, they require a proportionate depth of soil.
fall of the year; and not only do modern experiments con- The roots of beech, on the contrary, spread widely, but
firm this opinion, but modern discoveries as to the flow and without going to any considerable depth. Beech is a tim-
return of the sap, and its nature at various seasons, tend to
show the reason for its correctness. The practice which
almost all the eminent arborists have recommended, and
supported by their experiments, is to bark trees standing
in the spring, and then allow them to remain in this state
at least one twelvemonth. This was not an uncommon
practice in some of the midland counties of England, and
was first strongly recommended in the reign of James the
Second by Dr Plott, an arborist of great celebrity at that
time. Buffon presented a memoir in 1738 to the Royal
Academy of Sciences in Paris, “ on increasing the Solidity,
Strength, and Durability of Timber;” for which purposes it
was recommended to strip the tree of its bark during the
season of the rising of the sap, and then to leave it to dry
ber which easily adapts itself to and flourishes in almost
any soil. Even among rocks its roots will, like those ol
firs and larches, insinuate themselves into the smallest fis¬
sures, and find means to extract sufficient nourishment to
produce a useful timber. Beech-timber, when used shortly
after being felled, and for works where its dampness will be
continued, is a long-enduring wood. It is largely applied
in the mercantile navy, for the lower planks of the bottom
of ships. The best variety has its wood of a yellow tinge.
Chestnut is even a more durable timber than oak, and was
much used formerly ; but the cultivation of it has been so
neglected that few trees remain in this country. Ash, Fraxi-
nus Excelsior, which is another valuable timber tree, accom¬
modates itself to all soils. It will grow in marshy grounds
completely before being felled. Du Hiimel gives most mi- and in arid lands, in depth of soil or in shallow soils. It
nute accounts of experiments made by himself, all tending will push its roots into hard gravelly bottoms, and even
to the same conclusion ; and Dr Hunter, in his notes on into the sandstone rocks ; but the ash-timber from very poor
Evelyn's Sylva, says, “ that by stripping off the bark, and soils is brittle, and loses the elasticity which is the valuable
allowing the tree to stand and die before it is cut, the sappy peculiarity of this wood. Ash is a very useful timber for
Here
part becomes as hard and firm as the heart.” Here is a
collection of opinions, of such weight, that the general fact
which they assert must be considered to be established be¬
yond contradiction. Buffon also says that he caused pines,
firs, and other species of evergreens, to be barked standing ;
and as he found them live longer after the operation than
oaks which had been also stripped, he considered their w ood
acquired proportionately greater hardness, strength, and
carts and implements of husbandry, for machinery, for tools
of almost all trades ; and it supplies oars to our shipping. Of
late it has also been much used in the construction of the
beds for locomotive steam-engines, tenders, and carriages.
In consequence of the immense consumption of timber
for the maintenance of our fleets, there is much imported.
We import oak of excellent quality as planking, from the
forests on the shores of the Baltic, especially from those of
durability. He recommended the practice for fir trees des- Poland. From Italy and from both shores of the Adriatic;
lined to be converted into ships’ masts. sided timber and plank are imported in large quantities'
Elm, of which there are two principal varieties, like oak, The Italian timber is extremely subject to rends, but is
will not bear a damp soil with stagnant waters, but it thrives both strong and durable; and the Adriatic oak has been
TIMBER.
295
r:r.
5 —
t
f
r
»lebrated for centuries. The Americas do not produce
jhe oak timber; but considerable quantities are imported
jlmi Canada, in consequence of the lowness of the price at
mich it can be sold in England. There are two sorts of
*k growing in America, the white and the red, but both
ge very inferior to European timber. There is, however,
a American oak, called the live oak, produced principally
ii the Floridas, which has the character of being among the
Host durable timbers in existence. It is said to be compa-
Htively incorruptible, but it is not a timber much known in
Jj-itain. The great resource of our dock-yards for timber
a large scantling is an African timber, called Tortosa,
iiore commonly only “ African.” It is a heavy, hard, close-
{jained, and even textured wood, well adapted for beams, and
iir internal vrorks, but does not resist alternations of mois-
Itre, and deteriorates rapidly whenever it is in contact with
i>n. The wood round the bolt-heads is carbonized in an
ibredibly short space of time—incredible when the strength,
fixture, and hardness of the wood are considered ; but it
gpears to be a timber wholly without any protective olea-
gious or terebinthinous juices. There are several species
c timber that are much used in Britain in the construc-
t n of merchant-ships, but which are unknown in the royal
t ck-yards. We shall in a subsequent portion of this article
utice these, for the purpose of showing their relative values.
re consider that the most satisfactory course we can pur¬
ge to effect this object, without occupying more space than
on be appropriated to this article, will be to give the tabu-
11' arrangement of woods, as enforced by Lloyd’s surveyors,
aider the direction of the committee of that establishment.
We have hitherto confined our remarks to the hard-wood
Unber trees, and have said but little of the numerous firs
nich are so valuable to us. Their timber is admirably
sapted, by its growth, lightness, and strength to supply our
a vies with masts and spars; while, from its comparatively
eiall cost, and the ease with which it is worked, it is also
*ed very largely for all purposes of building. Indeed it is
restionable whether fir is not more generally useful to us
Ian any other species of timber. Du Hamel, in his treatise
lu Transport et de la Conservation des Bois, has drawn
adistinction between firs and pines, although it is usual to
•isignate the timber of both as fir timber. Pines, he says,
Ive the leaves thready and slender, growing in clusters
tom the same leaf-stalk, while firs have straight leaves, each
lowing separate, but many growing on the same leaf-stalk,
le the teeth of a comb. These are the general character-
i ics between the two sorts of trees which produce fir tim-
Jtr. The pines grow with their trunks much less tapering
(Iwards their tops than the firs; they are therefore, from
»ape, more adapted for masts than firs. Their wood is also
sore resinous, and the resin is of a more glutinous nature,
ad therefore less easily evaporated ; it also, in consequence
ii this quality, enables the timber to resist better the absorp-
ilm of water or moisture when exposed to it. The pine is
tore durable than the fir, and its fracture is, even when
ttrtially decayed, much more fibrous, and takes place with
tore previous warning. The timber of the pine, when
falthy, is close-grained, even textured, and of a bright-yel-
#w colour. The fir is, although frequently little inferior
# appearance in other respects, always of a much paler
lade of colour.
The most valuable of all the varieties of fir timber is that
'nich is called Riga fir. It is the red-wood pine of the
torth of Europe, the Pinvs Sylvestris, which, although
jiread over a very large portion of the globe, appears to
Parish in its greatest perfection in the forests of Lithuania
jid Poland, where the cold is severe and the soil generous.
tea fir is not only extremely flexible and elastic, but is by
f ^e most durable of all the pine timbers; and as long as
icould be procured of sufficient size, it was therefore gene-
flly used in the royal navy not only for topmasts, but also
to build the lower or standing masts. At present, from the Timber,
increased difficulty of procuring large sticks, the use of it''■“’"■''v'-"'”
is confined to topsail-yards and the smaller description of
spars. The American continent also produces this red-
pine timber of good quality, although much inferior to that
of the north of Europe. It is imported from Canada and
from Virginia. The Canadian red pine is of small size,
seldom exceeding fourteen hands. The Virginian pine is
large, sticks of twenty-four and twenty-five inches in dia¬
meter not being uncommon. It is a resinous and flexible
wood ; but the sticks are more subject than the Canadian
red pine to the defect of having large knots in them, which,
from not being firmly united to the surrounding timber, that
is, not being what is technically called “ well collared,” in¬
jure its value. The red pine thrives extremely well in Scot¬
land, where it is called Scotish fir. There are many ex¬
tensive forests of it in that part of Great Britain, but the
timber will not bear comparison with that which is import¬
ed. Notwithstanding this, Du Hamel makes “ Scotish pine”
the generic name of the best variety of the pine timber,
that which we designate as “ Riga.” The French dock¬
yards are supplied with mast-timber from the red pine
of the Pyrenees and of the island of Corsica; but neither
of these varieties of this timber is considered at all on an
equality with that which is grown in the more northern parts
of Europe. Indeed a low temperature of climate appears
to be essential to the production of superior fir timber. The
firs on the northern sides of hills and mountains, in all tem¬
perate climates, thrive better than those growing on the
southern exposure, and even the timber on the northern
side of an exposed fir tree is far superior to that on its south¬
ern side.
Yellow pine, the Pinus Strobus, which is imported from
Canada, is the principal timber now available for large
masts and yards, and is therefore very generally used both
in the royal and the mercantile navies. It has neither the
flexibility nor the elasticity of the red pine, nor is it so du¬
rable, but it is much lighter. Its great recommendations
are its large size and its comparatively small cost. Sticks of
this timber run from sixteen to twenty-seven or twenty-eight
inches in diameter; and for bowsprits they are sometimes
received in the royal yards as large as twenty-nine and thirty
inches in diameter; but sticks of these large diameters are
becoming very scarce. To Mr Cradock of Portsmouth dock¬
yard, a member of the late School of Naval Architecture,
we are indebted for the following information as to the more
extensive application of this species of fir for spars of all sizes
in the American navy than in our own. In June of the
year 1837, he surveyed the mast and spars of the Ameri¬
can frigate Independence, then lying at Spithead. “ They
were generally as large, and in some instances the spars
were larger, than those of the Britannia, a British first rate ;
and the whole of them, without any exception, were made
of yellow-pine timber. Her topgallant-masts were about
twenty feet longer than those of the Britannia, and yet were
only of the same diameter, while those of the Britannia are
made of Riga hand-masts. The topmasts were of the same
length and diameter as those of the Britannia, which are
made of Virginia red pine; the topsail-yards were three
feet longer, and were yet only one inch more in diameter
than those of the Britannia, which of course are made of
Riga; and so on with the other spars. This proves, that
the yellow-pine timber may be safely used if necessary for
all masting purposes, with a very little increase in the di¬
ameter of the spars made from it, and with thicker battens
on the yards.”
The yellow-pine timber growrs also in Great Britain, where
it was first introduced by an earl of Weymouth, and thence
is called the Weymouth pine; but it does not appear to
thrive in this climate.
Scotish and Norwegian spruce spars, Pinus Abies, are xery
296
T I M B E R.
Timber, generally used in the mercantile navy for yards and top- available for the topmasts and other principal spars of the
 v  masts, and also in the royal navy for the smaller description largest classes of vessels ; but from its want of elasticity,
of spars and boats’ masts. They are tough, close- grained, and its liability to warp and rend, it is not so suitable for small
and elastic, but are very full of large knots ; and care is conversions. It varies greatly in its quality, even so much
The timber also is soft “
therefore required in selecting them.
and far from durable, it having very little appearance of resin.
The Norwegian spruce grows frequently to a large size.
Cedar, Pinus Cedrus, would be among the most valuable
of all timber trees, were it sufficiently common to be avail¬
able for building purposes. It is almost indestructible fiom
time, and no insects will ever attack it. It thrives uell in
this climate, but hitherto has only been planted either as
an object of curiosity or of ornament. It requires a more
generous soil than any other of the tribe of pines, and is
considered to be a timber of very slow growth. Pitch-
pine is also a very valuable timber for building purposes,
but it is too heavy for spars,
as often to be of different colours, grain, and texture, in
the same stick. It is of about the same average weight as
Virginia red pine
Larch timber, Pinus Larix, formerly unknown in Great
Britain, has, within the last century, been very extensively
planted. The first plantations of it were made on the vast
estates of the duke of Athol], in the Highlands of Scotland.
The following account, which is extracted from Knowles on
Preserving the Navy, was, as the author of that work
states, furnished to him by the late duke, and it contains,
consequently, the results of the longest experience as to
the growth of larch timber in Britain which can be ob¬
tained. The account is interesting, because plantations of
Fir sticks the Riga hand-masts especially, are very liable larch are becoming very numerous, as they are found to be
to have serious defects in them, which it is often impossible
to discover until the stick is worked. I hey are techni¬
cally called upsets. The grain appears to be partly se¬
parated, so that a shaving from the stick at that place
would bend to a sharp angle at the upset, as if partly
very profitable. The returns from a larch plantation dur¬
ing the time the trees are arriving at their full growth, are
estimated to be at least double what they would have been
from an equal plantation of any other timber. “ Seedlings
of larch were probably first brought into Scotland in the
broken. There always appears to be a greater or less ac- year 1738, by Mr Menzies; but it has been asserted by
cumulation of the turpentine about the injury, as if it had some, that they were introduced into that part of this coun-
originally exuded at the wound, and become congealed try in 1734-, by Lord Karnes. Some were left at Dunkeld,
around it. These defects are most frequently found in the and some at Blair Athole, by the former gentleman; and
smaller sticks, those especially that are more resinous and being exotic plants, were placed by the gardeners in green-
knotty than others ; and they sometimes are so numerous houses. Not thriving in those situations, they were plant-
as to extend, at very short distances apart, for a great por- ed in the pleasure-grounds, where they grew luxuriantly,
tion of the leno-th of the stick. Mr Cradock, who has long When the present duke succeeded to the titles and estates
superintended&the mast-making at Portsmouth dock-yard, (in 1774), there was a considerable number of trees in a
considers them to be the effect of violent winds on the thriving state; and on a general survey of his estates in
more exposed trees of a forest. He founds this opinion on 1783, there were found to be 900 Scotish acres of planta-
the facts that they are most common in the most flexible tion, 600 of which were of larch; since which time his
timber; that they are not perceived in sticks of large dia- grace has planted extensively every year, and in the spring
meter;’and that in the firs of little flexibility, as the yel- of 1820, 10,820 Scotish, or about 12,984 English acres,
low pine, they are seldom or never found; although the were covered with trees. The different species were, of
sticks of this fir, from being cut in every variety of direc- - - - •
tion, to form the components of made-masts, are more
searched than any other. The cowdee, a New Zealand
timber, lately introduced both in the royal and mercantile
navies, is, he says, much subject to this defect; and he has
observed it once in a poon topmast. Ihe defect seldom
or never appears in the outer layers of the timber, but only
after some of these have been removed by the axe, and the
older timber laid bare of the sap-wood.
The sap-wood in all fir timber is useless, and very ge¬
nerally there is a large proportion of it in comparison to
the quantity of heart-wood. It is rather a curious fact,
that there appears to be a difference between the pines
and the generality of the hard-wood timber in this, that a
small proportion of sap-wood in fir is indicative of the in¬
feriority of the timber. Thus the red pine of Scotland has
fewer layers of sap-wood than either the red pine of Ca¬
nada or of the Baltic. As a general remark, it maybe
stated, that the greater the quantity of sap-wood there is
about a tree of any description of fir timber, the better
will be the quality of the spine, which is the technical name
given to the mature wood.
The cowdee, which is now largely imported into this
country, is a close and even-grained timber, almost entire-
Scotch Acres.
Oak  800
Scotish firs   1,500
Spruce firs  500
Mixed plantations in the pleasure-grounds  200
Birch  200
Larch 7,620
ly free from knots. It grows to so large a size as to be
Above the ground, 1 ft. 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6
Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft.
Girth  17 8 14 6 12 7 11 9 11 5 11
10,820
“ The larch thrives in very exposed situations. The
lower range of the Grampian Hills, which extends to Dun¬
keld, are at an altitude there of from 1000 to 1700 feet
above the level of the sea. The larch trees are planted as
high as 1200 feet up these hills, and grow exceedingly
well; a situation where the hardy Scotish firs cannot rear
their heads. The spruce fir, however, thrives equally well
as the larch on high and exposed hills. The growth ol
the larch trees is very rapid, and Scotish fir of the same age
will measure only half the quantity; and so much is the
wood esteemed in Scotland, that while the former is worth
2s. 6d. per cubic foot, the latter brings only Is. 3d. The
following account of a larch tree, planted in the year 1738,
and measured February 1819, will give some notion of its
growth.
ft. 10ft. 20 ft. 30 ft. 40 ft. 50 ft. 60 ft. 70 ft. 75 ft-
In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft, In. Ft. In-
1 10 4 9 7 8 11 7 11 6 3 4 8 3 2 1
“ The top was fifteen feet in height, making the whole black or American, and also of the Russian larch, but has
height ninety feet; and the tree measured 300 feet, or six found that they do not thrive well. The timber in ques-
loads, in cubical contents. The white and red larch trees tion has been used for many years in Scotland for alnws
are those chiefly planted. The duke has made trial of the all local purposes, such as posts, rails, mill-wheels, fishing
T I M B E R.
297
aniferry-boats; and in all these situations has been found
to fc very durable. The author has seen part of a ferry-
boa twenty-three years old, which remained very sound,
anddie iron nails driven into it as perfect as when they
firbicame from the forge. This perhaps was occasioned by
the: being constantly covered with an insoluble varnish
(th* Venice turpentine of the shops), with which the larch
aboinds. The duke of Atholl has recently built a vessel
of 10 tons wholly of larch, the necessary knees and crooks
beig formed from the roots of the trees; the lower
mats and boats are also of that wood, the topmasts and
yarw of spruce firs grown upon his estates. One of the
quaties of larch for building merchant-ships, is its great
ligfeiess, a cubic foot weighing, when seasoned (which it
doe rapidly), only thirty-four pounds. Although it is not
so ;rong as many sorts of wood, it has great resilience.
Cainet -work of great beauty has been made from larch ;
it flishes well, and when seasoned is not found to warp
or frink. In addition to its other properties, it is slow of
commstion, and is said to let shot through without splin-
terig. A most important fact in agriculture has arisen
froi planting larch trees on rocky ground ; the vegetable
corbost formed thereon by the falling of the leaves has
betf the cause of producing herbage for feeding cattle,
andlnade that land which on the average did not formerly
brig more than 8d. or 9d. per acre, now to be worth from
12sto 14s. per acre annually.”
lirch timber, although so generally planted, and so ge-
nenly thriving, requires considerable attention, in the se-
lectbn of proper soil for it. It is very subject to a heart-
rotjvhich seizes on the roots, and rapidly proceeds up the
ceire of the stem of the plant, which swells considerably
forieveral feet above the surface of the ground. Larch
cairot bear a cold, damp soil, or any stagnation of water,
or ven the moisture of the rich vegetable moulds. Nor
wil it thrive in the light sandy soils; for although it
disxes marshy stagnant waters, its roots require to be pre-
sorcd from the droughts of summer. Sandy and gravelly
soil if situated so as to receive from declivities the mois-
tur percolating through them, will produce excellent
lam timber; as will also the sides of rocky hills and moun¬
tain, in which no moisture can stagnate, and into the
lisares and clefts of which the roots easily penetrate, and
fimlample nourishment. Larch trees attain to a very great
heiiit. In some of the public buildings of Venice, there
aresaid to be single-pieced beams of larch which are 120
fijcr in length. It must be very durable, for it is almost
tlleonly wood which was used in the palaces and public
bjiillings of that city. Larch is imported from Canada un-
dei two names, hackmatack and tamarack; at least the
tinners bearing those names have every appearance of be¬
ing dentical with the Scotish larch.
On the Measurement of Timber.
Smber is bought and sold by solid measure, according
e number of cubic feet in the tree or log. The mea-
nent of timber is therefore the operation by which
tile? cubic contents are determined ; that is, the multiply-
mg;ogether the three dimensions, or the mean length, the
bftdth, and the depth of each log. If the log should vary
■nub in size in different parts, then the length, breadth,
anidepth of each of these parts must be multiplied toge-
thr and the contents of the log will be the sum of the
prr nets. When the log tapers, a mean breadth or depth
I’ken ; the object in every case being to attain the most
eo ect approximation to the contents of the log. In mea-
su ig rough logs, it is however usual to gird the log at
is 'h* measuring place with a string, and then, folding the
string into four equal parts, to assume this fourth part of the Timber
girth to be one side of the square area at the measuring place; v-—
which area, when multiplied by the length, will give the
solid contents of the log. The arithmetical operation, sim¬
ple as it is, is universally superseded by the more simple
and far more correct plan of referring to published tables
of contents, calculated for every foot in length of a log, and
every quarter of an inch in the side of the square. Those
most generally used for this purpose are in Hoppus’s Prac¬
tical Measurer.
In measuring standing timber, the length is taken as high
as the tree will measure twenty-four inches in circumfe¬
rence, less than which measurement is not considered as
timber. At half this height, the measurement for the mean
girth of the timber in the stem of the tree is taken; one
fourth of this girth is assumed to be the side of the equiva¬
lent square area. The buyer has in general the option of
choosing any spot between the but-end and the half-height
of the stem as the girding place. All branches, as far as
they measure twenty-four inches in girth, are measured in
with the tree as timber. An allowance, which varies ac¬
cording to circumstances, is generally deducted for the
bark. In oak it is from about one tenth to one twelfth of
the circumference at the girding place; in other sorts of
timber it is less. In all, however, this allowance depends
much upon special agreement.
It is usual to speak of timber by the load, which means
fifty cubic feet of squared timber, or forty cubic feet of
rough timber. A load of plank is dependent upon its
thickness. Thus it will require 200 square feet of three-
inch plank to make the load of fifty cubic feet; therefore
the load of plank is the number of square feet of its re¬
spective thickness, which is necessary to make the load of
fifty cubic feet. Deals are measured, according to their
thickness and lengths, by the hundred, reckoning 120 to
the hundred.
The practice of receiving and measuring timber for the
use of the royal navy is more specific and strict in its de¬
tail than that which has been described ; and as the cus¬
toms of the public service in this branch of commerce must
greatly influence the timber market, we shall proceed to
give an outline of them.
Rough oak timber must be so hewn or squared, that at
each measuring place the width of the surface or square
shall not be less than one fourth the diameter of the piece
at the place w'here the measurement is to be taken. The
lengths for measurement are regulated by the several stops
or joggles. Each piece of timber is measured for contents,
by calliper measurements, as far as the spine1 will hold twelve
inches in diameter; and no tops are received excepting
the spire and one other limb, remaining on the piece, and
admitting of being converted with it. These limbs are
only measured as far as they will hold twelve inches in dia¬
meter, unless the timber will convert as compass timber, in
which case it is measured as far as it will hold nine inches
in diameter.
Rough elm timber is measured in the same manner as
the oak, excepting that the piece is measured as far as it
will hold nine inches in diameter.
Sided timber, which may be defined as the rough log
with two and opposite slabs sawn from it, is measured ac¬
cording to the following conditions. The term “ siding”
is synonymous with thickness, and the term “ moulding”
with breadth. It must measure at least twelve inches in
parallel thickness. The moulding at the but-end must not
exceed the siding by more than one half. The moulding
at the middle of the length must not exceed the siding by
more than one fourth, nor by less than one eighth ; and the
moulding at the top-end must not exceed the siding by
hL, xxr.
Spine is the technical term used to designate the perfect wood.
2 p
298
TIMBER.
Timber.
more than one eighth, nor be less than the siding. The
piece must be fairly tapered from the but-end to the mid¬
dle of the length, and must not have more than four inches
in the two wanes taken together on either side ; that is to
say, if there be but one wane,1 that wane shall not exceed
four inches. The piece must be so sided, that between the
wanes, at half its length, there shall not be less than the
siding with one eighth in addition, and the pane at the top-
end must not be less than two thirds the pane at the mid¬
dle of the length. The piece is measured for contents as
far as it holds between the wanes three fourths of its siding.
It must be so hewn the moulding way, that the surface of
the square shall not be less than one fourth the diameter of
the piece at that place, and this dimension must be set off
previously to the diameter for measurement being taken.
No but-length is allowed, but the timber is measured for
contents at the middle of the length. If any piece of tim¬
ber has length beyond the prescribed proportion of pane,
and which is really convertible with the piece, it is received
at a reduction of price. Timber having five inches or
more of naturally grown rounding in any twelve feet or less
of its length, is denominated compass timber.
Timber of certain sidings must have at least certain pro¬
portionate lengths. These are as follow :
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
12
Siding,
inches to
Length.
19^ must be at least 24 feet.
  22 ...
  20 ...
  18 ...
  16 ...
  14 ...
12   12 ...
10   10 ...
2
181
171
161
15J
141
Compass oak timber is measured in the same manner as
straight timber, with the exception that its moulding must
not exceed its siding less than one fifth of that siding ; and
that the moulding at the but-end is to be measured as large
as it will hold without more than four inches on the two
wanes on either side taken together.
Thick-stuff is a name used to designate all planks beyond
a certain arbitrarily assumed thickness, which is now four
and a half inches and upwards, to ten inches inclusive. All
below four and a half inches in thickness is called plank.
It must be cut straight and of a parallel thickness, and the
breadth for measurement, which is taken at half the length
of the piece, must not exceed nineteen inches nor be less
than twelve inches clear of sap. This breadth, at the mid¬
dle of the length, is measured by taking in half the wanes,
thus,
? provided the breadth
clear of the sap is within two inches of the breadth at which
the piece is received. No thick-stuff’ can be received of
less length than twenty-three feet, at which length it must
measure nine inches clear of the sap; and all extra length,
as far as it measures nine inches between the sap, is mea¬
sured into the contents.
The rules for measuring thick-stuff and plank vary slight¬
ly, in order to accord with the growth of the sort of timber
from which they are converted. For example, in the case
of Lorraine oak thick-stuff, the minimum length is twenty-
four feet: the measurement for breadth, which must not ex¬
ceed eighteen inches, nor be less than fourteen inches, is
taken at eight feet from the but-end of the piece. The
piece must be square edged from end to end, and must
measure nine inches at the top-end clear of sap on the
most sappy side. English elm thick-stuff of five inches and
four and a half inches in thickness, must not be less than
fourteen inches broad in the middle of the length, nor less
than twelve inches broad at the top-end clear of shakes and
dead sap. The planks must average twenty-six feet in
length, and no plank may be of less length than twenty-three
feet. North American rock elm thick-stuff of five inches
and four and a half inches in thickness, is received at twelve
inches broad, clear of shakes and sap, of the average length
of twenty-eight feet, but none shorter than twenty-four feet
in length.
English oak plank of four inches thick must be at least
twenty-two feet, and of three inches thick at least twenty
feet in length. The breadth between the sap at those
lengths must be seven inches, and the plank is measured as
far as it holds six inches clear of sap. The breadth for
measurement, which is taken at half the length of the piece
and clear of sap, must not be less than nine inches for the
four-inch plank, and eight inches for the three-inch plank.
This is taking in half the wanes, provided the breadth clear
of sap be within two inches of the breadth at which the
piece is received.
Dantzig oak plank of four and a half and four inches
thick is to mete at thirty-two feet long, with a minimum
length of tw^enty-four feet. It is to be from twelve to fifteen
inches broad, and cut square edged its whole length. Plank
of three and a half and three inches thick is to mete at
twenty-eight feet long, with a minimum length of twenty-
four feet, and to be from twelve to fourteen inches broad,
Lorraine plank must be square edged from end to end.
No plank of four inches in thickness is to be less than
twenty-four feet in length, or more than sixteen inches
or less than thirteen inches in breadth, at seven feet from
the but-end. The length is to be measured for superficial
contents as far as the plank runs eight inches in breadth,
clear of sap on the most sappy side. For three-inch plank,
the minimum length is twenty feet. The breadth at six feet
from the but must not exceed sixteen inches, nor be less
than twelve inches; and the length is to be measured for
superficial contents, as far as the plank runs seven inches
in breadth, clear of sap on the most sappy side. The sap
on the two edges taken together on either side of this plank,
after the edge is squared, must not exceed one inch; that
is to say, if there be no sap on one edge, that on the other
edge must not exceed one inch.
Fir timber received for general purposes is measured for
its size at the middle of its length, and the size for mea¬
surement must be the mean of the sizes taken at the but
and top, and the spine must be seen on the four sides from
end to end of the piece. The red-pine timber, whether
from the north of Europe or from Virginia, is not received
of less length than eighteen feet, nor less in diameter than
eleven inches. The Canada red-pine timber, which must
be felled above Montreal, must not be of less length than
twenty feet. The North American yellow pine must be
at least twenty feet in length, and sixteen inches square.
That which is received for the cheeks of made-masts is re¬
quired to run as high in dimensions as sixty-three feet in
length, and eighteen inches square at the measuring place.
Fir that is received especially for mast-making is re¬
quired to be of certain proportionate dimensions. It is di¬
vided into two sorts, inch-masts and hand-masts. The
inch-masts are designated according to the number of
inches they measure in diameter at a measuring place
called the partners, after they have been chopped on each
square, so as to show spine; and their length must be
nine feet more than three times the number of feet which
they have inches in diameter. The distance of the part¬
ners from the but-end is in a given ratio to the whole
M ,iik s the technical term used to designate the hypothenuse of an angular portion of timber which is wanting to complete the rectan¬
gular boundary of a log ; while pane is the term applied to the side of the log between the wanes.
TIMBER.
299
i(
ii
0
tl
1
II
l(
I)
)
,1
v
e
r
i,
e
)
e
i
)i
ligth of the stick. Between the partners and the top-
t cl certain measuring places are determined, at each of
\iiich places, called “ quarters,” the diameter of the stick
rist be in a given proportion to the diameter at the
gjrtners; and all these conditions must be fulfilled before
ta stick can be received at the number of inches first as-
sned as the diameter at the partners. If the sticks are
i ended for yards, the measuring place is at the slings, in
tti middle of the length, and the stick is measured from
tit point towards each end, the quarters being set off each
vi.y. If the sticks are intended for bowsprits, the given
cimeter is at the bed, and the quarters are set off towards
geh end.
All these proportions for masts, yards, and bowsprits,
ai; determined from tables which have been drawn out
f' the purpose, and framed to suit the peculiarities of the
g)wth of the various sorts of timber to be applied to these
gferent uses.
Hand-masts are measured in their round state, accord-
i f to the number of hands they are in circumference at
t;i but, the hand being four inches. Their length must
1 eighteen feet more than three times the number of feet
tfit they are hands in circumference, and the top-end
last measure in circumference two thirds of the measure-
r :nt of the but. Sticks which measure less than six hands
a; received under the general name of spars, and are de-
gnated as cant, barling, boom, middling, and small spars,
wording as they measure above five, four, three, two, or
tae hand respectively.
On the Woods of India.
The following account of woods, the growth of our pos-
Sssions in the East Indies, is compiled from a series of re-
j)rts with which the writer of this article was favoured,
rough the enlightened liberality of the Court of Directors
e the Honourable East India Company, and also from a
pper in the Asiatic Annual Register, written by Daniel
I mbert, Esq., which accompanied those reports. The re-
jirts were made to the honourable court by their surveyor
(i shipping in Bengal, John Millingar Seppings, Esq., a
Si of the late able surveyor of the royal navy, Sir Ro-
Ikrt Seppings. The account embodies all those points in
Ife reports which contain information consistent with the
prpose of this article; and, as nearly as has been possible
ii such a compilation, in order to insure correctness of in-
ihnation, the language of the reports has been adhered to.
Tie report of the experiments made by Captain H. C.
Mer has been given entire, as it would not admit of con-
tinsation; but in order to economize space, only the mean
isults of the experiments have been printed; and the
umber of experiments of which the given results are a
lean, has been inserted in the table.
We have also been enabled, through the great kindness
a friend, to enrich this article by a most valuable tabu-
l|fr series of original observations on the effect which sea-
sning produces on almost every species of timber that has
len treated of in the course of the foregoing remarks:
1! which are appended some most interesting and judi-
iims observations and deductions by the author of the
fele, Mr Bennett, of her majesty’s dock-yard at Ports-
^puth, a member of the late School of Naval Architecture.
The woods used in India for ship-building are, teak,
#al, sissoo, jarrol, poon, and toon. Teak is the most
•arable among these timbers, but it varies very nypch in
nality. There are two kinds of the Malabar teak, the
I’rthern and southern ; the first is far superior in point of
Urability, but is the most difficult to procure. The Mala-
II r teak is classed at Bombay as follows. No. 1, Northern,
i1 rveil timber, which is brought a distance from Bombay
) from 130 to 140 miles; No. 2, Southern, Calicut teak;
No. 3, Northern Pattey, or straight timber, used for small Timber,
vessels and boats; No. 4, Bassein, or curved timber. «.
The great length of time which several vessels built of
Malabar teak have lasted (from thirty to fifty years, in some
particular instances nearly a century) has established the
prime Malabar northern teak as the most valuable timber
in the world for ship-building. It is, however, like every
kind of wood, liable to early decay, if not properly or gra¬
dually seasoned, by exposure to a moderate current of air
after being felled. Malabar teak is so seldom imported
into Calcutta, from the expense of bringing it round Ceylon,
and on account of the distance, that it may be said never
to be used there for ship-building.
Pegu and Moulmein teak is extensively used by the
ship-builders of the Hooghly, and is the only description
of teak timber imported in any quantity to the Calcutta
markets. It is brought in a half-wrought state, the logs
or planks being squared. Pegu and Moulmein teak is a
coarse, porous, open-grained wood, when compared with
Malabar teak. It is not a timber which can be depended
upon, particularly that which is of a pale-brown colour,
which frequently goes very rapidly to decay. It is also of
such a mixed quality, and the importation to Calcutta is so
limited, that it is frequently difficult to select sufficient
prime dark timber out of all the cargoes to build a ship of
200 tons burthen. Its weight, when moderately seasoned,
may on an average be stated to be forty-two pounds per
cubic foot, while the weight of Malabar teak on an average
is from forty-five to fifty-two pounds per cubic foot. The
forests of Tonga and Irrawaddy supply the whole of the
Pegu teak. That of the Tonga forests is of the best qua¬
lity, the country being high, and not flooded during the
rainy season ; whereas the forests of the Irrawaddy are al¬
ways in a swampy state, and are part of the year covered
with water sufficient to allow of the trees being floated
from where they are felled. The Birmans are in the habit
of tapping the teak trees, particularly those which are
straight grown, to extract a varnish or oil, which is highly
prized by them, and used chiefly for protecting their pa¬
godas or temples from the weather, for which purpose it is
very effectual. These edifices are built entirely of untapt
teak, as the Birmans consider the timber to be much in¬
jured, both in its strength and its durability, by being de¬
prived of this oil. The principal parts of these temples are
sunk in the ground, and although so fixed, the timber re¬
mains perfectly sound, notwithstanding many of them have
stood nearly a century.
The importation of teak from Moulmein and the Tenas-
serim coast has only taken place since the Birman war.
Prior to that period, Calcutta was supplied almost exclusive¬
ly from Rangoon, but only with straight teak. The Moul¬
mein market first supplied crooked teak timbers, which sold
at such prices as to induce the Rangoon merchants also to
send crooked timber from thence. The quantity, however,
is so very limited, that the greatest difficulty is at present
experienced upon the Hooghly in completing vessels from
100 to 400 tons entirely of teak.
Inferior as the Pegu and Moulmein teak is in quality
when compared with the Bombay teak, it is preferable
either to the saul or the sissoo, which has been brought to
Calcutta within the last fifteen years, and which will be
presently noticed. The accounts of the forests of Pegu
and Tenasserim are, that they are inexhaustible, and, if
encouraged and properly worked, would supply timber of
the largest size, and in sufficient quantity to meet the whole
demand of the royal yards of Britain. In the batches of
teak brought from the Tenasserim coast, a species of dark-
coloured teak, approaching to black, may be noticed,
which appears to be a superior description of timber. It is
very tough, with the grain close and irregular. It is said to
be brought down from the forests mixed with the common
300
Timber, or brown teak. The following useful information as to the
expense of both workmanship and material was obtained,
in October 1832, from Captain Forzar, who was engaged
in the Moulmein timber trade.
“ The head Birmah carpenter, Mistry, offered to supply
and trim teak timbers all round for a ship of 400 tons, at four
rupees each; or to execute the whole of the work, as it re¬
gards the supply of carpenters, for 10,000 Sicca rupees, in¬
cluding joiners’ work for the hull, and the masts, yards, &c.”
“ The price of teak crooks at Moulmein was,
1st sort large, to side about 12 to 15 in. 7 rup. each.
2d ditto middling, ditto 11 to 8 in. 3 to 5 rup. each.”
“ The ‘ Cashmere Merchant’ cargo (imported into Cal¬
cutta) cost at Moulmein in 1832,
From 15 feet (1st sort large... 9 rupees each,
to 18 feet 2d do. middling 6 ditto,
in length. ( 3d do. small  4 ditto.
“ Boat timbers, to side from three to six inches, and
from four to seven feet long, cost from twenty to twenty-
five rupees per hundred.”
The other kind of teak used in India for ship-building
is the Java teak, of which considerable quantities were im¬
ported into Calcutta during the time the English governed
that island. Of late years scarcely any has been imported.
The Java teak is of a very superior quality, and, judging
from the state of the vessels built of it, it is nearly if not
quite equal to Malabar teak.
All descriptions of teak, if sound, free from defects and
from sap-wood, are proof against the white ants ; whereas
all other descriptions of timber enumerated in this memo¬
randum are liable to the attacks of these insects.
Saul is a hard heavy wood. It is imported from Behar,
Oude, and the inexhaustible forests that skirt the hills which
form the northern boundaries of Bengal and Behar. It
is used extensively in all Calcutta ships, for the timbers,
beams, &c. It is of two kinds, the Goruckpore and Mo-
rung ; the first is a most inferior timber, and goes rapidly to
decay. An intelligent gentleman long engaged in the tim¬
ber trade of this country writes as follows. The forests
situated to the east of the Goosey river, and to the west of
the Teestan, produce the only good said in India, which,
like the elephant, deteriorates in quality the farther it is
produced to the westward. The best timber is found at
the foot of the hills, on a rocky ground. Sauls of large
dimensions are now becoming exceedingly scarce, as the
whole of the forests within a reasonable distance of the na¬
vigable streams are completely exhausted ; and every good
timber must now be conveyed by land-carriage a journey
of two days. A great part of the natives, and all the Euro¬
peans (with the exception of one gentleman), have given up
timber cutting altogether. The great superiority of Mo-
rung said over that produced to the west of these forests
appears to have been but a recent discovery in Calcutta,
though always well known to the native boat-builders.
Ihat found to the west of the Goosey river, for instance,
Goruckpore and Bogah, being of a soft spongy nature, but
little better than Mango wood, is now driven out of the
market. I he prejudice existing against the smaller timbers
(dakar), on the ground of immaturity, would be done away
with were it known that every fine tree produces a large
and a small timber, the bottom the chakar, the top the
dakar.
^ Good saul is inferior to the very fine description of sissoo
which was used in Calcutta-built ships about thirty years
ago. The best description of saul, if well seasoned, may be
classed, in point of durability, with the best sort of African
B E R.
timber, now so extensively used by the ship-builders of Eng.
land. The greatest care is necessary in the selection ofV
saul for immediate use, on account of its requiring a lone
time to season. It is very heavy, and will not answer foranv
part of a ship exposed to the sun, as it shrinks very much.
Saul continues to be used for the frame, beams, shelf-pieces
breast-hooks, and inside planking, of ships built at Calcutta!
Sissoo may be classed of two kinds, the dark and the
light coloured. The first grows in the forests of the same
districts where the best saul is to be found ; but it has be¬
come so very scarce for some years past, that it is now sel¬
dom or never brought to Calcutta, although scarcely thirty
years have elapsed since the forests of the north-west dis-
tricts of Behar, where the finest sissoo timber is produced
were pronounced to be almost inexhaustible. The other
kind (the light) has been the only crooked timber of late
years brought down the country for ship-building: it is de¬
cidedly an inferior sort of wood, very subject to the dry rot,
and to the attack of white ants.
Jarrol is of two sorts, the red and the white. The red
jarrol grows to a size fit for the largest ships, and may be
obtained in any quantity near Chittagong; at which place
several fine ships have been built, some of which are now
running, although from fifteen to twenty-five years old.
They were built of red jarrol timbers, with Pegu teak plank.
Jarrol is very extensively used in Rangoon-built ships, but
of a mixed and inferior sort. Comparing the superior sort
of jarrol with the best kind of sissoo or saul, it must be con¬
sidered an inferior wood in point of durability. White
jarrol is very inferior, and never should be used in ship¬
building.
Poon is also of two kinds, the dark and the light. It is
a wood that answers very well for masts, for which it is
used; but it is perfectly unfit to be introduced into the hull,
either as timbers or planks. The Malacca red poon is that
of which masts and yards are made.
Toon should never be used for ship-building. It has how¬
ever been introduced into several Cochin-built ships, and
after five years has been found perfectly rotten. It is a
porous open-grained wood ; and the only use it can be ap¬
plied to is for making furniture, for which it is extensively
used in Calcutta.
Perhaps the best test of the durability of a Calcutta-built
ship which can be cited, will be the Hastings of seventy-
four guns, built there in 1818. The hull is composed of
saul, sissoo, Pegu and Java teak, all of the best kind. So
great was the expense incurred in the building of this ship,
that when completed, the account, after giving credit for
her freight, exhibited the cost of the hull for sea 11,63,751
Sicca rupees, or, ten rupees to the pound, L.l 16,375 ster¬
ling. It is usual in Calcutta-built ships to convert the
frame, with the knees, breast-hooks, &c. from sissoo timber;
the beams and inside planking being of sad, and the bot¬
toms, w ales, topsides, decks, keels, stem, and stern-posts, of
the Pegu teak.
Results of a Series of Experiments on the Elasticity and trans¬
verse Strength of different kinds of Timber. By Captain
H. C. Baker, Superintendent of Suspension Chain-Bridges
in Bengal.
The experiments, of which the results1 only are here
recorded, were conducted, as nearly as circumstances ad¬
mitted, with similar apparatus to that used by Mr Barlow,
and described in his treatise on the strength and stress ot
timber.
T I M
e great extent of these experiments precludes the possibility of printing the whole of the results. In this article we have therefore con-
i'led ourselves to the averages which Captain Baker has deduced from them, and have merely stated in addition, the number of separate «*•
penments trom which these averages were shown. The experiments were made between the years 1827 and 1834.
T I M
bcrt The specimens, many of them, were obtained from the
.''-'•'Commissariat Timber Depot; some very fine ones from the
I possipore Gun-Carriage Agency, and others were the pro-
luce of the Calcutta market. Those of three and two feet
II n length were, generally speaking, cut from the sound frag-
: nents of the larger specimens.
The central deflections of the seven and six feet speci-
nens were usually noted immediately after the application
‘ |>f each fifty pounds of fresh load, at which time the set
1 aken by each appeared more regular than after some inter-
al had elapsed. The first deflections were commonly re-
■ orded with 150 pounds weight, in some cases with only
F Ifty pounds. Sometimes the specimen was turned upon
he trestles and subjected to two or more trials; and in a
1 ,‘w instances the load was left suspended for many hours,
1 eflections being noted at different intervals of time.
The depth of the neutral axis was occasionally observed,
1 ut this has been found to vary so little (being generally
1 ve eighths of the depth) as to render its insertion in the
1 ible of little practical utility.
The direct cohesive strength of the wood having also
1 een subjected to experiment, the calculation of it from
1 dr Barlow’s formula has not been thought necessary ; but
I be curious in such investigations are here presented with
bundant materials for pursuing the inquiry.
it is much to be regretted, that from the circumstances
nder which most of the specimens were obtained, so little
3 iccurate information respecting the timber could be pro-
• ured. The age, size, time of felling, and circumstances
mder which the trees had been respectively placed subse-
^ uently to their being cut down, would all have materially
II nhanced the value of this statement of results to the man
£ f research ; but, unluckily, no such information was acces-
ble. Indeed in few cases was it even precisely known
om what part of the timber the specimen itself was cut
l! iut, or what number was off” the same trunk. The year
> f importation, where known, has been however inserted.
3 The following were the woods experimented on. Saul1 *
f Shared Rohusta Rox). This timber is too well known to
pnder a lengthened description of it requisite ; but its value
i nr building purposes does not yet seem to have been fully
- ^predated. The great mechanical resistance it affords in
c dses of strain, however applied, renders it unquestionably
< ae most valuable of Indian timber yet generally known
ij i r engineering purposes. The regularity of its deflec-
s ions is indeed such as to render calculations of the requisite
i] pantling for any particular stress, at all times simple and
ire.
; j The general appearance of its fracture beautifully illus-
iates Mr Barlow’s theory of the axis of motion or rotation
nng centrically situated ; the upper or compressed fibres
nng smooth as though cut with a sharp knife, those in a
o| iate of tension so fine and intimately blended as to re-
e tfmble those of hemp rope w hen violently torn asunder.
: r The saul of the Calcutta market is seldom above thirty
i let in length, but the trees grow to a much greater height,
t tVom the injudicious practice of squaring it after felling,
£ 6 mean girth is only about six to seven feet, but must be
i! i iturally much greater.
1 Saul has lately been very successfully substituted for
B E R. .301
teak in many of the component parts of the gun-carriages, Timber,
cheeks, beams, and transoms ; poles and framing of gun V—
and ammunition boxes ; occasionally spokes, naves, and
fellies. Its toughness in cases of percussion must obviously
render it a much safer material than teak to be near in ac¬
tion. It has also been used for door and window panels.
It however shrinks more, from its greater density.
To both the above woods, the teak ( Tectona grandis), in
point of strength and elasticity, is decidedly inferior. Its
brittleness renders it indeed rather hazardous to stand near
the specimens when they are subjected to heavy strain, as
the pieces, sometimes several of them, fly with considerable
impetus in different directions.
A reference to the tables will show, that of a great num¬
ber of specimens tried, three only, 80, 81, 88, of which
only the mean result is given in this abridged table, see (1),
at all approximate in results to those of Mr Barlow. The
mean of my experiments is about 2-078, of Mr Barlow’s
2-462, a number which exceeds that of the saul tried by me.
Mr Barlow’s specimens must therefore have been vastly su¬
perior to any in common use throughout India, for the com¬
parative superiority of saul in point of strength is, I believe,
indisputable.
The teak grows to a great height, seventy to eighty feet
and more, but cannot be easily obtained good of that size,
the heart being frequently very much decayed. It is a du¬
rable wood when exposed, and is not subject to the depreda¬
tions of white ants until it has been very long in use. The
uses to which teak is applied are too generally known to
render much remark necessary ; planking, boxes, panel¬
ling, doors, windows, Venetians, furniture, beams of houses,
are amongst the most common.
Sissooh (Dalbergia Sissooh Rox) in structure somewhat
resembles the fine species of teak, but it is tougher and
more elastic. The sissooh grows to the height of about
thirty feet, but it is generally rather crooked, and there¬
fore not so well adapted for beams. Sissooh is said to get
harder with age.
It is by the natives employed for house-furniture, beams,
cheeks; spokes, naves, and fellies of wheels; keels and frames
of boats, blocks, printing presses ; and generally in all work
where crooked timber is required.
Jarrol (red) is a fine even wood in structure, and grows
to great size in the Chittagong district; but that brought to
the Calcutta market is too small to be of much use except
for picture-frames and other similar purposes.
The Chittagong forests are said to be nearly cleared of
the best or thorny species of jarrol; the others are of little
value. It is considered a treacherous wood in ship-build¬
ing.
In the following tables, it is necessary to bear in recol¬
lection that the letters represent the following qualities.
1. The length in inches.
a. The breadth or thickness.
d. The depth.
W. The breaking weight.
A. The last deflection.
W. Greatest weight whilst the elasticity continued unim¬
paired.
3. Deflection ditto ditto.
i JJ1? SfU* ant^ S]SS0° are °.*3ta‘ne^ fron\ the forests north of the Ganges line, between the 25th and 31st degrees of north latitude, and 74th
au Both degrees of east longitude, but chiefly from the tract lying north of Purneah and Goruckpore.
timber
302
Timber.
TABLE L
Mean Results of a
in India.
Series of Experiments on the Elasticity and Transverse Strength of different kinds of Timber grown
Made by Captain H. C. Baker, Superintendent of Suspension Chain-Bridges in Bengal.
Names of the Woods, and Dimensions of the Specimens.
Morung Saul.
In specimens eighty-four inches long, two inches square, and
seventy-tivo inches between the supports.
Cut clear of the heart, from a chowker of the second size
Neem chowker, cut from near the outside 
Chowker, prime, seasoned 
Beam of Tolly-Gunge Bridge, built in 1812, rebuilt in 1819
Dawker, young timber, cut clear of the heart 
Ditto, cut near the heart  
Specimens seventy-two inches long, two inches square, and sixty-
six inches between the supports.
Promiscuously taken from young and old heart and |
outside timber )
Seasoned 
Selected from Gurreah Haul Bridge, built in 1819 
Neem chowker, cut near the heart, not prime timber 
Dawker, young timber, cut clear of the heart 
Battv.
Goruckpore saul 
Neem saul; chowker, sap-wood, inferior specimens.
Teak.
Duggy Rangoon, supposed to have been imported some )
years  
Ditto   
Pegu 
(1) Malabar  
Luzzar 
Malabar 
Mug gun-carriage plank.
Sissooh.
Inferior,cut near the root, seasoned.
Ditto 
Very fine, seasoned 
Toon.
From Chittagong.
In specimens three feet long, one inch broad, one and half inch
deep, and thirty-three inches between the supports.
Saul, selected to give a fair average 
Teak 
Teak, inferior specimens.
Sissooh 
Ditto 
Jarrol   
1825
1822
1814
1812
1825
1825
1818
1825
1826
1826
1823
1826
1825
1825
1825
1826
1826
1827
1819
1819
Greatest weight
and Deflection
while the Elasti¬
city remained
perfect.
Weight
in
Pounds.
928
1054
928
1052
934
842
1069
987
1005
945
1011
993
995
1045
687
690
730
724
688
743
743
691
714
724
643
Deflec¬
tion in
Inches.
450
450
450
300
450
300
500
500
550
500
500
500
500
450
330
550
450
500
400
500
500
300
300
400
300
S
o
“ ■-
■C « I<1
M28 i 1121
1*175 I 1003
1116
1-016
1-21
•906
1-009
1-141
■925
•954
1 033
1 079
1-075
1-312
1-006
1-158
1 266
1116
1-341
1-073
105
1-162
1-675
1-233
•816
1192
863
1040
946
1134
1166
1366
1174
1155
1147
1238
825
873
869
876
1137
1100
1002
993
804
1030
1102
800
663
567
363
579
330
486
I "I"
* ||
a a
a
<u ii
5 £
4-34
3-72
3-50
3-33
3-7
3 87
3-3
3-37
3-4
3-6
3- 4
4- 2
41
3-37
313
468
3-3
3-4
37
2-83
3 35
3 95
3 841
4-4
4 3
1-34
1-2
•83
1-534
12
103
602
696
740
778
704
670
660
646
640
605
640
518
544
646
828
553
660
640
588
769
650
668
535
495
506
536
605
583
473
403
470
9306382
8934121
9406451
6888188
8675702
7724503
8904112
7874014
10683973
9417452
8784213
8326459
8357011
6162976
7652326
7050777
6386907
8050403
6471875
8357011
8556428
6022719
4178149
5829197
6606066
2522
2207
2684
1942
2340
2128
2339
2405
2817
2421
2382
2366
2419
1700
1964
1955
1806
2345
2175
2066
2048
1809
2317
2272
1650
2431
2080
1996
2123
1815
2673
In order to make this valuable series of mean results as useful as possible, we have formed a similar Table from the mean results °Gie e ^
periments made by Professor Barlow, and published by him in his work on the Strength of Timber. The two Tables taken together form
most interesting and perfect series of results.
TIMBER.
303
Ikt.
TABLE II.
Mean Results of Experiments on the Elasticity and Strength of Timber, selected from Her Majesty’s Dock-yard at
Woolwich. Made by Professor Barlow.
Timber.
Names of the Woods, and Dimensions of the Specimens.
In specimens eight feet in length, two inches square, and seven feet
between the supports.
Teak 
Poon 
English oak 
Ditto 
Canadian oak 
Dantzig oak 
Adriatic oak 
Ash 
Beech 
Elm 
Pitch-pine 
lied pine 
New England fir 
Riga fir 
Ditto, six feet long between supports.
Mar Forest fir 
Ditto, six feet long 
Ditto, ditto   
Larch 
Ditto, six feet long 
Ditto, ditto 
Ditto, ditto 
Norway spar 
£ -G
3 "
55
Greatest Weight
and Deflection
while the Elasti¬
city remained
perfect.
Weight | Deflec¬
tion in
Pounds. Inches.
745
579
9(19
934
872
756
993
760
696
553
660
657
553
753
738
696
693
703
531
522
556
560
577
300
150
150
200
225
200
150
225
150
125
150
150
150
125
150
125
150
150
125
125
150
150
200
1151
•822
1-590
T280
1080
1-590
1-430
1-266
1-026
1-685
1-134
•755
•931
•870
•883
1-442
1-006
1-006
1-885
•812
•831
•831
•800
938
846
450
637
673
560
526
772
593
386
622
511
420
422
467
436
561
561
325
370
501
510
655
4- 32
5- 92
5 90
8-10
6 00
4- 86
5- 73
8-92
5 73
6 93
600
5- 83
4-66
6 00
6 00
600
6 42
6- 42
8 58
5 00
5 00
5 00
4-00
P P
818
596
598
435
588
724
610
395
615
509
588
605
757
588
588
403
403
411
518
518
518
648
9657802
6759200
3494730
5806200
8595864
4765750
3885700
6580750
5417266
2799347
4900466
7359700
5967400
5314570
3962800
2581400
3478328
3478328
2465433
3591138
4210830
4210830
5832000
2462
2221
1181
1672
1766
1457
1383
2026
1556
1013
1632
1341
1102
1108
1051
1144
1262
1262
853
832
1127
1149
1474
On the Woods of British Guiana.
In Table III., which is the classification of timber
) adopted by the Committee of Lloyd’s Register Book of
i British Shipping, there are two sorts mentioned as timber
1 of the first quality, which are yet little known in this coun-
i try in private building yards, and not at all in our public
1 establishments. These are greenheart and morra. They
! are both the produce of British Guiana, a colony that will
1 in all probability ere long be a chief source from which
this country will draw her supplies of naval timber. The
i territories of the colony have never yet been clearly de-
c fined. Its extent has been variously stated, by some as not
; much exceeding 12,000 square miles, by others as extend-
< ing over an area of 76,000 square miles. It is situated al¬
ii most immediately under the equator, and has consequently
! the vigorous and luxuriant vegetation inherent to such
ii I regions. The forests of the interior are said to be of im-
J mense extent, and abounding in valuable timber trees,
i' Among these are, the morra, which nearly resembles in ap-
t pearance the best African oak; the simiri, or locust, a
) wood well known in England ; and the siperi, or greenheart,
: so called from a peculiar green tinge which the timber has
e when cut with a tool. There are many other valuable
it timber trees, both for building and for ornamental work ;
but these perhaps are the most important to notice here.
I The morra may be obtained easily to square twenty
] inches, and the logs run from thirty to fifty feet in length,
i It is said not to be susceptible of dry rot; but there can
( hardly yet be sufficient experience of it when combined in
; the masses of timber to be found in large ships, to establish
s this important point as indisputable. If it be as similar in
its qualities as it is in its appearance to African oak, it cer¬
tainly can claim no exemption from the attack of dry rot. The
trees grow to a great height; and although the trunks are ge¬
nerally straight, the branches afford good compass timber.
But the most important timber produce of British Gui¬
ana is the greenheart. It is a hard close-grained wood,
having, like teak, an oily feel to the touch. Its specific
gravity is about equal to that of African oak, but it is de¬
cidedly superior to it in strength, toughness, and durability.
These, however, are not its chief advantages: its great va¬
lue consists in its being completely exempt from the attacks
of worms. It is on this account used in Demerara for sluice¬
gates, piles, and all marine engineering works which w-ould
be exposed to their ravages. Experiments of a most con¬
clusive nature as to its really resisting these insects have
been made in this country. The port of Liverpool is much
infested with worms, and the wood-work of the docks there
is constantly destroyed by them. Clows of greenheart tim¬
ber have now been down upwards of seven years at the west
entrance of the Brunswick half-tide basin, and are as yet
untouched ; while experience has proved that clows of other
timber in the same situation would have been destroyed in
less than half that time.
This is a most important quality, and renders this timber
invaluable for marine engineering works. It is imported
in logs of from twelve to sixteen inches square, and from
twenty to forty feet in length. It is exceedingly hard, and
difficult to work as planking, although latterly some colonial
vessels have been planked with it. There is another Gui-
anian timber, the siruaballi, of a softer texture, and much
used for planking, as it is also said to be able to resist the
ravages of the worm.
TIMBER.
305
Timber.
TABLE IV. Concluded.
1!
308 T I M
B E R.
Remarks. fyi
“ In the above table, the first weight of each specimen was ^
taken within or shortly after one year of the felling of the
tree. This is to be generally understood, unless otherwise
expressed.
“ Few authors agree as it respects the weight of various
species of timber in a seasoned and in an unseasoned state.
This diversity of opinion often arises from an indefinite use
of the terms ‘ seasoned,’ and ‘ unseasonedand we need
not be surprised at these seeming contradictions, when we
remember that many other words which denote the state
or condition of bodies, are equally indeterminate. Thus,
when we speak of heat and cold, light and darkness, mois¬
ture and dryness, we may naturally inquire what diminu¬
tion of heat occasions cold, what decrease of light causes
darkness, or what absence of moisture constitutes dry.
ness. Hence, generally speaking, the word ‘ seasoned’ im¬
plies a relative rather than an absolute state of the wood.
To prevent as far as possible any ambiguity on the subject,
the dates and circumstances under which the wood was
placed are carefully recorded, by which means the reader
may form his own conclusions respecting the gradations of
weight at intervals of time varying from one to twenty years.
It should be understood, that large masses of timber, even
if placed in dry situations for many years, in buildings or
ships, would have their specific gravity diminished if cut
into small portions. This will be manifest, if the reader
refers to those specimens in the table which were taken out
of a ship of war, the Marlborough.
“ It occasionally happens that the specific gravity of tim¬
ber is increased instead of being decreased by seasoning.
This occurs when the shrinkage diminishes in a greater
ratio than the weight. See No. 75 and 78.
“ Shrinkage rarely takes place in the direction of the length
of timber; when it does so occur, it seems to arise from a
want of uniformity in the direction of the grain; for in¬
stance, when the wood is ‘curly’ and knotty. Independently
of the length, the greatest shrinkage is in a direction at right
angles with the ‘ silver grain ;’ the least in the direction of
the plahe of the ‘ silver grain.’ Hence, when the heart of
the tree is in the middle of the wood, so that the silver grain
radiates from the heart to the exterior, there is no greater
tendency to shrinkage in the one than in the other direction.
“ In those cases in which the specimens arc known to be
tops and buts of trees, they are so distinguished ; otherwise
they must be supposed to be indiscriminately taken from the
top, but, or middle of the trees. It is a generally-received
opinion, that the but of English and other oak is heavier
than the top; still men of great eminence differ on this
subject. The view of Du Hamel may probably partly ac¬
count for these conflicting ideas. He asserts, that in
healthy vigorous trees, the but is heavier than the top; but
that in trees past their maturity and on the decline, the
top is heavier than the but. Whatever deference may be
due to this opinion, an analysis of the facts contained in
our table will show, that another cause materially affects the
condition of the question, which is the hygrometrical state
of the specimens subjected to experiment; for it is an in¬
teresting fact, which will be presently verified, that the but
of a tree may be of greater, of equal, or of less specific
gravity than the top, according as each is more or less ad¬
vanced to a state of seasoning.
“ Among others, the following results are derived from
the foregoing table.
“ 1st, The average weight of a cubic foot of unseasoned
English oak, derived from twenty-seven specimens, viz. No-
9 to 35 inclusive, is 1000 oz., or 62 lbs. 8 oz.
“ 2d, From the same specimens the average weight of a
cubic foot of English oak allowed to season during the
space of from thirteen to twenty years is 45 lbs. 9 oz.
“3d, Among the above twenty-seven seasoned specimens,
T I M B E R.
309
iibei: the average weight of those which were kept in a warm
room, in which there was occasionally a fire, was 47 lbs.
6 oz. to the cubic foot; whereas those which were kept in
a shed weighed only 44 lbs. 13 oz. to the cubic foot. This
result seems to warrant the conclusion, that within certain
limits artificial heat does not season wood so expeditiously
as natural heat and ventilation. It should be however re¬
marked, that the average original weight of the specimens
kept in a warm room exceeded that of those kept in the
shed; the former weighing 63 lbs. 4^ oz. to the foot, while
the latter weighed 62 lbs. 3 oz. to the foot. The difference,
however, is too small to vitiate the conclusion just drawn.
“ 4th, From the specimens of English oak in which the
tops and buts are distinguished, it appears that in seasoned
oak the top is heavier than the but; the average weight of
a cubic foot of each being respectively 48 lbs. 7| oz., and
44 lbs. 4 oz. On the contrary, in unseasoned oak the but
is heavier than the top, the average weight of a cubic foot
of each being respectively 64 lbs. 14 oz., and 62 lbs. 13^
oz. It hence follows, that there must be a medium state of
seasoning, in which the top and but are equally heavy.
“5th, From specimens No. 37 to 42, it appears that the
average weight of a cubic foot of French oak is, seasoned
48 lbs. oz., and unseasoned 68 lbs. 2 oz. These speci¬
mens not having been seasoned four years, are not to be
considered as having arrived at their ultimate state. Nos.
47 and 48 wTere not cut out until August 1840, although
the trees were felled in 1836. These, however, together
with 49 and 50, serve to show the degree of seasoning of
the solid log, as compared with the seasoning of No. 37 to
42, being the same kind of timber cut into small portions.
“ Taking the five specimens, 37 to 41, it will be seen that,
both in a seasoned and in an unseasoned state, the tops
are,.at least at present, heavier than the buts. Thus,—
But..
Top.
Average Weight of a Cubic Foot
of French Oak.
Seasoned. [ Unseasoned.
lbs.
46
51 10
11JL
ll2
lbs. oz.
51 0
68 14
“ A like result will be obtained by examining the weight
of No. 47 to 50, in which the logs remained some years in
an unconverted state.
“ 6th, From an analysis of specimens, 53 to 59, it appears
that the weight of a cubic foot of Adriatic oak, allowed to
season twenty years, is 48 lbs. 61 oz. The same specimens
unseasoned weighed 65 lbs. 10| oz. to the cubic foot. As
the tops and buts are not particularly distinguished, no con¬
clusion can be drawn respecting their comparative weights.
“ 7th, The specimens of Italian and American white oak
are not sufficiently numerous to draw conclusions from
them. The top and but of the Italian oak, No. 60 and 61,
after being felled six years, were the same weight.
“ 8th, Irom specimens 64 to 86, it appears that the weight
I a cubic foot of African oak allowed to season from thir¬
teen to twenty years, is 60 lbs. 3 oz. The same specimens
unseasoned weighed 64 lbs. 1 oz. to the cubic foot.
“ It further appears that, both in a seasoned and unseason¬
ed state, the buts are heavier than the tops. Thus,—
But..
Top.
Average Weight of a Cubic Foot
of African Oak.
Seasoned.
lbs. oz.
62 12f
58 4
Unseasoned.
lbs. oz.
66 81
62 0"
“ 9th, The average weight of a cubic foot of teak, season- Timber,
ed during the space of nineteen years, is 42 lbs. 21 oz., un-
seasoned 48 lbs. 11 oz. Moreover, in an unseasoned state
the weight of the but exceeds that of the top ; while in an
unseasoned state the weight of the top exceeds that of the
but. Thus,—
But..
Top.
Average Weight of a Cubic Foot
of Teak.
Seasoned.
lbs. oz.
42 131
41 11
Unseasoned.
lbs. oz.
47 10
48 6
“ 10th, With respect to larch, cedar, Riga fir, and a few
varieties of the pines, their weights may be seen by inspect¬
ing the table. But it was thought that the specimens were
not sufficiently numerous to justify any general conclusion
respecting their weights in different states of seasoning.
“ 11th, Of the Dantzig fir, the average weight of a cubic
foot of the unseasoned specimens is 39 lbs. There are only
two seasoned specimens recorded; their average weight to
the cubic foot is 32 lbs. 9| oz.
“ Of the unseasoned specimens, from No. 103 to 112, the
average weight of the buts (39 lbs. 14| oz.) exceeds that
of the tops (35 lbs. 151 oz,).
“ 12th, The specimens of cowdie are not sufficiently nu¬
merous to form a decided opinion respecting the weight
of this wood. Omitting No. 121 and 122, which, when
weighed, was still saturated with salt water, we find the
average weight of a cubic foot of the seasoned timber to be
36 lbs. 15f oz.; while the mean weight of the two speci¬
mens No. 117 and 118, in their unseasoned state, is 41 lbs.
to the cubic foot. The but exceeds the top in weight.
“ 13th, With respect to Canada yellow pine, there are no
specimens recorded in the table in an unseasoned state.
“ In taking an average weight of the seasoned specimens,
No. 129 to 132 are neglected, inasmuch as two are ‘ par¬
tially seasoned,’ and two w^ere weighed shortly after being
taken out of salt water. With this explanation, the aver¬
age weight of seasoned yellow pine is 27 lbs. lOf oz.’per
cubic foot.
“ Out of the five trees from which the ten specimens of
yellow pine are cut, it appears that in three of the trees the
buts are heavier than the tops, whereas in the remaining
two the tops are heavier than the buts.”
The following articles may be referred to for information
on timber: Horticulture, Planting, Strength of Ma¬
terials, and Ship-building. Some of the most celebrated
works which may be consulted, besides those already men¬
tioned, are, Sir John Hill, M. D., on the Construction of
Timber as explained by the Microscope ; first published in
1770: the work of Forsyth on Fruit and Forest Trees, which
is also of importance, as he was the first to treat on vege¬
table surgery: the Planter’s Guide, by Sir Henry Steuart of
Allanton: and especially the Arboretum et Fruticetum Bri-
tannicum, by J. C. Loudon, in eight volumes ; one of the
most scientific and important books published on the sub¬
ject. There are many other works which may be advan¬
tageously read, but it would exceed our limits to enume¬
rate them.
The concluding short table will give some idea of the
immense consumption of timber incidental to our being
a maritime power; and the estimate that each ton of our
merchant shipping has consumed at the very least a load
and a quarter of timber, will perhaps tend to diminish the
surprise which may have been excited in the early part
of the article, by the assertion that the demand for timber
was fast outrunning the supply, and exhausting the forests.
T I M
T I M
310
TABLE V.
Ti«i
An Account of the Quantity and Description of Timber, Thick-stuff, Plank, and Deals, necessary to complete a Ship of j
War of each Class, with the exception of the fitting up of the Bulkheads of the Cabins, and the Accommodations for ^
the Crew.
120 Guns.
Sided oak.
flO
9
Thick-stuff, converted from
oak or its substitutes 
8
7
64
6
51
Plank, converted from oak or
its substitutes 
Elm timber.
Fir timber...
Loads. Ft.
2883 7
103 30
55 4
145 20
23 47
15 0
87 47
10 25
199 21
93 45
159 37
57 43
1 15
157 10
202 46
Deals.
Feet.
4250
23200
4000
Loads. Ft.
2009 37
81 7
134 18
23 46
13 10
76 20
7 0
77 15
199 30
70 24
56 15
1 8
126 15
159 14
Feet.
4990
18200
2300
1300
70 Guns.
Loads. Ft.
1649 30
71 12
114 12
12 40
27 40
6 40
105 43
166 26
70 10
3 40
51 6
1 6
103 38
119 34
Feet.
4050
16500
2000
1200
Loads. Ft.
1266 46
48 30
27 30
75 20
76 27
17 13
200 10
40 30
92 20
103 23
Feet.
9900
10000
2400
Loads. Ft.
1098 9
45 18
25 38
68 45
13 10
63 0
33 45
73 15
75 42
Feet.
8300
8400
2000
Loads. Ft.
602 17
22 0
11 20
24 17
14 32
9 0
57 18
17 33
42 17
34 20
10000
4900
16 Guns.
Loads. Ft.
242 17
5 6
21 22
25 6
5 6
30 6
10 12
3 47
29 40
6 20
Feet.
3400
2940
10 Guns.
Loads. Ft
189 17
11 34
18 40
3 85
30 41
2 8
10 48
27 7
6 10
Feet.
2400
1820
In this Table the contents of the “sided oak” and of the elm timber are expressed in sided contents, which are derived from the converted
contents by assuming the converted contents to be to the sided contents as 2 to 5. The sided contents of the fir timber are derived from the
converted contents by assuming them to be to each other as 4 to 3. The quantities of deals are expressed in “ feet running” of the rough
deals expended on the ships. (b. Z.)
TIMBUCTOO, an African city, situated on the banks
of the Joliba or Niger, in 17° 40' north latitude, and 2°
30' west longitude, being nearly the very latitude in which
Ptolemy placed the town which he calls Cuphae; and it is
very remarkable that the principal stream of the Niger,
which passes to the south and to the eastward of Timbuc-
too^is laid down by Ptolemy as passing in the same direc¬
tion in regard to Cuphse.
This town, which has long been the object of European
research, is greatly reduced from the magnitude and im¬
portance which it attained under the Arabian and Ma-
hommedan power when triumphant in Africa. It now con¬
tains only about 13,000 inhabitants ; but these are much
superior to the inhabitants of the other African towns. Ac¬
cording to Sidi Hamed, it is built on a plain surrounded on
all sides with hills except on the south, on which side the
plain extends to the river. About ten or twelve miles to
the south of Timbuctoo stands Cabra, which is its port on
the Joliba. De Caille describes the city and its environs
as dreary and desolate ; but this may be accounted for by
the circumstance of his having visited it at the close of
the dry season ; for other travellers have described the ad¬
jacent country as verdant and fruitful. Timbuctoo may
be regarded as the principal mart for this part of Africa.
It is the great central point to which the commercial
travellers from Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis, Egypt, &c. resort.
The Moors resident in Timbuctoo receive consignments
of merchandise from Adrar, Taffilet, Towat or Twat, Ar-
damas (Ghadames), Tripoli, &c.; and some of the shops
are well stored with articles of European manufacture.
The king or governor of Timbuctoo, who is a negro, is
himself a merchant.
The city forms a sort of triangle, measuring about three
miles in circumference. The streets are clean, and wide
enough to allow three horsemen to pass abreast. It is prin¬
cipally inhabited by negroes of the Kissoor nation. The
Moorish merchants, after having made what they consider
a fortune, generally return to their own country to enjoy
the fruits of their labours. Fire-wood is scarce, and the
towm is indifferently supplied with water, which is pro¬
cured from reservoirs, which have been excavated to the
depth of thirty-five or forty feet for the purpose of col¬
lecting the rain-water. The inhabitants are zealous Ma-
hommedans. They are neat in their dress, and in the
interior of their dwellings, but are represented to be very
licentious in their manners. The Tooariks, a warlike na¬
tion spread over the Great Desert, render the inhabitants
of this and the other towns their tributaries.
TIME, a succession of phenomena in the universe, or a
mode of duration marked by certain periods or measures,
chiefly by the motion and revolution of the sun.
Time, in Music. See Music.
TIMERYCOTTA, a town and fortress of Hindus¬
tan, in the Carnatic, district of Palnaud, seventy-seven
miles S.S.E. from Hyderabad. Long. 79. 20. E. Lat. 16.
17. N.
TIMON the Sceptic, who is not to be confounded with
Timon the Misanthrope, was a Phliasian, a disciple of
Pyrrho, and lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
He took so little pains to invite disciples to his school, that
it has been said of him, that as the Scythians shot flying,
Timon gained pupils by running from them. He w'asfond
of rural retirement, and w'as so much addicted to wine that
he had a successful contest with several celebrated cham¬
pions in drinking. Like Lucian, he wrote wdth sarcastic
humour against the whole body of philosophers. The frag¬
ments of his satirical poem Silli, often quoted by the an¬
cients, have been carefully collected by Stephanus in his
Poesis Philosophica, and by Brunck in his Analecta. Ti¬
mon lived to the age of ninety years.
Timon, surnamed Misanthropes, or the Man-hater, was
a famous Athenian, who lived about 420 b. c. He was one
day asked, why he loved the young Alcibiades, while he de¬
tested all the rest of the human race ; on which he replied,
T I M
■nor; “It is because I foresee that he will be the ruin of the
ist Athenians.”
Ill TIMOR, East, the largest and southernmost of the Mo-
11 °y !'lucca Isles, intersected by the ninth degree of south lati-
11tude, and extending obliquely in a north-east and south-
1 east direction. In length it is 250 miles, and from thirty
1 to sixty in breadth. It is mountainous in the interior, the
J ridge by which it is intersected rising as high as the Peak
ofTeneriffe; while the south-east shores are exceedingly
1 low, and overrun with mangroves. Gold, washed down
^ from the mountains, is said to be found in the streams ; but
:t the natives are represented as extremely jealous of the re-
3 searches of Europeans ; and a body of Dutch sent into the
1 interior on an exploring expedition was cut off by them,
h The chief products of the island are sandal-wood and bees’
1 wax. Another article of export is biche de mer or sea-
*1 slug, which is partly procured near the island, and partly
!l fished on the coast of New Holland, and brought to this
I island for sale. The bread-fruit tree grows here in great
s luxuriance, as does also mountain rice. San dal-wood, bees’
! wax, honey, and slaves, are exported; and rice, arrack, sugar,
J tea, coffee, betel-nut, and the manufactures of China, with
" some from India and Europe, are received in return. The
II Dutch established themselves in this island at Coepang in
1630. Their territory did not extend beyond four or five
; miles round Fort Concordia. During the war which ter-
1 minated in 1801, the communication with Batavia was in¬
i' terrupted, and the town was taken by the English. When
'1 Captain Flinders visited the island in 1803, he saw only
1 two European residents at Coepang, besides the soldiers
( and the governor. The original inhabitants retain the
“ mountains of the interior, to which they have been driyen
by the Malays, who possess the sea-coast. Some attempts
' have been made by the Dutch to establish Christianity,
il but with little success, the inhabitants remaining mostly in
e their original ignorance. Long, of the extreme south-west
» point of Timor, 123. 29. E. Lat. 10. 22. S.
Timor Laut, an island in the Eastern Seas, about se-
5 venty miles long by twenty-five in average breadth. It is
situated between the 7th and 8th degrees of south latitude,
l( and the 132d and 133d of east longitude. Nothing further
I is known of it.
TIMOTHEUS, one of the most celebrated poet-musi-
a clans of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city of
Caria, 446 years b. c. He was contemporary with Philip
of Macedon, and not only excelled in lyric and dithyram-
II k>c poetry, but in his performance upon the cithara. Ac-
:l cording to Pausanias, he perfected that instrument, by the
i addition of four new strings to the seven which it had
e before; though Suidas avers that it had nine before, and
} H Timotheus only added two, the tenth and eleventh.
! The account of Pausanias is confirmed in the famous
e : decree against him, still extant, and preserved at full length
) in Boethius. Mr Stillingfleet has given an extract from
, it, in proof of the simplicity of the ancient Spartan music.
i The fact is mentioned in Athenoeus; and Casaubon, in
ii || his notes upon that author, has inserted the whole ori-
i ginal text from Boethius, with corrections. The follow-
5 ing is a faithful translation of this extraordinary Spartan
!t decree. “ Whereas Timotheus the Milesian, coming to
our city, has dishonoured our ancient music, and, despising
die lyre of seven strings, has, by the introduction of a greater
variety of notes, corrupted the ears of our youth ; and by
the number of his strings, and the novelty of his melody,
has given to our music an effeminate and artificial dress, in-
' stead of the plain and orderly one in which it has hitherto
appeared; rendering melody infamous, by composing in
the chromatic instead of the enharmonic : the kings and
t ie ephori have therefore resolved to pass a censure upon
1 lm°theus for these things ; and further, to oblige him to
cut all the superfluous strings of his eleven, leaving only
T I N
the seven tones, and to banish him from our city, that men
may be warned for the future not to introduce into Sparta
any unbecoming custom.” The same story, as related in
Athenaeus, has this additional circumstance, that when the
public executioner was on the point of fulfilling the sen¬
tence, by cutting off the new strings, Timotheus, perceiv¬
ing a little statue in the same place, with a lyre in his hand
of as many strings as that which had given the offence, and
showing it to the judges, was acquitted. It appears from
Suidas, that the poetical and musical compositions of Ti¬
motheus were very numerous, and of various kinds. He
attributes to him nineteen nomes, or canticles, in hexame¬
ters ; thirty-six proems, or preludes ; eighteen dithyram-
bics ; twenty-one hymns ; the poem in pi’aise of Diana;
one panegyric; three tragedies, the Persians, Phinidas, and
Laertes; to which must be added a fourth, mentioned by
several ancient authors, called Niobe, without forgetting
the poem on the birth of Bacchus. Stephanus of Byzan¬
tium makes him author of eighteen books of nomes, or airs,
for the cithara, to 8000 verses; and of 1000 U^ooi/j.ia, or
preludes, for the nomes of the flutes. Timotheus died in
Macedonia, according to Suidas, at the age of ninety-seven;
though the marbles, much better authority, say at ninety ;
and Stephanus of Byzantium fixes his death in the fourth
year of the 105th Olympiad, two years before the birth of
Alexander the Great. Hence it appears that this Timo¬
theus was not the famous player on the flute so much
esteemed by that prince, who was animated to such a de¬
gree by his performance as to seize his arms, and who em¬
ployed him, as Athenseus informs us, together with the
other great musicians of his time, at his nuptials. From an
inattention to dates, and from forgetting that of these two
musicians of the same name the one was a Milesian and
the other a Theban, they have been hitherto often con¬
founded.
TIMPANI (Ital.), kettle-drums. See Music.
TINDAL, Matthew, a well-known English writer, was
the son of the Rev. John Tindal of Beer-Ferres in Devon¬
shire, and was born about the year 1657. Fie studied at
Lincoln College in Oxford, whence he removed to Exeter,
and was afterwards elected fellow of All Souls. In 1685
he took the degree of LL. D. In the reign of James II.
he declared himself a Roman Catholic, but soon renounced
that religion. After the revolution he published several
pamphlets in favour of government, and the liberty of the
press. His principal works are theological and ecclesiasti¬
cal, but some of them are more connected with his charac¬
ter as a civilian. One of these is “ An Essay concerning
the Law of Nations and the Rights of Sovereigns.” An¬
other consists of “ Discourses on the Obedience to the
Supreme Powers, and the Duty of Subjects in all Revolu¬
tions.” His “ Rights of the Christian Church asserted,” ex¬
posed him to a violent contest with the high church clergy ;
and his treatise entitled “ Christianity as old as the Crea¬
tion, ’ published in 1730, made much noise, and was answer¬
ed by several writers, particularly by Dr Conybeare, Dr
Foster, and Dr Chapman. Its tendency was evidently
deistical. Dr Tindal retained his fellowship till his death,
which took place at London on the 10th of August 1733.
He left in manuscript a second volume of his “ Christianity
as old as the Creation,” the preface to which has been
published.
TINDAL, Nicholas, the nephew of Dr Tindal, was
born in 1687, and educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where
he took the degree of A.M. in 1713. He became a fellow
of Trinity College, and obtained several pieces of preferment
in the church. In 1738 he was appointed chaplain of
Greenwich Hospital; and here he died on the 27th of June
1774, at the age of eighty-seven. He was the author or
translator of several works, but is chiefly remembered for his
translation and continuation of Rapin’s History of England.
312
T I N
Tine TINE, an island of Turkey, on the western side of the
H Archipelago, separated from Andros by a channel three
Tinneveliy. terg of a miie across. It is about ninety square miles
  y   in extent, and contains about 16,000 inhabitants, who cul¬
tivate the land with great care. It yields corn, pulse, cheese,
and fruits; but the product which affords the greatest em-
ployment is the breeding of silk-worms and the winding ol
silk. Although naturally sterile and rocky, it is more Pro¬
ductive than any of the islands in its vicinity. Long. 25.
14. E. Lat. 37.50. N.
TINGANO, a small river on the eastern coast of Ma¬
lacca, which falls into the sea of China. Long. 103. 9. E.
Lat. 5. 27. N. c
TINGI, a cluster of small islands in the Chinese bea,
near the eastern coast of Malacca. Long. 104. 21. E. Lat.
4. rM.
TINGORAN, a small island in the Chinese Sea, near
the eastern coast of Malacca. Long. 103. 33. E. Lat. 4.
Si N. . „ , .
TINGTCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in
the province of Fukien, situated among the mountains which
separate it from Kiangsee. Long. 116. 4. E. Lat. 25.
48. N.
TINIAN, one of the Ladrone Islands, in the North Pa¬
cific Ocean, about forty-two miles in circumference, first
discovered by a Manilla ship, which was cast away here in
1638. The author of Anson’s Voyage gives a most pleasing
and romantic description of this island, as found by the crew
of the Centurion in the year 1742. Commodore Byron,
who visited this island in 1762, gives a description in every
respect the reverse of that of Anson. He found it overgrown
with weeds, and forests impenetrable, owing to a thick growth
of underwood ; the climate moist and sultry, and extremely
unhealthy, owing to the violent and incessant rains; in ad¬
dition to which it is infested with musquitoes and other
venomous insects, as well as centipedes and scorpions.
Tinian was visited in 1767 by Mallis, in 1787 by Captain
Portlock, in 1788 by Captain Sever, and afterwards by
other navigators, who all confirm the account given of it
by Commodore Byron.
TINNEVELLY, an extensive district of the south of
India, in the province of the Carnatic, 150 miles in length
by fifty in breadth, situated principally between the 8th
and 10th degrees of north latitude, and occupying the
south-east extremity of what is called the peninsula. It is
bounded on the north by Madura and Marawas; on the
south-east it is separated from Ceylon by the Gulf of Ma-
naar; and on the west it is bounded by Travancore. It is,
generally speaking, an open and level country, though it
contains some woods and several hills, and is tolerably well
cultivated thirty miles north of the town of Tinneveliy. It
contains no ruins of magnitude ; but is watered by many
streams flowing from the western mountains, and in favour¬
able seasons yields abundant crops of rice and cotton, the
latter of an excellent quality. The chief towns are Tinne-
velly, Tutecoria, Vypaur, Callacand, Natradacotta, and Coil-
patam. Towards the southern and eastern extremities are
many salt marshes. Owing to their low situations, an inun¬
dation some years ago broke into them from the sea, and
did much mischief, rendering the soil unfit for cultivation.
The population consists chiefly of Hindoos, who retain
much of their primitive customs and manners. During the
first wars in which the British were engaged in this country,
it abounded with petty chiefs, called polygars, who were
constantly quarrelling with each other, and plundering the
country. They resided in fortresses in the midst of woods,
where it was extremely difficult to follow them with a re¬
gular force. In this disorderly state the country continued
till the year 1792, when it was taken possession of by the
British, who reduced to obedience a number of their chief¬
tains. When the war commenced in 1799 with Tippoo
T I P
Sultan, those polygars took advantage of the absence of the Tin^,,
army, and broke into rebellion. As soon as a sufficient num- | .,
her of troops could be spared, a large force was sent againstTiPPen: "
them, and before 1803 they were all subdued; and this
occasion was taken for disarming them, demolishing their
forts and strongholds, and reducing them immediately tq
the civil authority of the Company. The rents were raised
from 70,000 pagodas in 1803, to 569,315 pagodas, or to
L. 190,000. . ."J
Tinnevelly, the capital of the above district, is situ-
ated about twenty-five miles east of a range of mountains,
and is large and populous. On three sides it is surrounded
by extensive rice-fields, and on the west by rocky ground.
The situation is not healthy, owing to the exhalations from
the fields. Long. 71. 1. E. Lat. 8. 48. N.
TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with melted
tin, or tin reduced to a very fine leaf. Looking-glasses are
foliated or tinned with plates of beaten tin, the whole ex¬
tent of the glass. They are applied or fastened by means of
quicksilver.
TINTERN? a village of the county of Monmouth, in the
hundred of Ragland. It stands on the banks of the river
Wye, in a most picturesque situation, about five miles above
Chepstowr. Tintern is much visited on account of the
remains of its abbey, which present, in good preservation,
a view of the ecclesiastical architecture of the twelfth cen¬
tury. It was founded for Cistertian monks in the year 1131,
and the ruins of its church still show a most striking view
of beauty and grandeur. Its appearance by moonlight is
peculiarly enchanting. In 1831 the village contained 313
inhabitants, who are employed in making iron wire. The
excursion by water on the Wye to this place is very pleasing,
either from Monmouth or from Chepstow'.
TIPERAH, an extensive district of Bengal, situated on
the eastern side of the Brahmapootra or Megna river, and
between the 2 2d and 24th degrees of north latitude. On
the north it is bounded by Silhet and Dacca; on the south
by Chittagong and the sea; on the west it has the river
Megna; and on the east it is divided from Ava or the
Birman dominions by mountains and impervious woods,
abounding with wild elephants and other ferocious animals.
It is estimated to contain about 7000 square miles; a con¬
siderable portion of it is wdld and desolate, and thinly inha¬
bited by the Kookies, a savage race. The eastern division
is productive, yielding abundant crops of rice and cotton;
and a quantity of salt is also manufactured on the sea-coast
on account of government. It devolved to the British in
1765, along with the rest of Bengal. Population 750,000,
in an equal proportion of Hindoos and Mahommedans.
TIPPERARY, an inland county in the province of
Munster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by Galway and
King’s counties; on the east by King’s, Queen’s, and Kil¬
kenny ; on the south by Waterford and Cork; and on the
west by Cork, Limerick, and Clare. It extends from 52°
IP to 53° 10' north latitude, and from 7° 23' to 8° 25' west
longitude; being about seventy miles in its greatest length,
on a meridional line, from the confluence of the Lesser
Brosna and Shannon, north, to the Knockmeledown Moun¬
tains, south, and forty miles from O’Brien’s Bridge, on the ^
Shannon, west, to Urlingford, east, and comprehending an
area of 1583 square miles, or 1,013,173 acres, of which
819,618 are cultivated, 182,147 mountain and bog, and
11,328 under water. It ranks as the sixth county in Ire¬
land as to its total extent, and the fourth as to its extent
of cultivated land.
According to the statement of Ptolemy, this district
wras inhabited in the second century by the tribes of the
Darini and Coriundi, but Whitaker attributes it to the Scoti.
It was afterwards possessed by various native septs, the
principal of which were those of O’Kennedy, O’Mulnan,
O’Fogarty, O’Heffernan, O’Hickey, M‘Egan, Everar ,
TIPPERARY. 313
rrwyiMathew, and Woulfe. Subsequently to the year 1172, it cilities of transport by the Suir. In the east of the county, Tipperary.
granted by Henry II., who obtained possession of it from Killenaub eastward, is a coal-field, generally considered —  
ifter several sanguinary contests, to Theobald Fitz-Walter, to be an offset or continuation of that in Kilkenny and
surnamed Butler, from the office which he held in the king’s Queen’s counties. The seams, which lie between strata of
lousehold. It was reduced to the form of an English sandstone and shale, are in some cases single, in others
jounty by King John in 1210, and in 1328 Edward III. double, and even treble. The thickness of those in the Coal-
jrected it, into a county palatine, in favour of the first earl brook mines, which have been long worked, is from one to
>f Ormond ; and though that king shortly after re-assumed two feet. The produce of these works consists of one fourth
he regal prerogatives, they were regranted in 1337, and in coal and three fourths culm. The former is in considerable
1372 confirmed, to James the son of Theobald, and his demand for manufacturing purposes, being highly esteemed
leirs male for ever. This grant affected only the lay lands on account of the large portion of pure carbon contained in
)f the county, those belonging to the church being a se- it; the latter is equally so for making lime, and is also used
jarate jurisdiction, with its own courts and officers, under for culinary purposes when w rought up into balls with clay,
he name of the county of the Cross of Tipperary. The Ironstone, though found in large quantities in the Coalbrook
;ounty continued to be thus divided both in fact and name works, is not applied to any profitable account. The village
mtil after the restoration, when the grant of the regalities of Silvermines, on the northern side of the Keeper Moun-
vas not only confirmed to the duke of Ormond by Charles tains, derives its name from the mines of silver in its neigh-
T, but extended over the whole of the county. The juris- bourhood, which at a former period had been largely worked,
fiction continued in the family till the attainder of the last as were copper-mines in the same neighbourhood ; but both
luke of Ormond, in consequence of which the whole of have been relinquished. Copper was also raised at Lacka-
he ducal property reverted to the crown, the palatinal more, near Newport, but w ith a similar result. Zinc, man-
ights were abolished, and the records belonging to it ganese, malachite, galena, and white lead, have been found
ileposited in the king’s courts of chancery and common in various places. The natural caves discovered in 1833 in
Sleas, where they still remain. The county suffered greatly a low limestone hill, near the southern base of the Gal tee
luring the civil wars of 1641, in the course of which the Mountains, and about midway between Cahir and Mitchels-
:own of Clonmell, after a gallant resistance, obtained ho- town, present a peculiar feature in the geology of the county,
lourable terms from Cromwell, who conducted the siege in They are entered by a passage sloping downwards, about
verson. 200 feet in length, which opens into a subterraneous cham-
'fhe surface is much varied. To the south it rises into the ber nearly eighty feet long and upwards of thirty at its
•ange of the Knockmeledown Mountains, the highest summit greatest height; whence proceed other passages commu-
)f which is 2698 feet above sea level. North of these are nicating with a number of interior caves of various sizes,
fie Galtees, the highest of which, Galtymore, rises to an that have obtained names chiefly from their discoverers, or
elevation of 3008 feet. Proceeding still farther north, are from some peculiar resemblance, whether real or fanciful, to
fie Slievenamanagh Mountains, 2582 feet high ; the Keeper, objects of general notoriety. Their roofs, sides, and floors
2265; Arragh, 1558; and a portion of the Devil’s Bit, 1572 ; are adorned with, a great variety of stalactites of singular
the remainder of which last-named range extends north-east- appearance, and in some parts there are small reservoirs of
erly, forming the line of demarcation between King’s and the purest water. The number of these apartments has not
Queen’s counties. The rest of the county presents an un- yet been accurately ascertained ; nor has a detailed geolo-
dulating surface, seldom perfectly level, and in some parts gical account of the interior yet appeared. They are ge-
rising into hills of some elevation, the most considerable of nerally knowm by the name of the Mitchelstown caves, from
which are the Slieveardagh Hills, bordering Kilkenny county, their vicinity to that town, and are objects of much care
md Slievenamuck, near the base of which the town of Tip- to Lord Kingsborough, on whose estate they were discover-
perary is situate. Ihe only large river that passes through ed. The level part of the county is chiefly limestone, con-
the county is the Suir, w hich has its source in the last-named stituting one extremity of the great field of that formation,
range of mountains, near Roscrea, and after flowing in a which spreads over all the central portion of Ireland. Its,
southern direction, by Templemore, Thurles, and Cahir, to most striking peculiarity is the rock of Cashel, consisting of
Ardfinnan, takes a western course by Clonmell, and, pass- a mass of limestone arranged in concentric strata, rising
pngthroughCarrick-on-Suir, enters thecounty of Waterford, precipitously from the surrounding plain,
and discharges itsell into the Atlantic through the estuary The soil in the plain country, and in the extended val-
°t Waterford harbour. The Shannon forms part of the leys, is a rich calcareous loam, capable of producing the
western boundary of the county, from its most northern point, finest crops with little aid from human industry, 'ihe town
at the junction of this river with the Lesser Brosua, through of Tipperary forms the centre of a tract of flat country lying
its expansion called Lough Derg, and thence to O’Brien’s betvveen the Galteg and Slievenanianagh ranges, and ex-
Bridge. The Lesser Brosna is the northern boundary from tending from the county of Limerick westward to Golden
Parsonstown to the Shannon, and the Nore traverses a small and the Slieveardagh Hills in the opposite direction, which,
portion of the north-east of the county. There are no lakes from its extraordinary fertility, has been called the Golden
or any extent; three of small size, worthy of notice chiefly Vale. Another tract of similar character, but not so ex-
Jrom their shape and romantic position, lie in the glens oi tensive, lies in the northern baronies of Ormond. The'soil
the Galtees. on the hills and mountain sides is light and poor, partaking
Ifie mountains are mostly composed of clay-slate, sur- much of the character of the substrata of clay-slate and sand-
rounded by sandstone; those of Knockmeledown are also stone on which it rests. The southern extremity of the
capped with horizontal strata ot this latter mineral. The great Bog of Allen spreads itself into, this county in its
part of the Devil’s Bit range which projects into the county north-eastern quarter, from Iloscrea to Holycross, not how-
!s wholly sandstone, as are also the groups of the Galtees ever in one continuous sheet, but in detached portions. It
and Slievenamuck. The beds of the latter range horizon- appears to have owed its origin to the obstriictions in the
tally, so as to furnish large quantities of excellent flags from channel of the Nore, a small portion of which skirts the
tne quarries there. Slates of good quality are raised in the county here. The whole of these detached portions of hog
district adjoining the southern extremity of Lough Derg, contains 35,000 acres, the most elevated part of their surface ' f '
and carried in la^ge quantities to various distant places by being about 400 feet above the sea, and therefore perfectly '
the Shannon navigation. There is also a very extensive and capable of drainage. The timber found here is chiefly fir,
valuable slate-quarry near Clonmell, which enjoys equal la- yew, and oak, the latter perfectly black,' from the action of
vou xxi. r 2 u
314
TIPPERARY".
Tipperary, the iron in the bog-water, or the gallic acid in the tree-
v'-—~v—The substratum is universally limestone or gravel. In one
of these bogs three growths of timber have been found ly¬
ing under one another; the upper about five feet from the
surface, the middle about two feet lower, and the third,
which is always in a more or less decomposed state, near
the gravelly bottom. The land in the neighbourhood of
the bog tract is generally swampy, producing little but reeds
and other aquatic vegetables. The sides of the valleys,
watered by the streams that pass through the . bog and
marshes, throw up a good herbage without any artificial
aid, except that of setting fire to the surface in the heat
of summer. The heath and moss are thus destroyed, and
scope is given to a spontaneous growth of grass, on which
cattle feed eagerly in all seasons, but chiefly in summer,
the cool and moist sward being peculiarly grateful to their
feet. Several tracts near the margin of the bog have
been reclaimed, and the process is extending, although
slowly, owing to the obstructions arising from individual
interests, to a general and effective system of drainage.
There is little, if any, native timber ; but plantations, some¬
times very extensive, are to be seen around all the gentle¬
men’s seats and the residences of the wealthier farmers.
The growth of timber thus raised is as yet by no means suf¬
ficient to remove the appearance of bareness which the land¬
scape, otherwise abounding in natural beauties, exhibits.
The progressive increase of the number of inhabitants
appears from the following table of the population as taken
at different periods.
Year. Authority. No.
1760 De Burgo 101,370
1792 Beaufort 169,000
1812 Parliamentary census...290,531
1821 Ditto 3+6,896
1831 Ditto 402,538
According to the latest of these returns, the population
is to the entire surface as 1 to 2’517, and to that of the
number of cultivated acres as 1 to 2'036. There is there¬
fore a family of six individuals to every fifteen acres of the
total surface, and to every twelve acres of cultivated land.
According to the census taken by the commissioners of
public instruction in 1834, which being calculated by dio¬
ceses, allows only an approximation to accuracy as com¬
pared with those calculated by counties, the total population
amounted, in 1’ound numbers, to 413,000, of which 16,840
were of the established church, 660 Protestant dissenters,
and the remaining 395,500 were Roman Catholics, who
were then to the total Protestant population as twenty-three
to one. The number of children receiving instruction in
the public schools, according to returns made under the
population act in 1821, the commission of education in
1824-6, and the latest return of the commission of national
education, was,
Year. Males. Females. Sex not Total.
ascertained.
1821 14,160 6,586 20,746
1824-6 29,941 12,188 547 33,676
1837 3,694 2,588 6,282
The return of 1824-6 is the only one in which the reli¬
gious persuasion of the pupils is noticed. According to it
the numbers were, members of the established church
2871, Protestant dissenters eighty-four, Roman Catholics
30,407, religion not ascertained 314, which gives an aver¬
age of thirty Roman Catholics to one Protestant. In the
same return the total number of schools is stated to be 657,
of which forty-three, affording instruction to 2747 pupils,
were maintained wholly by grants of public money; seventy-
one, with 5256 pupils, by voluntary subscriptions ; and the
remaining 543, with 25,673 pupils, wholly by the fees of
the pupils.
The county is divided into the eleven baronies of Clan-
william, Eliogarty, Iffa and OfFa East, Iffa and Offa West, Tmt 1
Ikerrin, Kilnemanagh, Middlethird, Lower Ormond, Upper
Ormond, and Slieveardagh, which are subdivided into 189
parishes, of which ninety-six were in the. diocese of Cashel,
twenty in that of Emly, thirty-two in Lismore, and forty-
one in Killaloe. The cathedrals of the dioceses of Cashel
and Emly are both within the county, in places from which
the sees have received their names. The former, which
retains the rank of a city, is still a place of some note;
the latter, though said to be the ancient Imlagh, noted by
Ptolemy as one of the three principal cities in the island,
is now an inconsiderable village, with a population of 701
souls. Under a late order of council, the county has been
divided into two ridings. It returned eight members to
the Irish parliament, two for the county, and two for each
of the boroughs of Cashel, Clonmell, and Fethard. The
number was reduced to four by the act of union, which dis¬
franchised the last-named borough, and deprived each of
the others of one of its members. The constituency of the
county, at several periods since the disfranchisement of the
forty-shilling freeholders in 1829, is as follows:
Year. L.50. L.20. L.10. Total.
1831  2015 411 475 2901
1832  2360
1834   2369
The local government is under the control of a lord lieu¬
tenant, twenty-eight deputy-lieutenants, and 118 other ma¬
gistrates, besides eight stipendiaries specially appointed,
and receiving salaries from the crown; under whom is a con¬
stabulary force, which in 1836 consisted of twelve chief con¬
stables and 686 constables and subconstables, and, since
the division of the county, of one county inspector, six sub¬
inspectors, seven head constables, and 351 constables and
subconstables for the north riding, and one county inspec¬
tor, seven subinspectors, ten head constables, and 391 con¬
stables and subconstables for the south. The county
prison, at Clonmell, is ill adapted for carrying into effect the
improvements now generally introduced into the prisons of
Ireland. A prison tor the north riding is at present build¬
ing in Nenagh. The number of committals in 1839 was
2110, of whom 1164 were acquitted or liberated for want
of prosecution, and 946 were convicted. Of this latter class,
256 were fined or liberated on securities, 608 imprisoned,
seventy-three transported, and nine sentenced to death, of
whom four were executed. Besides the convictions above
stated, 583 were convicted before the magistrates at petty
sessions for trivial offences, and 3889 for intoxication. The
total number of convictions is to the population as one to
sixty-three, and of convictions for capital or transportable
offences as 1 to 5037. The county infirmary, fever hospital,
and lunatic asylum, are also in Clonmell. The last-named
institution maintains ninety-nine patients, fifty-five male
and forty-one female. Of the cases there are, idiots four,
epileptic one, curable maniacs sixty, incurable thirty-one;
besides which there are in the Clonmell house of industry
nineteen cases of idiocy and seven of epilepsy. The sites
of the work-houses under the new poor-law act have been
fixed at Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Clogheen, Clonrnell, Ne¬
nagh, Roscrea, Thurles, and Tipperary.
The modes of agriculture are regulated by the character
of the soil and the face of the country. Tillage prevails in
the lowland districts, and is carried on with much spirit, and
in general according to the most modern systems. The
size of the farms is generally small, averaging at about fifty
acres, and in many instances diminishing to eight or ten, in
consequence of the subdivision of land among the under
tenants. The rotation adopted on the rich lands in the
Golden Vale, and in the almost equally fertile districts in
the northern parts of the county, is, potatoes, wheat, and
oats; in the lighter soils,as on the Slieveardagh Hills,and the
mountain sides, on which the use of the plough is yearly
HI
TIPPERARY.
raiyncroaching on the ancient pasturages, as far up as the na-
of the soil favours the exertion of agricultural indus-
ry, the crops are potatoes, barley or here, and oats. In too
7 nany instances the repetition of the oat crop is continued
intil the land is completely exhausted, when it is allowed
o rest until the renovating powers of nature clothe it with
, new sward. Artificial grasses are much encouraged ;
lover of both kinds, rye and other grass-seeds, are sown,
jhs are rape, vetches, and turnips. Flax is seldom to be
;f een but in detached patches, or along the head-lands of
: he corn-fields. Lime, and limestone gravel, the latter
aken from the escars in the eastern parts of the county,
>re the principal manures. The fences are stone-walls, or
nounds of earth eight or ten feet broad at the base, and
apering upwards to a considerable height, with a topping
< »f furze or whitethorn. The latter plant is also employed as
. ground fence in the best-regulated estates. Owing to
he undulating character of the surface, drainage is less ne-
■essary. Where it is adopted, and especially in the pas-
ure lands, a covered drain is used, which is so narrow, and
unk so low, as not to be injured by the pressure of the feet
tif the cattle on the surface sod. Agricultural instruments
(if the most approved construction are in use among the
better classes of farmers, and machines for the abridgement
if human labour are employed in many places. The rich
ow lands along the banks of the river are generally under
' neadow, and produce abundant crops of hay. The lands
s ippropriated to pasture are used both as grazing and dairy
arms. Butter, which is made to a great extent, finds a
eady market at Clonmell, Waterford, and Limerick. The
nanufacture of cheese is almost unknown. The breed of
rish cows is still kept up, in consequence of the quantity of
nilk which they yield. They are sometimes reared without
my mixture of other breeds, sometimes with a cross of the
lolderness or Devon. The horses bred in the county are
* uglily esteemed, and bring good prices. For agricultural
uirposes, asses and mules are much used by the small
armers, as being more hardy, and thriving on coarser food.
Ihe former ol these are of larger size than those in other
Bjiarts of the country. Swine are to be met with every-
i where ; they form an important part of the farming stock
)f the landholders, from the highest to the lowest, and are
exported in great numbers to England. Sheep are less nu¬
merous, either because the quality of the soil is not well
uiited to them, or because the subdivision of the lands into
small fields, and the want of substantial fences in the
{smaller farms, prevent their being much encouraged.
I hough a great deal has been latterly effected in the way of
igricultural improvement in both its main branches of til-
age and pasturage, much more is still required in order to
Iraw forth all the capabilities with which the bountiful hand
)f nature has enriched this tract.
The manufacture of woollen cloth was formerly carried
)n to a great extent, particularly in the neighbourhood of
Jonmell and Carrick, which were the two principal marts
f the trade; but in consequence of the legislative arrange¬
ments made after the revolution, for the suppression of that
)ranch of national industry in Ireland, it has declined so as
mw to be nearly extinct; a small trade in blankets, flan-
| ids, and a mixed light cloth called ratteens, being the only
restige of its existence. Many efforts have been made to
ntroduce the linen manufacture as a substitute. Grants of
implements and premiums were offered by the Irish linen
miard appointed to encourage and foster the manufacture.
.Inch of the funds sent into the country from England du-
ing periods of famine were employed to turn the course of
ndustry, particularly among the females, into this channel,
mit to no purpose. The culture of flax, as already stated,
s hut little attended to, the plant being raised in small
quantities, and manufactured merely for domestic use, in
w ut“ it is also more and more superseded every year by
315
the increasing demand for cotton fabrics. There is a cot- Tipperary,
ton factory at Clonmell. The staple manufacture of the
county is that of flour, for which there are numerous mills.
The abundant supply of the raw material from the rich val¬
leys and champaign lands, and the numerous sites, with a
great command of water-power on the many branch-streams
that feed the main rivers, afford facilities of which due ad¬
vantage has been taken and the export of flour is conse¬
quently the main stimulus to industry, and a great source of
internal wealth. Many plans have been devised to increase
this wealth by increasing the facilities for transmitting agri¬
cultural produce throughout the country, and to the great
marts. The generally level yet undulating surface of the
land affords adequate scope for carrying on lines of inland
navigation, and extending railway communications. Both
have been subjects of consideration. A canal was project¬
ed to form a continuation of that already existing from
Dublin to Monastereven. It was to proceed by Boscrea
and Cashel to Carrick, whence there is a river-navigation
to Waterford. Others of minor extent were projected to
pass through the northern and western parts of the Shan¬
non, which is navigable all along the verge of the county;
but none has yet been undertaken. Several lines of railroad
have also been latterly proposed. Besides others laid down
by private engineers at the suggestion of individuals or in¬
tended joint-stock companies, the commissioners for in¬
quiring into the expediency of introducing the system of
railroads into Ireland, have suggested aline in continuation
of that proposed to be carried from Dublin to Kilkenny,
which, after passing Maryborough in Queen’s county, is to
enter Tipperary near Templemore, and to pass by Thurles
to Holycross, whence one branch is to tend southwards by
Cashel, Goldenbridge, Cahir, and Mitchelstown, to Cork,
and the other along the southern base of the Slieve-Phelim
Mountains, by Pallasgreine, to Limerick. These lines are
laid down in the map lately published by the conductors of
the trigonometrical survey of Ireland, but no steps have as
yet been taken for their accomplishment. Several new
lines of road have however been executed, some of which,
being cut through the mountainous districts on the north¬
west of the country, have produced the double effect of fa¬
cilitating the transmission of goods, and, what is of much
greater importance, the improvement and welfare of the
country, by throwing open a tract hitherto impassable for
carriages, and consequently the almost inaccessible place of
refuge for desperate characters of every description, who
here set at defiance the laws, and made the place a centre
from which to make inroads, on favourable opportunities, into
the open country. One of the great lines of mail-coach
roads to Cork passes through the county ; and the inter¬
course for travellers unencumbered with much luggage has
been increased in a great degree by the establishment of
one-horse travelling cars, which ply between all the prin¬
cipal market-towns and places of resort. For this great
improvement the county is indebted to the exertions of an
intelligent foreigner, M. Bianconi, who devised and has car¬
ried on the system as a private speculation on his own ac¬
count. In the county there are thirteen banking establish¬
ments, of which three are in Clonmell, two each in Nenagh,
lloscrea, Thurles, and Tipperary, and one each in Carrick-
on-Suir and Cashel.
The remains of antiquity are numerous, but, with few ex-,
ceptions, not of a very remarkable character. There are
two round towers, one at Cashel, the other at Roscrea, both
in good preservation. Among the remains of ancient mo¬
nastic buildings, many of which are still in existence, the
most worthy of notice are those on the Rock of Cashel’ con¬
sisting of the ancient cathedral, a fine Gothic structure, ex¬
hibiting a combination of the military with the ecclesiastical!
style of architecture; and Cormac’s Chapel, a venerable
building, with a fine groined roof, and having in the interior
S16
T I R
Tiraiias.
Tipstaff some very ancient paintings in fresco, and a number of sta¬
tues supposed to represent the apostles. The remains of
ancient castles are also numerous, as might be expected in
a part of the country so often the seat of intestine wars.
Several old fortresses are still kept in repair, and improved
so as to form the residences of the proprietors of the sur¬
rounding lands. There is also a number of elegant man¬
sions and villas belonging to the resident noblemen and
gentry. The dwellings of the peasantry differ little from
those in other agricultural districts, nor are there any very
marked variations in their manners, dress, or mode of living.
The lower classes have long been notorious for their spirit
of lawless turbulence, which has been attributed, among
other causes affecting the country in general, to the neglect
of absentee landlords, and to the almost total want of com¬
munication through the mountainous districts. The latter
of these has been considerably diminished within the last
few years; and the projected commercial facilities designed
by the railroads, if carried into execution, will tend to com¬
plete this desirable change.
The county town is Clonmel!, on the Suir; a large and
populous place, partly in this county and partly in Water¬
ford, with a population of 17,838 souls. It is a parliamen¬
tary borough, returning one member, and one of the great
marts for the agricultural produce of the county. It was
also the seat of the woollen manufacture until its failure
throughout Ireland, after which that of cotton has been in¬
troduced, but with partial success. Its chief channel of
export is by the Suir to Waterford, by means of boats of
fifty tons and under. One of its principal articles of ex¬
port is butter, for the sale of which a large building has been
erected. Brewing and distillation are extensively carried
on here or in the vicinity. The public buildings are those
usual in county towns; the parish church, a large oldbuild-
ing; two Roman Catholic chapels, and other places of wor¬
ship ; a court-house, prison, public school-house, infirmaries,
and the county lunatic asylum. Some vestiges of the an¬
cient fortifications still remain. One of the four gates, which
is still kept in repair, forms an ornamental entrance to the
town on the western side. Since the division of the county
into two ridings, Nenagh, the place appointed for holding
the assizes in the north riding, has received some improve¬
ment. A prison is there in progress of erection. The po¬
pulation of this town amounts to 8446. Cashel, a city with
a population now reduced to 6971 souls, was anciently the
royal residence of the kings of Munster, the most celebrated
of whom, Brian Boru, built its fortifications. It was also the
seat of the arehiepiscopal residence, and so continued until
the see was reduced to a bishopric and united with those of
Waterford and Lismore, under the provisions of the church
temporalities act of 1833. The archbishop’s palace is in
this city. It has a small library, chiefly of theological works,
attached to it. Cashel is also a parliamentary borough,
returning one member. The other larger towns are Carrick-
on-Suir, a place of some trade by means of its site on that
navigable river. Population 9626. Thurles, the seat of the
Roman Catholic see of Cashel, having in it the cathedral
and the archiepiscopal residence, 7084; Tipperary, 6972;
Roscrea, 5512; Cahir, 3408; Fethard, 3400; and Temple-
more, 2936. (c. r\)
TIPSTAFF, an officer who attends the judges with a
kind of staff tipped with silver, and takes into his charge ail
prisoners who are committed or turned over at a judge’s
chambers.
TIPTON, a large village of the hundred of Offley in the
county of Stafford, 127 miles from London. It has become
a place of importance, from the extension of the potteries
which are carried on there. The inhabitants amounted in
1821 to 11,546, and in 1831 to 14,951.
TIB ANAS and Tonadillas [Spanish) are Spanish
itionai me! .dies in tirfte, and of a moderate movement,
riat
T I T
sung with an accompaniment for thd guitar only. 'f]ie
Spanish dance-tunes, such as the Fandangos, the Boleros
and thii Segitidillas, formerly much in vogue in Spain, wete
played on the gnitar, often accompanied by the voice, and^
by castanets. The Bolero, a modification of the Segui-
di/las, is said to have derived its name froin a dancine-
masfer of Murcia,1 named Bolero.
TTREH, a town of Anatolia, in Asia Minor, on the Mein-
der, which has some mamffhctures. It was besieged by
Timor in 1402, when the inhabitants redeemed their lives
by a sum of money. Thirty-two miles S. S. E. of Smyraif
TJREY, one ofthe Hebrides Islands, situated in lonV 8°
52' W. and lat. 56° 32' N. Its length is twelve miles,'and
its greatest breadth about four arid a half miles; and it con¬
tains about 13,000 Scotch acres, of which nearly 4000 are
considered as arable. Its nearest distance from Mull, at Kil-
ninian, is fourteen miles, and from Iona eighteeri miles.
Tirey Consists of gneiss, composed of hornblende, quartz,
and felspar ; but from the inconsiderable elevation of die
rocks, the course of the beds cannot be stated. The marble
wrought in the island is remarkable for the fineness of its
quality. The island in its general surface is fiat, and so
low that it is scarcely elevated twenty feet above the hlM-
water mark. There are no streams in it except two, which
issue from two Small lakes, one at its southern, and the
other at its WCstCrn side. Water is however easify pro¬
cured, by digging within a few feet of the surface. Hie
soil of Tirey is in general light, arid consists of calcareous
sand mixed with peat-earth, which, together with quartz,
contains a large proportion of shells. These, with the con¬
stant and regular moisture which it derives from its cti-
mare, render the island remarkable for the richness of its
natural pasturage. There is not a single tree In the island,
and it is entirely destitute of fuel, even of peat-moss, so
that the inhabitants have to supply themselves, at much
personal risk, expense, and labour, with this necessary ar¬
ticle, from the Islarld of Mull. They generally employ
their capital in the rearing of black cattle ; but the width
of the ferries, and the risk and expense’of freight, make a
serious deduction from the value of their stock. Potatoes
are cultivated to a great extent, and this has laid a benefi¬
cial effect in the cultivation of much peat-land. Sheep have
also been introduced with success. The population ofthe
island is too great for its productiveness, and the inhabi¬
tants begin to feel tire necessity of emigration. In 1831
they amounted to 4453.
'1IRHOOT, an extensive district of Hindustan, province
of Bahar, situated principally between the 27th and 28th
degrees of north latitude. It is generally well cultivated,
and productive of grain, sugar, indigo, tobacco, opium, and
of late years has bred numbers of horses and cattle. Toward*
the northern frontier it possesses extensive forests, but unfor¬
tunately no rivers to float the timber to the Ganges- It
came into the possession of the British in 1765. Its popu¬
lation is estimated at 2,000,000, in the proportion of three
Hindoos to one Mahommedan.
TIRLEMONT, a city of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of South Brabant and circle of Louvain. It has been
fortified, but its walls are dilapidated. It stands on the
river Geete, has a very fine market-place, and contains
8400 inhabitants, who carry on breweries and distilleries,
and make some woollen cloths and hosiery. It is on the
great road from Brussels to Liege. Long. 4. 48. E. Eat.
50. 49. N. A railroad from Brussels is nearly completed
to this place, and is'intended to proceed to Liege to join
the Meuse.
TIROLESE (/to/.), a kind of waltz-tune, mingled with
triplet passages, in | time, and of a moderate movement.
The Tyrolese songs have a similar melody, and are gene¬
rally performed in a singular falsetto voice.
TITAN, in fabulous history, the son of Ccelus and Terra,
T I T
ad the .elder brother of Saturn, suffered the latter to enjoy
'tie crown, on condition that he should bring up none ot
H, male issue, by which means the crown should at length
ijvert to him. But Jupiter being spared by the address of
;hea, Saturn’s wife, Titan and his children were sopnraged
t seeing their hopes frustrated, that they took up arms to
rvenge the injury; and not only defeated Saturn, but kept
I'm and his wife prisoners till he was delivered by Jupiter,
§m defeated the Titans; when from the blood of those
' tans slain in the battle, proceeded serpents, scorpions,
i d all venomous reptiles. Such is the account given by
te poets of this family of Grecian and Roman gods. From
ve fragments of Sanehoniatho, however, and other ancient
• •iters, many learned men have inferred that the litans
'ere an early race of ambitious heroes, who laid the foun-
utipn of that idolatry which quickly overspread the world ;
. id that by assuming the names of the luminaries of heaven,
, ey contrived to get themselves everywhere adored as the
ii mnjorum gentium. That the word Titan signifies the
.n, there can indeed be very little doubt. Every one
iiows that such was its signification in the iEolic dialect;
nd {is it is evidently compounded of Ti, which in some
jiental tongues signifies bright or clear, and Tan, which
ignifies a country, or the earth, it may be safely concluded
hat Titan was the name of the sun before the word was
; iported into Greece. But the great question among an¬
garies is, of what country was that race which, assum-
i g to themselves the names of the heavenly bodies, intro-
;aced into the world that species of idolatry which is known
ly the appellation of Hero-worship ? Pezron, in “ L’Antiquite
Ifcs Terns,” maintains that the Titans were a family of Sacas
i Scythians, wdio made their first appearance beyond Media
id Mount Imaus, in the upper regions of Asia; that they
‘ ere the descendants of Gomer the son of Japheth and
raudson of Noah ; and that after conquering a great part
f the world, upon entering Upper Phrygia, they quitted
ieir ancient name of Gomerians or Cimmerians, and as-
mied that of Titans. All this, he says, happened before
ie birth of Abraham and the foundation of the Assyrian
monarchy; and he avers that Uranus, their second prince
i the order of succession, conquered Thrace, Greece, the
land of Crete, and a great part of Europe. Uranus was
acceeded by Saturn, and Saturn by Jupiter, who flour-
;hed, he says, 300 years before Moses, and divided his vast
mpire between himself, his brother Pluto, and his cousin-
erman Atlas, who was called Telamon. For the truth of
his genealogy of the Titans, Pezron appeals to the most
pproved Greek historians; but, unluckily for his hypothe-
is, these writers have not a single sentence by which it can
e fairly supported. Others, taking the fragment of San-
honiatho’s Phoenician History for their guide, have suppos-
d the Titans to have been the descendants of Ham. Of this
pinion were Bishop Cumberland and some other writers.
TITHES, in ecclesiastical law, are defined to be the
enth part of the increase yearly arising and renewing from
he profits of lands, the stock upon lands, and the personal
ndustry of the inhabitants ; the first species being usually
i :alled predial, as of corn, grass, hops, and wood ; the se-
:ond mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &c., consisting of na-
aral products, hut, nurtured and preserved in part by the
■are of man ; and of these the tenth must be paid in gross;
"e third personal, as of manual occupations, trades, fish-
ries, and the like ; and of these only the tenth part of the
dear gains and profits is due. We cannot precisely ascer-
ain the time when tithes were first introduced into tiiis
pantry. Possibly they were contemporary with the plant-
ot Christianity among the Saxons by Augustin the
nonk, about the end of the sixth century. But the first
nention of them which we have met with in any written
English law, is in a constitutional decree, made in a synod
^<dd a, d. 786, by which the payment of tithes in general
T l T
317
Titiano.
is strongly enjoined. This canon or decree, which at first Tithing
bound, not the laity, was effectually confirmed by two king¬
doms of the heptarchy, in their convention of estates, re¬
spectively consisting of the kings of Mprcia and Northum¬
berland, the bishops, dukes, senators, and people. This was.
a few years later than the time when Charlemagne establish¬
ed the payment of them in France, and made that famous
division of them into four parts; one to maintain the edi¬
fice of the church, the second to support the poor, the third
the bishop, and the fourth the parochial clergy. I he next
authentic mention of them is in the lyedus hdwardi et
Guthruni, or the laws agreed upon between King Guthrun
the Dane, and Alfred and his son Edward the Elder, suc¬
cessive kings of England, about the year 90Q. This was a
kind of treaty between those monarchs, which may be found
at large among the Anglo-Saxon laws. As Guthrun was a
pagan, it was necessary to provide for the subsistence of
the Christian clergy under his dominion; and accordingly
we find the payment of tithes not cniy enjoined, but a pe¬
nalty added upon ncn-observance. This law was seconded
by the laws of Athelstan, about the year 930.
TITHING ( Tithing a, from the Saxon, Theothunge, i.e.
Decuria), a number or company of ten men, with their
families, knit together in a kind of society, and all bound to
the king for the peaceable behaviour of each other. An¬
ciently no man was suffered to abide in England above
forty days, unless be were enrolled in some tithing. One
of the principal inhabitants of the tithing was annually ap¬
pointed to preside over the rest, being called the tithing-
inan, the head-borough, and in some countries the borse-
holder, or borough’s ealder, being supposed the discreetest
man in the borough, town, or tithing. The distribution
of England into tithings and hundreds is ascribed to King
Alfred. gft’jibJ vlrutoo iflu
TITIANO VECELLI, the most universal genius for
painting of all the Lombard school, and the best colourist
of all the moderns, was born at Cadore, in the'provinee of
Friuli, in the state of Venice, in 1477, or in 1480 according
to Vasari and Sandrart. His parents sent him at ten years of
age to one of his uncles at Venice, who, finding that he
had an inclination to painting, put him to the school of
Giovanni Bellino. But as soon as Titian had seen the
works of Giorgione, whose manner appeared to him abun¬
dantly more elegant and less constrained than that of Bel-
lino, he determined to quit the style to which he had so
long been accustomed, and to pursue the other, that re¬
commended itself to him by having more force, more re¬
lief, more nature, and more truth. Some authors affirm
that he placed himself as a disciple with Giorgione, yet
others only say that he cultivated an intimacy with him ;
but it is undoubtedly certain’that he studied with that
great master, that he learned his method of blending and
uniting the colours, and practised his manner so effectually
that several of the paintings of Titian were taken for the
performances of Giorgione; and his success then inspired
that artist with an invincible jealousy of Titian, which broke
off their connection for ever after.
The reputation of Titian rose continually; every new
work contributed to extend his fame through all Europe,
and he was considered as the principal ornament of the
age in which he flourished. And yet Sandrart observes,
that amidst all his applause and constant employment at Ve¬
nice, his income and fortune were inconsiderable; and that
he was more remarkable for the extensiveness of his talents,
than for the affluence of his circumstances. But when his
merit was made known to the emperor Charles V., that
monarch knew how to set a just value on his superior abi¬
lities; he enriched him by repeated bounties, allowed him
a considerable pension, conferred on him the honour ot
knighthood, and, what was still more, honoured him with
his friendship, Titian painted the portrait of that benefactor
318 TIT T O B
Title several times ; and it is recorded by Sandrart, that one day
II while the emperor was sitting for his picture, a pencil hap-
* s'-unig8" Pen*n£ to drop from the painter, he stooped, took it up, and
J ^ returned it; obligingly answering to the modest apology of
the artist (who blushed at the condescension of so great a
monarch), that the merit of a Titian was worthy of the at¬
tendance of an emperor.
It cannot be truly affirmed that Titian equalled in de¬
sign the great masters of the Roman school; but he al¬
ways took care to dispose his figimes in such attitudes as
showed the most beautiful parts of the body. His taste in
designing men was not generally so correct or elegant as it
appeared in his boys and female figures; but his colouring
had all the look of real flesh; his figures breathe. He was
not so bold as Giorgione, but in tenderness and delicacy he
proved himself much superior to him and all other artists.
The expression of the passions was not his excellence,
though even in that respect many of his figures merited
the justest commendation ; but he always gave his figures
an air of ease and dignity. His landscapes are universally
allowed to be unequalled, whether we consider the forms of
his trees, the grand ideas of nature which appear in his
scenery, or his distances, which agreeably delude and de¬
light the eye of every observer; and they are executed
with a light, tender, and mellow pencil. He learned from
nature the harmony of colours, and his tints seem astonish¬
ing, not only for their force, but their sw’eetness ; and in
that respect his colouring is accounted the standard of ex¬
cellence to all professors of the art. He was of so happy a
constitution, that he was never ill till the year 1576, when
he died of the plague, at the age of ninety-six or ninety-nine.
His disciples were Paulo Veronese, Giacomo Tintoret, Gia¬
como de Porte Bassano, and his sons.
TITLE, an appellation of dignity or rank given to princes
and persons of distinction. Titles were not so common
among the ancient Greeks or Romans as they are in mo¬
dern times. Till the reign of Constantine, the title of Il¬
lustrious was never given except to those who were dis¬
tinguished in arms or letters; but at length it became he¬
reditary in the families of princes, and every son of a prince
w’as illustrious. The title of Highness was formerly given
only to kings. The kings of England before the reign of
Henry VIII. were addressed by the title of your Grace.
That monarch first assumed the title of Highness, and after¬
wards that of Majesty. The title of majesty was first given
him by Francis I. in their interview in 1520. Charles V. was
the first king of Spain w7ho assumed the same title. Princes,
nobles, and clergy, generally have one title derived from
their territories and estates, and another derived from their
rank, or from some other remarkable circumstance. The
pope has the title of Holiness. A cardinal is saluted by
the name of Eminent, or most Eminent. An archbishop,
besides being named from his diocese, is called his Grace
and most Reverend. A bishop is also distinguished by the
name of his diocese, and has the title of his Lordship and
right Reverend. Inferior clergymen are denominated Re¬
verend.
TITULAR denotes a person invested with a title, in
virtue of which he holds an office or benefice, whether he
performs its functions or not.
Til US VESPASIANUS, the Roman emperor, the son
of Vespasian; of whom it is related, that not being able
to recollect any good action which he had done on a cer-
. tain day, he exclaimed, “ I have lost a day!” He might
truly be called the father of his people ; and though Rome
laboured under various public calamities during his reign,
such was his equitable and mild administration,‘that he con¬
stantly preserved his popularity. He was a great lover of
learning, and composed several poems. He reigned but
two years; and it is thought Domitian, his brother, poisoned
him, a. d. 81, aged forty-one.
TIVERTON, a town of the hundred of the same name, Tife -
in the county of Devon, 163 miles from London. It stands n
on the river Exe, where the Leman joins that stream, and
by the two the town is nearly surrounded. They are rapid
streams, and well calculated for turning large machinery. '*'v>
The town was much enriched by its woollen trade; and since
that has been on the decline, powerful engines have been
framed for making lace, a trade that is carried on to a vast
extent at present. There is a school founded by Richard
Blundell, who was a clothier of this town, of great celebrity.
It has four exhibitions or scholarships at Oxford, and the
same number at Cambridge. The school-house is a very
fine pile of building. Tiverton is a place of great anti-
quity, has been long incorporated, and now elects two mem¬
bers to the House of Commons. For municipal purposes,
the town is divided into three wards, and is governed by a
mayor, six aldermen, and seventeen councillors. There are
markets on Tuesday and Saturday. The inhabitants amount¬
ed in 1821 to 8651, and in 1831 to 9766.
TIVOKEA, a low sandy island in the South Pacific
Ocean, of an elliptical form, and eighteen miles in its long¬
est diameter. Long. 144. 56. W. Lat. 14. 28. S.
TIVOLI, a city of the papal dominions, the capital of
a district of the same name, on the river Teverone, on
the side of a hill. It is the seat of a bishop, has a fine
market-place, a cathedral, ten parish and fourteen conven¬
tual churches, with 5550 inhabitants, but is an old and ill-
built place. It is, however, much visited on account of the
cascades of the Teverone, which present most exciting
groups of objects. Near to it are the remains of the con¬
sular road, the remains of the Villa Adriana, the ruins of
the gate of the villa of Maecenas, and those of the house
of Quintilius Varus, with the temple of Vesta and the grotto
of Neptune. Long. 13. 11. E. Lat. 41. 57. 49. N.
TIZE, a seaport of Persia, in the province of Mekran,
once important, but now reduced to a miserable village of
fifty or sixty huts. It is ten miles south from Churbar.
TJIDANEE, or Tangerang, a river of the island of
Java, which runs a northerly course, and falls into the Java
Sea in the bay of Bantam.
TOBACCO. See Nicotiana.
ToBAcco-Pipes, Manufacture of. The art of making to¬
bacco pipes, or, as it is commonly called, pipe-making,
though one of the simplest species of pottery, is sufficiently
curious to merit description. The process may be divided
into six stages; viz. 1. Beating or preparing the clay; 2.
Rolling; 3. Moulding; 4. Trimming; 5. Drying; and, 6.
Burning.
Preparation of the Clay.—The fine white clay employed
by the pipe-makers is dug from the quarries in masses of
about a cubic foot each. Before it can be used in the ma¬
nufacture of tobacco-pipes, it must be reduced to the con¬
sistence of a tough paste. To effect this, after its outer
surface has been cleared from dirt or dust, it is broken into
small pieces about as large as a goose’s egg, and thrown in¬
to a tub with such a quantity of soft water as experience
has shown to be sufficient to bring it to the proper con¬
sistence. After lying till it has soaked up all the water,
which usually requires from twelve to twenty-four hours, it
is taken from the tub and laid on a strong wooden bench.
Here it is beaten by a heavy four-square iron instrument,
in such a manner as to cut it from one end to the other into
very thin slices. It requires considerable address to per¬
form this operation, and it is surprising how thin the work¬
men will sometimes cut the slices, and how equally they will
thus divide the clay. This beating is continued, alternately
folding up the clay and slicing it, till the whole is perfectly
smooth. It is then ready for rolling.
Rolling.—The operation of rolling reduces the clay into
pieces of a proper size and length for making pipes, and
almost to their proper form. The roller sits at a bench with
1
T O B
T O B
319
smooth board before him, and holds in his hand another
» smooth board about eighteen inches long, four broad, and
■‘“‘about half an inch thick, having one end rounded off on one
*, side, so as to produce a corresponding hollow in the clay.
He now takes a piece of the beaten clay, and rolls it out,
first with his hands, and then -with the board, till it acquire
the form of-a long slender cylinder, with one end consider¬
ably larger than the rest. This large end is to form the
bole, and the cylinder the shank, of the future pipe. The
; pieces of clay thus formed are laid beside each other on a
• flat board, and are now ready for moulding.
Moulding—This is the most complex operation, and re-
, ]uires the greatest number of instruments. The principal
■pf these is the mould, which is composed of two long pieces
;; af iron, formed so as to join together, and having their cor-
-esponding sides cut into the shape of half a tobacco-pipe,
each piece being hollowed so as to form half a slender cy-
inder, with a larger cavity at the upper end, and at such
in angle as it is intended the bole of the pipe shall make
|with the shank. Just above that part of each side of the
nould which stands beyond what is intended to form the
jole, there is a notch for admitting a knife to cut off the
superfluous clay. To receive the united mould there is a
/ice, having at one end two upright posts, between which
noves a long lever ; and to this lever, near the posts, there
s loosely attached apiece of iron ending below in a smooth
/onical head, capable of entering the large opening of the
nould, but rather smaller than the opening, so that when
breed down into it, a sufficient thickness of clay may be
eft between the cone and the sides of the mould, to form
he bole of the pipe. One side of this vice is fixed, and
he other moveable towards the former. The moveable
;lde has attached to it an iron screw, with a very long lever
is its handle; so that by turning the screw one ivay or the
>ther, the moveable side of the vice may be forced nearer
he fixed side, or suffered to return to its original positiofi.
Besides these principal instruments, the moulder requires
| slender steel ware, fixed in a handle at one end, and having
ts other extremity formed into a very small head ; a saucer
:ontaining wool well impregnated with oil, and a small
voollen or cotton brush.
When about to mould his pipes, he lays hold of the shank
>f one of the rolled pieces, and with great dexterity, which
iractice alone can teach, he passes up the oiled wire through
ts whole length, till he finds it arrived at the commence-
nent of the larger extremity of the clay. This extremity
ie then bends to the proper angle, and having oiled the
nside of each part of his mould, he lays the piece of clay,
rith the wire in it, into one part of the mould, and covers
t with the other. He now puts the mould containing the
lay into the vice, and with the left hand turning round the
mndle of the screw, so as to fix the mould firmly within the
ice, he, with the right hand, presses down the lever with
ts conical head, and thus forms the cavity of the bole. He
iow withdraws the mould, cuts off with his knife the super-
11 nous clay from the bole, opens the mould, takes out the
I 'ipe, and now only withdraws the wire. He then lays the
moulded pipe on a flat board, in the same manner as the
oiled pieces before described. The pipes thus moulded
equire to be trimmed, that is, to have the prominences
rising from the joining of the mould, and other superfluous
•icces of clay, taken off, so as to render the surface smooth
nd round.
Trimming.—The operation of trimming is generally per-
ormed by boys and girls, as it requires very little skill. The
umtner has before him a smooth block of wood, about the
rngth of the pipe, and of considerable thickness, elevated a
'tt e at the remote end. He has also a thick piece of
mooth iron, one edge of which has across it two or more
cmicylindrical grooves, capable of receiving half the shank
i n | aking one of the rough moulded pipes, the
a pipe
trimmer carefully passes up the hollow of the shank a wire Tobago,
similar to that employed in moulding, and holding the pipe s"“""
by the bole, while the shank lies before him on the wooden
block, he pares off with a blunt knife all the excrescences
oi clay, both from the shank and bole, and rubs the former,
while lying on the block, with the grooved part of his iron,
so as to render it as smooth as possible. He now cuts off
the ragged piece at the extremity of the shank, withdraws
the wire, and lays the pipe on the drying frame. One great
object of the trimmer is to see that the pipe is completely
perforated, which he discovers by blowing through it; and
if he finds the hole choked up, he must open it by pushing
the wire as far as possible. If this does not succeed, he
breaks the pipe, as useless.
Drying—The pipe has now received all the work that
can be bestowed on it by the maker, previously to its being
burned; but as the exposing of it to heat while soft and
pliable would make it crack, it is necessary that it be pro¬
perly dried. For this purpose, a frame is prepared, com¬
posed of three or four long pieces of wood, fastened to
two end-pieces in such a manner that the middle of the
frame shall be the lowest, to give the shanks of the pipes
that curve which they generally possess. After being
trimmed, the pipes are laid beside each other in this con¬
cave frame, with their boles hanging down over the edges
of the frame, and their shanks bending within its hollow7.
In this position they are exposed to the air till they are dry
and firm. They are then ready for burning or baking.
Burning—For burning or baking the pipes, there is to
be prepared a kiln of a simple but peculiar construction.
It is built in the form of a cylinder, close at the bottom
and on the sides, and open at the top. Below7 the bottom
is a grate for receiving the fuel, and round the sides are
constructed vertical or spiral flues, opening at the top, and
communicating below with the grate. The sides of the
furnace on its interior are pretty thin, and are formed of a
cement composed of clay mixed with fresh cow-dung. In
the middle of the cavity is placed a pedestal composed of
the same materials, for the pipes to lean against. When
the pipes are sufficiently dried, they are arranged round this
pedestal, resting against it and against each other, with
their boles next the bottom of the furnace. They are thus
placed in successive layers, till the furnace be sufficiently
lull, when the open space at top is filled up with bricks
placed over each other, so as to leave interstices for the
free circulation of the air, and of the smoke and flame which
issue through the flues. In these interstices are laid seve¬
ral pieces of broken dried pipes, to serve as pyrometers for
ascertaining the state of the included pipes during the burn-
ing. The fire is now lighted, and kept up, till, on examin¬
ing the pieces of clay laid in the interstices of the bricks,
it is concluded that the pipes w ithin the furnace are suf¬
ficiently baked. The fire is then suffered to go out, and
the whole to cool till the next day, when the bricks are
taken down, the pipes removed, and packed in barrels for
sale. After being burnt, the pipes are sometimes glazed,
which is done by rubbing them, while warm, w7ith flannel
and a little white flax. In some places the extremities of
the shanks are rendered smooth by dipping them before
burning in the ordinary potters’ glazing, which prevents that
adhesion to the lips so unpleasant in new unglazed pipes.
TOBAGO, the most southerly of the Carribbee Islands,
lies in 60° 30'west longitude, and 11° 16' north latitude.
It is about tw7enty-tw7o miles long, and from four to nine
miles broad. This island was discovered by Columbus in
1496, and received its name from the herb which was
smoked by the inhabitants. Sir Bobert Dudley visited it
in 1580; and in 1608 James I. claimed its sovereignty,
though no effectual attempts were then made to colonize it.
In 1628 Charles I. made a grant of the isle to the earl of
Pembroke; but it continued almost deserted till 1632, when
820 T O B
TojoI some merchants of Zealand sent over 200 emigrants, and
founded a colony, to which they gave the name of New
Walcheren ; but before they were able thoroughly to esta-
Y blish themselves, they were attacked by the Spaniards of
Trinidad, aided by the Indians, and the colony was utterly
destroyed. Tobago remained deserted till 1054, when two
opulent merchants of Flushing, named Lampsin, again colo¬
nized it, and raised it to be one of the most thriving com¬
mercial emporiums in the West Indies. About the same
time the duke of Courland, to whom James I. had given a
grant of the island, carried about a hundred families from
Courjand, and settled them on one of the most beautiful
parts of the island, which was named after the founder.
The island experienced various vicissitudes till it was taken
by the British in 1793, in whose possession it has continued
ever since.
Tobago consists of a mass of rocks, the highest part of
which is towards the north-eastern extremity, where it rises
to about 900 feet; it gradually descends towards the south¬
west, with small and delightful valleys interspersed. It is
well cultivated where the rocks are not too steep. It has
several good harbours, chiefly on the northern coast. The
climate is considered unhealthy, the average mortality of
the white troops having been ascertained to be at the rate
of fifteen per cent, annually. The principal town is Scar¬
borough, which is situated at the sea-shore, on the south
coast.
By the census of 1835, the population consisted of,—•
Males. Females. Total.
Whites 250 30 280
Free coloured and blacks  ... 3,000
Apprenticed labourers 4,515 5,290 9,805
13,085
The exports of Tobago amounted in 1836 to L.196,974,
of which L.166,333 were for sugar and molasses, and L.29,960
for rum ; thus showing that the sugar-cane produces almost
the sole exportable commodities of the island. The im¬
ports during the same period amounted to L.73,947, con¬
sisting chiefly of wood and lumber, fish, corn, and British
manufactures.
In 1836 there were four free schools in the island, with
347 scholars; and four private schools, one of which is con¬
nected with the Moravians, and two with the Methodists.
The local legislature consists of the lieutenant-governor,
a legislative council of nine, and a house of assembly of six¬
teen members.
TOBERMORY. See Mui.l.
TOBOL, a considerable river of Asiatic Russia, which
has its rise near the northern extremity of the Oural Moun¬
tains. It joins the Irtysch near Tobolsk, after a course of
nearly 400 miles. Its shores are generally flat, and liable
to inundation. Its upper course is traversed by wandering
bands of Tartars, but in its lower course the country is
more cultivated.
TOBOLSK, the name of one of the two great govern¬
ments into which Asiatic Russia is divided, being the west¬
ern division of that immense territory. Irkoutsk is the east¬
ern division. Tobolsk is bounded on the west by the Oural
chain of mountains, which separates it from European Rus¬
sia ; on the north by the Northern Ocean, the coast, broken
by many deep bays, extending from the mouth of the Obi to
that of the Olenek. It is separated from Chinese and Inde¬
pendent Tartary by an extensive frontier, partly of moun¬
tains and partly of desert plains; and from the contiguous ter¬
ritory of the Irkoutsk by no very definite boundary. Within
the bounds of this government are included three extensive
districts, which are watered by the great rivers, the Obi,
the Irtysch, and the Yenisei, which include the most culti¬
vated parts of Siberia. But the country, on the whole, is
fur from productive. From the northern shore of the Frozen
T O B
Ocean, as far as latitude 58° north, it presents one uni- Tot^
form aspect of the most dismal sterility, with only a few^-v f
pines and stunted shrubs, or bare moss; and a great por- s
tion of the southern parts consists of steppes or plains, f
covered with saline lakes or marshes. Some of these how-
ever, as the steppe of Barabinski towards the east, are
covered with the most luxuriant pasturage, and would be
susceptible of high cultivation, if the inhabitants had skill
and industry. The agricultural districts are those on the
west, on the Tobol and its tributaries, which in the lower
part of their course yield most luxuriant crops ; also in the
east, the middle parts of the Yenisei and Obi. The rivers
in those parts of Siberia abound in fish, which, notwith¬
standing the indolence of the inhabitants, has become a
considerable article of traffic. The mountains on its west¬
ern and southern frontier abound in mineral wealth. The
wastes and forests are filled with innumerable wild ani-
mals, many of which are rendered valuable by their furs. :
But the country still labours under natural disadvantages,
which render its communications difficult, and the trans¬
mission of its surplus produce to the proper market ex¬
pensive. Its northern shores are inaccessible to traffic;
and its vast rivers, taking their course to that ocean, lead
only to the seats of poverty and barbarism. By the census
of 1801, its inhabitants amounted to 622,422. These are
composed of Mongols, Ostiaks, Tschuwashes, Buchanans,
Tungouses, Yakoutes, Samoiedes, besides 20,000 Cossacs,
and several other tribes of wandering Tartars.
Tobolsk, the capital of the above government, and of
all Asiatic Russia, is a large city, and is situated at the con¬
fluence of the river Irtysch with the Tobol. It was origi¬
nally, in 1587, a wooden fort, which was burned to the
ground in 1643, and in its stead wras erected the present
city, which is composed of two parts, the high and the low
town; the former built on an elevated ridge running pa¬
rallel to the Irtysch at a little distance, while the latter fills 1
the level space between it and the river. The high town
contains the residence of the governor, the tribunals, pub¬
lic offices, and the magazine of foreign merchandise. These,
along with two churches and a convent, are built of stone;
the remainder are of wood. The elevated situation of the
town, the whiteness of the buildings, and the gilded cupo¬
las, give it a fine appearance from a distance. There was
formerly the Kremlin, built of stone, and flanked with towers,
now gone to ruin ; while to the south of it is the great
market-square, enclosed by stone buildings, forming two
stories of merchants’ shops. This part of the town, from its
elevation, is secured from the risk of inundations; but seldom
a year passes without the low town being overflowed. Ihis
may be considered a sort of suburb, and is built entirely of
wood; and it is connected with another large suburb, for¬
merly inhabited by Tartars, who have been removed to an¬
other and a separate quarter. The crowded manner in which
they built their houses renders them extremely liable to
fire. These Tartars consist of the original inhabitants,
mixed with some Bucharians. The other residents are j
descended from exiles sent thither by the Russian govern- i
ment. The largest colony ever transported thither con¬
sisted of Swedish prisoners taken at the battle of Pultawa, j
who, being much better informed and more polished than
the European Russians, greatly improved the Siberian society
of Tobolsk, by opening seminaries of education, in which
were taught ancient and modern languages, geography,ma'
thematics, and drawing. Provisions are extremely cheap
in this city ; and the neighbouring woods and rivers afford
the finest bunting and fishing in the world. Society and
manners are also greatly improved, so as, according to Ik |
Clarke, to equal these in any other Russian city, lobols'
is the commercial emporium of Siberia, in which centres
all the trade that is carried on in this quarter. I he most im¬
portant branch of it is that which traverses an immense
1
T O K
ntent of Ifind and river carriage between European Rus-
' < l and Cbina. The merchants from Europe arrive in
■ ring, and return with the produce of the east at the end
, summer to Moscow and St Petersburg ; and those from
'irtary and Bucharia arrive in the beginning of winter,
riich they spend at Tobolsk, and return in spring. All
i e furs collected as tribute from the tribes who wander
(,er the immense desert of Siberia are brought to Tobolsk,
i which are large magazines for depositing these various
j ,ods. Population 16,269. Long. 68. 15. E. Lat. 58.
!. N. ' (f.)
TOBOSA, a town, or rather a large village, of Spain, in
te province of La Mancha and the partido de Infantes.
stands on the great road from the province to Madrid,
i d contains about 2200 inhabitants ; and is only remark-
■ le from being the supposed residence of the imaginary
iulcinea of Don Quixote.
TOC AT, or Tokat, a large and commercial city of Asia
; inor, in the paehalic of Sivas. It is built in the form of
u amphitheatre, and is situated in a deep valley on the
.nks of the Jekil Irmak, the ancient Iris. The streets,
lough steep, from the unevenness of the ground, are well
.ved. Several manufactures are carried on in the place,
iimely, of vessels of copper, kettles, candlesticks, with which
i supplies the neighbouring provinces; also of blue morocco
ud silk stuffs. It is a commercial mart of some note to and
3m all parts of Asia Minor. The population, amounting,
cording to Kinneir, to 60,000, consists chiefly of Turks,
considerable number of Armenians, who have seven
lurches, and a few Greeks, who have only one church,
he trade is carried on by means of caravans, wdiich arrive
eighteen days from Diarbekir, in six from Sinope, in
; I'enty from Boursa, and in twenty-seven from Smyrna. To¬
il is the ancient Berisa. Forty miles north-west of Sivas.
ong. 36. 30. E. Lat. 39. 35. N.
TOCCATA (Ital.), an old-fashioned piece of music of
msiderable difficulty, generally written for the harpsichord
■ the organ, but sometimes for the violin, dementi’s mo-
ern toccata for the pianoforte is an admirable study for
tat instrument.
TOCKENBURG, a long and narrow valley of the
inton of St Gall, in Switzerland. The length of this val-
y is thirty-six miles; and through the whole of it the river
hur rushes with impetuous force, from its source on the
estern side of the Sentis, to its entrance into the Rhine at
dken, in the canton of Zurich. A range of lofty and pic-
tresque mountains, forming a rampart round this valley,
■parates it from the Rhinthal and the lake of Wallenstadt.
lie valley contains 50,000 inhabitants, who adhere to the
formed religion. The weaving of linen forms one part
their occupation. The chief place is the small town of
ichtenseig.
TODD1NGTON, a town of the county of Bedford, in
ie hundred of Mamshead, thirty-seven miles from London
ul four from Dunstable. It had formerly a market, but
i has gradually declined, and at length disappeared; but
I ie town still has four well-attended annual fairs. The popu-
tion amounted in 1801 to 1143, in 1811 to 1182, in 1821
' 1665, and in 1831 to 1926.
TOGA, in Roman antiquity, a wide woollen gown or
lantle, which seems to have been of a semicircular form,
ithout sleeves; differing both in richness and largeness,
’cording to the circumstances of the wearer, and used
dy upon occasion of appearing in public. Every body
oows that the toga wTas the distinguishing mark of a Ro-
ian. Hence thej’tM togcB, or privilege of a Roman citizen,
e. the right of wearing a Roman habit, and of taking, as
'ey explain it, fire and water through the Roman empire.
TOKA, a town of some consequence, in Hindustan, pro-
mce of Aurangabad. Long. 75. 10. E. Lat. 19. 25. N.
10KAY, or Tokai, a town of the Austrian kingdom of
vol. xxi.
T O L 321
Hungary, in the division of Semplin. It is situated on the Toker.
river Theiss, at the point where the waters of the Bodrog Ee*seys
fall into that stream. It was once considered an important
military post; and was then the great store-cellar of the. Y -
wine of Prince Bagotzky. Tokay contains 3200 inhabi¬
tants, of the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Catholic confessions,
each of which has its church. From this town the cele¬
brated wine produced in the vicinity has received its name
in most parts of Europe, though at home, ever since 1741,
it is more commonly denominated Theresienberg, from the
name of a hilly district. The best is produced on the hills
of Mada, Tarckzal, and Zomba, which are connected with
the Carpathian range of mountains. The whole quantity
of this wine which is yearly produced does not on an ave¬
rage amount to more than 110,000 eimers, a measure equal
to twenty English gallons.
TOKEN Bessevs, a cluster of very small isles situat¬
ed off the east coast of the island of Booton. Long. 123.
35. E. Lat. 5. 40. S. These islands are all connected by
narrow straits, between which run very rapid currents,
that render the navigation dangerous.
TOLAND, John, a well-known writer, was born near
Londonderry, in Ireland, in 1670, and educated in the
Popish religion, but at sixteen years of age embraced the
principles of the Protestants. He studied three years in
the university of Glasgow; took the degree of A. M. in
that of Edinburgh ; and afterwards completed his studies at
Leyden, where he resided two years. He then went to
Oxford, where, having the advantage of the public library,
he collected materials upon various subjects, and composed
some pieces; among which was, a dissertation to prove
the received history of the tragical death of Atilius Regu-
lus, the Roman consul, to be a fable. He began likewise
a work of greater consequence, in which he undertook to
show that there are no mysteries in the Christian religion.
He published it in 1696, at London, under the title of
Christianity not Mysterious. This book gave great offence,
and was attacked by several w-riters. He afterwards wrote
in favour of the Hanoverian succession, and many other
pieces. In 1707 he went into Germany, where he visited
several courts; and in 1710 he was introduced to Prince
Eugene, who bestow’ed upon him several marks of his genero¬
sity. Upon his return to England, he was for some time sup¬
ported by the liberality of the earl of Oxford, lord-treasurer,
and kept a country house at Epsom; but soon losing his
lordship’s favour, he published several pamphlets against
that minister’s measures. During the last four years of his
life he lived at Putney, but used to spend most part of the
winter in the metropolis. He died at London in 1722. He
was a man of uncommon abilities, published a number of cu¬
rious tracts, and w'as perhaps the most learned of all the in¬
fidel writers ; but his private character was far from being
an amiable one, for he was extremely vain, and wanted those
social virtues which are the chief ornaments as well as duties
of life. Four years after his death, appeared “ A Collec¬
tion of several Pieces of Mr John Toland, now first pub¬
lished from his original manuscripts: with some memoirs
of his life and waitings.” Lond. 1726, 2 vols. 8vo. The
memoirs were written by Des Maizeaux. The first volume
includes a History of the Druids, extending to 228 pages.
TOLEDO, a province of Spain, forming a part of the
ancient kingdom of Old Castille. It extends in north lati¬
tude from 39° 3' to 40° 54', and in vrest longitude from 3° P
to 5° 32', and comprises 734 Spanish square leagues, or
about 9060 English square miles. It is bounded on the
north by the provinces of Madrid and Guadalaxara, on the
east by Cuenqa, on the south by La Mancha, on the south¬
west by Estremadura, and on the north-west by Avila and
Salamanca. The land is lofty and mountainous, with wide
and uniform plains, almost destitute of trees. The soil is
mostly calcareous and sandy, and on the hills stony, but
2 s
322
T 0 L
Toleration, highly productive in situations in which it can be duly
—-y~—^ watered. The mountains of this province form a distinct
chain, which shoots from Cuenca, commences with small
hills in the vicinity of Tarascon and Tembleque, then turns
to the south, and by Madrilejos gradually attains the height
of 2500 feet. It next turns to the west, and forms the
Sierra of Yevernes; and then, under the name of Guada¬
lupe, enters the province of Estremadura. The several
spurs from this chain are called by various names.
The chief river of the province is the Tagus, which re¬
ceives a great number of tributary streams within it, and
others in Estremadura, through wdtich province it passes in
its course to Lisbon, where it terminates. It is not navi¬
gable in Toledo, though, with little expense, it might be
easily made so. The river Guadiana enters the province in
the south-east part, and is soon lost in the sands, and ooes
not re-appear till it enters La Mancha. It then continues
its course as a considerable stream by Badajos, baying its
water increased by various tributary rivers and rivulets,
till it enters the sea at Ayaraonte, on the south-east fron¬
tier of Portugal. Notwithstanding these rivers, the want
of w'ater is a subject of complaint, as there are few or no
wells. According to the latest, not very satisfactory, state¬
ment by Canga Argnelles, the population in 1797 was
370,641 persons, composing 74,128 Inmilies, occupying
68,953 dwellings, but leaving 4979 mined or unoccupied
houses. The description of the people, as given by the
same author, is asfollowrs: Nobles, 14-30; labouring pro¬
prietors, 11,215; labouring tenants, 7155 *, day-labourers,
37,075; artisans, 10,127; traders and merchants, 797; pub¬
lic officers, 682; domestic servants, 6969 ; secular eccle¬
siastics, 2929; regular ecclesiastics, or monks and friars,
2969 ; and females in convents, 1569.
Toledo, a city of Spain, the capital of a province, and
of a subdivision or partido, of the same name. It is re¬
markable in history from having been the Capital ot the
Moorish kings during their government of the peninsula ;
and it was distinguished at the commencement of the reign
of Charles Y. as the scene of the insurrection, in 1’522, of
Don Juan de Padilla, wdio was here executed after his de¬
feat. It stands on the river Tagus, on some hills rising from
it; and the city is thus rendered uneven and very irregular.
There are two old strong bridges over the river. Toledo is
surrounded by ancient walls, protected by tower«, but is not
defensible against modern modes of attack. The interior
of the city has narrow streets, and many large buildings of
very .antique architecture. The most remarkable is the
cathedral, an enormous pile in the Gothic style, ornament¬
ed w’ith a vast quantity of decorations. It is 419 feet in
length, 210 in breadth, and 112 feet in height. The Other
remarkable churches are those of St Thomas, of the Domi¬
nicans, and the Carmelites. The ancient palace of the
Moorish kings is a very striking object, now converted into
an hospital. The city suffers much from the Want of
water, the only supply being from the river, and con¬
veyed to the houses on the backs of asses. Toledo is the
seat of a university. The archbishopric is the richest in
Spain, and the dignity is,commonly filled by a member of the
royal family. The archbishop has eight suffragan bishops
under him, and enormous revenues, which are distributed
largely in provisions, and this circumstance causes the city
to swarm with idle beggars. This place was celebrated for
the excellence of its sw ord blades ; a manufacture intro¬
duced by the Moors, but now nearly, if not wholly, extinct.
The silk and soap trades give some occupation. The num¬
ber of inhabitants at present is supposed to be about 25,000,
but is uncertain. Toledo wras the birth-place of the dra¬
matic poet Garcilaso de la Vega, and of the great critic
Tostado. Long. 3. 27. 57. W. Lat. 40. 28. 40. N.
TOLER ATION, in matters of religion, is either civil or
ecciesiasticaL Civil toleration is an impunity and safety
T O L
granted by the state to every sect that does not maintainTolet^
doctrines inconsistent with the public peace; and eccle-'^'
siastical toleration is the allowance which the church grants
to its members to differ in certain opinions not reputed
fundamental.
As the gods of paganism were almost all local and tute¬
lary, and as it was a maxim universally received that it was
the duty of every man to worship, together with his own
deities, the tutelary gods of the country in which he might
chance to reside, there was no room for persecution in the
heathen world, on account of different sentiments in reli¬
gion, or of the different rites with which the various deities
were worshipped. Had the primitive Christians joined their
fellow-citizens in the worship of Jupiter, Juno, and the rest
of the rabble of Roman divinities, they would have been
suffered to worship, without molestation, the Creator of the
world and the Redeemer of mankind ; for in that ease the
God of the Christians would have been looked upon as a
being of the same kind with the gods of the empire, and
the great principle of intercommunity would have remained
unviolated. But the true God had expressly prohibited
both Jew s and Christians from worshipping any other god
besides Himself; and it was their refusal to break that pre¬
cept of their religion which made their heathen masters look
upon them as atheists, and persecute them as a people
inimical to the state. Utility, and not truth, was the ob¬
ject for which the heathen legislatures supported the na¬
tional religion. They well knew that the stories told by
their poets, of their different divinities, of the rewards of
Elysium, and of the punishments of Tartarus, were a col¬
lection of senseless fables; but they had nothing better to
propose to the vulgar, and they were not such strangers to
the human heart as to suppose that mankind could live to¬
gether in society without being influenced in their conduct
by some religion.
' Widely different from the genius of paganism was tile
spirit of the Jewish dispensation. Truth, which is in fact
always coincident with great utility, was the great object ot
the Mosaic law. The children of Israel were separated
from the rest of the world, to preserve the knowledge and
worship of the true God, at a time when all the other na¬
tions on earth, forgetting the Lord that made them, were
falling prostrate to stocks and stones, and worshipping devils
and impure spirits. Such was the contagion of idolatry,
and so strong the propensity of the Israelites to the customs
and manners of the Egyptians, and other polytheistic na¬
tions around them, that the purpose of their separation could
not have been served, had not Jehovah condescended to
become not only their tutelary God, but even their supreme
civil magistrate ; so that under the Mosaic economy, ido¬
latry was the crime of high treason, and as such justly pu¬
nished by the laws of the state. Among the Jews, the
church and state were not indeed different societies, ihey
were so thoroughly incorporated, that what was a sin in the
one was a crime in the other ; and the forfeiture of eccle¬
siastical privileges was the forfeiture of the rights of ci¬
tizens.
In many respects the Christian religion is directly oppo¬
site to the ritual law of Moses. It is calculated for all, and
intended to be propagated among all nations. Instead ot
sepiarating one people from another, one of its principal
objects is to disseminate universal benevolence, and to in¬
culcate upon the whole human race that mutual love which
naturally springs from the knowledge that all men ate
brethren. Its ultimate end being to train its votaries ftn
heaven, it concerns itself no further with the affairs of earth
than to enforce by eternal sanctions the laws of morality >
and the kingdom of its Founder not being of this world, it
leaves every nation at liberty to fabricate its own municipa
laws, so as best to serve its own interest in the various cir¬
cumstances in which it may be placed; and denounces a
T 0 L
stioicurse upon all who pay not to those laws the fullest obe-
'/-r'iience, when they are not obviously inconsistent with the
1 aws of piety and virtue, wiiich are of prior obligation. The
I ^ Christian church therefore must always remain a society
II listinct from the state; and though, till the present age of
" mzardous innovations, it has been deemed expedient in
5 ^very country where the truth of the gospel is admitted, to
e jive to the religion of Christ a legal establishment, and to
” confer immunities on its ministers, this measure has been
I idopted, not to secure the purity of the faith, which ap-
II jeals to the private judgment of each individual, but merely
P :o preserve the peace of society, and to impose a restraint
11 apon those actions of which human laws cannot take cog-
3 lizance. With religion, Christian governments have no
urther concern than as it tends to promote the practice of
1 virtue. The early Christians, however, not understanding
die principle upon which penal laws were employed to pre-
f ;erve the purity of the Jewish religion, and, as our blessed
1 Lord observed to two of his apostles, not knowing what
3 spirit they were of, hastily concluded that they had a right
o enforce the doctrines and worship of the New Testament,
1 iiy the same means which had been used to preserve the
li Israelites steady to the doctrines and worship of the Old.
l] Hence, though they had themselves suffered the most cruel
■ lersecutions, they no sooner had the power of the state in
1 heir hands, than they persecuted the pagans for their ido-
! atry; and afterwards, when heresies arose in the church,
’ persecuted one another for expressing in different phrases
! .Metaphysical propositions, of such a nature as no human
) mind can fully comprehend. The apostle had forewarned
:hem that there must be heresies in the church, that they w ho
ire approved may be made manifest; but it did not occur
t o them that persecution for opinion is the worst of all
t icresies, as it violates at once truth and charity.
Hitherto these unhallowed means of bringing Christians
u :o uniformity of faith and practice, had been only occasion-
illy employed, from their not accurately distinguishing be-
f ;ween the spirit of the gospel and that of the law ; but as
i soon as the bishops of Rome had brought the inhabitants
1 if Europe to recognise their infallibility in explaining ar-
( icles of faith and deciding points of controv* rsy, persecu-
i -ion became a regular and permanent instrument of eccfo-
>t siastical discipline. To doubt or to deny any doctrine to
i ivliich these unerring instructors had given the sanction of
i heir approbation, was held to be not only a resisting of the
1 ruth, but an act of rebellion against their sacred authority ;
1 uid the secular power, of which, by various arts, they had
I icquired the absolute direction, was instantly employed to
ii ivenge both.
Ihus Europe had been accustomed, during many cen-
1 -uries, to see speculative opinions propagated or defended
t ly force; the charity and mutual forbearance which Chris-
n ianjty recommends with so much warmth were forgotten ;
; he sacred rights of conscience and of private judgment
i vere unheard of; and not only the idea of toleration, but
e iven the word itself, in the sense now affixed to it, was un-
ii 11 mown. A right to extirpate error by force was univer-
I sally allowed to be the prerogative of those who possessed
e he knowledge of truth ; and though the first reformers did
t lot arrogate to themselves in direct terms that infallibility
i ’Vhich they had refused to the church of Rome, they were
it not less confident of the truth of their own doctrines, and
t required with equal ardour the princes of their party to
II oheck such as presumed to impugn or to oppose them. To
1 request too many of these princes lent a willing ear.
It flattered at once their piety and their pride, to be con-
i hdered as possessing all the rights of Jewish princes ; and
I Henry the Eighth of England, after labouring to make his
divines declare that all authority, ecclesiastical as well as
; Clv‘l) flows from the crown, persecuted alternately the Pa¬
pists and Protestants. Many of his successors, whose cha-
T O L 323
racters were much better than his, thought themselves duly Tollo
authorized, by virtue of their acknowledged supremacy over ,. II
all states and conditions of men, to. enforce by means of 1^ur
penal laws a uniformity of faith and worship among their "J*
subjects; and it was not till the revolution that any sect in
England seems to have fully understood, that all men have
an unalienable right to worship God in the manner which
to them may seem most suitable to his nature, and the re¬
lation in which they stand to him; or that it is impossible
to produce uniformity of opinion by any other means than
candid disquisition and sound reasoning. That the civil
magistrate has a right to check the propagation of opinions
which tend only to sap the foundations of virtue, and to
disturb the peace of society, cannot, we think, be questioned;
but that lie has no right to restrain mankind from publicly
professing any system of faith which comprehends the be¬
ing and providence of God, the great laws of morality, and
a future state of rewards and punishments, is as evident as
that it is the object of religion to fit mankind for heaven,
and the whole duty of the magistrates to maintain peace,
liberty, and property, upon earth. We have elsewhere ob¬
served, that among a number of different sects of Christians,
it is not the superior purity of the system of faith professed
by one of them, that gives it a right to the immunities of
an establishment in preference to all its rivals; but though
the legislature is authorized, in certain circumstances, to
make a less pure system the religion of the state, it would
be the height of absurdity to suppose that any man, or body
of men, can have authority to prevent a purer system from
being acknowledged as the religion of individuals. For
propagating opinions and pursuing practices which neces¬
sarily Create civil disturbance, every man is answerable to
the laws of his country; but for the soundness of his faith,
and the purity of his worship, he is answerable to no tri¬
bunal but that which can search the heart.
When churches are established, and creeds drawn up as
guides to the preaching of the national clergy, it is obvious
that every clergyman who teaches any thing directly con¬
trary to the doctrine of such creeds, violates the condition
on which he holds his benefice, and may be justly deprived
of that benefice, w'hether his obnoxious opinion be in itself
true or false, important or unimportant; but his punishment
should be extended no farther. To expel a Christian from
private communion for teaching any doctrine which is
neither injurious to the state nor contrary to the fewr simple
articles which comprise the sum of the Christian faith, is
the grossest tyranny ; and the governors of that church
which is guilty of it usurp the prerogative of the blessed
Lord, who commanded the apostles themselves not to be
called masters in this sense; for one, says he, is your mas¬
ter, even Christ. It is indeed a hardship to deprive a man
of his living for conscientiously illustrating what he believes
to be a truth of the gospel, only because his illustration may
be different from that which had formerly been given by
men fallible like himself; but if the establishment of human
compilations of faith be necessary, this hardship cannot be
removed but by making such compilations as simple as pos¬
sible, and drawing them up in scripture language. Such a
reformation, could it be effected peaceably, would serve
other good purposes; for while it would sufficiently guard
the purity of the faith, it would w ithdraw that temptation
which too many establishments throw in the way of men
to subscribe to the truth of what they do not really believe ;
and it would effectually banish from the Christian church
every thing which can be called by the name of persecu¬
tion.
TOLLO, or Tolour Bay, a great bay on the east coast
of the island of Celebes, very broad at the entrance.
TOLOUR Isle, the largest of the Salibabo Isles, earned
Kercolang by Captain Hunter. It is a well-cultivated and
populous island. The inhabitants are chiefly Mahcmnie-
324 TOM
Tolstonos- dans, who exhibit a considerable degree of cultivation. It
kci is fertile, every part being covered with trees and verdure.
Tom’) It about eighty or a hundred miles in circumference, and
- . ^ lies between the 4th and 5th degrees of north lat. and about
126. 30. east long.
TOLSTONOSKOI, a fort of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Tobolsk, on the Yenisei, 280 miles north-
north-west of Turuchansk.
TOMB includes both the grave or sepulchre in which a
person is interred, and the monument erected to preserve
his memory. The word is formed from the Greek
tumulus, sepulchre; or, according to Menage, from the Latin
tumba, which has the same signification.
In many nations it has been customary to burn the bodies
of the dead, and to collect the ashes with pious care into an
urn, which was deposited in a tomb or sepulchre. Among
many other nations it has been the practice to lay the dead
body in a tomb, without consuming it, after having wrapped
it up decently, and sometimes placing it in a coffin. The
tombs of the Jews were generally hollow places hewn out
of a rock. Abraham buried Sarah in a cave. Such was
also the place in which the kings of Judah and Israel were
interred; and such was the place in which the body of our
Saviour was deposited by Joseph of Arimathea. But it is
probable that the common people buried their dead in
graves ; for our Saviour compares the Pharisees to “ graves
which appear not, and the men that walk over them are not
aware of them.” Over the tombs, perhaps only of people
of distinction, a stone or monument was erected, to inti¬
mate to passengers that they were burying-plaees, that they
might not pollute themselves by touching them. With the
same intention, as Dr Lightfoot informs us, they whitened
them every year on the 15th of February. The Egyptians
buried their dead in caves, called catacombs. The pyramids,
as some think, were also employed for the same purpose.
Sometimes, after embalming their dead, they placed them
in niches in some magnificent apartment in their houses.
The Greeks and Romans burned their dead, and depo¬
sited their ashes in a tomb. The Greeks interred the ashes
without the cities, by the sides of their highways. Some¬
times, indeed, by way of particular honour, they were bu¬
ried in an elevated part of the town; and the Lacedaemo¬
nians were allowed by Lycurgus to bury in the city and
round their temples. But this was forbidden among the
Romans by the law of the twelve tables: In urbe ne se-
pelito, neve urito. Valerius Publicola, Posthumus Tuber-
tius, and the family of the Claudii, w ere however buried in
the Capitol. To bury by the sides of public, roads was
also common among the Romans ; and hence their epi¬
taphs frequently began with Siste viator. Highways were
probably selected for two reasons; that the dead might
not be offensive or injure the health of the living; and that
they might supply a lesson of mortality.
As it would swell this article to too great a size to de¬
scribe all the different kinds of tombs which have been
used by different nations and ages, we must content our¬
selves with shortly describing the tombs of a few nations,
and adding a few concomitant circumstances.
The tombs of the Parsees are singular. After lying a
proper time in his own house for the purposes of mourn¬
ing, the deceased, followed by his relations and friends,
the females chanting a requiem, is deposited in a tomb
of the following construction. It is a circular building,
open at top, about fifty-five feet in diameter and twen¬
ty-five feet in height, filled to within five feet of the top,
excepting a well of fifteen feet diameter in the centre.
The part so filled is terraced, with a slight declivity to¬
ward the well. Two circular grooves, three inches deep,
are raised round the well; the first at the distance of four,
TOM
the second at ten, feet from the well. Grooves of the like T^r*
depth or height, and four feet distance from each other, at'^-y ■
the outer part of the outer circle, are carried straight from
the wall to the well, communicating with the circular ones,
for the purpose of carrying off the water, &c. The tomb,
by this means, is divided into three circles of partitions;
the outer, about seven feet by four; the middle, six by
three; the inner, four by tw o ; the outer for the men, the
middle for the women, the inner for the children; in which
the bodies are respectively placed, wrapped loosely in a
piece of cloth, and left to be devoured by the vultures;
which is very soon done, as numbers of those animals are I
always seen hovering and watching about these charnel- t
houses, in expectation of their prey. The friends of the i
deceased, or the persons who have charge of the tomb,
come at the proper time, and throw the bones into tbeir
receptacle, the well in the centre ; for w hich purpose iron f
rakes and tongs are deposited in the tomb. The entrance i
is closed by an iron door, four feet square, on the eastern t
side, as high up as the terrace, to which a road is raised.
Upon the wall, above the door, an additional wall is raised,
to prevent people from looking into the tomb, which the s
Parsees are particularly careful to prevent. A Persian in¬
scription is engraved on a stone over the door. From the s
bottom of the wall, subterraneous passages lead to receive t
the bones, and prevent the well from fillingj ;c i mo j j(
Of the ancient sepulchres found in Russia and Siberia,
some are perfect tumuli, raised to an enormous height,
while others are almost level with the ground. Some of
them are encompassed with a square wall of large quarry-
stones placed in an erect position ; others are covered only
with a small heap of stones, or they are tumuli adorned
with stones at top. Some are walled with brick within,
and vaulted over; others are no more than pits or com¬
mon graves. In some the earth is excavated several fa¬
thoms deep ; others, and especially those which are topped
by a lofty tumulus, are only dug of a sufficient depth for
covering the carcass. In many of these sepulchres, the
bones of men, and frequently of horses, are found, and in a
condition that renders it probable the bodies were not
burnt before they were inhumed. Other bones show clear¬
ly that they have been previously burnt; because a part of
them is unconsumed, and because they lie in a disordered
manner, and some of them are wanting. Urns, in which
other nations of antiquity have deposited the ashes of their
dead, are never met with here; but sometimes what re¬
mained of the bodies after combustion, and even whole
carcasses, are found wrapped up in thin plates of gold.
Many dead bodies are frequently seen deposited together
in one tomb; a certain indication that either a battle had
been fought in the neighbourhood of the place, or that some
families buried their relations in an hereditary tomb.
1 he Moors, like all other Mahommedans, hold it contrary
to the spirit of religion to bury their dead in mosques, and
to profane the temple of the Most High by the putrefaction
of dead bodies. In the infancy of the church, the Chris¬
tians had the like respect for their temples. The burial
grounds of the Mahommedans are without the city; the
emperors have their sepulchres distinct and distant from the
mosque, in sanctuaries built by themselves; and their tombs
are exceedingly simple. All Mahommedans inter the dead
at the hour set apart for prayer. The defunct is not kept
in the house, except he expires after sunset; but the body
is transported to the mosque, whither it is carried by those
who are going to prayer. Each, from a spirit of devotion,
is desirous to carry in his turn. The Moors sing at their
burial service; which usage they have perhaps imitated after
the Christians of Spain. They have no particular colour
appropriated to mourning. Women regularly go on the
1 Moor’s Narrative of the Operations of Captain Little’s Detachment, p. 384. Lend. 1794, 4to.
TON
siuie 'riday to weep over and pray at the sepulchres of the dead,
: if* hose memory they hold dear.
*1. TOMBUCTOO. See Timbuctoo.
(i iy. DOMINIE Bay, a bay which deeply indents the north-
^~^ast quarter of the island of Celebes, and abounds with
1 nail rocky islets and rocky shoals. It is often called Go-
■ ong Tellu Bay.
TOMOGUY, a small island in the Eastern Seas, about
r ivo miles round. Long. 127. 4. E. Lat. 0. 15. S.
TOMPION, a sort of bung or cork used to stop the
I iouth of a cannon. At sea this is carefully encircled with
illow or putty, to prevent the penetration of the water into
^ ic bore, whereby the powder contained in the chamber
II light be damaged or rendered incapable of service.
TOMSK, a large city, capital of an extensive district in
! .siatic Rtissia. It is situated on the Tom, about twenty-
3 ve miles from its junction with the Obi. Like most of the
r iberian cities, it was originally a small wooden fort; but
? eing consumed by fire, it was rebuilt on a larger scale in
’• 048. It is built on remarkably irregular and broken
[ round; especially the old part of the town, where the
* greets are narrow and winding, and the houses out of all
0 |ne or order. But the town being built mostly of wood,
■ nd liable to frequent fires, an opportunity was given of
t! recting houses and streets on a regular plan. Within the
1 ircuit of the Kremlin, a fortress constructed in the seven-
3 ;enth century, and now almost entirely in ruins, are the
e athedral church, the tribunals, the treasury, with the ma-
0 azine of furs collected as tribute. In the other part of
c le city is the church of the resurrection, the principal edi-
> ce<; and there are two convents, the one of monks, the
1 ther of nuns. The place is very advantageously situated
3 >r commerce, by which the inhabitants chiefly subsist, be-
6 ig on the great line of rivers which connects Tobolsk with
( be Chinese frontier and the eastern parts of Siberia. It
s s also the centre of the trade in spirits, which are brought
i hither from the distilleries on the Tobol and the Iset, and
' hence distributed to the countries eastward. The inhabi-
I ants are not so civilized as those of Tobolsk and Irkoutsk,
nd they are much addicted to intoxication. Pallas men-
s ions that, prevalent as this vice is in Siberia, he never saw
ny town where it was so common as at Tomsk. The po¬
ll ulation, amounting to upwards of 11,000, consist, besides
» lussians, of a great number of Tartar, Bucharian, and Kal-
3 tuck merchants. Tomsk has been erected into the capi-
3 il of a government, which comprehends a great part of the
n ountries situated on the Obi, and most of those on the Ye-
i isei. Long. 84. 10. E. Lat. 56. 30. N.
TONALITY, in Music (Ital. tonahtu, Fr. tonalite), a
i )odern term, introduced to designate the existence of dif-
ii urences among various musical modes, ancient and mo¬
il ern, and among the elements of melodies and harmonies
t oiroded upon these modes. See Music, pp. 611, 612,
1 nd pp. 61-68 of Appendix to Graham’s Essay on Musical
i .imposition. Peculiarities of tonality among different na¬
il ions may be accounted for by particularities in the con-
u truction of musical instruments (see Music and Trumpet),
1 »r by particularities in intonation adopted by vocal per-
i brmers, and consecrated by that mighty power, custom,
li vhich rules and moulds so many of human feelings, opinions,
i ? nul actions. G. A. Villoteau, a professional musician, ap-
i uuntediby Napoleon to collect musical information in the
;t expedition to Egypt, states that our modern scale of C ma-
t or was a complete stumbling-block to the oriental musi-
a .Mans. He says, J’ai cu 1’occasion de m’en convaincre moi-
li numie en Egypte, en essayaut de la faire chanter a des
i musiciens Grecs, Egyptiens ou Arabes, Ethiopiens, Persans,
i Armeniens et Syriens; et vraiment les grimaces et les con-
o tortions qu’etoient obliges de faire ces bonnes gens pour
H atteindre avec la voix jusqu’a notre Si naturel (B natural),
\\ quils s’effor^oient cependant, ct de la meilleure foi du
TON 325
monde, d’entonner, mais toujours sans succes, me parois- Tondi
soient si singulierement risibles, que je crois qu’il m’auroit II
ete impossible de les regarder de sang-froid, si le motif qui
me determinoit a faire cette experience n’eut occupe alors poomh.
toute mon attention.” See also his paper on the state nf.
music in Egypt, in the great French work, Description de
VEgypte, where he gives a curious account of his studies
under an Arabian musician at Cairo, and the great disagree¬
ment between the European and oriental tonalities. In the
same work he gives some remarkable specimens of orien¬
tal music. The establishment of one major and one minor
scale in Europe may be dated about two centuries ago.
Before that time, the system of tonality was founded upon
the church tones or modes; and the harmony employed con¬
sisted of common chords with an occasional chord of
About the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seven¬
teenth centuries, Claudio Monteverde, a musician of the
Venetian school, began to employ a system of harmony
different from the old. He used the minor 5th, the major
4th, the minor 7th, the 9th, and also even double dissonan¬
ces, unprepared; but his application of the chord of \ to
the dominant of the key, was the most important of his in¬
novations, as it led to the abandonment of the old ecclesias¬
tical tonalities and harmonies, and the rapid establishment
of the modern European tonality and harmony. From
Monteverde’s discoveries arose diminished and augmented
intervals and chords, what is called chromatic music, and
melodic and harmonic modulation. The majority of modern
musicians who have attempted to harmonize ancient Euro¬
pean melodies, seem to have been ignorant of the marked
distinctions between ancient and modern tonalities in Eu¬
rope, and of the fact that most of these airs are constructed
upon tonalities to which modern harmony, which depends
upon a newer system of tonality, cannot be continuously
applied. See the Essay on Composition above cited, pp.
68, 69 of Appendix. (g. f. g.)
TONDI, a seaport town in the south of India, province
of the Carnatic, district of Marawas. Long. 76. 5. E. Lat.
9. 43. N.
TONE, in Music. See Music.
TONG, a city of China, of the second rank, in Pe-che-lee,
on the river Peiho, ten miles east of Pekin. Long. 116.
20. E. Lat. 40. 56. N.
TONGA Islands. See Friendly Islands.
TONGATABOO Island, one of the Friendly Islands,
in the South Pacific Ocean, about sixty miles in circuit.
It was first discovered by Tasman. Long, of the middle
of the island 175. W. Lat. 21. 11. S.
TONG-GIN, a city of China, of the first rank, on the
borders of Houquang, in the environs of which are mines
of gold and silver. 850 miles south-south-west of Pekin.
Long. 108. 37. E. Lat. 27. 39. N.
TONG HO* a celebrated fortress and capital of a'district
of the same name in the Birman empire. The district is
situated about the nineteenth degree of north latitude, and
the ninety-eighth degree of east longitude. It is fertile and
extensive, and constitutes the principality of one of the
king’s sons. The town is built of wood, and is surrounded
by a deep ditch and a stockade. Long. 96. 49. E. Lat.
18. 50. N.
TONG-TCHANG, a city of China, of the first rank, on
the grand canal. It carries on an extensive trade in grain
and fruits. It is 212 miles south of Pekin. Long. 115.
40. E. Lat. 36. 34. N.
TONG-TCHOUEN, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Sechuen, strongly fortified, being on the Tartar frontier.
Long. 103. 2. E. Lat. 26. 20. N.
TONK RAMPOORAH, a rajpoot town, in the province
of Ajmeer, sixty miles south by east of Jyenagur. Long,
75. 58. E. Lat. 26. 7. N.
326
Tonnage.
T C) N N A G E.
Tonnage lias long been an official term, intended ori¬
ginally to express the burthen that a ship would carry, in
order "that the various dues and customs which are levied
upon shipping might be levied according to the size of the
vessel, or rather in proportion to her capability of carrying
a burthen. It has hence arisen that the term “ tonnage,” as
applied to a ship, has become almost synonytnous with that
of size. It is indeed the only term that is used to give an
idea of the magnitude of merchant-ships, which are inva¬
riably spoken of according to their tomiage, or as being ships
of 50, of 500, or of 1000 tons. Not only are all dues and
customs levied according to the tonnage, but ships are also
built, and bought, and sold, for a price per ton of their ad¬
measurement ; and by the conditions ot Lloyd s classifica¬
tion-list of sh ipping, "they must He timbered and (listened,
and must have their anchors, cables, and boats, all in pro¬
portion to the same datum. Tonnage, therefore, In MjJwjf
as these considerations are involved, is virtually assutnedto
be a correct representation of the size ot a ship.
In order to levy the dues on shipping, it, was necessary
t6 establish some one method to be iti gt'tiefal its'e for cal¬
culating this tonnage ; and consequently there has long been
a rule, enforced by law, for the measurethent of the ton¬
nage of ships or vessels, and much mischief has arisen to the
mercantile shipping of Gfeat Britain through the emintbhs
principles which have been adopted at various times in
ibttoipjfiJl,W ,*/ •,'% j ’;,
It is evident that tonnage may express several results of
measurements', and in each case may be a feUfficveutly fair cri¬
terion of the burthen of a rb'erchant-vessel, by which to levy
the dues ; behViuse all that is required thus far, either on the
part of the government or of private interests, or on that of
the owner, is, that the dues should be leVied in equal propor¬
tions on all vessels. Thus tonnage may be the pfoduct of a
series Of measurements, intended to express either the exact
size, or an approximation to the exact size, of the ship.
It may be the actual displacement or weight of the ship,
either with or without cargo ; it may be the displacemen t of
the cargo, or the dead-weight which she will carry to a fixed
draught of water ; or it may be the' capacity of thfe space
which she has for the stowage of cargo. Yet to each of
these there are most important practical objections. The
first, or that by which the measured bulk of the ship would
be the tonnage, might be easily evaded, and would lead to
injurious results ; because, as there must necessarily be fix¬
ed measuring places, such a law would have the effect of
restricting the form of vessels to that one shape which
would carry the largest cargo under the least possible mea¬
surements at these places. If the actual displacement,
either load or light, of a vessel, were to be her tonnage, it
would be subject to the inconvenience that it could only
be calculated correctly from the drawing of the ship, and
therefore would be inapplicable to foreign ships arriving
in our ports. An exact account of the draught of water,
either load or light, would also be necessary; which, as be¬
ing a variable quantity when the load draught is involved,
and one of great difficulty to be determined when the light
draught is required, would present almost insuperable ob¬
jections ; and, besides, the draught of water is a quan¬
tity easily concealed or falsified for fraudulent purposes.
Above all objections, however, may be reckoned this, that
if either the load or the light displacement were taken to
represent the tonnage, it would be the interest of the snip-
owner to build large vessels with slight scantling and ina¬
dequate fastening, that the weight of the vessel might be
small in proportion to that of the cargo. If the tonnage
were to express the difference between the two displace- T„lln„
merits, that is, the excess of the load displacement over the
light, or the deftd-weight of the lading, although this would
be by far the'most correct in principle,—in fact, although
it be even mathematically correct,—there is the objection
asiainst it, that it involves a knowledge of both light and
load draughts of water, and is therefore on this account,
practieaHy at least, as objectionable as the whole displace¬
ment. Lastly, if the tonnage were to be the space or Ca¬
pacity for the stowage of cargo, numerous openings would
be afforded for fraudulent evasion ; because the manner of
measuring the ship for this> space must be defined, and fit‘is
easy to build space which will not come Within tile limits
of the defined measurements; or it is easy to build a vessel of
such a form that the measurements made at the gi ven measur¬
ing places shall not give a correct account of her capacity.
Until January 1885, the rule for computing the tonnage
of ships was as follows. The length was taken on a straight
line along the rabbet of the keel of the ship, from the back
of the tiiain stern-post to a perpendicular line from the fore
pin t of the main stem under the bowsprit* The breadth
was taken f'rbm the outside of the oiitside pkfnk in the
broadest part of the ship, either above or" below the main
wales, exclusively of all manner of doubling planks that
might be wrought upon the sides of the ship. If the ship
to be measured was afloat, a plumb-line was dropped over
the stern, and the distance bettveen such line and the after
part of the stern-post, at the loud water-mark, was measured;
then was taken the length from the top of this plumb-line,
in a direction parallel with the water, to a perpendicu¬
lar immediately over the load water-mark, at the fore
part of the main stem. Subtracting from tins length the
before-mentioned distance between the plumb-line and the
alter part of the stern-[Hist, the remainder was reckoned to
be the ship’s extreme length, from which three inches
were deducted for every foot of the load draught of water.
With the (dimensions thus obtained, the rule then w;as:
" From the length taken in either of the ways above men¬
tioned, subtract three' fifths of the breadth taken as abnvC;
the remainder is esteemed the just length of the keel to
find tlue tonnage; then multiply this length by the breadth,
and that product by half the breadth, and dividing by 91,
the quotient is deemed the true contents of the tonnage”
This rule is still in force for ships that wrere registered
previously to the passing of the new act. It is evident that
the tonnage as determined by it was intended to express the
size or bulk of the ship, the half breadth being an assumed
equivalent for a mean depth. The evils which arose out
of this assumption were very great. As the depth was not
at all involved, it might be increased to any extent without
increasing the tonnage ; while, on the contrary, as the square
of the breadth was involved, an undue preponderance was
given to this dimension, and it became necessary, on the
part of ship-owners, to restrict it within the least possible
limits. The effect of such a law was obvious. '1 lie British
merchant-ships, in order to profit by its inconsistencies, were
built exceedingly narrow and deep in proportion to the
length, so that, according to parliamentary returns, we find,
on an average, the mercantile navy would carry -jd more
weight than its legally registered tonnage. In fact, the
ships became little more than oblong boxes, most dangerous
as sea-boats, and, from their want of stability, not capable o
carrying sufficient sail to insure their safety on lee shores-
Hence, after every gale of wind, the leeward coasts were
covered with their wrecks ; and hence Lloyd s books regis¬
tered annually the average loss of six ships in four days.
TONNAGE.
magi Oat of this uncertainty of navigation arose a most heart-
!v-*’less system of gambling in maritime-insurance, the tempta-
' tions of which were as destructive to the mercantile honour
11 and the morality of the nation, as the inefficiency of the ships
was destructive to its seamen. Luckily, this cause of re-
‘ | proach has ceased since the enactment for calculating the
! „ tonnage of vessels, which has been in force from January
1836; and numbers of ships are now built that very for-
" cibly prove how injuriously the old law must have operated
( in checking maritime and commercial adventure. Not that
we mean to say the present law is by any means perfect,
or that the rule for calculating the tonnage cannot be
3 evaded, because this is not the fact; it can be and is evaded,
11 but the evasions are not so destructive to the good qualities
of ships as those which were commonly practised dur-
? ing the continuance of the old law. It is doubtful whether,
in a nation whose existence depends upon her maritime
P superiority, ships should not be exempted from all dues.
: These pages are not the place to inquire how it might be
® possible to accomplish so desirable an exemption; or how
1 compensating revenues could by any means be awarded to
I the harbours, the docks, or the lights, which are now main-
! 'tained by a taxation levied upon the tonnage of shipping.
It does not, however, appear difficult to conceive that the
II same revenue might be drawn from the freights which the
i ships carry, as the merchant would receive it back from the
'! ship-owner in the shape of a diminished freightage.
It is exceedingly difficult, probably even impossible, to
11 frame a rule for computing the tonnage which shall be at
( once of practical application, and yet not have in some de-
‘ gree the effect of restricting improvement, in the qualities of
e merchant-ships. It is difficult to induce a man to forego
c a coustant and positive gain for one that is only prospective
and uncertain. We have seen that the obstacles which
•I oppose themselves to correctly and satisfactorily determin-
" ing either the light or the load draughts of water, are suffici-
11 ent to prevent the difference between the light and load
s displacements from being taken to represent "the tonnage,
•i This is, however, the only correct measure of a ship’s power
to carry cargo; the difference being, of course, exactly
l1 equal in weight to the cargo which either lias or may cause
it. All other quantities which can be taken as measures
of that power are little more than assumptions, and whether
i they represent the external dimensions of a ship, or her
" internal capacity, they scarcely give an approximat ion even to
< the power which she may possess of carrying burthen ; while,
i in either of the above cases, the fact that these quantities
i must be determined by measurements at fixed measuring
t places, affords opportunity for evasion, and indeed invites
it, for if, by any arrangement of the dimensions, or by any
« peculiarity of the stiape, a ship can be enabled to carry a
T greater burthen than her registered tonnage, the freight of
11 l*lat greater burthen is a premium which is offered to that
i one proportion between her dimensions, or that one peculiar
form lor her body, and a restriction is, to a certain extent,
placed upon improvement; because the ship-owner will
content himself with the best ships that he can obtain, pos¬
it s ess ing the advantages of those dimensions or of that form.
I he present rule for computing the tonnage assumes
it to be the space for stowage, and the internal capacity of the
vessel is calculated in order to determine it. As there are
ii necessarily fixed measuring places, the rule may, as we have
' evaded by a certain build. Its phraseology may also
e most easily evaded by building accommodations on deck,
vvnich will not come within the meaning of the terms that
i ? ¥6 used, in it—“ poop,” “half-deck,” or “ break in the deck.”
, . naer hs operation vessels may also be advantageously
milt of very small register tonnage to carry cargoes of
wavy goods; for which purpose they should be of the lightest
materials, but with very large scantlings, that the internal
I I capacity may bear but a small proportion to the load dis¬
placement of the vessel. We have already however stated, Tonnage,
that in its effects the present rule is far less injurious to the ''—~v'“—’
mercantile navy of England, than that which it is intended
eventually wholly to supersede.
Rule for calculating the Tannage of Ships or Vessels, as
prescribed by Act of Parliament.
The tonnage of every ship or vessel required by law to
be registered shall, previously to her being registered, be
measured and ascertained while her hold is clear, and accord¬
ing to the following rule : (that is to say), divide the length
of the upper deck between the after part of the stem and the
fore part of the stern-pogt into six equal parts. Depths—at
the forejnost, the middle, and the aftermost of those points of
division, measure in feet and decimal parts of a foot the
depths from the under side of the upper deck to the ceiling
at the limber strake. In the case of a break in the upper
deck, the depths are to be measured from a line stretched
in a continuation of the deck. Breadths—divide each of
those three depths into five equal parts, and measure the
inside breadths at the following points: videlicet, at one
fifth and at four fifths from the upper deck of the foremost
and aftermost depths, and at two fifths and four fifths from
the upper deck of the midship depth. Length—at half the
midship depth measure the length of the vessel from the
after part of the stem to the fore part of the stern-post; then
to twice the midship depth add the foremost and the after¬
most depths for the sum of the depths; add together the
upper and lower breadths at the foremost division, three
times the upper breadth, and the lower breadth at the mid¬
ship division, and the upper and twice the lower breadth at
the after division, for the sum of the breadths ; then multiply
the sum of the depths by the sum of the breadths, and this
product by the length, and divide the final product by three
thousand five hundred, which will give the number of tons
for register. If the vessel have a poop or half deck, or a
break in the upper deck, measure the inside mean length,
breadth, and height, of such part thereof as may be includ¬
ed within the bulkhead ; multiply these three measure¬
ments together, and dividing the product by 92*4, the
quotient will be the number of tons to be added to the
result as above found. In order to ascertain the tonnage of
open vessels, the depths are to be measured from the upper
edge of the upper strake. ,• . . -i' /
Mode of ascertaining the Tonnage of Steam- Vessels.
In each of the several rules herein before prescribed,
when applied for the purpose of ascertaining the tonnage of
any ship or vessel propelled by steam, the tonnage due to
the cubical contents of the engine-room shall be deducted
from the total tonnage of the vessel, as determined by either
of the rules aforesaid, and the remainder shall be deemed
the true register tonnage of the said ship or vessel. The
tonnage due to the cubical contents of the engine-room
shall be determined in the following manner: that is to say,
measure the inside length of the engine-room in feet and
decimal parts of a foot, from the foremost to the aftermost
bulkhead ; then multiply the said length by the depth of the
ship or vessel at the midship division, as aforesaid, and the
product by the inside breadth at the same division, at two
filths of the depth from the deck, taken as aforesaid, and
divide the last product by 92-4, and the quotient shall
be deemed the tonnage due to the cubical contents of the
engine-room.
For ascertaining the Tonnage of Vessels when laden.
And be it further enacted, that for the purpose of ascer¬
taining the tonnage of ail such ships, whether belonging to
the United Kingdom or otherwise, as there shall be occasion
328
TONNAGE.
Tonnage, to measure while their cargoes are on board, the following
rule shall be observed and is hereby established: that is to
say, measure, first, the length on the upper deck, between
the after part of the stem and the fore part of the stern-post;
secondly, the inside breadth on the under side of the upper
deck, at the middle point of the length; and, thirdly, the
depth from the under side of the upper deck, down the pump-
well, to the skin ; multiply these three dimensions together,
and divide the product by 130, and the quotient will be the
amount of the register tonnage of such ships.
To form a Scale of Tonnage, or a Scale of Displacements.
In order to form what is sometimes called a scale of ton¬
nage, and sometimes a scale of displacement, on the plan of
a ship’s body draw a horizontal line to represent her load
water-section, and beneath this line draw other horizontal
lines equidistant from each other, representing equidistant
horizontal sections ; then calculate the solid contents ot the
part of the body intercepted between each two successive
sections. The sum of the contents of all the solids will be
the load displacement of the ship, and the sum of the con¬
tents of all the solids below any one of the horizontal sections
will be the displacement of the ship up to that horizontal
section. Find in this manner the load displacement, and
also the displacement up to every horizontal section ; then
draw a vertical line AB, and on AB,
graduated to some scale of feet, set
otf the distance AB equal to the
mean load draught of water of the
ship, and on the same line AB let
the points C, D, E, be taken respec¬
tively at the heights of the other
equidistant horizontal sections;
then from A, C, D, E, draw A«,
Cc, Dd, Ee, so that Ec, Dd, Cc, and
Aa, shall respectively be in the
same ratio to each other in length
as are the solid contents, or the dis¬
placements of the parts of the body below the respective
horizontal sections, to each other, in cubical contents. Thus,
if the solid content of the whole displacement be double the
solid content of the displacement up to the height C, then
draw Aa double the length of Cc ; or if it be only one third
more, then let Aa be one third longer than Cc ; and on the
same principle with the other lines. Then trace a curve
through all the points a, c, d, e, which curve will be the
curve of displacements. Then, if Aa be graduated by pro¬
jecting all the points c, d, e, &c. on to it, the line Aa will
become a scale of displacement, or of tonnage.
The use of the scale is obvious, as, when the ship from
which it was formed is at any draught of water within the
limits of the height BA, her displacement at that draught
may be immediately known by squaring a line out from its
height, set off from B on the scale BA, to intersect the curve
liedca, and then squaring up this point of intersection to the
scale of tonnage Aa, which will be intersected at the number
of tons in the displacement required. The effect to be pro¬
duced in the draught of wyater by lightening or loading the
ship to any extent embraced within the scale may also be
easily ascertained; and, in the same manner, the quantity of
lading which a ship will require to be put into or taken out
of her to bring her to any certain draught of water, may be
immediately known. In fact, so useful are these scales of ton¬
nage that they ought to be calculated for every merchant-
ship, and a scale drawn and placed in the hands of the
commander. It w'ould enable him to answer at once innu¬
merable questions which are completely beyond his know¬
ledge without it. Mr Parsons, a member of the late School
of Naval Architecture, proposed to the committee from
which the law for tonnage that is at present in force has ema¬
nated, that, for all new vessels built or launched after a certain T
date, such scales of tonnage should be formed, which, when
properly authenticated, should be attached to the register
of the vessel, in order that from these scales the true ton¬
nage or actual weight of the cargo might be ascertained,
and either the whole or any portion of it which the commit¬
tee might have determined, be taken as the register tonnage.
There would have been many difficulties opposed to the
practical application of this plan, although we can by no
means consider them as insurmountable. Among these
difficulties wmuld have been the question as to what is or
what ought to be considered as the light draught of water;
and also the circumstance that many vessels are built from
eye alone, of which, therefore, there would have been no
drawings to form the scales of tonnage. Mr Parsons has
traced the curves of tonnage for many classes of merchant-
vessels, and for the several rates of men-of-war, and has
published them in a work called Scales of Displacement.
A somewhat similar work, as respects the men-of-war, and
under the same title, has also been published by Mr Edye,
the assistant-surveyor of her majesty’s navy.
A very useful body of information on merchant-vessels re¬
sulted from the labours of the committee on tonnage, that has
been already so frequently mentioned in this article. It is a
valuable and extensive collection of particulars as to the
form, proportions, dimensions, and tonnage of the mercantile
navy of England. The measurements were all made, and
the information was collected and arranged, by Mr Cradock,
a member of the late School of Naval Architecture, who was,
by the permission of the Lords Commissioners of the Ad¬
miralty, employed under the directions of the committee. In
order that such a body of information may be more generally
useful than it can possibly be while confined to the pages of
a parliamentary Report, wye shall enrich this article with it.
The following accounts of the various methods of comput¬
ing the tonnage, which are in use among the maritime na¬
tions of Europe, were obtained by her majesty’s government
officially from the several powers, and are included in the
report of the committee-
Methods at present in ‘m among Foreign Nations for com-
pitting the Tonnage of Skips.
France The three measures of length, breadth, and
depth, are multiplied together, and the product is divided
by 94 for the tonnage.
In single-decked vessels the length is taken from the after
part of the seem on deck to the stern-post; the extreme
breadth is taken, being measured inside from ceiling to ceil¬
ing, and the depth from the ceiling to the under surface of
the deck.
In vessels of two decks, at Bordeaux, the length of the up¬
per deck and that of the keelson is measured, and the mean
taken for the length. But at Brest, Marseille, and Bou¬
logne, the mean of the length on the two decks from the
stem to the stern-post is taken as the length. The depth of
the hold from the ceiling to the under surface of the lower
deck is added to that of the height between decks, and
considered as the depth. The extreme inside breadth is
taken in the same way as in single-decked vessels.
At Bordeaux an allowance is sometimes made for the
rake of the stem and stern of the vessel.
At Boulogne, in measuring steam-boats, the length of the
coal and engine chambers is deducted from the length of the
vessel, and her breadth is taken at the fore and aft extre¬
mities of the same, the mean of which is considered as the
breadth. The depth is taken inside the pumps, from the
low er surface of the deck, between the timbers.
At Brest, measures are frequently taken with a string)
although contrary to law, and an error of seven tons m the
tonnage of a cutter has been the result.
TONNAGE.
329
,(, Spain.—Three breadths arc- measured at the following
-•places: 1st, at the mizen-mast; 2d, a few feet abaft the
foremast; 3d, at a point half way between the two former.
The heights at which the three breadths are taken at the
above places are, 1st, on a level with the deck ; 2d, on a
level with the upper surface of the keelson ; 3d, at a level
halfway between the two former positions.
To find the area at each section, the half of the sum of the
upper
and lower measurements is added to the middle mea¬
surement, and this sum is multiplied by the height of one
above the other. Then half the areas of the fore and after
section is added to that of the middle section, and this sum
is multiplied by the length which the sections are apart from
each other. The result will express in Burgos cubic feet
the capacity of the part of the hold between the fore and
after sections, and it still remains to add the spaces between
these and the stem and stern-post. The former may be
found, without any considerable error, by multiplying the
area of the foremost section by half its distance from the
stem; and the latter in the same manner, by multiplying the
area of the after section by half its distance from the stern-
post. It is evident that the room occupied by the pumps
(must be deducted from the foregoing result, in order to
obtain the fair quantity of space filled by the cargo.
Having thus found the capacity of the hold of any vessel
in the above manner in Burgos cubic feet, it is to be divided
by 4*lyy(j, and the result will be the amount of displacement
of such vessel in tons of Burgos measure, because each ton
is reckoned equal to 41-yPylg feet of Burgos.
Portugal.—For single-decked vessels, the length is mea¬
sured from the cabin bulkheads to the forecastle bulkheads.
The depth is measured from the upper surface of the keel¬
son to the under surface of the beams. The extreme breadth
of the deck is considered the breadth. The continued
product of these three dimensions will give the contents in
cubic feet, which, divided by 57-^^,, gives the tonnage.
Vessels of two decks. In these vessels two distinct opera¬
tions are made ; one for the hold, the other for the middle
deck. For the hold :—The length is measured from the
heel of the bowsprit to the stern-post. The breadth is the
extreme breadth of the upper deck, deducting two feet.
The depth is from the upper surface of the keelson to the
under surface of the beams. For the middle deck :—The
length is considered as half of that for the hold, the other
half being allowed for cabins, &c. The breadth as before ;
and for the depth, the height of the middle deck to the
under surface of the beams.
The foregoing is the method adopted at Lisbon, but at
Oporto the length of the vessel is taken from the second
timber at the bows to the stern-post; the breadth, at the
widest part from the inside of each bulwark on the upper
deck; and the depth, from the upper surface of the keelson
to the lower surface of the beams of the upper deck at the
main hatchway.
If the keelson be more than ordinarily thick, allowance is
made accordingly ; and where there are two decks, the thick¬
ness of the lower deck is also deducted from the depth.
1 he length is then multiplied by the breadth, and the pro¬
duct by the depth. This product is then divided by 96,
the number of Portuguese cubic feet contained in a ton,
and the result is the tonnage of the vessel.
Naples.—For vessels with two decks, the length is mea¬
sured from one end of the vessel to the other, over all.
Ihe length is also measured from the after part of the
stem to the rudder hatch, under the poop. The mean be¬
tween these two lengths is multiplied by the extreme
breadth of the vessel.
1 he depth is then taken from the bottom of the well to
'ue lower surface of the upper or poop deck ; and the above
product being multiplied by this depth, and divided by 94,
glves the tonnage.
vol. xxi.
For single-decked vessels, the tonnage is found by multi- Tonnage,
plying the extreme length by the extreme breadth, and the -v-—-"
product by the extreme depth, and dividing by 94, as above.
Netherlands.—The length is measured on deck from
the stem to the stern-post. For the breadth, the hold is
divided into four portions, and two measurements taken at
each of the three divisions : i. Across the keelson, on a level
with its upper surface, from ceiling to ceiling: 2. The
greatest breadth of the hold at each division. The mean
of these six measurements is considered the breadth.
The depths are taken at each of the foregoing points ot
division, from the upper surface of the keelson to the low er
surface of the upper deck between the beams, and the mean
of these three is assumed.
The length, breadth, and depth are then multiplied toge¬
ther, and twm thirds of the product is considered as the ton¬
nage. But an allowance for provisions and water, cabins,
and ship’s stores, varying from to y(;5o, is deducted from
the depth before it is multiplied by the length and breadth.
Norway—From the after part of the stem, the length of
the ship is taken to the inner part of the stern-post. Di¬
viding the length of the vessel into four equal parts, the
breadth is measured at each of these divisions. The depth
of the vessel, from the under surface of the upper deck to -
the keelson, is taken at the above three points of division.
Then multiply the length by the mean of the three
breadths, and this product by the mean of the three depths.
The result of the foregoing is divided by 242], if there
be no fractional parts of feet; but if there are, the calcula¬
tion is made in inches, and the divisor becomes 322-767,
the result thus obtained being the burthen of the vessel in
wmod lasts of 4000 Neva pounds each. To reduce these
into commerce lasts, one of which is equal to 5200 Neva
pounds, it is multiplied by 10, and divided by 13.
Russia.—Length of the keel in feet, multiplied by the
extreme breadth over the sheathing, and the product mul¬
tiplied again by half the breadth, and divided by 94, gives
the number of English tons.
United States—If the vessel be double-decked, the
length is taken from the fore part of the main stem to the
after part of the stern-post, above the upper deck; the
breadth, at the broadest part above the main w-ales, half of
which breadth is accounted the depth. From the length
three fifths of the breadth is deducted ; the remainder is
multiplied by the breadth, and the product by the depth.
The last product is divided by 95, and the quotient is
deemed the true tonnage of such ship or vessel.
If the ship or vessel be single-decked, the length and
breadth are taken as above for a double-decked vessel, and
three fifths of the breadth are deducted from the length.
The depth of the hold is taken from the under side of the
deck-plank to the ceiling in the hold. These are multiplied
and divided as aforesaid, and the quotient is the tonnage.
At Philadelphia a system of measuring, called carpenter’s
tonnage, appears to be adopted. The rule is as follows.
For vessels with one deck, multiply the length by the
breadth of the main beam, and the product by the depth.
Divide this second product by 95.
For double-decked vessels, take half the breadth of the
main beam for the depth, and work as for a single-decked
vessel.
At New Orleans the mode at present in use is as follow-s.
Take the length from the stem to the after part of the
stern-post, on the deck. Take the greatest breadth over
the main hatch, and the depth from the ceiling of the hold
to the lower surface of the deck at the main hatch.
From the length deduct Jths of the breadth, multiply the
remainder by the actual breadth and depth, and divide by 95,
for a vessel with a single deck; but if the vessel have a double
deck, half the breadth of the beam is considered as equivalent
to the depth, and is multiplied accordingly. (b z.)
2 T
330
Tonnage.
TONNAGE.
MR CRADOCK’S MEASUREMENTS OF MERCHANT SHIPPING,
1. Number of flush or fore-and-aft decks,
2. Register tonnage,
3. Girth of greatest transverse section, under false keel, up to under surface of upper deck or first |
4. Girtli'of'the'greatest'transver'se section, under the false keel, up to tlie under surface of the I
upper or weather deck,
T At the side
5. Height of gunwale, orportsill, above the undersurface of the upper or weather deck,-j
A Amidships
6. Height of portsill above the under surface of the deck, next below the upper or| A^^oside
7. VerUcal'distance, at the side, between the under surfaces of the upper or weather| Forward
deck, and the deck or half deck next below it, ■ • .Forward
8. Vertical distance, at the side, between the under surfaces of the gun-deck and of the ) for war a
deck next below it, . . • • • . . \ - V—
9. Vertical distance°at the side, between the under surfaces of the lower deck and the / Forward
10. Perpemiicular'deptR'abreast the pump-well, from the under surface of the upper deck, or the j
first principal deck above the water, to the ceiling at the inner edge of the limber-strake, (
11. Length round outside of ship, at height of under surface of above deck at side, from fore edge ot )
rabbet of stem, to intersection of an athwart-ship line from after edge ot rabbet ot post, or ,
rabbet produced, with curve-line, or curve-line produced, . . . • J
12 Half extreme breadth at the under surface of the upper or weather deck, .
13 Half extreme breadth at the under surface of the first principal deck above the water, .
u! Half extreme breadth, at whatever height, to the outside of the main wales, . ■
15. Length amidships of the orlop or lower deck, from the inside of the stem to the inside ot the {
16. Length'anndsiiips of the first principal deck above the water, from the inside of the stem to|
the inside of the stern-post, . . • . • •
17. Length amidships of the upper or weather deck, from the inside of the stem to the inside ot I
the stern-post, . . • • • • ■ ^
18. Length on the water-line, from the after part of the stern-post to the foreside ot the stem,
19. Length on the water-line, from the after edge of the rabbet of the stern-post to the fore edge
of the rabbet of the stem, . • • • • • • - •
20. Length amidships of the platforms, or half decks, below the/Forward ....
lower decV, from the inside of the stem or stern-post, \Att . ....
21. Length amidships of the platforms, or half-decks, below the / Forward . • ■ •
upper deck, from the inside of the stem or stern-post, i Aft .....
22. Length of the lower deck, taken up for accommodation, and! Forward ....
on which no cargo is stowed, • • . \ Aft . . • • •
23. Extreme length amidships of the upper or weather deck, from the inside of the stem to the 1
foreside of the counter timbers, . . . _ • . • • >
24. The length of the upper deck is divided into six equal r At first point of division from forward,
parts, and the vertical depths taken at each of At second do.
these points of division, from the under surface of -j At third do.
the upper deck to a point on the ceiling at the | At fourth ao.
inner edge of the limber-strako, . . /At fifth dc
25. The vertical depth at the first point of division of the f At the under surface of deck.
deck from forward is divided into five equal parts. At first point of division below it,
and the internal lialf-breadths taken at the under -j At second no.
surface of the deck, and at each of these points of | At third 00.
division, .... / At fourth do.
26. Half breadth at 21 feet below the last measurement,
27. Do. 1J foot do. do. ,
28- Do. 1J foot do. do. . . . . •
29. Do. 1 foot do. do. . • ■ • ,
f At the unoer surface ot deck
30. The vertical depth at the second point of division of the deck I At first point of division below
from forward is divided into five equal parts, and the inter- -1 At second do.
nal half-breadths taken as before,
31. Half breadth at 2i feet below the last measurement,
32. Do. li foot do. do.
33. Do. 14 foot do. do.
34. Do. 1 foot do. do.
At third
At fourth
do.
do.
35. The vertical depth at the third point of division of the deck
from forward is divided into five equal parts, and the in¬
ternal half-breadths taken as before,
36. Half breadth at 21 feet below the last measurement,
37. Do. I5 foot do. do.
38. Do. 14 foot do. do.
39. Do. 1 foot do. do.
At the under surface of deck
At first point of division below
At second do.
At third do. .
/At fourth do.
40. The vertical depth at the fourth point of division of the deck
from forward is divided into five equal parts, and the in¬
ternal half-breadths taken as before.
At the under surface of deck
At first point of division below
At second do. .
At third
/ At fourth
do.
do.
Dunira,
East India
Ship.
41. Half breadth at 2J feet below the last measurement,
42. Do. 14 foot do. do.
43. Do. 1 j foot do. do.
44. Do. 1 foot do. do.
45. Do. 6 inches do. do.
f At the under surface of the deck
46. The vertical depth at the fifth point of division of the deck from j At first point of division below it
forward is divided into five equal parts, andtheintemal half--! At second do.
breadths taken as before, . . . | At ttiird do.
/At fourth do.
47- Half breadth at 2.J feet below the last measurement, .....
48. Do. Ij foot do. do. ..... .
49. Do. 1 foot do. do. ......
f At first vertical depth from forward
50. Half breadth to the inside of the limber-strake, or the dis- | At second do.
tanecs from the middle line at each point of division of/ At third do.
the deck at which the vertical depths are taken, | At fourth do.
/At fifth do.
r At first point of division below deck
51. The length of the ship is taken amidships, from the inside of At second do.
the stem to the inside of the stern-post (or front of tran- I
sums), at the height of each of the four points of division”' At third do.
of tlie middle or third vertical depth from forward.
i-At fourth
do.
Three.
1378
Feet.
Portsill.
1 '58
0-83 ■
2-25
1 -75
6'58
6-62
6*83
6'83
23*91
20*83
21*6
22*0
161*25
162-5
163*5
165*0
162*75
170*33
29*66
30*25
30*66
30*5
29*08
18 43
18*87
18*83
17*87
15*5
13*37
10*87
6*12
19*21
19*75
19*91
19*5
18*25
16*66
14*75
10*08
19*37
19*79
20*0
19*5
18*04
16*41
14*46
10*5
18*62
19*25
19*25
18*66
16*75
14*83
12*16
7*33
10*83
17*29
17*25
14 87
8*75
5.71
4*04
1*66
1*66
1*66
1*66
1*58
164*25
161*5
156*5
Asia,
East India
Ship.
Three.
1012
Feet.
87*66
Portsill.
1*23
2*25
1*91
6*56
6*71
6*37
6*5
17*91
19*64
19*87
145*08
146*75
147*5
150*08
147*58
156*0
27*33
27*91
28*33
28*33
25*25
16*04
16*75
17*33
16*41
14*16
11*66
8*98
16-62
17*41
17*79
17*33
16*33
15*04
13*73
16*75
17*37
17*96
17*41
16*25
14*87
13*25
16*25
17*0
17*54
16*79
14*37
11*41
8*71
14*25
14*5
15*33
13*33
7*58
3*91
2*37
1*58
1*66
1*66
1*66
1*58
150*83
143*16
138*75
Two.
602
Feet.
71*25
71*25
Portsill.
1*91
1*5
3*91
3 58
6*79
6*79
4*75
5*12
22*16
15*53
15*53
16*2
124*16
124*16
126*83
i 125*12
6*5
22*25
129*33
22*77
22*37
22*16
22‘08
21*62
14*03
14*36
14*21
13*83
12*71
10*5
14*33
14*66
14*54
14 33
13*83
12*62
14 42
14*74
14*54
14*33
13*75
12*37
14*0
14*33
14*29
14*12
13*37
11*79
13*12
13*5
13*35
1216
8*25
5*62
3*73
1*54
1*62
1*62
1*62
1*54
123 5
120*5
117*75
About
112*5
Two.
523
Feet.
68*5
68*5
Portsill.
1*41 /
j*
1*08 j
3*75 1
3*54 /
7*41 7
7*5 j
6*58 }
21*96
15*16
15-16
15*29
119 34
119*34
121*41
119*91
30*33
53*16
124*0
22*21 I
22*08 '
21 96
21*9
20 96
13*5 /
13 58
13*29
12*87
11*29
8*87
6*79
14*12
14*08
13*9
13*58
12*83
11*41
9*25
13 14
13*14
13*08
12 87
11*29
8*75
3*38
11*48 1
11*71
11*66
10*33
6*12
3*16
1*87
1 21
1*25
1 25
1*25
1*21 j
118*58 Z
116*91 |
115*58
About
113*62 ,
17*5 ^
9-79
13*96 Z
13*87
13*71 1*
13*54 j
12*62 J
11*04
TONNAGE
FOR THE USE OF THE COMMITTEE ON TONNAGE.
331
Tonnage.
Elizabeth,
Java, West Illdia
sh'P- | Ship.
One.
HI
Feet.
64-33
64-33
L 0-08
( 662
i 6-96
20-66
14-4
14-4
14-58
105-75
105-75
107-3
105-0
( 29-25
\ 40-16
( —
l -
109-25
20- 91
21- 0
20-G6
20-46
19-66
13-21
13-21
12-87
12-54
11-04
8-25
5-75
13-29
13-33
13-12
1308
12.33
10-29
8-12
f 13-33
I 13-33
-I 13-12
131
l 12-33
1012
7-5
12-75
12-75
12 66
12-62
11-87
9-79
7-16
11-37
11-29
10-83
9-29
5-66
283
1-08
1-08
1-08
1-08
1-08
103-0
102-25
99-91
97-25
One.
327
Feet.
59-75
59-75
1-16
0-87
5- 91
6- 16
13-16
13-16
13-83
95-0
95-0
16-25
32-0
18-33
18-66
18-41
18-25
17-54
11- 91
12- 0
11-83
11- 58
9-83
8-0
4-41
12- 41
12-58
12-41
12-29
11-62
9-83
6-75
12-37
12-62
12-41
12-37
11-66
9-87
6-71
11 -91
12-16
11-96
11-83
10-41
8- 58
5-87
4- 29
10- 87
11- 0
10-83
9- 58
5- 58
3-33
1-96
1-04
104
1-04
1-04
1-04
930
92-0
About
89-5
About
85-16
Diadem,
Free
Trader.
Columbia,
Brig,
FreeTrader
One.
376
Feet.
60-25
0-S2
0-37
6- 46
7- 0
19-58
1120
13- 87
14- 33
1030
104-25
101-91
17-25
38-0
19-79
19-54
19-41
19-58
19-33
1296
13-04
12-75
12-58
11-25
130
13-29
130
13-0
12-21
12-5
12-79
12-54
12-54
11-71
11-58
11-9
11-68
11-6
10-87
1016
10-41
10-16
9-83
8-0
0-96
104
1-04
0-96
102-08
99 16
96 0
95-5
One.
313
Feet.
57-66
0-66
0’G2
5- 66
6- 0
17-75
13-61
13-9
90-0
90-66
88-41
16-0
21-33
17-83
17-75
17-54
17-25
16-79
12-54
12-5
11-91
11-04
8-91
12-83
12-96
12-62
12-37
11-5
12-5
12-75
12-5
1216
11-29
11-66
12-0
11-66
11-16
9-91
10-41
10-62
9-91
9-08
7-16
0-83
0-87
0-87
0-83
89-25
87-0
83-8
81-66
Truine,
Collier
Brig.
One.
207
Feet.
52-16
0-52
0-12
5-6
60
16-25
91-5
11-4
11-77
86-0
87-0
85-16
28-12
21-62
15- 58
16 25
16- 25
16*25
15-66
10-71
1081
10-58
10-1
8-54
10-5
10-79
10-71
10-71
10-25
10-33
10-79
10-6
10-54
9-91
9-91
10-33
10-18
1008
9-1
8- 87
9- 33
8-91
856
4-85
104
1-08
1-08
1-04
84-5
81-75
72-33
Bonito,
Collier
Brig.
One.
147
Feet.
44-5
0-52
0-25
4-46
4'79
2-79
77-25
10- 91
11- 14
69-5
69-5
67-83
20-75
22-33
William,
Collier
Brig.
One.
H66
Feet.
0-75
0-29
55
6-0
13-87
81-16
11-14
11-36
75-33
77-0
75-08
9-16
22-5
Gem,
Schooner.
One.
83
Feet.
3566
0-5
0-16
5-5
5'0
10-54
62-25
8 97
9-3
56- 66
57- 5
55-83
8-0
9-5
10-16
10-46
10-54
10-41
9-58
7-83
7-83
7-66
6-83
5-08
8-33
8-54
8-5
8-29
7-5
8-21
8-29
8-41
8-16
7-58
7- 71
7 87
8- 0
7-66
6-46
6- 91
7- 25
7-33
604
2-91
0-83
0-87
0-87
0-83
55-33
54-25
52-0
49-0
Hawk,
Schooner.
Liverpool,
Schooner.
Alert,
Sloop.
One.
81
Feet.
31-75
0-5
0-08
5-62
60
9-41
64-5
8-42
8-56
60- 33
62-5
61- 5
6-0
9-0
9-58
9-62
9-41
9-21
9-04
7-0
6-83
6-71
6-33
5-37
7-79
7-83
7-83
7-54
6-71
7-87
7-87
7-83
7-58
7-08
7-66
7-5
7-43
7-08
612
6*58
6-41
6-04
5-04
2-5
0-83
0-83
0-83
0-83
60-0
59-5
590
58-0
One.
81
Feet.
34-75
0-54
0-33
5-16
5-75
9-68
61-83
8- 99
9- 23
54-91
56-5
54-87
7-0
11-0
9-66
9-71
9-71
9-63
9-0
8-12
8-08
7-83
7-21
5-91
8-29
8-29
8-25
816
773
8-25
8-29
8-25
8-16
7-66
8-04
8-12
8-08
7-87
7-21
7 58
7-87
71
608
4 16
0-96
0-96
0-96
091
530
51-66
5075
460
One.
68
Feet
29-25
0-46
0-21
5-25
5-33
(a)8-08
61-0
8-14
8-35
5716
57-66
56-12
6-25
U-83
Deben,
Sloop.
One.
77
Feet.
34-41
0-52
0-18
5-33
5-08
(5)9-08
58'5
8- 97
9- 35
53- 5
54- 75
53-25
6-25
10-0
9-5
9-12
8-58
8-6
8 12
8-0
8-08
8-04
7-71
7-0
8-33
8-41
8-41
8-37
7-87
8-29
8 33
8-37
8-33
7-87
7- 96
8- 08
8-12
7-91
7-21
7-16
7 5
7 66
7-62
6-83
0-91
0-91
0-91
0-91
53-0
51*0
49-5
47-0
Fanny.
Sloop.
Feet.
25-0
0-37
Below
deck.
014
4-5
55
(06-31
61-5
7-08
7-12
54-75
57-0
54-25
6-66
8-25
6-98
6-31
6-5
6-8
6-91
6-46
6-46
6-46
6-4
6-25
6-52
6-52
6'52
6-52
6’25
6-52
6-52
6 52
6-41
6-27
6-52
6-52
652
6-41
6-16
6-46
6-46
646
6-29
5-08
0-91
091
091
0-91
54 25
53’5
52-75
51-25
Ann,
Sloop.
One.
31
Feet.
0-16
Below
deck.
0-08
4- 0
5- 16
6- 37
41-5
7- 0
7-12
36- 75
37- 54
36-25
5-58
8-0
6-58
6 37
6-37
6-37
6-29
5-96
5-96
5-96
558
4-83
6 37
6-37
6-46
629
5 71
637
6 37
65
633
5-83
6 29
6-33
629
60
521
554
5-54
5-25
383
208
0-75
0-75
0 75
0-75
35 66
350
33-41
330
(“) At forepart of main hatchway.
(6) At fore part of main hatchway.
(c) At fore part of main hatchway.
332
Tonnnge.
TONNAGE.
MR CRADOCK’S MEASUREMENTS
Additional Sections and Measurements, for obtaining the internal solid content before
the first point of division of the Deck, and also abaft the fifth point of division of the
Deck.
52. The length before the first point of division of the deck is divided-) The foreTnost vertical depth is
into three equal parts, and the vertical depth taken at each of > The seeond from forward is
these two points of division, _ . J .
("At the under surface of the deck
53. The foremost of these vertical depths is divided into five equal | At first point of division below it
parts, and the internal half-breadths taken at the under At second do.
surface of the deck, and at each of these points of division, | At third do.
(.At fourth do.
54. Half breadth at 2i feet below the last measurement, ... . •
55. Do. iv.- foot do. do. . . . . . ,
fAt the under surface of the deck
„ ^ j • j- -4 j I At first point of division below it
56. The second vertical depth from forward is divided into five j At sec0,ld j0_
equal parts, and the internal half-breadths taken as before, | C](K'
l_At fourth do.
57. Half-breadth at 2§ feet below the last measurement, ......
58. Do. Hfoot do. do. .......
59. Do. 1 loot do. do. • . : . • • • ' . ‘ -
60. The length before the first point of division of the deck is divided into tivo equal parts, and the\
vertical depth taken, which is . . • • • • • • , (
fAt the under surface of the deck
61. This vertical depth is divided into five equal parts, and the in- | At first point of division below it
ternal half-breadths taken at the under surface of the deck, ■{ At second do.
and at each cf these points of division, I At third do.
(_At fourth do.
62. The length abaft the fifth point of division of the deck is divided into two equal parts, and the7
vertical depth taken, which is . . ...... j
fAt the under surface of the deck
63. This vertical depth is divided into five equal parts, and the in- | At first point of division below it
ternal half-breadths taken at the under surface of the deck,At second do.
and at each of these points of division, | At third do.
(_At fourth do.
64. The length abaft the fifth point of division of the feck U di- } The afterraost vertical depth is
vided into three equal parts and the vertical depth taken at VThe second from aft u
each or these two points of division, J
f At the under surface of the deck
65. The aftermost of these vertical depths is divided into five equal | At first point of division below it
parts, and the internal half breadths taken at the under-{ At second do.
surface of the deck, and at each of these points of division, | At third do.
At fourth do.
66. Half breadth at 1J foot below the last measurement, ......
fAt the under surface of the deck
of division below it
do.
Dunira,
East India
Ship.
26-16
28-25
14-16
14-25
13-41
11- 87
8-0
4-79
3- 41
17 37
17 5
17-33
15*66
12- 37
9-16
6-87
4- 5
Asia,
East India
Ship.
Palmyra,
Free
Trader.
24- 66
25- 83
12-66
12-46
11-66
100
6-33
4-33
15-37
15- 91
16- 16
14-83
11-75
8-83
6-21
About
20-08
22-58
12-1
(b) 12-0
(c) ll’58
(d) ll-21
13-46
(e)13-62
(f) 13-46
(g) l308
Alexander,
Free
Trader.
bUC UUUVU
67. The second vertical depth from aft is divided into five equal j V/scrnnh"1*”'
amt internal falfpn hpfnrfv 3 ...
parts, and the internal half-breadths taken as before,
68. Half breadth at 2| feet below the last measurement,
69. Do. li loot do. do.
70. Do. if foot do. do.
71. Load draught of water,
At third
\At fourth
(Forward
Aft
do.
do.
Forward at fore part of fore channel
72. Vertical distance of the under part of the principal deck
above the water, or of the upper deck from the surface^ 1
of the water, (Aft, at fore part of mizen channel
73. Distance, on the curve, of the side of the under part of the first principal j Forward
deck above the water, or the upper deck from the surface of the7 Amidships
water, at the same places, ( Aft
74. Depth from under part of upper deck, or first principal deck above water, down the pumps, to f
skin, or inside of outside planking, ........ J
75. Depth amidships from under part ol ceiling to the inside of the outside planking,
76. Thickness of the ceiling, ..........
77. Distance, on the upper deck, of the foremast abaft the inside of the stem,
78. Distance, on the upper deck, of the mizen-mast before the inside of the stern-post, .
79. Number of crew belonging to the ship, ........
80. Number of passengers brought home, ........
81. Weighs of water, in tons, . . . . . . . . - .
82. Weight of provisions, in tons, .........
83- Description of cargo, ...........
Weight of cargo, in tons, , . . . ...
Weight of ballast, in tons, carried with the above cargo.
Weight of billet-wood or dunnage, &c. in tons, which is used for stowing tne cargo,
From whence she came, ........ . .
The whole internal solid content, in cubic feet, from the under surface of the upper deck, with-1
84.
85.
86.
87-
i 88-
I 
out any deductions whatever,
15-58
15-96
160
12-83
5-41
30
1-58
2216
21-66
5-75
5-16
7- 25
6 33
5-66
8- 12
26-0
1-75
0-25
25-0
320
140
None.
11
™ li
Tea.
941
270
None.
Canton.
151,922
6-58
22-0
(a) 12-04
13-16
13-46
13-96
12-25
5-71
3 79
1-83
19- 5
20- 83
24-21
1-66
0-25
20-75
23-83
110
None.
Could not
be obtained.
Tea.
757
125
None.
Canton.
112,689
19-33
21-83
11- 98
12- 21
11- 04
612
2- 5
1-77
12- 62
12-87
12-46
9-87
4- 91
3- 37
19-5
19-5
5- 46
5- 37
6- 62
5-58
5- 5
6- 79
23-91
1-58
0-21
17-16
19-58
40
24
30
7
Miscella¬
neous.
680
35
15
Calcutta.
64,133
20-08 \
21-58 f
10-6 I
(h) 9-87 |
fi) 7-91 [
- )
12-83
12-75
12-66
12 0
9-62
6-62
4-62
- 1
7-46 \
19-87 /
9-71 1
O) 9'S I
10-62 1
10-68
10-83
2-29
1-29
17-5 \
17-5 J
7-16 A
6-66 (
7-16 j
7-25 1
6 75 >
7 33 J
24-16
1-29
0-21
16-5
17.83
40
16
35
74
Miscella¬
neous.
564
None.
10
Calcutta.
56,050
(a) At upper part of the deck below the upper deck.
(b) At 4 feet below the upper deck.
(c) At 8 feet below the same deck.
(d) At lower part of platform
(<0 At 4 feet below the under part of the deck.
\f) At 8 feet below the deck
fg-) At 12 feet helow the deck.
(h) At under part of lower deck.
(i) At 5 feet below the lower deck.
In this article we have described the method of constructing a scale of Tonnage, or of Displacements. The manner of performing the cal¬
culations to ascertain the displacement of a ship has been explained in the article Ship-building ; it is therefore unnecessary to recapitulate
it here. Many persons, merely for want of sufficient attention to such explanations, are unable to perform these arithmetical calculations, ami
hence the frequent great errors in the displacements of ships. The following experimental method of ascertaining, very nearly, the actua
tonnage of a ship, may not therefore be altogether useless. In fact, we suggest it with the impression that it may be advantageously followe
by merchant-builders. _ , ; .
Suppose a model of a vessel to he made on a scale of half an inch to a foot, then each cubic inch will represent eight cubic teet.
cubic inch of sea-water weighs ,594 of an ounce, that is, eight cubic feet of sea-water on a half inch scale weigh '594 of an ounce. Ther?
fore each ton, reckoning 35 cubic feet of sea-water to the ton, will weigh 2'5987 ounces, or 5 tons will very nearly weigh 13 ounces, and m
measure in bulk 21| cubic inches. _ < ,
If a box be made to a half-inch scale, 175 feet long and 40 feet wide, interior dimensions, rectangular every way, of wood varnished, an
with the end grain of the wood in the direction of the given dimensions, each 5 of an inch in depth of such a box will be 218f cubic inc..e ,
which, according to the foregoing scale, will be 50 tons in weight. ,
To use this box, fill it partly with sea-water, then take the model of the vessel, which is of course supposed to be of dimensions less tnai
those of the box. It is presumed that the launching weight is known. Suppose this, for example, to be 45 tons. Let the model float on t m
water, having previously observed the depth of water in the box. Load the model until the water has risen g93 of an inch above this obsem
depth, the model then evidently floats at its mean launching draught of water.
The load draught of water at which the vessel should swim is known. Load the model until it is brought to this water-line, and observe
TONNAGE
333
nnar
OF MERCHANT SHIPPING.—Continued.
Tonnage.
Java,
Sliip.
17-5
20-.13
10-60
10"21
9-25
7-46
4-08
12'83
12-71
11-91
11-25
8 37
5-33
3-25
r -
IE
18-C6
{
( I
l-
10-73
10 4
1
0
18 5
15-5
Coals.
009
None.
Sunderland,
44,859
Elizabeth,
West India
Ship.
14-83
17-58
9-08
(l) 8-83
(m) 7-02
5-37
11-25
(o) 11-12
(l>) 10-06
(8) 9-79
5-87
16-33
9-5
9-06
10-25
10-5
10-0
8-12
15-0
10- 5
0-33
5-16
5-16
0-41
5-25
5-25
20-0
1-29
0-21
1500
11- 83
18
11
Sugar and
Ruin.
393*
None.
2
Grenada.
32,787
Diadem, \ Columbia,
Free | Hrig,
Trader. Free Trader
10-66
11-66
11 5
10-75
100
6- 87
18-5
9-29
9-46
9-12
7- 75
3-83
15-1
161
5- 25
45
6- 66
5- 33
4-5
6- 83
2T71
19
None.
10
0.V
Miscella¬
neous.
544
None.
12
Siam.
38,285
1T58
11-08
10-91
10-37
9-5
816
15-81
9-66
9-83
875
6-5
2-83
15-83
15-0
5- 0
4-33
Close aft.
6- 66
16
None.
10
Ta
Sugar.
422
None.
10
Mauritius.
28,317
Truine,
Collier
Brig.
13- 83
9-66
9-5
9-25
806
6- 41
14- 16
8-25
8-41
7- 79
3'54
T33
15-5
15-5
3- 33
2-75
Close aft.
4- 75
3 33
2-83
4-83
17-16
340
None.
21,690
Bon to.
Collier
Brig.
12-5
12-5
2-5
2-58
Close aft.
4-08
2-62
2-66
4-21
14-33
206
None.
William,
Collier-
Brig.
11-5
13-5
3- 66
3*t:6
Close aft.
4- 46
3-75
3- 66
4- 58
15-71
250
None.
Gem,
Schooner.
Hawk, i Liverpool}
Schooner.; Schooner.
Alert,
Sloop.
Dcbcn,
Sloop.
Fanny,
Sloop,
9- 21
7-04
6-79
6 "58
6-.16
3- 87
10- 16
633
6-5
6-16
4- 5
TO
8-0
8-5
4-58
4-10
Close aft.
3- 33
4- 66
4- 25
5- 58
1T9
630 Boxes
of Oranges.
55
10
StMichaeTs.
6867
7- 5
8- 25
4-83
433
Close aft.
3- 5
4- 9
4 33
5- 75
Pump aft.
540 Boxes
of Oranges.
47*
15
6045
9-33
9- 66
2 33
1 66
Close aft.
3 21
2 33
1-66
3-62
10- 99
104
None.
80
7-5
Close ford.
25
1 87
Close aft.
271
2 58
1-91
3 0
9-0
Coals.
81?
None.
9-0
90
Close ford
275
T83
Close aft.
3 4
2-83
1-83
35
10-21
516 Qrs. of
Barley.
96*
None.
6017
Ann,
Sloop.
5 83
6 33
Close ford
1 83
0 5
Close aft.
1 91
191
0 5
2 0
7 08
65
None,
3936
00 At upper part of the deck next below the upper deck,
(l) At under part of half deck.
(m) At 3 feet below half deck.
5-5
5 75
Close ford,
3 25
1-75
Close aft.
308
3 25
T75
3-08
Pump aft
31
None.
2148
(n) At 6 feet below the half deck.
(o) At under part of half deck.
(p) At 3 feet below the half deck.
(q) At 6 feet below thehalfdeck.
(r) At 3 feet below the upper deck.
(s) At lower side of half deck.
Thus simnnu ^ i" b0X’ feme“bering that every 4 of an inch rise in the box indicates 50 tons increase to the displacement of the vessel
than it the iJ’ I1™ ‘ r modelswims at the draught of water wished for the vessel, that the water has risen an additional l of an inch more
dcntly carry 100 tons ‘ raUSht 'T*6!; ; aS,lt ,s known that tl)e vessel will carry 50 tons for every * of an inch rise in the box, she will evi-
y c|Wfy t00 tons of cargo at the draught of water to which she now swims.
present 5 tonT1 "nTrlfr ^ obst!r,vin8 the "'eights used according to the scale already mentioned, that is, 13 ounces to' re-
Sunnose for in r ’ “ ^ S ladinS may ,be so aPPortioned as to bring her to the exact trim forward and aft that may be wished,
rpace allotted f' .ll ’ * steani-boat1to cari7 a 3'J h“rse power engine ; place 91 ounces at the centre of weight given by the engineers in the
allotted for t udr r engine-room; then apportion the other weights, as crew and effects, ship’s stores, cargo, &c. over the respective spaces
the vessel th f . ^e.ptlon*. lt yiH be w^ther the vessel, as formed, will bear them there, and swim at the trim intended; if not, either
uu. weights, or the trim, must be altered.
would be hinence °?he minutenes? of the s.ca!e’ and of the difficulty of observing it on account of the attraction of cohesion of the water, it
box. and noindn T Very ,t0 have an,lndfx’or ratller two> one Reward and the other abaft, moving on a fulcrum over the edire of the
Muteness L,, "’h to a("raduated which might, by lengthening the index-arm of the lever, indicate to any degree of exactness or mi-
The f 1 •rea* ^ cour,se ti)e moer arm of the lever would rise and fall with the model,
a solid comeii("ofretnark, Wl11 ®"!y. apply 40 f. box ot the exact dimensions given, that is, one of which every | of an inch in depth will give
If other than o s’ea'water’ weighing, according to the scale, 50 tons, under the supposition that a cubic inch of water weighs -594 of an ounce,
navigated sea''vater ls to be used. a Qilfereiit calculation must be made. The water used should be that in which the vessel is to b®
334
TON TOO
Tonnage TONNAGE and Poundage, an ancient duty on wine
and an(j other goods, the origin of which seems to have been
Poundage About the 21st of Edward III. complaint was made
Tonsure, that merchants were robbed and murdered on the seas.
^ ^ - The king thereupon, with the consent of the peers, levied a
duty of 2s. on every ton of wine, and 12d. in the pound on
all goods imported; which was treated as illegal by the com¬
mons. About twenty-five years after, the king, when the
knights of shires were returned home, obtained a like grant
from the citizens and burgesses, and the year after it was
regularly granted in parliament. These duties were some¬
times diminished and sometimes increased; at length they
seem to have been fixed at 3s. tonnage and Is. poundage.
They were at first usually granted only for a stated term
of years, as, for two years in 5 Ric. II.; but in Henry VL’s
time they were granted him for life by a statute in the 31st
year of his reign; and again to Edward IV. for the term of
his life also: since which time they were regularly granted
to all his successors for life, sometimes at the first, some¬
times at other subsequent parliaments, till the reign of
Charles I., when, as Clarendon expresses it, his ministers
were not sufficiently solicitous for a renewal of the legal
grant. And yet these imposts were imprudently and un¬
constitutionally levied and taken, without consent of par¬
liament, for fifteen years together; which was one of the
causes of those unhappy discontents. The king found it
expedient to pass an act, whereby he renounced all power
in the crown of levying the duty of tonnage and poundage,
without the express consent of parliament; and also all
power of imposition upon any merchandises whatever. Upon
the restoration, this duty was granted to King Charles II.
for life, and so it was to his two immediate successors; but
by three several statutes, 9 Ann. c. 6, 1 Geo. I. c. 12, and
3 Geo. I c. 7, it is made perpetual, and mortgaged for the
debt of the public.
TONNEINS, a city of France, in the department of the
Lot and the Garonne, and in the arrondissement of Mar-
mande. It is on a fertile plain on the right bank of the
Garonne, along which its broad well-built streets extend to
a great length. The inhabitants amounted in 1836 to
6494. They cultivate much tobacco and hemp, but the city
has now very few' manufactures.
TONNERE, an arrondissement of the department of the
Yonne, in France. It extends over 463 square miles, and
comprehends five cantons, divided into eighty-two com¬
munes, hav ing 45,390 inhabitants in 1836. Its capital is
the city of the same name, situated on the river Armancon,
and containing in the same year 4271 inhabitants. They
make much good wine, and carry on manufactories of hats
and hosiery. Long. 3. 53. 39. E. Lat. 4. 51. 8. N.
TONNINGEN, a city of Denmark, in the province of
Sleswick. It is on a hill on the right bank of the river Eyder,
and near its mouth. From its connection with the Sles¬
wick Canal, which unites the German Ocean with the Baltic,
it has some trade; but had more during the war, when it
was a depot for colonial articles. It now contains 2180 in¬
habitants. Long. 8. 43. E. Lat. 55. 19. N.
TONORU, a towrn in the province of Mysore, where are
still to be seen the remains of ancient and extensive walls,
that must have enclosed a large city. The town, which is
decayed, is fast increasing in size and population under the
British government.
TONQUIN. See Tunqcfn.
TONSURE, a particular manner of shaving or clipping
the hair of ecclesiastics or monks. The ancient tonsure of
the clergy was nothing more than polling the head, and
cutting the hair to a moderate degree, for the sake of de¬
cency and gravity. The same observation is true with re¬
spect to the tonsure of the ancient monks. But the Ro¬
mans have carried the affair of tonsure much farther. The
candidate for it kneels before the bishop, who cuts the
hair in five different parts of the head, viz. before, behind, Tn
on each side, and on the crown.
TONTINE, a loan given for life annuities with benefit 1
of survivorship; so called from the projector Lorenzo''"*
Tonti, a Neapolitan. He proposed his scheme in 1653, to
reconcile the people to Cardinal Mazarine’s government,
by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly
rich. He obtained the consent of the court, but the par¬
liament would not register the edict. He made attempts
afterwards, but without success. It was not till Louis
XIV. was distressed by the league of Augsburg, and by
his own immense expenses, that he had recourse to the
plans of Tonti.
The nature of the plan is this. An annuity, after a certain
rate of interest, is granted to a number of people, divided
into classes, according to their respective ages ; so that the
whole annual fund of each class is regularly divided among
the survivors of that class ; till at last it falls to one, and
upon the extinction of that life, reverts to the power by
which the tontine was erected, and which thus becomes
security for the due payment of the annuities.
TON-TING, a large lake of China, in the province of
Flouquang, about sixty miles long, and from seventeen to
twenty-five broad.
TONYN’S Islands, a cluster of small islands in the
Eastern Seas, near the south-west coast of the island of
Celebes. Long. 119. E. Lat. 5. 31. S.
TOOBAE, some very low islets about five miles north
of Bolabola, one of the Society Islands, much resorted to
for turtle, found in great abundance on its shores.
TOOBIGAN, a small island in the Sooloo Archipelago.
Long. 120. 44. E. Lat. 6. 14. N.
TOOBOUAI Island, one of the Society Islands, in
the South Pacific Ocean, about six miles in extent. Long.
210. 37. E. Lat. 23. 25. S.
TOOFOA, one of the Friendly Islands, visible from
Annamooka. It was from this island that Lieutenant
Bligh was forced into his boat with eighteen of his people.
TOOKE, John Hokne, an ingenious grammarian, and
an active politician, born in Westminster, June 1736, was
the son of Mr John Horne, a poulterer living in New¬
port Market. He was the third of seven children; but
his father, having acquired considerable affluence, first sent
him for a short time to Westminster school, and then to
Eton, where he remained five or six years without parti¬
cularly distinguishing himself, and was removed sooner
than had been intended, on account of the accidental loss
of an eye. In 1755 he went to St John’s College, Cam¬
bridge, wLere he took the degree of A. B. He then be¬
came an usher in a school at Blaekheatb, kept by Mr Jen¬
nings ; but he was soon after induced by his father to take
deacon’s orders, and obtained a curacy in Kent. His own
preference, however, was so much in favour of the law,
that in 1756 he entered as a student of the Middle Tem¬
ple ; but in 1760 he was persuaded to return to the church,
and to receive ordination as a priest; and he officiated for
three years in the chapelry of New Brentford, which his
father had purchased for him ; performing his duties with
decency, and taking some pains'to study the elements of
medicine for the sake of the poorer members of his congre¬
gation. He then went as tutor to France with the son of
Mr Elwes, a gentleman of Berkshire, well known for his
riches and his economy.
In 1765, he commenced his political career by writing
an anonymous pamphlet in defence of Wilkes and his party.
He returned to the continent, and made the tour of Italy
in company with a Mr Taylor ; and at Paris he formed an
intimacy with Wilkes himself, who then found it conve¬
nient to reside there. He had altogether laid aside his
clerical character in these excursions, but he resumed it
for a short time after his return. Soon, however, he relaps*
i
'
T O O K E. 335
e(j into his political amusements; exerting himself, with
•y/— some success, in various elections, as a partisan of his friend
Wilkes, and taking up the cause of a Mrs Bigby, in the
pursuit of an appeal of blood, against the murderers of her
husband, who were supposed to have obtained a pardon
through corrupt interest with the court; though the widow
at last disappointed him by accepting a pecuniary compen¬
sation for her right of appeal. He was however successful,
on his own behalf, in repelling a prosecution for a libel on
Mr Onslow ; and he gained some credit with a party in
the city by suggesting to Beckford, then lord mayor of
London, the reply which he made to the king’s answer to
their remonstrance, and which may still be seen engraved
on the pedestal of Beckford’s statue in Guildhall. He was
soon after very active in establishing the society for sup¬
porting the bill of rights, and in obtaining the liberation of
Bingley, the printer, who had been somewhat hastily com¬
mitted to prison by Lord Mansfield.
In the year 1770, he had reason to be dissatisfied with
the conduct of Wilkes, in some pecuniary transactions re¬
lating to the society for the bill of rights. Both parties
appeared to the public in a light somewhat ridiculous on
■ the occasion, and neither of them gained in respectability,
1 though the society did not appear to value Wilkes the less
for the exposures that took place. It was, however, short¬
ly after dissolved, and most of its members, except the par¬
ticular friends of Wilkes, wrere incorporated into the con¬
stitutional society. The next year, Mr Tooke completed
his academical course at Cambridge, by taking the degree of
A. M., though not without some opposition. About this time
lie exerted himself greatly in procuring the publication of the
debates of the House of Commons in the daily papers, not¬
withstanding the well-known standing orders of the house;
and so far as he was instrumental in carrying this point, he
appears to have rendered at least one very essential service
to his country; but Wilkes, and especially Almon, the
bookseller, are said to have a still stronger claim to the
merit of this transaction, whatever may have been its cha¬
racter. He had also a sharp contest with the anonymous
Junius, against whose hasty attack he defended himself
with great spirit and energy, and with unexampled success.
In 1773 he made a formal resignation of his living, and
meant at the same time completely to lay aside his clerical
character, though no person seems to have felt himself
authorized to accept this part of his resignation ; and he
began to study the law very diligently, intending to make
it the occupation of his life. He adopted soon after a sin¬
gular method of forcing himself upon the notice of the
public, and of the House of Commons in particular : an en¬
closure bill being about to be hurried, as was reported, a
little too rapidly through the house, he wrote some para¬
graphs in a newspaper, which reflected very severely on
the conduct of the Speaker, on purpose that he might be
summoned to appear before the house ; and being placed
at the bar, he gave such reasons for his conduct as produ¬
ced some animated discussions, and in the end was sup¬
posed, though probably without foundation, to have caused
the bill to be modified in some oppressive clauses. By
these means he obtained the favour of Mr Tooke of Pur-
ley, who thought himself aggrieved by the bill in its ori¬
ginal state, and received from him such assurances of tes¬
tamentary favours as induced his nephew, Colonel Har¬
wood, to agree upon a partition of their joint interest in
the reversion of his estate; though Mr Horne never re¬
ceived, first and last, more than L.8000 from the property,
notwithstanding the subsequent change of his name about
the year 1782, in acknowledgment of his patron’s kindness,
and his long-continued intimacy and frequent residence at
urley ; the principal legatee, after all, being a Mr Bease-
ley.
Mr Horne Tooke was, of course, a strenuous opposer of
the American war; and in 1777, he published a very of- Tooke.
fensive advertisement, in which the sufferers in the battle
of Lexington were described as having been murdered by
the king’s troops. P’or this attack on the government, he
was tried at Guildhall in July 1777. He conducted his
own defence, but was found guilty of the libel, and sen¬
tenced to one year’s imprisonment in the King’s Bench, and
a fine of L.200. It was on this occasion that he first appear¬
ed before the public as a grammarian, in the criticisms
which constitute his celebrated “ Letter to Mr Dunning.”
The next year he suffered a still severer punishment, in
the refusal of the society of the Inner Temple to admit him
to the bar, on account of his having taken orders; so that
his prospects of professional advancement were utterly an¬
nihilated. This occurrence made him still more bitter
against the existing government, and in 1780 he printed
some severe remarks upon the measures of Lord North.
He attempted to establish himself as a practical farmer
in Huntingdonshire; but he caught an ague, and soon
becoming disgusted with an agricultural life, he returned
to London, and occupied for some years a house near
Soho Square. His ideas of parliamentary reform, contain¬
ed in a second letter addressed to Mr Dunning, were by
no means extravagant, and he continued to adhere, in
this respect, rathet; to the party of Mr Pitt than to that of
Mr Fox.
The publication of his grammatical dissertations, under
the title of the Diversions of Parley, afforded but a slight
and imperfect intermission of his political pursuits, for his
etymological works are as replete with the politics of the
day as his speeches and his pamphlets. Another of his
pamphlets appeared in 1788, under the title of Two Pair
of Portraits, being intended to serve the cause of Pitt’s
party in their elections. But in 1790 he himself became a
candidate for the representation of Westminster, in oppo¬
sition to Mr Fox and to Lord Hood; and he distinguished
himself sufficiently as a public orator, though he was not
succcessful in the contest.
In 1794, he was tried for high treason, together with se¬
veral other members of the corresponding societies, who
had been active in attempting to introduce some imitations
of the French Revolution in the plans of reform which
they brought forward. He exhibited on the trial some¬
what more of firmness than of good taste. One of his as¬
sociates had before been acquitted, and the jury speedily
returned a similar verdict with respect to himself. He af¬
terwards dedicated the second volume of his Diversions
of Purley to his, counsel, Gibbs and Erskine, and to the
jury who tried him.
In 1796 he again became a candidate for the represen¬
tation of Westminster, but again without success; and,
notwithstanding his strong opinions respecting a reform in
parliament, he afterwards condescended to accept from
Lord Camelford, in 1801, a seat for the nominal borough
of Old Sarum. It was then to be determined if a clergy¬
man could sit in the House of Commons; but the ministry,
instead of contesting the point with respect to his particu¬
lar case, brought in a bill to decide the question in the ne¬
gative for the future, and he remained in the house till the
dissolution of the parliament in the next year, but without
fiarticularly distinguishing himself in its proceedings. His
ast public effort as a party man was made in espousing
for a short time the cause of Mr Pauli, as candidate for
Westminster ; but he abandoned this gentleman in a sub¬
sequent contest. The later years of his life were chiefly
passed in the society of a select circle of friends, who fre¬
quently partook of his hospitality at Wimbledon. He died
in March 1812, leaving his property to some natural daugh¬
ters ; for he had never been married. He was buried in
Ealing church, and not in his garden, as he had directed;
his executors thinking themselves the less bound by these
336
T O O K E.
Tooke.
instructions, as a literal compliance with them might have
/ been unfavourable to the sale ol the property.
1. His earliest publication was a pamphlet entitled The
Petition of an Englishman, 1765. It consisted principally
of apologies for the private conduct and immoral writings
of Wilkes. .
2. He also published a Sermon while he continued in the
church, that is, before the year 1773 ; but it attracted little
notice. ^ .. c
3. A Letter to Mr Dunning, 1778. The rudiments of
his grammatical system, arising out of remarks on the par¬
ticles employed by the attorney-general in his indictment,
and by the judges in his sentence. It was afterwards in¬
corporated into the Diversions of Purley.
4. Facts, 1780; consisting of remarks on the admini¬
stration of Lord North ; with some additions relating to fin¬
ance, by Dr Price. ^ ,
5. A Letter on Parliamentary Reform, 1782; addressed
to Mr Dunning, afterwards Lord Ashburton. ^
6. Eeia Uripoivra, or Diversions of Purley, 1786,8vo. Ed.
2, 4to. Part i. 1798. Part ii. 1802. This is his great and
celebrated work; rich indeed in etymology and in wit, but
meagre in definition and in metaphysics.
7. A Letter to the Prince of Wales, 1787 ; relating to
his supposed marriage with a Catholic.
8. Two Pair of Portraits, 1788, 8vo. The two Pitts con-
trasted, in opposite columns, with the two Foxes, in colours
by no means favourable to the latter.
9. Many of his Letters have been printed in Stephens’s
Life of Tooke. .
It is from the last-mentioned publication that tins histo¬
rical sketch of Mr Tooke’s life has principally been extract¬
ed. It now becomes necessary to add some remarks on his
literary and moral qualifications ; and in both these points
of view the subject has been treated in so masterly a man¬
ner by the author of an article in the Quarterly Review,
who is supposed to be a near relation of Tooke’s most in¬
timate friend, the late Colonel Bosville, that it would be
presumption in any man to go over the same ground, with¬
out adopting very nearly the eloquent and energetic ex¬
pressions which that noble and learned peison has em-
1 Mr Tooke,” says the accomplished reviewer of the Me¬
moirs of his Life (Q. R. vol. vii. p. 325), “was possessed of
considerable learning, as indeed his writings sufficiently
show. To other more casual acquirements, he united a
very extensive acquaintance with the Gothic dialects, of
which he has so copiously and so judiciously availed him¬
self in his etymological researches.” But it must be re¬
marked, that a person more intimately acquainted with the
“ Gothic dialects” as living languages, will easily discover
that his knowledge of them was in truth but superficial, or
that he was indebted for it more to grammars and diction¬
aries, than to any extensive study of the authors who had
written in those languages, or to any habit of speaking
them ; and such a person will easily find a variety of in¬
stances, in which a very different etymon to that which he
has assigned, will naturally suggest itself as the true origin
of the word in question.
(P. 320.) “ Though Mr Tooke’s philosophical works are
the results of no common talent and industry, yet they are
neither written in a truly philosophical spirit, nor do they
display traces of a mind which, even if it had been wholly
dedicated to the study of metaphysics, would have much
enlarged the bounds of our knowledge in that nice and in¬
tricate branch of science. His object seems to have been
rather to retard than to advance the progress of philoso-
phy? by recalling us from those sound conclusions as to the
nature and operations of the human mind, which are built
upon observation and experience, to vague speculations,
drawn from the imperfect analogy existing between the
moral and the physical world. There can be no doubt that To,
the proposition which he has succeeded in establishing is''-
highly interesting and important; and that in the illustra¬
tion of it he has shown great learning, ingenuity, and re¬
search. But then, on the other hand, he has so monstrous¬
ly exaggerated its importance, and so widely mistaken its
tendency, and has attempted to raise so vast a superstruc¬
ture upon such a narrow, slippery, and inadequate founda¬
tion, that we are quite lost in amazement when we recol¬
lect how completely the sagacity which guided him so well
in the investigation of his principal fact, appears to desert
him when he comes to apply that fact to the purposes of a
theory. The distance between what he has proved and
what he wishes us to believe that he has proved, is enor¬
mous. What he has proved is, that all words, even those
that are expressive of the nicest operations of our minds,
were originally borrowed from the objects of external per¬
ception ; a circumstance highly curious in the history of
language, consequently in the history of the human mind
itself, and the complete demonstration of which, of course,
reflects great credit upon its author. 'What he thinks he
has proved is, that this etymological history of words is our
true guide, both as to the present import of the words them¬
selves, and as to the nature of those things w hich they are
intended to signify ; a proposition so monstrous that he has
nowhere ventured to enunciate it in its general form, but
has rather left it to be collected from the tenor of his re¬
marks upon particular instances. In truth, the inferences
at which Mr Tooke arrived, far from being warranted by
his facts, are directly the contrary of those to which he
ought naturally to have been led by the result of his own
studies, when they were most successful. In tracing up¬
wards, through all the mazes of etymology, the origin of
words, he ought to have seen more clearly, if possible, than
any body else, that their real present sense is not to be
sought for in their primitive signification, or in the elements
of which they were originally composed, but that, on the
contrary, their actual import, with which alone in reasoning
we have to do, hardly ever corresponds with their etymo¬
logical meaning, although the one always bears to the other
a certain resemblance, more or less accurate, according to
the greater or less effect of time and accident. One could
without difficulty understand how a person, unaccustomed
to such considerations, and misled by a few instances par¬
tially chosen, should adopt a theory like that which Mr
Tooke was desirous to establish ; but how a philosopher,
minutely acquainted wuth the whole subject, and proceed¬
ing upon a most copious induction of particulars, should
not have perceived that, in ninety-nine instances out of a
hundred, such a doctrine would lead to absolute absurdity,
is, to us at least, inconceivable.”
The reviewer then follows Mr Dugald Stewart in some
very just criticisms, which this distinguished philosopher had
already made on several of Mr Tooke’s examples, fully prov¬
ing the complete fallacy of the system which so completely
confounds the definition of a term with its etymology. Mr
Tooke has indeed the merit of having demonstrated pretty
clearly that all the parts of speech, including those which
grammarians had often considered as expletives and un¬
meaning particles, may be resolved more or less complete v
into nouns and verbs; but, on the one hand, it has been ob¬
served, that the very same doctrine may be clearly trac®
back to the works of Aristotle ; and, on the other, it may L
asserted w ith equal truth, if we wish to carry the theory to
its utmost extent, that language consists only of nouns am
one verb; since all verbs may in fact be resolved into par¬
ticiples or adjectives, compounded with auxiliary verbs, as
well as those which exhibit this complication in their ex
terior form. .. ,
“ In the ordinary intercourse of life, Mr Tooke wa* kl” ’
friendly, arid hospitable.” (P. 325.) We doubt whether
TOO
tooki his temper was naturally good ; but if it was not, be bad a
■y—'merit the more ; for be had so completely subdued it by
care and self-control, as never to betray, under any provo¬
cation, the slightest mark of that irritability which often
accompanies talent, and which gains so rapidly upon those
who know not how to guard against its approaches. Indeed
the aspect under which he appeared in private was by no
means such as the stern cynicism and ferocious turbulence
of his public conduct would have led one to expect; and
those whose opinion of him has been formed exclusively
upon his political character and bis writings, will have some
difficulty in believing that the curate of Brentford was one
of the best bred gentlemen of that age. In this respect he
was a sort of phenomenon. He was born in a low station ;
at no period did he appear to have possessed any remark¬
able advantages for the study of good breeding; on the
contrary, the greater part of his life was spent in constant
intercourse with coarse, vulgar, and uneducated men ; yet
his natural taste was so good, and he had profited so judi¬
ciously by whatever opportunities he enjoyed, that courts
and high stations have seldom produced a better example
of polite and elegant behaviour, than was exhibited by the
associate of Messrs Hardy and Thelwall. Indeed his man¬
ner had almost every excellence that manner can display ;
grace, vivacity, frankness, dignity. Perhaps, indeed, in its
outward forms, and in that which is purely conventional,
his courtesy wore the air of the vieille conr, and was rather
more elaborate than is consistent with the practice of this
lounging unceremonious age ; but it was never forced or
constrained, and it sat not ungracefully upon an old man.”
It may however deserve to be remarked, in contemplating
this paradox, though rather as a collateral coincidence than
as a satisfactory explanation, that even from his infancy
Tooke had actually seen something of the very highest so¬
ciety, having been admitted once or tw ice a week at Leices¬
ter House as a play-fellow to George the Third; and though
he may have learned but little from imitation of the man¬
ners of the young prince, yet the early habit of self-restraint
imposed by such a presence, may easily have imprinted
some courtly traces on his character, which were not easily
effaced, and which an association with the heirs of the first
iamilies of the kingdom, throughout his boyhood, at West¬
minster and at Eton, must naturally have made still more
distinct and permanent.
“ He never appeared to greater advantage than in con¬
versation. He possessed an inexhaustible fund of anec¬
dotes, which he introduced with great skill, and related
with neatness, grace, rapidity, and pleasantry : he had a
quick sense of the ridiculous, and w7as a great master of the
whole art of raillery, a dangerous talent, though the exer¬
cise of it in his hands was always tempered by politeness
and good humour.”
“ In spite of labour and dissipation (p. 328), his life w'as
protracted to a period which indicated an originally sound
and vigorous frame. For the last twenty years, however,
he was subject to several severe, distressing, and incurable
infirmities. These he bore with a patience and firmness
which it was impossible not to admire: to the very last he
never suffered himself to be beaten down by them, nor ever
for one moment indulged in complaint, or gave way to des¬
pondency. In the intervals of pain, nay, even when actu¬
ally suffering under it, he preserved a self-command, which
enabled him to converse, not only with spirit and vigour,
but with all his accustomed cheerfulness and pleasantry ;
never making any demand upon the sympathy of his friends,
or mentioning his own situation at all, except when occa¬
sionally, and by a very pardonable exercise of his sophistry,
he amused himself in exalting its comforts, and explaining
TOP 337
away its disadvantages ; displaying, in this respect, a manly Tool
spirit and a practical philosophy, which, if they had been II
brought to bear upon his moral as well as upon his physi- iopmast' ,
cal condition, if they had been employed with as much ef- r
feet in reconciling him to his political exclusion as to his
bodily sufferings, might have produced, not the very imper¬
fect character we have been attempting to delineate, in
which the unfavourable traits bear so large a proportion to
those of a nobler and more benign cast, but the venerable
portrait of a truly wise and virtuous man.”1 (l. l.)
TOOL, among mechanics, denotes in general any instru¬
ment used for making other complex instruments and ma¬
chines, or in other operations of the mechanic arts.
TOOLJAPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Aurungabad, 110 miles south-east from Ahmednuggur.
This place contains a number of small pagodas dedicated
to the goddess Bhavani.
TOOLOOMBAH, a town in the Afghan territories, in
the province of Mooltan, situated on the south side of the
Ravey river, sixty miles north-east by east from the city
of Mooltan. Long. 72. 13. E. Lat. 30. 58. N.
TOOMBUDDRA, a celebrated river of the south of
India, which takes its name from the junction of the Toom
and the Bhadra, which rise in the western mountains. After
flowing through a jungly country for nearly a degree, it
joins its name and waters with the Tunga at Koorly. From
thence taking a sweep, first northerly, and then westerly,
and afterwards to the east, it continues a winding course
until it falls into the Krishna, skirting the north-western
frontier of the British dominions.
TOOMOON, a small town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Malwah, eighty-four miles west by north from
Chatterpoor. Long. 78. 35. E. Lat. 25. 8. N.
TOOREYPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the Carna¬
tic, twenty-four miles north from Trichinopoly. Long. 78.
48. E. Lat. 11. 11. N.
TOORMOOZ, Tikmoz, or Termed, a city of Indepen¬
dent Tartary, situated to the north of the Oxus, near its
junction with the Hissaur river. It is fifty miles north of
Balkh.
TOOTING, a large village of the county of Surrey, in
the western division of the hundred of Brixton, six miles
from London. It consists of many seats of the richer mer¬
chants and gentry of the metropolis. It has a church, re¬
markable from being of a circular form. The river Wandle
passes through the parish, and turns mills as well for grind¬
ing corn as for other mechanical operations. There is also
a hamlet near it called Upper Tooting. The population
amounted in 1821 to 1863, and in 1831 to 2063.
TOP, a sort of platform, surrounding the lowrer mast¬
head, from which it projects on all sides like a scaffold.
The principal intention of the top is to extend the topmast
shrouds, so as to form a greater angle with the mast, and
thereby give additional support to the latter. It is sustain¬
ed by certain timbers fixed across the hounds or shoulders
of the masts, and called the trestle-trees and cross-trees.
Besides the use above mentioned, the top is otherwise
extremely convenient to contain the materials necessary
for extending the small sails, and for fixing or repairing
the rigging and machinery with more facility and expedi¬
tion. In ships of war it is used as a kind of redoubt, and
is accordingly fortified for attack or defence; being fur¬
nished with swivels, musketry, and other fire-arms, and
guarded by a thick fence of corded hammocks. Finally,
it is employed as a place for looking out, either by day or
night.
TOPMAST, the second division of a mast, or that part
which stands between the upper and lower pieces.
\ Stephens’s Memoirs of John Horne Tooke. Lond. 1813, 2 vols. 8vo. Quarterly Review, vol. vii. p. 320. British Critic, N. S. voL i.
P- '9, 193. Aikin’s General Biography, vol. ix. p. 449. Chalmers’s Biographical Dictionary, vol. xxix. p. 449.
VOL. XXI. t 2 U
338 TOR
Topgallant TOPGALLANT Isle, a high and rocky island, of
little extent, with three rocks near it, lying off the south-
| ern coast of New Holland, between 134° and 135° east
longitude.
TOPOGRAPHY, a description or draught of some par¬
ticular place, or small tract of land, as that or a city or town,
manor or tenement, field, garden, house, castle, or thelike.
TOPSAILS, certain large sails extended across the top¬
masts, by the topsail yard above, and by the yard attached
to the lower mast beneath ; being fastened to the former
by robands, and to the latter by means of two great blocks
fixed on its extremities, through which the topsail-sheets
are inserted, passing from thence to other two blocks fixed
on the inner part of the yard close by the mast; and frovti
these latter the sheets lead downwards to the deck, where
they may be slackened or extended at pleasure.
TOPSHAM, a town of the hundred of Won ford, in the
county of Devon, 170 miles from London. It stands on
the river Exe, about three miles below Exeter, and is the
place where the vessels to that place are anchored. The up¬
per part of the town is pleasant and well built, but not the
lower part, which is chiefly inhabited by sea-faring people.
The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 3156, and in 1831
to 3184. ^ -i- -
TOR, an ancient town of Arabia, near the head of the
Red Sea, and once a place of importance, and a great em¬
porium of Indian trade. It has been supplanted by Suez,
and has now sunk to a mere village. The harbour is form¬
ed by a reef of coral rocks, and to the northward by a low
point of land, on which is placed a beacon. The popula¬
tion consists of Greeks and Bedouin Arabs ; and here is
also a convent of the monks of Mount Sinai, to which they
sometimes retire. It has good water, better than any which
is found on the Red Sea; but there are no other refresh¬
ments nearer than Sinai. Long. 33. 28. E. Eat. 28. 19. N.
TORBAY, a fine and commodious bay on the coast of
Devonshire, of great importance to the naval power of the
British empire, celebrated as the place where King Wil¬
liam with his army landed in the year 1C88. The bay is
formed by two capes or promontories; that on the east,
called Hob’s-nose, and that on the west, called Berry-head.
It is distant from the Bill of Portland thirty-seven miles,
and the circumference is about twelve miles, so that there
is sufficient space for the whole British navy to ride in se¬
curity. Near the entrance are four islets or large rocks,
called the Oristone, the Loadstone, the Thatcher, and the
Shag-rock ; but they present no danger, as there is a good
passage between them, and a depth from six to ten fathoms
of water close to them. Ships may anchor in this bay in
six, seven, eight, or nine fathoms water. The ground is a
strong clay, and very good for holding. Within the bay
they are secure against all winds; but a gale from the
east brings in a great swell, which ships can avoid by an¬
choring about a mile from Brixham pier-head, in seven fa¬
thoms of water.
Few parts of England so powerfully strike the. beholder
as this bay when viewed from a ship at anchor in it. The
thick foliage of the fruit and other trees which are distri¬
buted on the sides of the lofty hills that surround the bay,
the elegant gentlemen’s seats interspersed among them, the
villages with the spires of the churches on the land, the two
towns ol Brixham and Torquay with their handsome rows
of houses, and the great number of vessels of all descriptions,
from the smallest fishing-boats to the largest ships that sail
on the ocean, present a picture which can scarcely be rival¬
led on any other spot of the globe. The mildness of the
climate has gradually induced the building of large distinct
mansions, and has also augmented two towns, which from
hamlets have become populous places, deserving here to be
noticed. Brixham, or, as it was formerly called, Brixholme,
is on die south side of the bay. It is the greatest fishing
TOR
place in the kingdom, and one of the finest nurseries for To
seamen. It has a convenient pier, and a complete watering 1
wharf, from which a store of water can be supplied to a fleet
with great facility and expedition. The parish church at ^
Brixham is a fine old structure; and at a mile and a half
from thence, at the quay, a church has recently been erect¬
ed, capable of seating 1200 persons. This place has of
late been visited by strangers in the summer for sea-bath¬
ing, and in the winter for thb benefit of enjoying a mild
climate. The population of the parish of Brixham amounted
in 1821 to 4503, and in 1831 to 5015. Torquay is situated
in the cove of Torbay, two miles from the promontory
called Hob’s-nose. It is sheltered from the waves by a
ridge of rocks; and it cannot be exceeded in romantic
beauty and picturesque scenery. Here a new pier, pro¬
jecting southwest from the eastern cliff, affords complete
protection to shipping from the southern winds. The re¬
gularity of the buildings raised for the accommodation of
visitors adds neatness and beauty to the place; and the
park, with a new carriage-way to it, and a plantation on one
side, is no small embellishment to the place.
Torquay exhibits a remarkable instance of rapid creation,
and ranks as one of the most esteemed of the sea-bath¬
ing places; possessing all the advantages of the mild cli¬
mate of the most southern part of the British islands. It
is exempted from exposure to the winds from the north
and the east by the lofty hill which intervenes. Though
there is much bathing company in the summer, yet in the
winter, if the visitors are not more numerous, they are more
select; as many invalids, or those who feel symptoms of a
pulmonary kind, resort to Torquay to pass the severer months,
and not only from the neighbouring counties, but from the
more northerly parts of England, and even of Scotland.
It has every convenience for the purpose of sanatory re¬
tirement that the best watering place affords. Provisions
are good and cheap; and the rides in the vicinity, though
rather hilly, are kept in good condition. This place is in
two parishes. One of these is Tor-Moham, whose popula¬
tion amounted in 1821 to 1925, and 1831 to 3582, and it
has rapidly increased since the last of these dates. The
other parish is Mary Church, whose inhabitants amounted
in 1821 to 1050, and in 1831 to 1204. By calculation in
the present year, 1840, Torquay itself is stated to have 6000
residents, exclusively of those strangers that resort to it in
the two seasons between which the parliamentary enumera¬
tions have been taken. The objects in the vicinity that
engage the attention of visitors are, Tor Abbey, an ancient
edifice; Poole’s Hole, a very curious cavern ; Kent’s Hole,
one much larger, with three entrances, and a roof thirty
feet high. There are several fine seats in the neighbourhood.
TO BEE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Bahar,
125 miles south from Patna. Long. 85. 2. E. Lat. 23.
42. N.
TORGAU, a city of Prussian Saxony, in the govern¬
ment of Merseburg, the capital of a circle of the same
name, which extends over 344 square miles, and contains
36,500 inhabitants. 4 he city stands on the river Elbe, and
being strongly fortified, is in war a most important post. It
is defended by two strong fortresses, and contains a lyceum,
720 houses, and 6400 inhabitants, who carry on some ma¬
nufactures of cloth and linen, and much trade on the river
in corn, timber, salt, and other articles.
TORIES, a political party in Britain, opposed to that of
the Whigs. The name of Tories was given to a sort ot
banditti in Ireland, and was thence transferred to the ad¬
herents of Charles I. by his enemies, under the pretence
that he favoured the rebels in Ireland. His partisans, to
be even with the republicans, gave them the name of
Whigs, from a word which signifies whey, in derision ol
their poor fare. The Tories, or cavaliers, as they were
also called, had then principally in view the political inie*
TOR TOR 339
inea rest of the king, and the church of England ; and the
jf -ound-heads, or Whigs, proposed chiefly the maintain-
jrd ng of the rights and interests of the people, and of Pro-
Y  estantism. Tiiis is the most popular account; and yet
r t is certain the names Whig and Tory were but little
:nown till about the middle of the reign of King Charles
I. M. de Cize relates, that it was in the year 1(J78 that
he whole nation was first observed to be divided into
yhigs and Tories ; and that on occasion of the famous de-
osition of Titus Oates, who accused the Catholics of hav-
Vr conspired against the king and the state, the appella-
ion of W/cig vvas given to such as believed the plot real, and
Cory to those who held it fictitious. It would, at the pre-
ent day, be very difficult, if not impossible, to assign to these
oted terms meanings at once precise and correct, and to
hieh both parties would subscribe. The only general
bstract description that can be fairly given would seem to
e this, that the Tories hold the power and prerogatives of
he crown in most favour, and incline to strengthen and
nlarge them ; while the Whigs are jealous of and desir-
us to define and circumscribe both, and proportionally
j strengthen and enlarge the liberties and rights of the
i cople.
TORNEA, a town of Sweden, in the most northern spot
bat is inhabited. It stands between two rivers, the Tor-
eaelf and the Gahxelf; but as the first of these streams
arms the boundary between Russian Finland and Sweden,
part of the town, which is on the eastern side, now belongs
o the Russian empire. There are near it a few mines of
•on, but their produce is insignificant, as is the number of
he inhabitants. Lat. 67. 51. 9. N. It forms a part of the
'astorate of Rannula, whose church is in lat. 68. 50. the
• nost northerly building on the continent of Europe.
Tornea, a place usually denominated a city, in the
lOrthern part of Lapland, now a part of the Russian em-
iire. It is the capital of the province of Lapmark, and stands
n a peninsula on the Sea-shore, with a harbour nearly
hoked with sand ; but being the only port in the Gulf of
Bothnia, whatever commerce is there carried on, centres at
fornea. The chief exports are planks, salted salmon, dried
ish, rein-deer skins, some tar, and a little butter. The town
I s composed of about 120 houses, with 750 inhabitants, who
mong them are owners of two ships of small burden,
mng. 24. 1. E. Lat. 65. 50. 50. N.
TORO, a province in the north-west of the kingdom of
3pain, which in ancient times formed the chief part of the
.ingdom of Leon. It is a large division, extending over
!02.) square English miles, and is subdivided into three
urtidos. The most northern of these partidos is Reynosa,
• very mountainous district, with narrow valleys. The
ither two, Carrion and Toro, have several mountains, but
iiany plains, where, though the ground is rocky and stony,
Tt there are many spots of rich and fertile soil. The
iiiet production is wheat, the next in quantity rye, which
onus the principal food of the inhabitants of the mountains,
‘ Und after that follow oats, linseed, beans, and a little
i Raize. On the whole, the province raises more corn than
t consumes, and some is annually transported to the neigh-
louring districts. The vineyards are extensive, yielding good
vine, and much brandy is distilled from the grapes. The
•took of cattle consists of 260,000 sheep, 10,800 black cat-
■ e> 31 fJf) horses, 8900 mules, 4700 asses, 11,900 goats,
md 15,21)0 swine ; and its bees yield 3400 pounds of wax,
llu‘ a proportionate but unascertained quantity of honey,
recording t° Arguelles, the population was 97,370 persons,
!l kimilies. The number of houses inhabited was
L,Si5, and of those in ruins 2413. Two of the principal
fivers of the peninsula, the Ebro and the Duero, water
,us l)rovince. The cities are Toro, Carrion, and Reynosa,
He towns 82, the villages 239, the hamlets 391.
0RO> a city ol Spain, the capital of the province of
the same name, stands on the most fruitful of the plains, Toroff
on the river Duero, over which is a bridge. It is not ill
built, and the streets, though filthy, are not narrow. Toro ^<18 VC
is surrounded with old and dilapidated walls. It con-
tains twenty-two parish churches, fourteen monasteries,
four hospitals, 1600 houses, and 7500 inhabitants, who sub¬
sist chiefly by the little rent which they draw from the
soil that surrounds them. It has nothing approaching to
trade, except the domestic making of linen by each family
for its own use.
TOROFF, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bengal, seventy-seven miles north-east from Dacca. Long.
91. 18. E. Lat. 24. 20. N.
1 ORONTAL, a palatinate of the Austrian kingdom of
Hungary, one of the three divisions which compose the
Bannat of Temeswar. It extends over a plain, and is 2700
square miles in compass. Two thirds consist of arable land,
and the rest of pasture, vineyards, and woods. It is watered
by the Theiss, the Maros, and the Aranka, and their tribu¬
tary streams. It is a district highly productive of corn, and
is cultivated by colonists, who are mostly Germans or Bulga¬
rians, with considerable skill and activity. The population
consists of 214,500 persons. The chief town is Micklos, on
the river Aranka.
TORGPEZ, a city of Russia, in the. stadtholderate of
Pfkow and in the province of Moscow, the capital of a
circle of the same name. It stands on the river Toropa,
and is 370 miles distant from St Petersburg. It is a place
of considerable industry. Here are many tanneries ; and
large quantities of linen are made from the excellent flax
and hemp produced in the neighbourhood. Toropez is
favourably situated for water communication by the Duna
with Riga. It contains thirteen churches, two monasteries,
1250 houses, and 13,500 inhabitants. Long. 31. 41. E.
Lat. 56. 29. 30. N.
TORRE del Greco, a city of Italy, in the province
of Naples. It stands on the sea-shore, at the foot of Mount
Vesuvius, by whose irruptions it suffered very consider¬
ably in the years 1637, 1794, and 1801. The second of
these irruptions nearly destroyed the whole of the houses
and public buildings. The depth of the lava was in some
places twenty-five feet, so that the entrance to several
houses is now in the second story. These events have not
prevented the people from continuing to make it their resi¬
dence ; and it now contains upwards of 15,000 inhabitants,
who are employed chiefly in the tunny, anchovy, and oyster
fisheries. There is also a coral manufactory, and some good
■wine is made from the vineyards.
TORREiFACTION, in Chemistry, is the roasting or
scorching of a body by the fire, in order to discharge a part
either unnecessary or hurtful in another operation. Sulphur
is thus discharged from an ore before it can be wrought to
advantage.
TORRENT denotes a temporary stream of water fall¬
ing suddenly from mountains, where there have been great
rains or an extraordinary melting of snow.
TORRESVEITRAS, a town of Portugal, the capital of
a corregimiento of the province of Estremadura. It is one
of the most ancient places of the kingdom, and is situated
on a rising ground, at the foot of which is a small pellucid
stream, called the Sisera. The town contains four churches,
the same number of convents and hospitals, and a popula¬
tion of about 2500 persons, who are supplied with water from
a small but beautiful marble aqueduct. Good wnie is made
in the vicinity. It has been deemed a place of great im¬
portance in all the wars which from remote ages have vi¬
sited Portugal, but was peculiarly distinguished when the
duke of Wellington held the command of the allied armies.
This place is about twenty-eight miles from Lisbon, on the
road to Coimbra. From it there is an extensive chain of
points, some formed by nature, and others by art, stretch-
340
TOR
Torricelli ing from the town to the river Tagus, behind which the
II duke collected an army to await the enemy, who, with a
rortosa. y force of vastly superior numbers, had driven him out of
Spain.
TORRICELLI, Evangelista, an illustrious Italian ma¬
thematician and philosopher, was born on the 15th of October
1608. It seems doubtful whether he was born at Modig-
liana, a country-seat in Romagna, or at Piancaldoli, in the
diocese of Imola. He was trained in Latin literature by
his uncle, a monk of Faenza; and after cultivating mathe¬
matical knowledge for some time without a master, he
studied under Father Benedict Castelli, professor of ma¬
thematics at Rome. Having read Galileo s dialogues, he
composed a treatise on motion, on his principles. Phis re¬
commended him to the notice of Galileo, w ho took him home
as an assistant; but Galileo died in three months after.
He became professor of mathematics at 1' lorence, and
greatly improved the art of making telescopes and micro¬
scopes. But he is best known for discovering a method of
ascertaining the weight of the atmosphere by quicksilver;
the barometer being called, from him, the iorricellian
tube. He published a volume entitled “ Opera Geome-
trica.” Florent. 1644, 4to. He died in the year 164/.
TORRINGTON, Great, a town in the hundred of
Fremington and county of Devon, 197 miles from Lon¬
don. It is situated on the side of a hill, in a bleak district,
vras once a borough, and had a castle, the ruins of which
are still visible. There is a market on Saturday. The in¬
habitants amounted in 18*21 to 2538, and in 1831 to 3093.
TORSHOK, a city of European Russia, in the province
of Moscow and government of Twer. It is the capital of
a circle of the same name, which comprehends forty-
eight parishes, in which are 483 villages, with 78,800 in¬
habitants. The city is 334 miles from St Petersburg, stands
on the river Twerza, and contains twenty-three churches,
a large bazaar, and 1850 houses, with 16,400 inhabitants,
who are distinguished by the excellence of the leather which
they fabricate, and by their taste in embroidery of boots and
slippers with gold and silver thread from the markets of
Turkev. They have also much trade in hemp and flax.
Long. 34. 58. 10. E. Lat. 57. 2. 9. N.
TORTOLA, the principal of the Virgin Islands, is si¬
tuated in long. 64° 39' west, and lat. 18° 20' north. It is
about twelve miles long from east to west, and on an ave¬
rage four miles wide. It consists of one mountain mass,
running along the middle of the island in abrupt and irre¬
gular forms, which, on the west side of the island, rise
above 1500 feet. The shores are indented with bays, har¬
bours, and creeks, affording shelter and anchorage to a
great extent of shipping. A great part of the interior con¬
sists of large tracts of waste land. Along the shore are a few
tracts of flat ground, but the soil is thin and impoverished.
The population amounted in 1835 to 7731. In 1836 the
value of the exports was L.23,129, of which L.21,213 was
for sugar and molasses. The imports were L. 15,225, con¬
sisting chiefly of corn and British manufactures.
TORTOISE-SHELL, the scales of the testaceous ani¬
mal called a tortoise, used in inlaying, and in various other
works. See Reptilia, genus Testado.
TORTONA, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Sardinia
and province of Turin, the capital of a district of the same
name. It stands at the foot of the Apennines, on the river
Stcrivia. It is strongly fortified, and is defended by a citadel.
It contains a cathedral, four parish churches, eleven mo¬
nasteries, and three nunneries, with 8480 inhabitants, who
make silk goods, hosiery, hats, and leather, and trade with
Genoa in corn, wine, and rice. Long. 8.39. E. Lat. 44.56. N.
TORTOSA, a city of Spain, which gives its name to
the department on the south-west corner of the province cf
Catalonia. It stands on the bank of the river Ebro, about
six leagues from its mouth. On that stream there is not
T O U
any upward navigation, owing to the falls of water at Xerta, Ti
above the town. At Tortosa there is a passage across
the river by a bridge of boats. It is strongly fortified,
and is defended by Fort St Bias, in the suburb, and by a ^
strong citadel on a rocky height near it. The buildings ^
are in the antique style, and the streets very irregular. It
is the seat of a bishop, and has a fine cathedral, and three
parish and ten conventual churches, together with an ec¬
clesiastical seminary. The inhabitants are about 16,700.
The adjacent district yields abundance of the finest marbles
and alabaster. One of the chief articles of its commerce
is the liquorice, which grows abundantly, and almost spon-
taneously. It requires 400 pounds weight of the root to
make fifty pounds of the juice for the shops. When atten¬
tion is paid to the cultivation, the produce is very great;
and the operation of digging it up prepares the ground for
a crop of wheat better than the practice of fallowing.
There are in the city several distilleries of brandy, some
manufactories of porcelain, and some of paper. There are
also many persons occupied in the fisheries. Ships do not
approach very near Tortosa, but discharge or take in their
cargoes at the village Amposta, where there is a canal
which communicates with Rapita and the port of Alfaques,
beyond the bar of the Ebro. There that river discharges
itself into the sea by two mouths formed by the island of
Buck, the eastern point of which is in long. 0. 55. E. and
lat. 40. 43. 55. N.
TORTURA, a small seaport of Palestine. In the times
of Christianity it was erected into a bishopric, but has now-
dwindled into an inconsiderable village. It is fifteen miles
south of Acre.
TORTURE, a violent pain inflicted on persons to force
them to confess the crimes laid to their charge, or as a
punishment for crimes committed.
TOSANLU, a river of Asia Minor, the ancient Lycus,
which rises in the mountains of Armenia, and after a course
westward of about 200 miles, falls into the Jekil Irmak,
about thirty miles north of Amasia.
TOSSIA, a town of Asia Minor, situated on the Kisil
Irmak, and on the route from Amasia to Constantinople,
in a fine valley, producing a considerable quantity of rice.
Long. 34. 10. E. Lat. 40. 20. N.
TOTNES, a town of the hundred of Coleridge, in the
county of Devon, 195 miles from London. It stands on
the side and the top of a steep hill, at whose foot the river
Dart flows. It is about twelve miles from the sea, but the
tide flows up to the bridge, by which the river is connected
with the suburb. It is a place of little trade. The church
is a spacious building, with a lofty tower. Totnes was once
fortified, and was defended by a castle, the remains of
which are still visible. It is a corporate town, governed by
a mayor and eleven councillors, and returns two members
to the House of Commons. There is a market on Satur¬
day, which is well supplied with every kind of provisions
at cheap rates. The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 3128,
and in 1831 to 3442.
TOTTENHAM, a large parish of the hundred of Ed¬
monton, in the county of Middlesex, five miles from Lon¬
don. It is on the great north road by Ware. It is chiefly
the residence of persons connected with the metropolis, and
is a very pleasant retreat from the bustle of the city. h|S
divided into four wards, denominated Middle, Nether, High
Cross, and Wood Green. The inhabitants amounted in 1821
to 5722, and in 1831 to 6937.
TOUCH-NEEDLE, among assayers, refiners, &c., littk
bars of gold, silver, and copper, combined together, in all
the different proportions and degrees of mixture ; the use
of which is to discover the degree of purity of any piece of
gold or silver, by comparing the mark which it leaves on the
touchstone with those of the bars. The metals usually trie
by the touchstone are gold, silver, and copper, either pure, or
T O U
nixed by fusion with one another, in different degrees and
proportions. In order to discover the purity or quantity of
paser metal in these various admixtures, when they are to
>e examined they are compared with these needles, which
ire mixed in a known proportion, and prepared for this use.
The metals of the needles, both pure and mixed, are all
nade into laminae or plates* one twelfth of an inch broad,
ind of a fourth part of their breadth in thickness, and an
nch and a half long. These being thus prepared, a mark is
obe engraved on each, indicating its purity, or the nature
md quantity of the admixture. The black rough marbles,
he basaltes, or the softer kinds of black pebbles, are the
nost proper for touchstones.
The method of using the needles and stone is this. The
piece of metal to be tried ought first to be wiped well with
i clean towel or piece of soft leather, that you may the bet-
er see its true colour; for from this alone an experienced
person will in some degree judge beforehand what the prin-
:ipal metal is, and how and with what debased. Then
phoose a convenient, not over large, part of the surface of
he metal, and rub it several times very hardly and strongly
igainst the touchstone, that in case a deceitful coat or
;rust should have been superinduced, it may be worn off by
hat friction. This however is more readily done by a
rrindstone or small file. Then w ipe a flat and very clear
part of the touchstone, and rub against it, over and over,
he just-mentioned part of the surface of the piece of metal,
ill you have, on the flat surface of the stone, a thin me-
pallic crust, an inch long, and about an eighth of an inch
iproad. This done, look out the needle that seems most
ike to the metal under trial; wipe the lower part of this
needle very clean, and then rub it against the touchstone,
is you did the metal, by the side of the other line, and in a
direction parallel to it. When this is done, if you find no
difference between the colours of the two marks made by
your needle and the metal under trial, you may with great
probability pronounce that metal and your needle to be of
the same alloy, which is immediately known by the mark
engraved on your needle. But if you find a difference be¬
tween the colour of the mark given by the metal and that
by the needle you have tried, choose out another needle,
either of a darker or lighter colour than the former, as the
difference of the tinge on the touchstone directs; and by
one or more trials of this kind you will be able to deter¬
mine which of your needles the metal answers, and thence
what alloy it is of, by the mark of the needle; or else you
will find that the alloy is extraordinary, and not to be de¬
termined by the comparison of your needles.
TOUCHSTONE, a black, smooth, glossy stone, used to
examine the purity of metals. The ancients called it lapis
Lydius, the Lydian stone, from the name of the country
whence it was originally brought. Any piece of pebble or
black flint will answer the purposes of the best lapis Ly¬
dius. Even a piece of glass made rough with emery is
used with success to distinguish true gold from such as is
counterfeit, both by the metallic colour and the test of aqua¬
fortis. fhe true touchstone is of a black colour, and is
not uncommon in many parts of the world.
TOUL, an arrondissement of the department of the
Meurthe, in France, extending over 463 square miles. It is
divided into five cantons, and these into 119 communes; and
in 1836 it contained 64,041 inhabitants. The chief city, of
the same name, stands on a plain at the foot of hills covered
with vines, and watered by the river Moselle. It is the seat
ni a bishop, has a fine Gothic cathedral and other three
churches, a hospital, an arsenal, and some well-built bar¬
racks. It contained in the same year 7333 inhabitants,
whose chief trade is in wine and brandy. Long. 5. 48. 13.
E. Lat. 48. 40. 32. N.
TOULON, an arrondissement of the department of the
ar, in France, extending over 504 square miles. It
T O tr 341
comprehends seven cantons, divided into 128 communes, Toulouse,
having 99,012 inhabitants in 1836. The capital, of the
same name, is one of the most complete naval arsenals
belonging to France in the Mediterranean Sea. It has two
good havens, one for the merchants and the other for the
navy, with every convenience for the building and equip¬
ment of the largest ships. The entrance is good, and the
port secure at all times. The entrance is protected by
strong batteries, while several fortresses on the hills which
surround the city completely command every part of it, as
well as the arsenals and harbours. These were found so
effectual, that when one of them, the fortress of Malgua, was
taken by the FTench, the British, who were in possession
of the harbours, the city, and the arsenals, were under the
necessity of abandoning them with the utmost expedition.
The place is divided into the old and the new town. It
has a fine square, a beautiful towm-hall, a Gothic cathedral
with a magnificent portico, a theatre, and a palace for the
intendant. The plain on which the city stands is fertile,
and the hills that surround it are covered with vines, figs,
capers, and olive trees, and yield abundance of fruits. The
trade, which is not very great, arises from some manufac¬
tories of silk, woollen goods, and soap. Toulon has also
some fisheries. In the year 1836 it contained 35,322 inha¬
bitants. Long. 5. 50. 21. E. Lat. 43. 7. 16. N.
TOULOUSE, an arrondissement of the department of
Upper Garonne, in France. It extends over 619 square
miles, and is subdivided into twelve cantons and 135 com¬
munes, with a population in 1836 amounting to 159,064.
Toulouse, a city of France, the ancient city of To-
losa, latterly the capital of the old province of Lan¬
guedoc, and now the chief town both of the arrondisse¬
ment of the same name, and of the department of Upper
Garonne. It is situated in a fertile district on the banks
of the river Garonne, which divides it into twro equal
parts, connected by a magnificent bridge, after the plan
of Mansard, of seven arches, 810 feet in length and seventy-
two in breadth, on which is a triumphal arch. The city is
surrounded by walls, which yield an agreeable promenade
to the inhabitants, and, with the broad quays which extend
along the banks of the river, give to it an imposing appear¬
ance. When under the sway of the Romans, and forming
one of the principal settlements of file empire, this city was
adorned by numerous monuments; but in the course of
ages these have been destroyed, and nothing now attests its
former state but the remains of a small amphitheatre, and
a single tomb in the cloister of the old church of the Augus-
tines. In 1816 most of the buildings were more or less injur¬
ed by an explosion of a powder magazine. The streets are
narrow and crooked; brick buildings are too numerous ;
and the squares, with the exception of St Cyprian, are de¬
ficient in regularity ; yet some of the edifices are to be ad¬
mired, more particularly that of the Hotel de Ville, called
the Capitate, whose modern front is considered one of the
finest in France. The principal institutions in the city
are a well-frequented university, a school of medicine and
surgery, a botanic garden and observatory, a public library,
a school of artillery, an academy of fine arts with a collec¬
tion of paintings, various charitable institutions and reli¬
gious edifices, which, with the exception of one Protestant
place of worship, belong to the Catholics. This city is
the head-quarters of a military division, the seat of the pre¬
fect, and of the courts of law for the department. There
is less trade than the situation of the city and the popula¬
tion would lead a stranger to expect. It is chiefly con¬
fined to the agricultural produce of the neighbourhood, and
the manufacture, upon a small scale, of powder, snuff, bran¬
dy, starch, leather, pottery ware, cotton, silk, and woollen
goods. There is also a royal cannon founder}7, and yards
for building vessels. In the vicinity there are many country
houses and gardens, belonging to the wealthier citizens ; and
342
T O U
T O U
T
ourna-
ghaut
Tournay.
this circumstance gives Toulouse an air of cheerfulness
and prosperity much more resembling an English than a
French town. The population in 1836 amounted to 77,372.
Long. 1. 21. 16. E. Lat. 43. 35. 36. N. '
TOURNAGHAUT, a celebrated pass of the south of
India, leading from the western coast, called the Concan,
into the interior of that country. It is more rugged and
steep than that of Ambah. Long. 72. 25. E. Lat. 17.
47. N.
TOURNAMENT, a martial sport or exercise which the
ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show their bravery and
address. It is derived from the French word tournur, i. e.
“ to turn round,” because, to be expert in these exercises,
much agility both of horse and man was requisite. The
first tournaments were only courses on horseback, in which
the cavaliers tilted at each other with canes in the manner
of lances ; and were distinguished from justs, which were
courses or careers, accompanied with attacks and combats
with blunted lances and swords. The prince who published
the tournament, used to send a king at arms, with a safe-
conduct and a sword, to ail the princes, knights, &c. sig¬
nifying that he intended a tournament and clashing of
swords, in the presence of ladies and damsels ; which was
the usual formula of invitation. They first engaged man
against man, and then troop against troop. After the com¬
bat, the judges allotted the prize to the best cavalier, and
the best striker of swords ; and he was accordingly con¬
ducted with pomp to the lady of the tournament, where, after
thanking her very reverently, he saluted her, and likewise
her two attendants.
These tournaments formed the principal diversion of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Munster says, it was
Henry the Fowler, duke of Savoy, and afterwards emperor,
who died in 936, that first introduced them ; but it appears
from the Chronicle of Tours,'that the true inventor of this
famous exhibition, at least in France, was one Geoffrey, lord
of Preuilli, about the year 1066. Instances of them occur
ampng the English in the reign of King Stephen, about the
year 1140; but they were not much in use till Richard’s
time, towards the year 1149. After this period these di¬
versions were performed with extraordinary magnificence, in
the Tiltyard near St James’s, Smithfield, and other places.
The following is the account of a tournament, from Mait¬
land. King Richard II. designing to hold a tournament at
London on the Sunday after Michaelmas, sent divers heralds
to make proclamation of it in all the principal courts of
Europe; and accordingly not a few princes, and great nlim¬
bers of the prime nobility, resorted hither from France,
Germany, the Netherlands, &c. This solemnity began on
Sunday afternoon, from the Tower of London, with a pom¬
pous cavalcade of sixty ladies, each leading an armed knight
by a silver chain, being attended by their squires of honour;
and, passing through Cheapside, they rode to Smithfield,
where the justs and tournaments continued several days with
a magnificent variety of entertainments ; on which occa¬
sion the king kept open house at the bishop of London’s
palace for all persons of distinction, and every night con¬
cluded with a ball.
At last, however, tournaments were found to be produc¬
tive of bad effects, and the occasions of several fatal
misfortunes ; as in the instance of Henry II. of France,
and of the tilt exhibited at Chalons, which, from the num¬
bers killed on both sides, was called the little war of Cha¬
lons. These and other inconveniences, resulting from such
dangerous pastimes, gave the popes occasion to forbid them,
and the princes of Europe gradually concurred in discourag¬
ing and suppressing them.
TOURNAY, an arrondissement of the province of Hen-
negau, in the Netherlands, comprel ending eleven cantons,
divided into 142 communes, containing 198,900 inhabitants.
The capital is the city of the same name. It is the seat
of a bishop, who has a fine cathedral with four towers; and Tt
under his direction there is an ecclesiastical seminary, as
well as several churches. Tournay is situated on the river r
Scheldt, by which it is divided into two parts. It issur-^
rounded with walls, and has extensive suburbs. It is for
the most part well built, contains 2800 houses, and 25,100
inhabitants. It is a place of great celebrity for its manu¬
factures, for some of which there are very large estab¬
lishments. One of the most extensive is that for making
carpets; and others for printing calicoes rival it. Almost
every kind of cotton goods is made, and each step of the
process, from spinning in mills to the bleaching and finish¬
ing, is performed. Resides piece-goods, there are some
manufactures of porcelain and of'bronze articles. Jn the
vicinity excellent stone abounds. Long. 3. 56. 58. E. Lat
50. 86' 20. N.
TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton de, a famous beta- ;
nisf, was born at Aix in Provence on the 5th of June 1656,
He studied in the College of the Jesuits at Aix, and his i
father destined him for the church. He accordingly com¬
menced his theological studies; but he felt a very early
passion for the study of botany, and the death of his father
in 1677 left him more at liberty to gratify his own inclina¬
tions. He wandered over the mountains of Dauphiny,
Savoy, Catalonia, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, in search of
new species of plants, which he collected with much fatigue
and danger. In 1679 he repaired to Montpellier, where he
continued for two years to prosecute the study of medicine.
He made a botanical excursion to Spain in 1681, and after¬
wards returned to the university. Having taken the degree
of M. D. at Orange, he returned to his native city, where
however he did not long remain, in 1683, his reputation
procured him the appointment of professor of botany in the
king’s garden ; and by the king’s order he travelled into
Spain, Portugal, Holland, and England, where he made pro¬
digious collections of plants. In 1698 he was received as
M. D. in the university of Paris. In obedience to another
order, he proceeded in 1700 to the isles of the Archipelago,
the coasts of the Black Sea, Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia,
Armenia, and Georgia; making observations on natural
history at large, ancient and modern geography, religion,
manners, and commerce. In this learned voyage he spent
three years, and then resuming his profession, was made
professor of physic in the Royal College. He died in con¬
sequence of an accidental bruise of his breast by a cart¬
wheel, which brought on a spitting of blood and hydrotho¬
rax, that proved fatal on the 28th of November 1708.
Tournefort produced various works, of which we shall
only enumerate the most considerable. “ Elemens de Bo-
tanique, ou Methode pour connaitre les Plantes.” Paris,
1694, 3 tom. 8vo. This work he enlarged, and published
in Latin, under the title of “ Institutiones Rei Herbaria?,
sive Elementa Botanices.” Paris. 1700, 3 tom. 4to. “ His-
toire des Plantes qui naissent aux environs de Paris, avec
leur Usage dans la Medecine.” Paris, 1698, 12mo. In
1725, an edition of this work was published by Bernard de
Jussieu in 2 vols. 12mo; and in 1732 an English transla¬
tion by Martyn in 2 vols. 8vo. “ Relation d’un Voyage
du Levant, contenant 1’Histoire ancienne et moderne de
plusieurs Isles d’Archipel, de Constantinople,” &c. Paris,
1717, 2 tom. 4lo. Bernier was the editor of his posthu¬
mous “ Traite de la Matiere Medicale; et 1’Histoire et
1’Usage des Medicaments, et leur Analyse chimique.” Pa¬
ris, 1717, 2 tom. 12mo.
TOURNIQUET, in Surgery, an instrument formed
with screws, for compressing any part with rollers, &c. for
the purpose of stopping haemorrhages.
TOURNON,an arrondissement of the department of the
Ardeche, in France, extending over 719 square miles. It
comprehends eleven cantons and 124 communes, with
134,569 inhabitants in 1836. The capital is the city of the
T R A
rtuttisame name, situated on the side of a hill rising from the
T R A
343
« rjght bank of the Rhone, where the Doux falls into that
^' ‘iver. In 1836 it contained 4174 inhabitants, employed in
.'^''naking woollen, and trading in silk obtained near them.
^ jong. 4. 40. E. Lat. 45. 6. N.
TOURNUS, a city of France, in the department of the
aone and Loire, and arrondissement of Macon. It is finely
tuated on a rising ground on the banks of the Saone, over
Inch is a new bridge of fifteen arches. In 1836 it had a
opulation of 5314 persons, who carry on considerable trade
i wine, corn, and wood.
TOURS, a city of France, in the department of the In-
-e and Loire, of which, as well as of the arrondissement
’ its own name, it is the capital. The arrondissement is
437 square miles in extent, and comprehends ten cantons
id 127 communes, with 151,119 inhabitants in 1836. The
ty stands on a well-cultivated plain on the left bank of the
oire, over which is a stone bridge 1340 feet in length,
uurs is a place of great antiquity, and is connected with
any historical recollections. It is surrounded with ancient
ills, which now form a promenade, encompassed by beau-
,'ul gardens, converted from what were at one time the
jtches. The high street leading from the bridge is a pic-
Iresque mass of buildings. The cathedral is a fine Gothic
aiding, with a beautiful portico surmounted by two towers,
he palace of the archbishop is also a remarkable building,
here are in all fifteen churches. It was before the revo-
tion one of the chief seats of the silk manufacture, and
ly second to Lyon; but that has given place in some mea-
re to the making of woollen goods. There are several tan-
ries, and also distilleries for making brandy. The coun-
y around is of great fertility, provisions are abundant and
ieap, and the wine good. In 1836 the population amount-
to 26,669 persons. Long. 0. 36. 27. E. Lat. 47. 23.
. N.
TOWCESTER, a town in the hundred of the same
me, in the county of Northampton, sixty miles from Lon-
i-n. It stands on the banks of the river Weedon, and was
i tnerly a place of great repute. It has now only a little
rule in making lace, and what arises irom its being on the
::'at north-west road. There is a well-supplied market on
aesday. In 1821 the inhabitants amounted to 2554, and
. 1831 to 2671.
10WNSHEND Island, on the east coast of New TIol-
id, which Captain Cook thought to belong to the mainland;
lit it was ascertained to be an island by Captain Flinders.
>ng. of the cape, 159. 29. E. Lat. 22. 13. S.
1OWYN, a town of North Wales, in the county of Me-
i neth, on a river of the same name, 217 miles from Lon-
(n and eleven from Barmouth. The country around it
i very fertile, and the parish is very extensive. The annual
’ tie of the landed property in it was estimated, under the
t essment of 1815 to the property-tax, at L.10,570. The
Cage, though built of coarse stone, is respectable, and of
le years has been much frequented by sea-bathers. In the
wrch-yard is a huge pillar, supposed to have been erect-
( to a Saint Cadavan. In I82i the population amounted
'2369, and in 1831 to 2694.
TRADITION, something handed down from one gene-
Gon to another without being written. Thus the Jews
I ‘tended, that besides their written law contained in the
jd iestament, Moses had delivered an oral law, which had
.'tt conveyed down from father to son ; and thus the Ro-
j n Catholics are said to value particular doctrines sup-
t ’Wl to have descended from the apostolic times by tradi-
1 RAFALGAR, a cape on the coast of Spain, just with-
Mue Straits of Gibraltar, and opposite to Cape Esparte
1 'lie African shore. It was called by the ancients the
! miontory of Juno. It is in latitude 36° 10' 15" north, and
situde 6° F 30" west. It is not high* but may be known
Trainorr.
by its remarkable figure, being flat, and terminating with two Tragedy
sharp corners or angles, near to which is a round tower.
To the eastward of this flat the land is very uneven, and
indeed mountainous. This spot is remarkable from the
great naval victory achieved near it on the 21st October
1805.
TRAGEDY", a dramatic poem, representing some signal
action performed by illustrious persons, which has frequent¬
ly a fatal issue or termination. See Drama and Poetry.
TRAGI-COMEDY, a dramatic piece, partaking both
of the nature of tragedy and comedy ; in which a mixture
of merry and serious events is admitted.
THAI 1 OiCS Island, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered
by Le Mair and Schouten in 1616. Long. 173. 48. W.
Lat. 15. 55. N. ‘There is also a cluster of islands of the same
name on the coast of New Guinea. Long. 137. E. Lat.
1. 12. S. ;(|j; nroJ
I RALEE, a borough and the chief town of the county
of Kerry, distant from Dublin, by way of Limerick and
Castle Island, 144 miles. It is situated upon the river
Lee, which here falls into 1 ralee Bay, after passing through
the flat and fertile tract of land which stretches along its
shore. The town consists of two streets upwards of a mile
in length, broken by a square in the centre, from which
diverge several regular and well-planned cross streets.
Many ot the houses are well built, and inhabited by a re¬
spectable class of individuals; but there are many inferior
houses and mud-huts interspersed throughout, and extend¬
ing along the suburbs. It has several public buildings,
namely, the court-house, county prison, infirmary, a hand¬
some modern ehureb, two Roman Catholic chapels, ahd
several dissenting meeting-houses, and a barrack capable
of containing 600 men. I ralee has of late years been
very considerably improved, and the export and import
trade has greatly increased. The number of vessels which
entered its creek in 1838 amounted to eighty-four, hav¬
ing a tonnage of 6092, and cargoes valued at L.60,920.
ihose that cleared outwards in the same year amounted
to 119, with a tonnage of 9512, and cargoes valued at
L.95,120. 'I he town is connected with the sea by means
of a ship-canal recently opened ; but as yet the principal
shipping load and discharge their cargoes at Blennerville,
about one mile and a quarter below the town. Tralee is
governed by a provost and twelve free burgesses* wdio,
with the qualified inhabitants, return a member to parlia¬
ment. The population in 1831 amounted to 9568.
TRALLIANUS, Alexander, or Alexander of Tralles,
a medical writer, was a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia,
and lived about the middle of the sixth century. He is the
author of a work, divided into twelve books, in which he
treats of distempers as they occur from head to foot. He
was the first that opened the jugular vein, and that used
cantharides as a blister for the gout. Though he appears
on the whole to have been a rational physician, yet'there
are passages in his writings that savour of enthusiasm and
superstition. Dr Freind, in his History of Physick, styles
him one of the most valuable authors since the time of Hipi
pocrates. See likewise Dr Milward’s “ Trallianus Revi-
viscens; or, an Account of Alexander Trallian, one of the
Greek writers that flourished after Galen; being a supple¬
ment to Dr Freind’s History of Physick.” Lond. 1734, 8vo.
1 he Greek text of his principal work was first published by
Jac. Goupylus, Lutet. 1548, fob It was reprinted, and w^as
then accompanied with a Latin version by Jo. Guinterius,
Basil. 1556, 8vo. He is likewise the author of an epistle
on worms, “ De Lumbricis ;” w inch was published, in Greek
and Latin, by Mercurialis in his “ Variac Lectiones,” Venet.
1570, 4to.
TRAMORE, a small, straggling, but handsome town, in
the county of Waterford, eighty-three miles from Dublin.
It is situated at the western extremity of the bay of the
344
T R A
T R A
Tranent
Transfu¬
sion of
Blood.
same name, and contains many excellent private houses
and villas. It is much frequented during the bathing sea¬
son by the inhabitants of Waterford and the adjoining
country. The population iq 183! was 2224.
TRANENT, a market-town in the county of Hadding¬
ton, nine miles and a half from Edinburgh. It consists of
one long street, through which the principal road to Ber¬
wick passes, and several minor by-streets, to none of which
can be given the praise of being either handsome or clean.
The houses are chiefly inhabited by colliers, who are em¬
ployed in the extensive mines which have been worked here
for several centuries. There is a weekly market for grain.
The population of the town and parish in 1831 amounted to
3620.
TRAN I, a city of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of
Bari, the capital of the district of the ancient Puglia. It
stands on the sea-shore, is walled, and is defended by a castle.
It is the seat of an archbishop, with a fine Gothic cathedral,
said to have been erected by the Normans. It is well built
of excellent stone, has a spacious market-place, several
churches, ten monasteries, and 13,780 inhabitants. Ihe
harbour is shallow, and only visited by coasting vessels.
The wine and figs produced in the neighbourhood are good,
and form the chief trade.
TRANQ.UEBAR, a small seaport of the south of India,
in the province of the Carnatic and district of Tanjore, situ¬
ated at one of the mouths of the Cavery river. It was formerly
a village belonging to the rajah of Tanjore, from whom it
was purchased by the Danes in 1616. Here they erected
the fort of Dansborg, to which population and commerce
were soon attracted by the protection derived from the
Danish flag, and by the correct conduct of the company’s
servants. The company however did not prosper; and
in 1624 they surrendered their charter and property to
the king of Denmark, in payment of a debt owing to
him. The revenues however continued, under frugal ma¬
nagement, to defray all the expenses ; and while Denmark
remained neutral, the merchants here profited greatly by
lending their names during the war to cover British pro¬
perty. In 1807, when the war commenced with Great
Britain, the Danes were deprived of this with all their other
settlements, which were however restored to them on the
conclusion of a general peace.
TRANSCENDENTAL, or Transcendent, something
elevated, or raised above other things; which passes and
transcends their nature.
TRANSFUSION of Blood, an operation by which it
has been imagined that the age of animals may be renewed.
The method of transfusing Dr Lower gives us to the fol¬
lowing effect. Take up the carotid artery of the dog, or
other animal, whose blood is to be transfused into another
of the same, or a different kind : separate it from the nerve
of the eighth pair, and lay it bare above an inch. Make a
strong ligature on the upper part of the artery ; and an inch
nearer the heart another ligature with a running knot, to
be loosened and fastened as occasion requires. Draw two
threads between the two ligatures, open the artery, put in
a quill, and tie up the artery again upon the quill by the
two threads, and stop the quill by a stick. Then make bare
the jugular vein of the other animal for about an inch and
a half in length, and at each end make a ligature w ith a
running knot; and in the space between the two knots drawr
under the veins two threads, as in the other. Open the
vein, and put into it two quills, one into the descending
part of the vein, to receive the blood from the other dog,
and carry it to the heart; the other quill put into the other
part of the jugular, towards the head, through which the
second animal’s own blood is to run into dishes. The quills
being tied fast, stop them up with sticks till there be occa¬
sion to open them. Things being thus disposed, fasten the
dogs on their sides towards one another, in such a manner
as that the quills may go into each other; then unstop tlie V
quill that goes down into the second dog’s jugular vein, as
also that coming out of the other dog’s artery ; and by the Tni
help of twm or three other quills put into each other, as there
shall be occasion, insert them into one another. Then slip '
the running knots, and immediately the blood runs through
the quills as through an artery, very impetuously. As the
blood runs into the dog, unstop the quill in the upper part
of his jugular, for his own blood to run out at, though not
constantly, but as' you perceive him able to bear it, till the
other dog begins to cry and faint, and at last die. Lastly,
take both quills out of the jugular, tie the running knot fast,
and cut the vein asunder, and sew up the skin: the dog, |
thus dismissed, will run away as if nothing ailed him.
In the Philosophical Transactions we have accounts of
the success of various transfusions practised at London,
Paris, in Italy, &c. Sir Edmund King transfused forty-nine
ounces of blood out of a calf into a sheep; the sheep, after
the operation, appearing as well and as strong as before.
M. Denis transfused the blood of three calves into three
dogs, which all continued brisk, and ate as w-ell as before.
The same person transfused the blood of four wethers into
a horse twenty-six years old, which thence received much
strength, and a more than ordinary appetite. Soon after
this operation was introduced at Paris, viz. in 1667 and
1668, M. Denis performed it on five human subjects, two
of whom recovered of disorders under which they laboured;
one being in perfect health suffered no inconvenience from
it; and two persons who were ill, and submitted to the
operation, died; in consequence of which the magistrates
issued an order, prohibiting the transfusion on human
bodies, under pain of imprisonment. Mr John Hunter, we
are told, made many ingenious experiments to determine
the effects of transfusing blood, some of which are sufficient
to attract attention. But whether such experiments can
ever be made with safety on the human body, is a point not
easily determined.
TRANSIENT Notes, or Passing Notes, See Music.
TRANSITION, or Modulation, in Music. SeeMusic.
TRANSITIVE, in Grammar, an epithet applied to such
verbs as signify an action which passes from the subject that
does it, to or upon another subject which receives it. Un¬
der the head of verbs transitive come what w'e usually call
verbs active and passive; other verbs, whose action does
not pass out of themselves, are called venter.
TRANSLATION, the act of transferring or removing
a thing from one place to another; as w^e say, the transla¬
tion of a bishop’s see, a council, a seat of justice, &c.
Translation is also used for the version of a book or
writing out of one language into another. The principles
of translation have been clearly and accurately laid down
by Dr Campbell of Aberdeen in his invaluable Preliminary
Dissertations to his translation of the Gospels. Ihe fun¬
damental rules which he establishes are three: L That
the translation should give a complete transcript of the
ideas of the original; 2. that the style and manner of
the original should be preserved in the translation ; 3. that
the translation should have all the ease of original composi¬
tion. The rules deducible from these general laws are ex¬
plained and illustrated with much judgment and taste, in
an Essay on the Principles of Translation, by the late Lor
Woodhouselee ; of which the third edition was published at
Edinburgh in the year 1813. .
TRANSMIGRATION, the removal or translation of a
whole people into another country, by the power o a
conqueror. f
Transmigration is particularly used for the passage o
the soul out of one body into another. ,
TRANSMUTATION, the act of changing one suD-
stance into another. ^ _
Transmutation, in alchemy, denotes the act of cnang
*
i i
t
(
!
i
T R A
)ini ig inferior metals into gold or silver. This is also called
.4 i:e grand operation effected with the philosopher’s stone.
Iva- TRANSOMS, in a ship, certain beams or timbers ex-
11 ided across the stern-post of a ship, to fortify her after-
jrt, and give it the figure most suitable to the service for
Mich she is calculated.
1 TRANSPARENCY, in Physics, a quality in certain
tidies, by which they give passage to the rays of light: in
T R A
345
tntradistinction to opacity, or that quality of bodies which
riders them impervious to the rays of light,
i TRANSPOS1 IT ON, in Gramma?', a disturbing or d is¬
olating the words of a discourse, or a changing their na-
tial order of construction, to please the ear, by rendering
|| contexture more smo th, easy, and harmonious.
1 Transposition, in Music, the removal of a piece of
r.sic, either in writing or in performing it, into a key
1'her or lower than the original one. For the principle
orhis, see Music, p. 610.
TRANSUBSTANTIATION, in The.oloyy, the conver¬
se or change of the substance of the bread and wine in the
eTmrisf, into the body and blood of Jesus Christ; which
tli Romish church supposes to be wrought by the consecra-
ti i of the prit st.
TRANSVERSE, something that goes across another
filn corner to corner. Thus bends and bars in heraldry are
tinsverse pieces or bearings ; the diagonals of a parallelo-
■gtm or a square are transverse lines.
IrRANSYLVANIA, an extensive province of the Aus¬
ten empire, on the eastern side towards the Turkish domi-
nns. In the German language it is called Siebenburgen,
frin die seven towers or fortresses by which it was formerly
wtected against attacks from the Ottoman power. Its Latin
n ie, Transylvania, was derived from its local position beyond
tl Carpathian Mountains, as part of the ancient Dacia. In
tli enumeration of the Austrian dominions it is usually de¬
li ninated a principality. From the 5th century downwards,
it as but thinly peopled, and was ruled by various chiefs
o iribes. In the year 1001, it wras subdued by Stephen
ti i First, king of Hungary, who formed it into an Hunga-
ri province, and divided and governed it by waiwodes or
st ltholders. In 1536, the waiwode John Zapolya, after a
w with one of his rivals for the dignity, obtained for hi ni¬
si , by a treaty with the emperor Ferdinand the First,
tl rank and authority of an independent sovereign prince.
A this period the T urkish government interfered much in
tl affairs of the principality, which encouraged the princes
o: he house of Zapolya, and afterwards the house of Batori,
tl succeeded. Among the princes of the latter family,
Ihhlem Gabor and George Rakotzy were mostly dis-
ti uished by their animosity to the house of Austria, and the
>i lute resistance which they made to its authority. At
kfjh, in 1689, the emperor Leopold the First completely
c<quered Siebenburgen, and concluded, ten years after, a
l11 "e at Carlowitz with the Turks, by which the sove-
w ntv of the emperor, in his character of king of Hungary,
" guaranteed; but the princely family were secured in
fF possession of subordinate authority. That house be-
C: e extinct by the death of Prince Michael Aspasi in 1713,
^ 11 the sole power fell into the hands of Austria. Maria
h resa raised the district to the more elevated rank of a
?> h1 principality in 1765.
his principality extends in latitude from 45° 33' 55" to
^ ■R'3", and in longitude from 22° 40' 44" to 25° 57' 40",
comprehends about 24,420 square English miles. It is
I nded on the north by Hungary, on the north-east by
jpowina, on the east by Moldavia, on the south by Wal-
'la, and on the west by Hungary,
t is an elevated district, in which are to be found the
,4'ccs of the great rivers that run to the Black Sea.
I ' Carpathian range of mountains, in the form of a half*
II m> almost encompasses the whole province, sending out
OL. XXI.
spurs from it on both sides, which fill almost the whole sur-Transylva-
faee. The valleys between these spurs vary in extent, but nia’
for the most part are highly productive when moderately ' v>
cultivated. The highest points of the Carpathians v\ ithin the
principality are, the Butshetsch, 8160 feet, the Reticzat,
7800 feet, and the Szurul, 7126 feet, above the level of the
Black Sea. The tops of these mountains are commonly
clothed with snow till July. T heir sides are well covered
with woods to the height of about 5000 feet, when the
power of vegetation begins to decline, and soon disappears,
leaving the summits quite bare and naked. Among these
elevations are some most extraordinary natural clefts and
grottos, which invite and reward the attention and exami¬
nation of the traveller.
ihe inhabitants of this province are of no less than thir¬
teen distinct tribes, according to their origin. The three
most distinguished of these classes are called united (uniti).
They are the Hungarians, the Szecklers, and the Saxons;
which last were brought from the parts of Germany then
called Saxony, near to Liege, Luxembourg, and Treves, in
1143, by king Seysa the Second. The land is divided among
these three nations thus. The Hungarians are in the western
division, which extends over one half of the land, and contains
rather more than halftlie population, and is divided into eleven
gespanschafts or waiwodeships. The land of the Szeckler
is the least; it is thinly peopled, and is subdivided into five
bailiwicks. The land of the Saxons is both on the north
and the south side of the province, and is the best cultivated
as well as the most densely inhabited, and comprises eleven
bailiwicks. The remainder of the nation are denominated
by their description Tolerati, consisting of Wallachians,
Greeks, Armenians, Moravians, Poles, Russians, Bulgarians,
Servians, Jews, and Gipsies. These last are called Pha-
rohniens, as coming from Egypt, or supposed to have come
from thence. Maria Theresa tried to accustom these people
to the practices of civilized society; but her efforts, as well
ns those of her successors, have had hut little effect, as they
continue averse to agricultural labour, and indeed to any
fixed course of hfe. 1 he Wallachians are the most numer¬
ous of these tolerated tribes. The richer part of them
have acquired landed estates, but the lower classes are
very ignorant, idle, and filthy. The Armenians and the
Greeks devote themselves chiefly to traffick. Among all
these tribes the Saxons are the most active and orderly.
1 heir villages and dwellings are well built, and everywhere
show prosperity and purity of morals. Their written lan¬
guage is the High German, hut they speak, or at least have
the pronunciation, of the Platt Deutch. In the districts in¬
habited by this race, corn, wine, and culinary vegetables are
produced, as well as garden flowers. In the cities of Kron¬
stadt and Hermanstadt, they are the chief conductors of the
manufacturing establishments. The religion of the princi¬
pality is various; and there is a degree of obscurity in the
statistical account, which renders any estimate of their rela¬
tive numbers so very uncertain that only an approxima¬
tion can be obtained. There are four established [privi-
iegirte) religious sects. The Roman Catholics, who amount
to about 150,000, have a bishop and other dignitaries, and
forty convents. VV ith them are joined what are cailed the
United Greeks, who to a settled point are Catholics; and
with them may he classed most of the Armenians. These
have also a bishop, several dignitaries, and convents, and the
number of them is estimated at 240,000, thus making the
whole of the Catholics 390,000. The Reformed or Calvi¬
nist Church consists of about 300,000 persons, under a su¬
perintendent and two archdeacons, with 587 pastors. T he
Lutheran Church is calculated to number 250,000 souls;
having a superintendent, fourteen deacons, and 286 pastors.
The Unitarians or Socinians are mostly refugees from Po¬
land, who were received into this province when perse¬
cuted in their native country, where they were joined by
2 x
T R A
346
T R A
Transylva- some of the Szecklers, and a few others. Their numbers are
nia. saia not to exceed 40,000 persons; but they have a bishop,
^ 110 churches and fifty-four chapels. Each of these sects has
its established institutions for education. Thus the Ca¬
tholics have a college at Clausenburg, and lyceums or gram¬
mar schools at Karlsburg, Maros, Basarhely, Udvarhely,
and Hermanstadt; the Protestants have colleges at INagy-
Enved, Maros, Clausenburg, Vasarhely, and Broos; the
Lutherans have colleges in Hermanstadt, in Mediaset, bchas-
burg, and Bisztritz; and the Unitarians have a college at
Clausburg, and gymnasiums at Thorenburg and at Her¬
manstadt. Besides these established religious sects, there
is one whose adherents are more numerous than all the
others together, which is tolerated, but not privileged. 1 hese
are the Greeks who believe the doctrines of the pure
church of their name, under the patriarch of C onstantinople.
They consist of Wallachians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and the
Gypsies. They have an archbishop, twenty-nine archdea¬
cons, and 991 churches, but no institutions for education.
They consist of the lowest class of labourers both in agri¬
culture and in mining. .
The greatest export of agricultural produce is that ot to¬
bacco, of which much is grown of a quality highly admir¬
ed. The breeding of horses is an extensive pursuit, in
which the Gypsies are said to be very skilful. The breed
most common is of slight make, but very agile, strong, and
capable of enduring labour. Most of the gentry support
establishments to improve the breed of horses. The sheep
have coarse wool, and no improvement has been recently
introduced by fine-woolled rams. 1 he cows aie nume¬
rous, and afford good butter and cheese, and furnish oxen
for the ploughs. As much flax and hemp are raised as
is required by the inhabitants to supply the cloths and
furniture made of those substances, which are spun in all
the houses, and converted into cloth by itinerant weavers.
The mines are a great source of wealth, and furnish the
chief occupation to the poorer classes. The salt-mines are a
part of that vast vein of rock-salt which commences in Wal-
lachia, and extends to Wieliczka in Poland. From six shafts
are annually extracted 1,000,000 quintals of this substance,
of which nearly three fourths are sent to the provinces of
Hungary, and to the Bannat. The other mines are those of
srold and silver, yielding, of the former nearly 20,000, and
of the latter 40,000 ounces yearly. The copper-mines
yield about 3000 quintals, those of lead 2500 quintals, and
those of iron 70,000 quintals. Besides these, sixty quin¬
tals of quicksilver are prepared. Much of the gold is obtain¬
ed by washing the sand of the rivers, a labour in which the
Gypsies excel. The proprietors and directors of the mines
are for the most part Germans. It is an aristocratic coun¬
try, like Hungary, and, as there, the nobility are exempt
from many of the taxes; and the higher clergy of the esta¬
blished sects are considered as noble, but not the monks or
pastors. The nobles form the legislative assembly, but can
enter into no affairs but such as are suggested by the prince.
With his approval, the laws may be amended or repealed,
or new laws made. The prince has the sole power of mak¬
ing peace or war, of coining money, of conferring clerical
dignities, and of granting dispensations for marriages, and is
the heir of the landed property of all families that become
extinct. Appeals may be made from the courts of law in
Siebenbiirgen, as in Hungary, to the high court of chancery,
which sits at Vienna. The emperor, as prince, derives an
income of L.130,000 from taxes and tithes on minerals and
salt, and, besides, has the hereditary land revenues, and
from the whole draws annually the sum of nearly L.500,000.
According to the last calculation, at the end of the year
1836, the whole population amounted to about 2,250,000
persons. The principal cities, with their population, were,
Kronstadt, or, in Hungarian, Kruhnen 30,000
Klausenbure or Kolosvar..., ..20.4)00
Hermanstadt 16,000
Thorenberg or Thordaz  7,000
Strasburg or Nagy-Enyed  6,000
Carlsburg  6,000
Schasburg  6,000
Mediasch  5,000
Mullenbach    5,000
On the borders of this principality, as on the other fron-
tiers of the Austrian dominions that are in contact with the
Turks, there are what are called military colonies. These
consist of soldiers who are furnished with houses and small
farms, which they cultivate for their maintenance, having
no pay, but the land rent-free. They are armed and cloth¬
ed by the government, and being regimented, are always
prepared to repel any insult from their neighbours, and to
suppress any kind of disturbance. The colonists on the
Siebenbiirgen boundary compose five regiments, four of
which are infantry, and one hussars. The staff of each re¬
giment has its head-quarters fixed at one of the small towns
on the frontier. The whole number of these colonists, in¬
cluding wives, children, and dependants, with colonistsdis-
charged from the service from age or other causes, is esti¬
mated at 135,000 persons. They form an active and eco¬
nomical militia-force.
TRAPANI, a city of the island of Sicily, in the pro¬
vince of Mazzara, the capital of an intendancy of the same
name. It stands on a long and low isthmus, on the sea¬
shore, in a healthy spot. It is surrounded with walls, and
defended by a strong castle. Trapani contains forty-two
churches and monasteries, several hospitals, and a seminary
or college, with 4356 dwellings, and 24,350 inhabitants.
The chief occupations are the tunny and the anchovy fish¬
eries, working in coral and marble, making soap, oil, and
salt, and shipping corn. The harbour is good and safe,and
is protected by a mole. Long. 12. 30. 18. E. Lat. 38.1.
53. N.
TRAPEZIUM, in Geometry, a plane figure contained
under four unequal right lines.
TRAS los Montes, one of the provinces into which
the kingdom of Portugal is divided. It receives the name
from its situation beyond the mountain which divides it
from the province of Beyra, in the same kingdom. On the
northern frontier it is bounded by Galicia, and on the east¬
ern by Leon in Spain. Its extent is 455 square leagues,
and its population 318,665 souls.
TRAU, a city of the Austrian province of Dalmatia, in
the circle of Spalatro. It stands on an island, and is con¬
nected by a bridge on one side with the mainland, and by
another on the opposite side with the island Bua. It 1
about eight leagues south of Sabenico; and the country
around it is highly fertile, producing abundance ot corn
wine, figs, almonds, and oil, and some wool and cheese, h
is the seat of a bishop, who has a palace and a cathedra
Trau contains several other churches, and 6300 inhabitants
partly occupied in the fishery. T he harbour is secure >o
small vessels. The steeple of the cathedral is in long-
15. 10. E. and lat. 43. 30. 57. N.
TRAVALLA, a seaport on the west coast of the islam
of Celebes, containing 200 inhabitants, and carrying on ai
inconsiderable trade. Lat. 1. 10. S.
TRAVANCORE, a province situated at the south-wes
extremity of Hindustan, between the eighth and tenth ie
grees of north latitude. It is bounded on the north }' '
territories of the Cochin rajah ; on the south and wes ,
the sea; and on the east by a range of woody nl°u"a1''
by which it is divided from the British district of Ln
velly. It is estimated to extend 140 miles in long 1
forty in average breadth. The country possesses a iv
sified surface, and exhibits in the vicinity of the ni0un.. j
a varied scene of hill and dale, with winding streanlS ?' r
flow from the hills, and give to the valleys a perpetua
*
T R A T R E 347
lure. The mountains are covered with lofty forests, which an assemblage of various courses, lying at different angles Traverse
Enhance the grandeur of the scene, and which produce pep- with the meridian. BoJrd
r)er cardamoms, cassia, frankincense, and other aromatic Traverse a thin circular piece of board, marked Treasurer
r unis. These woods afford ample cover for the wild ani- with all the points of the compass, and having eight holes i
B nals which are found here in abundance, namely, ele- bored in each, and eight small pegs hanging from the centre
ilmnts, buffaloes, and tigers of the largest size ; also mon- of the board. It is used to determine the different courses
cvs and apes, which keep together in flocks. The climate run by a ship during the period of the watch, and to ascer-
‘ ^ moist that the cultivation of rice is conducted with- tain the distance of each course.
ut the aid of tanks. It is produced in great abundance, TRAVESTY, a name given to a humorous translation
isomuch that, according to the statement of the natives, of any author. The word is derived from the French tra-
he whole government expenses, civil, military, and reli- vestir, to disguise.
ious, are defrayed from the wet cultivators alone, without TREACHEROUS Bay, a dangerous bay in the East-
ifringing on the revenues which arise from those articles ern Seas, in Caspar’s Strait. It is on the east coast of the
hat are produced from the dry mode of culture, which are island of Billiton, and is full of banks and shoals, many of
epper, betel-nut, cocoa-nut trees, &c. The timber forests which are only seen at low water.
f Travancore are in general farmed, the revenue varying TREASON, a general appellation to denote not only
ccording to circumstances. Among other articles of mono- offences against the king and government, but also that ac-
oly are ginger, coir, turmeric, and dried cocoa-nut kernels, cumulation of guilt which arises whenever a superior re-
Vbacco for consumption is generally brought from Cey- poses a confidence in a subject or inferior, between whom
)n. In the interior of the country, duties are exacted on and himself there subsists a natural, a civil, or even a spi-
ie transit of all articles, and the payment at one place ritual relation; and the inferior so abuses that confidence,
.carcelv ever exempts the trader from a repetition at an- so forgets the obligations of duty, subjection, and allegi-
ther. The articles which are taxed are cassia-buds, mace, ance, as to destroy the life of any such superior or lord.
>ng nutmegs, wild saffron, coculus indicus, nanvally, bees’ Hence treason is of two kinds, high and petty.
ax, elephants’teeth, and sandal-wood. Custom-duties are High Treason, or Treason Paramount (which is equi-
Iso imposed, and are let out to farm. There are various valent to the crimen lessee majestatis of the Romans, as
ther sources of revenue, such as taxes on Christian festi- Glanville denominates it also in the English law), is an of-
als, and upon nets and fishermen. But the most import- fence committed against the security of the king or king-
nt is a capitation tax on all males from sixteen to tw enty, dom, whether by imagination, word, or deed. In order to
ith the exception of Nairs, Moplays, and artificers. The prevent the inconveniences which arose in England from a
umber taxed is estimated at 250,000. The sum-total of multitude of constructive treasons, the statute 25 Edw\ III.
11 these exactions is computed to amount to twenty lacs of c. 2, was made ; which defines what offences only for the
ipees, or L.250,000, besides the taxes on the wet culti- future should be held to be treason.
ation. The principal seaports in this province are An- Petty or Petit Treason, according to the statute 25 Ed-
ngo, Coulan, Aibecca, and Coleshy. The ancient capF ward III. c. 2, may happen three ways: by a servant kill-
il of the country was Travancore, but the rajah now ing his master, a wife her husband, or an ecclesiastical per-
enerally resides at Trivandapatam. On the coast there son (either secular or regular) his superior, to whom he
•e strong currents, which frequently carry ships round owes faith and obedience.
ape Comorin to a considerable distance westward. This TREASURE, in general, denotes a store or stock of
eing one of those countries which the Mahommedan war- money in reserve.
ors never succeeded in conquering, the primeval manners Treasure- Trove, in Law, derived from the P'rench word
f the Hindus are retained in greater purity than in those trouver, to find, called in Latin thesaurus inventus, is where
thers to the north, whose laws and religion have long any money or coin, gold, silver, plate, or bullion, is found
een trampled under foot by their barbarous conquerors, hidden in the earth or any private place, the owner thereof
t a very early period the Christian religion gained a foot- being unknown ; in which case the treasure belongs to the
ig in Travancore; and it is now computed that 90,000 king: but if he that had hid it be known, or afterwards
rrsons have become proselytes to its doctrines. In some found out, the owner and not the king is entitled to it.
urts, churches are so numerous, and Hindu temples so TREASURER, an officer to whom the treasure of a
ire, that the traveller with difficulty believes himself to prince or corporation is committed to be kept and duly dis-
e in India. A great proportion of the fishermen on the posed of, in payment of officers and other expenses,
a-coast of Travancore and Malabar are considered as The lord high treasurer of Great Britain, or first com-
hristians. missioner of the treasury, when in commission, has under
The territories of the Travancore chief were formerly of his charge and government all the king’s revenue which is
nail extent, and he paid tribute to Madura; but from kept in the exchequer. He holds his place during the
HO to 1755, the ruler extended his territories, owing to king’s pleasure, being instituted by the delivery of a white
! series of military successes, as far north as the boun- staff to him. He has the check of all the officers employ-
!mes of Cochin. In 1790 Travancore was attacked by ed in collecting the customs and royal revenues; and in
ippoo, who, having penetrated to Virapelly, would, but his gift and disposition are all the offices of the customs in
»r the interference of Lord Cornwallis, have wholly sub- the several parts of the kingdom ; escheators in every county
led the province. In 1795 a treaty of alliance was con- are nominated by him; and he also makes leases of the
hided between the rajah and the British ; and in conse- lands belonging to the crown.
ience of some disputes, into which it is unnecessary to Treasurer of the Household is an officer who, in the ab-
nter, a war took place in 1809, when the British troops sence of the lord-steward, has power, with the comptroller
13°h possession of the country with little opposition. The and other officers of the board of green-cloth, and the stew-
apital, which bears the same name, was formerly an exten- ard of the Marshalsea, to hear and determine treasons, fe-
ive city, but is now much decayed, since the rajah removed lonies, and other crimes committed within the king’s palace,
ns residence. Long. 77. 22. E. Lat. 8. 25. N. Treasurer of the Navy, is an officer who receives money
TRAVERSE, or Transverse, in general denotes some- out of the exchequer, by warrant from the lord high trea¬
ting that goes athwart another; that is, crosses and cuts surer, or the lords commissioners executing that place, and
t obliquely. pays all charges of the navy, by warrant from the principal
11averse, in Navigation, implies a compound course, or officers of the navy.
348
Treasury
II
Tredgold.
T II E
T R E
TREASURY, the place where the revenues of a state are
received, preserved, and disbursed. In England the treasury
is a part of the exchequer, by some called the lower exchequer.
Lords of the Treasury. In lieu of one single director
and administrator of the sovereign’s revenues under tne title
of lord high treasurer, it is at present thought proper to
1824, 8vo. Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public lik
Buildings, &c. Second Edition. 1824, 8vo. A Practical T
Treatise on Railroads and Carriages. 1825, 8vo. The 'll
Steam Engine, comprising an Account of its Invention " ^
and progressive Improvement; with an Investigation of its
Principles, &c. 1827, 4-to. Treatise on the Steam Engine,
put that office in commission, i.e. to appoint several per- in 2 vols. 4to. liacts on Hydraulics. He was likewise
sons to discharge it, with equal authority, under the title ot the author of some valuable contributions to the present
s of the Treasury. ' work. He died in the year 1834 ; and it is painful to add,
that, notwithstanding the unwearied exercise of his talents
y unequal size', forming part of Solomon’s he left his family without any adequate provision,
y are low, and covered with trees, i hat on 1 REE. See 1 ranting, I imber, and V egktable Phy.
Lords Commissioners of the J reasury
Treasury Islands, a small group, consisting of five or six
islands of ver
Islands. They
the north is the lowest. Its middle is in long. 155. 29. E.
Eat. 7. 23. S.
TREATY, a covenant between two or more nations ; or
the several articles or conditions stipulated and agreed up¬
on by two sovereign powers.
TREBISOND, a considerable trading city of Asia
Minor, on the coast of the Black Sea. It is of an oblong
shape, and occupies a slope gently rising from the sea. 1 he small market on Saturday,
houses are mostly built of stone and lime. Iheyare roofed 1821 to 1035, and in 1831
with small red tiles, and are mean in their outward appear¬
ance and comfortless within. It carries on a considerable
trade; and the principal exports are silk and cotton stuffs
manufactured by the inhabitants, also fruit and wine. T he
SIOUOGY.
TREGONEY, an ancient decayed borough and market-
town of the hundred of Powder, in the county of Cornwall
253 miles from London. It is situated on the river Fal
and contains places of worship for the established church
and for Independents and Wesleyan Methodists. It for¬
merly returned two members to parliament. There is a
The population amounted in
to 1127.
imports are sugar, coffee, and woollen cloths from Con¬
stantinople; corn, salt, and iron from the Crimea and Min-
grelia. It contains eighteen large mosques, eight khans,
five baths, and ten small Greek churches, governed by a
metropolitan. But the most curious edifice in the city is a
huge structure, with two small windows on each face. It
is supposed to have been erected for a powder magazine.
On the east and west the city is defended by two deep
ravines, connected by a ditch cut in the rock behind the
castle. The ancient ramparts of the city, which are built
of stone, are in general very lofty. At the southern ex¬
tremity of Trebisond is the citadel, which commands a full
view' of the city and environs. Behind the city, rise moun¬
tains of a moderate elevation, which are in a high state
of cultivation, producing barley, flax, and wfine. The po¬
pulation of Trebisond amounts to 15,000, and consists of a
mixture of Turks, Greeks, Jews, Armenians, Georgians,
Long. 39. 43. E.
Mingrelians, Circassians, and Tartars.
Lat. 37. 23. N.
TREBLE and Treble-Clef, in Music. See Music.
TREDGOLD, Thomas, an able engineer, was born at
Brandon, near Durham, w-here Ire received the small share
of learning which is usually bestowed upon a youth destined
to a mechanical trade. At the age of fourteen he was ap¬
prenticed to a carpenter in his native village, whom he serv¬
ed for six years. He afterwards came to Scotland, where
he worked five years as a journeyman. From Scotland he
proceeded to London, and there obtained employment in
the office of an architect, with whom he remained for ten
years. The intervals of labour are too often wasted by ar¬
tisans in listless inactivity or debasing pleasures ; but Tred¬
gold employed his leisure hours in a very different manner.
Under circumstances as little favourable for such pursuits
as can well be imagined, he applied himself to the study of
chemistry, geology, and the mathematics; with what suc¬
cess is well known, and has been acknowledged by the
most competent judges in this country, in America, and in
Trance, where many of his works have been translated.
When he began to practise as an engineer, we know net;
but it was during the period in which he was so engaged
that he published the scientific treatises, which have entit¬
led him to an honourable place among those who have
TREMAN, a town in the Carnatic, situated on the north
bank of the Coleroon, twenty miles north-north-east from
Travancore. Long. 79. 20. E. Lat. 11. 1. N.
TRENCHES, in fortification, are ditches cut by thebe-
siegers, that they may approach the more securely to the
place attacked; whence they are also called lines of approach.
TREN T, a city of the Austrian province of Tyrol. It
was formerly the capital of an independent ecclesias¬
tical state. The extent was small, but the bishop was a
member of the German empire. In the year 1803 it was
secularized and united to the Austrian dominions, being
incorporated with the province of Tyrol. It afterwards
shared the fate of the other Austrian territories in that
quarter, till the peace of 1814 placed it in the condition in
which it is now to be seen. The bishop is still called a
prince, and has a yearly income of about L.4000 sterling.
The city lies in a deep valley surrounded with lofty hills, whose
sides are covered with vineyards, intermixed with nume¬
rous and some elegant country seats and gardens. It stands
on the banks of the river Etsch or Adige, which is navi¬
gable to it, and over which is a fine bridge 300 feet in
length. The city is surrounded with walls, but is not deem¬
ed capable of defence, from the heights that command the
works. The streets are narrow, gloomy, and not very clean.
The palace of the bishop is an antique and unsightly build¬
ing, but adorned by fine gardens. The cathedral is highly
ornamented, and worth seeing; and in the church of Santa
Maria is a remarkably fine painting, in which are portraits
of the most distinguished members of the celebrated coun¬
cil held at this place. There is a collegiate establishment
or lyceum, in which are thirteen professors teaching phi¬
losophy and theology. Being on the great road from Italy
to Germany, it has much commerce, including some by tm
river, and a few considerable silk manufactories. It con¬
tains 760 houses and 9850 inhabitants. From the grea'
heat of summer, and the severe cold of winter, it is no
found to be a healthy place.
Trent, Council of in Ecclesiastical History, denote
the council assembled by Paul III. in 1545, and continue!
by twenty-five sessions till the year 1563, under Julius 111
and Pius IV. in order to correct, illustrate, anti-fix "iti
perspicuity, the doctrine of the church, to restore the yi
gour of its discipline, and to reform the lives ol its minis
ters. The decrees of this council, together with the creu
of Pope Pius IV. contains a summary of the doctrines ot 8
Roman Catholics. These decrees were subscribed by
clergy, consisting of four legates, other two cardinals, tore
made important exertions for the advancement of the useful v.. .w...  
arts. We subjoin a list of his principal publications. Ele- patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, 168 bishops, besides ink
mentary Principles of Carpentry. Lond. 1820, 4to. Prac- rior clergy. As 150 of these came from Italy, the eounc
tical Essay on the Strength of Cast Iron, and other Metals, was entirely under the influence of the pope. I or a mo-
T R I
T R I
349
irticular account of the council of Trent, seethe elaborate
stories of Sarpi and Pallavicino. rl'he former of these is
very remarkable work. For the history of this council,
'Vreat mass of materials was collected by Le Plat: “ Mo-
imentoruni ad Historiam Concilii Tridentini potissimum
ustrandam spectantium amplissiraa Collectio.” Lovanii,
781-7, 7 tom. 4to.
Trknt, one of the largest rivers in England, which
ses in the moorland of Staffordshire, and runs south-west
/Newcastle-under-Lyne; and afterwardsdividingthe coun-
into two parts, runs to Burton, then to Nottingham and
ewark ; and so continuing its course due north to Gains-
,rough on the confines of Lincolnshire, it joins several
vers, and falls into the Humber.
TRESTLE Trees, in ship-building, two strong bars
' timber fixed horizontally on the opposite sides of the
wer mast-head, to support the frame of the top and the
eight of the topmast.
TRESSURE, in Heraldry, a diminutive of an orle,
mally held to be half the breadth thereof.
TRET, in Commerce, an allowance made for the waste
■ the dirt that may be mixed with any commodify; which
commonly four pounds in every 104 pounds weight.
TREVANNION’S Island, one of the group called
:ueen Charlotte’s Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean, dis-
jvered by Captain Carteret in 1767. Long. 163. 43. E.
at. 10. 43. S.
TREVENNEN’S Island, the most southern of the Mar-
lesas Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean. Long. 220.
1. E. Eat. 9. 14. S.
TREVES, a district in Prussia. See Trier.
TREVIGLIO, a city of the north of Italy, in the Aus-
•ian kingdom of Milan and the delegation of Bergamo,
i stands on the river Adda, in a district that is not very
reductive of any other article but silk, of which a great
uantity is supplied and disposed of at an annual fair. Tre-
iglio contains but one church, but has an hospital. The
ihabitants are 6700, who are employed in making linen
nd silk goods of various kinds.
TREVISO,adelegation of the Austrian kingdom of Lom-
ardy, which extends over 721 square miles, and contains
.r)l,(i00 inhabitants, and yields abundance of corn, oil,
fine, and silk. The capital is the city of the same name
n the navigable river Sil, where the Rottinga and the
‘’iave-Sella pour into it their streams. It is ancient and
1 built, is surrounded with walls, and has large plazas,
nth houses built on piazzas. It contains,a cathedral and
wenty-seven other churches, several monasteries' arid con-
ents, and 2600 houses, with 15,100 inhabitants, who are
liiefly employed in the various branches of the silk trade,
ut also print calicoes, make cottons, linens, and cutlery ware,
t has a great animal fair. Long. 11. 8. 10. E. Lat. 45.
19. 30. N.
TREVOU, an arrondissement in the department of the
Vn, in France, extending over 592 square miles. It con-
ains seven cantons and ill communes, with 77,530 inha¬
bitants in 1836. The capital, which is the city of tiie
ame name, stands on the left bank of the Saone, on a range
'Hulls covered with the finest vineyards. It contains
’559 inhabitants, who make many parts of the wrorks of
'locks and watches, and draw wire of gold and of silver,
-ong. p. 5. 45. E. Lat. 45. 56. 42. N.
1RIER, or Treves, a very ancient city of Germany, the
4ugusta Trevirorum of the Romans, who made it their
lead-quarters against the Germans, and the residence of
»ome of their monarchs. Under the kings of the Franks
t was afterwards a city of great consequence. It was sub-
>equently the chief residence of the prince archbishop, an
"dependent member of the German empire. It w7as seized
JY ^le French at the beginning of the Revolution, and by
‘ e Peace of Luneville in 180i was ceded to France. In
1824 it was occupied by the allied armies, and by the Triad
treaty of Vienna w as eventually ceded to Prussia. It is now „ .
the capital of a district or circle of its name in the Prussian poly?0
province of the Lower Rhine, which extends over 2786
square miles, and in 1834 contained 437,324 inhabitants,
of whom 50,000 are Protestants, and all the rest of the Ro¬
mish church. The city is situated in a pleasing valley on
the river Moselle, which is here navigable for barges of
100 tons. It is the seat of a bishop and of the provincial
courts of law7, and has an ecclesiastical seminary. Within
the city are many large gardens, which give it the appear¬
ance of a Swiss town, and add greatly to its beauty. The
inhabitants amounted in 1834 to 14,723. Among the
buildings are many curious specimens of very ancient
architecture. The palace of the prince bishop, now the
barracks, is one of them ; and another is the church of
the Virgin, in the peculiar old German taste. The ca¬
thedral is of a very irregular form, but contains some
beautiful altars, and a fine gallery of marble. The church
of St Simon is of Roman architecture. Though a church,
it is also a gate, the Porta Nigra, the most remarkable
specimen of architecture in Germany. Other Roman an¬
tiquities are, an amphitheatre in ruins, some baths, and se¬
veral gates of antique edifices. Few places afford more de¬
light to the lovers of antiquities.
TRIAD, in Music, the common chord. See Music. ;
TRIAL, in Law, the examination of a cause according
to the laws of the land, before a proper judge; or it is the
manner and order observed in the hearing and determining
of causes.
TRIANGLE, in Geometry, a figure of three sides and
three angles.
Triangle. 'See the article Music.
TRIBE, a certain quantity or number of persons, when
a division is made of a city or people into quarters or dis¬
tricts.
TRIPOLI, a town of Asia Minor, on the coast of the
Black Sea, curiously built; the houses being scattered
along the edges of the precipices and sides of the moun¬
tains. The town contains two handsome khans. The port
is good, and vessels may ride securely in it in stormy wea¬
ther. The surrounding hills, though they are unculti¬
vated, afford good pasturage for numerous flocks of sheep
and goats. The town contains 400 families. It is seventy-
tw’o miles east of Trebisond.
TRIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, a foot consisting of
three short syllables ; as, melius.
TRIBUNAL, in general, denotes the seat of a judge,
called in our courts the bench.
TRIBUNE, among the ancient Romans, a magistrate
chosen out of the commons, to protect them against the
oppressions of the great, and to defend the liberty of the
people against the attempts of the senate and consuls. The
tribunes of the people were first established in the year of
Rome 259. The design of their creation was to shelter
the people from the cruelty of usurers, and to engage them
to quit the Aventine Mount, whither they had retired in
displeasure. Their number at first w'as only two ; but the
next year, under the consulate of A. Posthumius Aruncius
and Cassius Visceliinus, three more were added; and this
number of five was afterwards increased by L. Trebonius
to ten. Sec Roman History.
Military Tribune, an officer in the Roman army, com¬
mander-in-chief over a body of forces, particularly the di¬
vision of a legion ; much the same with our colonel.
TRIBUTARY, one who pays tribute to another in
order to live in peace with or share in his protection.
TRIBUTE, a tax or impost which one prince or state
is obliged to pay to another as a token of dependence, or
in virtue of a treaty, and as a purchase of peace.
TRICIIINOPOLY, a celebrated town and fortress in
350 T R I
Tricolor the Southern Carnatic, advantageously situated on the
,, .11 south bank of the river Cavery, opposite to the island of
iiieste. geringham, famous for its magnificent Hindu temples,
V v— This city was formerly the capital of a Hindu principality,
until 1736, when Chunda Saheb, the prime minister of the
nabob of the Carnatic, acquired it by treachery. It was
taken possession of by the Mahrattas in 1741, but lost by
them to the Mahommedans in 1743. The town is situated
on a hill or rock about 350 feet high, and was esteemed
impregnable bv the natives. In 1/49 it devolved by inhe¬
ritance to the Nabob Mahommed AH ; and it sustained a
memorable siege by the French and theii allies, which
lasted from 1751 until 1755, in the course of which were
displayed the great military talents of Laurence, Clive,
and other officers, which had the effect of preserving the
city, and of establishing a British candidate on the throne
of the Carnatic. At present Trichinopoly is the capital of
one of the districts into which the territory under the Ma¬
dras presidency has been subdivided. The surrounding
country is rendered productive by the vicinity of that
branch of the Cavery named the Coleroon. It has a strong
garrison of both native and Luropean troops, and is the re¬
sidence of the civil authorities of the district. It contains
a palace, a mosque, and two temples. Travelling distance
from Madras 268 miles, from Seringapatam 205, and from
Calcutta 1238 miles. Long. 78. 50. E. Lat. 10. 50. N.
TRICOLOR, a town of Hindustan, in the Carnatic,
forty-four miles west from Pondicherry. Long. 79. 20. E.
Lat. 11. 59. N.
TRIDENT, a kind of sceptre which the painters and
poets put into the hands of Neptune, in the form of a spear
or fork with three teeth; whence the word.
TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to offices or
employments which last for three years.
TRlENS, in Antiquity, a copper money of the value of
one third of an as, which on one side bore a Janus’s head,
and on the other a water-rat.
TRIESTE, one of the governments into which the
Austrian kingdom of Illyria is divided. It forms the most
southern part of that kingdom, and comprises the whole of
the sea-shore of the dominions of Austria, extending from
Grado to Novi; and there have been added portions of
Venetian Friaul, both the Istrias, part of Krain, with such
portions of the district of Agram as are on the right bank
of the river Save, and the Gluarnaro islands of Cherso and
Veglia, with their dependencies. The government is dis¬
tributed into four circles, viz. Gorz, Istria (in which is the
city of Trieste), Fiume, and Karlstadt. The whole extent
of the country is 4972 square miles, and it comprises
twenty-nine cities now or once fortifled, forty-one market-
towns, 1193 villages, 93,493 houses, and 598,970 inhabi¬
tants. The population is of various original races, but the
rural people are for the most part of the Illyrian nation,
and speak only the language of that tribe. They mostly
adhere to the Romish church, while in the cities there are
Protestants, Greek Christians, Jews, and Mahommedans,
who are all tolerated. The country is mountainous but
fertile, and in the south yields abundance of olive oil, some
wine, and some silk. The government does not produce
sufficient corn for its consumption, but is well supplied
from the neighbouring Austrian territories, or occasionally
from the Black Sea, by imports at Trieste and at Fiume.
Trieste, a maritime city, the capital of the department
of the same name in the Austrian kingdom of Illyria. It is an
open city, on the sea-shore, at the bottom of a deep bay at
the head of the Adriatic Sea. The shore here forms a semi¬
circle, around which Trieste is built, and rises like an am¬
phitheatre, in a picturesque style, with lofty hills on both
sides of it. The town is beautiful, the streets are wide
and clean, and the houses generally high and well built.
Though without walls, it is defended by a strong citadel on
T R I
a hill to the south, which commands the city. The public
buildings, except the cathedral and some other of th i
churches, are by no means very splendid, but convenient
and appropriate. Such are the palace, the custom-house
the theatre, and, especially remarkable for its extent and
accommodations, the lazaretto. The last mentioned build
ing deserves more notice, as being held the most complete!
of the institutions to prevent the introduction of the pla<me
that are to be seen in any part of the Mediterranean'
This pile, which was built in 1785, is cut off from all
intercourse with the inhabitants by a high wall, which
entirely encircles it. It has a spacious harbour, well shel¬
tered by a strong mole, and is strictly guarded. The
governor has a house within the precincts, and is bound,
to go the rounds three times every night, in order to see that]
the guards do their duty. Extensive magazines are at-'
tached to it for the exposure of goods. It contains thirty-
two sets of apartments for passengers, who are locked in
every night. The captains and crews of ships are per-
mitted (always with a guard) to go on shore and walk in a
large square appropriated to them, and separated by a high
wmll from another which is designed for the passengers
who have left the ships. Every Sunday the crews of the
vessels are allowed to come on shore to attend mass in the,
chapel of the lazaretto, but with every requisite precau¬
tion. In the bay of Trieste there is good anchorage over
the greater part, varying from seven to fourteen fathoms o{
water, with a muddy bottom. The best spot is in seven fa¬
thoms, when the citadel and the theatre are in a line from it.
The harbour is formed by a mole lying to the northward
before the city. It is very large, and capable of containing
a great number of vessels. It is somewhat exposed to the
north-west and north winds, but is protected from westerly
winds by the long mole, on which is a battery. There is a
canal running nearly through the centre of the city, where
vessels haul in to load and unload.
Trieste was first made a free port in 1719, but was an
inconsiderable place, with not more than 6000 inhabitants,
till 1753, when the Empress Maria Theresa improved and
enlarged it by a great variety of expensive operations. It
has since risen to its present condition, and is the chief
place of se‘a-communication with the rest of the world
for the extensive dominions of the house of Austria. It
is said to have thirty-one plazas, 214 streets, seven Catho¬
lic churches, one each for the Greek, the Lutheran, and the
reformed religion, and 58,600 inhabitants. They are prin¬
cipally composed of Germans and Italians, but persons from
almost every country are to be found domiciled. There are
said to be seventeen banking and insurance companies,
1000 mercantile houses of all kinds, and 17,000 authorized!
and sworn brokers, who act also as interpreters. •
The foreign trade is extensive. Mr Money, the late
English consul-general, calculated the value of the goods
imported to amount to L.1,800,000 annually, and that of the
goods exported to be nearly equal; but this has been com¬
monly deemed to be less than the actual value, especially
as regards the imports, which some authorities have esti¬
mated as high as L.4,000,000, including such as are after¬
wards transhipped to the other Austrian ports on the Adri¬
atic, such as Venice, Fiume, and the islands on the coasts
of Dalmatia. The articles of gunpowder, salt, and tobacco
are monopolized by the government, and are not allowed
to be imported but by the contractors, who are under the
finance department. Great vigilance is used to prevent
the introduction of those commodities, and an equal or
greater degree of activity prevails among contraband
traders to supply them to the public ; the high prices which
the government demand of the consumers acting as an in¬
centive to evade or defy the restrictions.
TRIGLYPHS, in Architecture, a sort of ornament re¬
peated at certain intervals, in the Doric frieze.
351
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
mo- Any survey of a country, which is carried on from a
'rical ino-le base by the computation of observed angular dis-
vey- an°eS) raay be properly called a trigonometrical survey ;
! the term is usually confined to measurements on a
irge scale, embracing a considerable extent of country, and
ill e(jmring a combination of astronomical and geodetical ope-
W ations.
jjof There are two principal objects for which a trigonome-
"fco-.rical survey may be undertaken; the first being to ascer-
cal ain the exact situation of the different points of a country
«■ datively to each other, and to the equator and meridians
f the terrestrial spheroid, for the purpose of constructing
«I n accurate map; and the second to determine the dimen-
ions and form of the earth, by ascertaining the curvature
i B )f a given portion of its surface. Having already, in the
irticle Figure of the Earth, given a general account of
it I he principal operations, which, in different ages and coun-
l'I fries, have been undertaken with a view to the second of
V ‘hese objects, and also explained the methods by which the
il dements of the earth’s form and dimensions are computed
i| rom the geodetical measurements, and stated the results
11 diich are deducible from those measurements taken col-
> , ectively, we shall not, in the present article, enter into the
» ;eneral subject of Geodesy, but shall confine ourselves to a
11 nore particular account than could have been properly
M riven in the article cited, of the great survey which during
ill he last half-century has been carrying on in our own
:ountry under the direction of the Board of Ordnance.
iVe accordingly propose to give, in the first place, a brief
ibstract of the history of that operation, so far as it may be
:ollected from the accounts published in the Transactions
i K )f the Royal Society, and in the three volumes of the
vork entitled “ The Trigonometrical Survey of England
md Wales and, in the second place, to explain the me-
t B hods by which the distances, latitudes, longitudes, bear-
ngs, and relative heights of the several positions are com-
| B nited from the observations. The subject, though some-
! vhat technical, is important both in a scientific and national
|l wint of view; and few persons, perhaps, have any just
; I lotions of the extremely refined nature of the operations
;o be executed, or of the difficulties to be surmounted, when
he question is to determine terrestrial distances and posi-
ions with the extreme precision which alone can be tole¬
rated in the present advanced state of mathematical and as-
Ironomical science.
From the account given by General Roy, it appears that
he origin of the British trigonometrical survey goes back
o the middle of the last century. The rise and progress of
he rebellion which broke out in the Highlands of Scotland
in the year 1745, convinced government of the importance
of establishing military posts, and opening roads of commu¬
nication in the remotest parts of the country ; and a body
t infantry having been encamped at Fort Augustus in
747 with a viewr to these objects, Lieutenant-general
Watson, who was then officially employed at that place as
deputy quartermaster-general, conceived the idea of mak¬
ing a map of the Highlands. The proposal having met
with the approval of the Duke of Cumberland, the survey
necessary for the purpose was forthwith commenced under
the direction of General Roy ; and although it was origi¬
nally intended to confine the operation to the Highlands, it
was nevertheless extended to the Lowlands, and at length
included the wdiole of the mainland of Scotland. The
breaking out of the war in 1755 prevented the survey from
being completed, and accordingly the projected map was
never published. General Roy states, that although the Trigono-
work, which exists in manuscript, possesses considerable metrical
merit, and perfectly answered the purpose for which it was Survey,
intended, yet, having been carried on with instruments of'^-“'N
a common or even inferior kind, it is rather to be consider¬
ed as a magnificent military sketch than a very accurate map
of a country.
On the conclusion of the peace of 17G3, the question of
making a general survey' of the whole island came for the
first time under the consideration of the government; but
although the utility of such a measure was acknowledged, no
steps were taken to carry it into effect until after the termina¬
tion of the American war in 1783. Duringthis yeara memo¬
rial, drawn up by Cassini de Thury, was transmitted by the
French ambassador to Mr Fox, then Secretary of State for the
Foreign Department, setting forth the advantages that would
accrue to astronomy by carrying a chain of triangles from the
neighbourhood of London to Dover, to be connected with
those of the French arc of meridian, which had now' been
extended from Collioure to Dunkirk, and thereby determin¬
ing, by actual measurement, the relative positions of the
Observatories of Greenwich and Paris. Cassini’s proposal
having been referred to the Royal Society, was warmly ap¬
proved by that body ; in consequence of which the govern¬
ment undertook to give the requisite assistance, and the
execution of the operation was committed to General Roy,
who was then employing himself in the measurement of a
base for a projected survey of London, which he had under¬
taken with a view to connect the different private observa¬
tories in and about the capital with that of Greenwich, and,
as lie states, “ that it might possibly serve as a hint to the
public for the now almost forgotten scheme of 1763.”
Although the operation which was thus resolved upon
did not embrace a general survey of the kingdom, but was
confined to the particular object of effecting a junction of
the Greenwich Observatory with the 1 rench triangulation,
it was still an object of great astronomical interest; and ac¬
cordingly it was determined that the measurement should be
conducted with the utmost possible care in all its details,
and with the best instruments which could be provided by
the celebrated Ramsden, at that time acknowledged to be
the first artist in the world.
The first step in the operation was the accurate measure- Rase on
ment of a base, from which the sides of a chain of triangles Hounslow
might be successively computed. For this purpose Gene- Heath,
ral Roy selected a line on Hounslow Heath, a situation
which presented the advantages of proximity to the capital
and the Observatory of Greenwich; of great extent and
levelness of surface ; of being free from local obstructions,
and commodiously situate for any future operations of a
similar nature. The line extended from a place called
King’s Arbour, at the north-west extremity of the Heath,
and terminated at Hampton poor-house, near Bushy Park, at
the south-east extremity, the whole length being upwards
of five miles.
The preliminary operations having been completed, andMeasure-
the terminal points having been marked by sinking wooden ment with
pipes into the ground, the measurement was commenceddeal rods-
about the middle of July 1784. The measuring apparatus
consisted of three deal rods, on which lengths of twenty feet
were laid off by Ramsden, and a standard rod, with which the
former were from time to time to be compared. I he measur¬
ing rods were formed out of an old mast of Riga timber, their
dimensions being 20 feet 3 inches in length (including the
tippings, which were of bell-metal), about 2 inches deep, and
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
Trigono. Jl inch broad, and trussed both laterally and vertically, so
metrical as t0 be rendered perfectly inflexible. They were con-
v Slirvey structed in such a manner that they might be used either by
butting the end of one rod against the end of another, or by
bringing fine transverse lines drawn upon them at the dis¬
tance of an inch and half from each extremity into exact
coincidence; but although the last method was considered
by General Roy to deserve the preference, it w'as found on
trial to be attended with so much inconvenience and loss
of time that it was abandoned, and the measurement by
contacts alone adhered to. The weather proved wet and
unfavourable, and before the measurement was half com¬
pleted, the deal rods were found, notwithstanding all the
care which had been taken to prepare them of the best
materials, so liable to sudden and irregular variations of
length, from changes in the hygrometrical state of the at¬
mosphere, as to leave no hopes of determining by their
means the length of the base with the precision which was
aimed at. As, however, so much of the work had been
done, it was thought desirable to continue it until the
whole base was measured, in order that the result might
be compared with that which should afterwards be found
by a different method
Expansion General Roy cites some experiments to show how unfit
of deal deal rods are for such a purpose as the measurement of the
rods. base of a great trigonometrical operation. On one occa¬
sion the measuring rods, when compared with the standard,
were found to exceed it, at a medium, one fifteenth part of
an inch ; so that if the whole base had been measured with
the rods in that state, the difference would have amounted
to more than 71 feet, exclusive of any expansion or con¬
traction of the standard, which was of the same material.
Another experiment, made after the operation had been
completed, was still more decisive. A line of 300 feet was
accurately measured off in the garden of Sir Joseph Banks
when the rods were in a dry state, the sun shining bright,
and the temperature 68°. The rods were exposed to the
dew during the night, and when lifted from the grass on
the following morning were found to be quite wet except¬
ing on the sides in contact with the ground. The line was
then remeasured, and its length as given by the rods found
to be less by of an inch (or nearly half an inch) than
on the preceding evening. Hence it appeared that the
dew imbibed in one night, or a period not exceeding four¬
teen hours, caused such an expansion of the rods as in
the whole base would have amounted to 45'484 inches.
(Trig. Survey, vol. i. p. 50.) These experiments were
important, as deal rods had been employed in all the prin¬
cipal operations of the kind which had previously been
undertaken for determining the magnitude and compression
of the earth.
The measurement with the deal rods being completed,
and the proper allowance (so far as it could be determined
from the comparisons with the standard) made for the ex¬
pansion, the distance between the centres of the pipes ter¬
minating the base, reduced to the level of the lower ex¬
tremity at Hampton Court, and at the temperature of 63°,
was found to be 27,406'2fi feet of the standard scale from
which the lengths of the measuring rods were laid off.
Measure- When it was discovered that the measurement by means
bass rod?1 tilG deal r°tls wou,(1 Prove unsatisfactory, and General
gassio jioy was considering the different alternatives that might
be adopted, it was suggested by Lieutenant-colonel Cal-
derwood that glass rods should be substituted for those of
deal. As it was found upon trial that there would be no
difficulty in obtaining glass tubes of the desired length, and
that they could be provided much sooner than rods of metal;
and as it was obvious that the rate of expansion could be
determined with equal certainty, it w'as resolved to adopt
the suggestion. Accordingly, three hollow tubes, perfectly
straight, upwards of twenty feet in length and about an inch
in diameter, were selected, and converted by Ramsden into Ti
measuring rods. The tubes were placed in cases, to which 4
they were made fast at the middle, and braced at several s
other points, so as to prevent them from bending or shakino- 's"i
but not so closely as to prevent their free expansion or con- >
traction. Both ends were ground perfectly smooth and at
right angles to the aids of the bore; one end having a
fixed apparatus or metal button attached to it for making
the contacts, and the other end a moveable apparatus, or
slider, which was pressed outwards by a slender spring, and
against which the fixed extremity of the succeeding rod
was pushed, until a fine line on the slider was brought into
exact coincidence with another fine line on the glass rod,
in which state the distance between the extremities was
exactly twenty feet.
The ground on which the base was measured not being
quite level, the whole distance was divided into hypothe-
nuses or inclined lines in the same vertical plane, eacii con¬
taining thirty lengths of the measuring rods, or 600 feet;
and the method pursued was to place the rods exactly in
straight lines stretching trom one extremity of a hypothe-
nuse to another, and then to determine the relative heights
of the two extremities of the hypothenuse by the spirit-level,
for the purpose of reducing to the horizon. The cases con¬
taining the measuring rods were supported on trestles about
two and a half feet above the surface of the ground.
The new measurement with the glass rods was begun on
the 18th of August, and concluded on the 30th. On ar¬
riving at the south-east extremity, the end of the 1370th
rod was found to overshoot the centre of the pipe terminat¬
ing the base, by 17*875 inches ; and after the rate of expan¬
sion of the rods had been determined, and the proper equa¬
tions applied, the difference between the present and the
former measure with the deal rods was found to be 20*864
inches, of which the greater part is probably owing to the
over-rated expansion of the deal rods, which, when brought
into use, appear to have contracted sooner than was ima¬
gined, and thereby given a shorter distance than was as¬
signable from the mean of any two comparisons with the
standard. No use was made of the measurement with the
deal rods in any of the subsequent operations.
After the measurement on the ground had been com-E:
pleted, it was necessary to determine by actual experiments0*
the expansion of the glass rods, in order to obtain the exact10
length of the base. For this purpose an ingenious micro¬
scopic pyrometer, invented by Ramsden, was employed, by
means of which the expansion of the brass scale, and of
glass rods and various other substances, was ascertained for
every degree of Fahrenheit from 32° to 212°. The glass
measuring reds could not themselves be submitted to ex¬
periment on account of their great length ; the rod on which
the experiments were made w'as 5 feet in length, 0'93 inch
in diameter, weighing 1 lb. 131 oz. and drawn from the
same pot of metal as the measuring rods. These experiments
were made in the winter of 1784 and spring of 1785.
In order to give a clearer idea of the number of minute
circumstances to be attended to in an operation of this kind,
we shall here state the final result in the words of General
Roy. (Trig. Survey, vol. i. p. 84.)
*'
sin
i
Hypothenusal length of the base as measured
by 1369*92552l glass rods of 20 feet each
ff- 4*31 feet, being the distance between the
last rod and the centre of the north-west pipe, 27,402-8204
Reduction of the hypothenuses to be subtracted, 0*0714
Apparent length of base reduced to level of
south-east extremity  27,402-7490
Add the difference between the expansion of
the glass above, and contraction of it below,
62°, 4*1867 inches.   = 0'3483
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
353
no-Add also the equation for 6° difference of tem-
raf perature of the standard brass scale and the
[y- ( glass rods, between 62° and 68°, the tem-
1— p,erature at which the glass rods were laid
off, 11-8368 in —
0-9864
^ength of the base, in temperature 62°, re¬
duced to the level of the lower extremity.— 27,404-0843
deduction from the height of the lower end of
the base above the mean level of the sea,
supposed to be 54 feet zz 0-0706
True length of the base, reduced to the mean
level of the sea  27,404-0137
In making the reduction to the level of the sea, the mean
icmidiameter of the earth is assumed to be 3,492,915 fa-
; horns.
With respect to this measurement, General Roy remarks
hat “ infinite pains were taken, both in the field and
itherwise, throughout the whole operation, to obtain a just
•onclusion and as the means employed appear to be fully
dequate to the attainment of the object in view, there
eems to be no good reason to doubt that the accuracy of
he result corresponded to the skill and attention with which
he operation was conducted,
ion c The measurement of the base having been effected, the
,re"c3iext object was to proceed with the triangulation; but a
'lelay of three years intervened before the operations were
esumed. In the summer of 1787, the instrument intended
or the measurement of the angles (a large theodolite, having
ts horizontal circle of three feet in diameter) was completed
iy Ilamsden, and carried to the station at the south end of
he base on the 31st of July. Sir Joseph Banks, as presi-
ent of the Royal Society, had in the mean time put himself
n communication with M. Cassini, whom the Academy of
Sciences had appointed to co-operate in the junction of the
'rench and English triangles; but as the season was now
oo far advanced to admit of the operation being completed
»efore the winter set in, it was resolved, after a few angles
:ad been observed, to proceed to Dover and Calais to exe-
ute the coast triangles, leaving the inland part of the series
o be executed afterwards. In this operation General Roy
fas accompanied by Dr Blagden, and assisted by Mr Isaac
hdby (afterwards professor of mathematics in the Military
ollege), whose ingenuity and scientific knowledge render-
d most essential service. At Dover the party w-as met by
assini, Mechain, and Legendre, distinguished members of
ie Academy ot Sciences, who had crossed the channel for
he purpose cf concerting the measures necessary for mak-
i ng reciprocal observations on both coasts. For the dis-
j ant signals a great number of white lights had been pre-
lared, and also several reverberatory lamps; and the French
(ademicians having been furnished with a sufficient num-
aa of the lights for the observations on their side of the
nannel, returned to Calais on the 25th of September, when
u observations were begun. The weather proved extreme-
| } unfavourable, but, fortunately, on the particular nights
j ’n w itch the most important observations on the English
j 1 ^ made, namely, those at Dover and Fair-
j > 4 own, the atmosphere was clear, and the observers
'u? tna~|ed to intersect with great accuracy the French
\«a “’I18 7 ^ancnez 'n the neighbourhood of Calais, and
aai .t (or Boulemberg), near Boulogne, and thus esta-
‘V e triangular connexion between the two countries,
'an-' a*" °Peration was concluded, the instrument w^as
, 7 to a ^evv mOfe of the stations; but two still remained
nes' " *n the beginning of November, the bad-
wvin° the VVeat^er obliged the party to desist until the fol-
^ sumnw. The observations at the two remaining
t 0ns were made in the ensuing August.
In order that no precaution should be omitted to insure Trigono-
the accuracy of the operation, it w-as resolved to measure a metrical
base of verification tow-ards the termination of the triangles. Survey~
The ground selected for this purpose was Romney Marsh, b^ToFvT-
a tract which, on account of its levelness, was exceedingly ritication
well suited to the purpose. The marsh had been previously on Romney
covered by the sea, and a considerable part of it, particularly Marsh,
towards the bottom of the range of hills that separate it from
the Wealds of Kent, is still lower than the sea at high
water. A preliminary survey of the marsh having been
made, a line was selected running from High Nook on the
spire of Ruckinge church, and of nearly six miles in length.
The terminal points were marked by sinking two wooden
pipes into the ground. This base was not measured with
the glass rods, but with a steel chain of 100 feet in length,
made by Ramsden, and of which the accuracy had been
tested by measuring with it a portion of the Hounslow
Heath base simultaneously with the glass rods. The mea¬
surement was executed by Lieutenant Fiddes of the royal
engineers. The apparent length of the base, or that given
directly by the measurement, was 28,536 feet 8-835 inches;
and after the proper reductions were made, the correct ho¬
rizontal distance between the pipes, in feet of the standard
brass scale, at temperature 62°, and at the level of the sea,
wa#found to be 28,535 feet 8-128 inches.
On connecting the base with the series of triangles ex¬
tending from Hounslow Heath, its length, as deduced from
the former base, was computed to be 28,533-3 feet; so that
the computed length fell short of the measured length about
twenty-eight inches. This agreement is probably as near
as uas to be expected, and may be taken as conclusive
proof of the general accuracy of the whole of the operations;
nevertheless, as there were reasons for supposing that the
accuracy attained in the base of verification was not equal
to that of the original base, the whole of the triangles were
computed from the latter. The measurement on Romney
Marsh does not enter as a datum into any of the results of
the survey.
By reason of the superior magnitude and excellence ofMethod of
the instrument employed, the measurement of the angles observing
was performed with a degree of accuracy which had pro-anflcom‘
bably never been equalled in any former survey. Although 7s
the reduction to the centre of the station requires a verytP l i j C ’
simple calculation, it M'as thought desirable to avoid, as
much as possible, reductions of every kind, and accordingly
the centre of the great theodolite was adjusted by means
ot a plummet over the precise points marking the stations.
The whole number of stations at which it was placed was
twenty-three. In nine cases the instrument was elevated
to the top of a tower, church steeple, or other building; and
in the fourteen other cases, the station was marked by sink¬
ing a pipe into the ground, to indicate the precise spot over
which the instrument had been placed, in order that the ob¬
servations might be repeated, or the stations connected with
others in any future operation. The sides of the triangles
M^ere computed by plane trigonometry ; that is to say, the
portion of the earth’s surface over which the triangulation
extended was regarded as a plane, and the measured bases
as straight lines on that plane. This supposition, though in
the small portion of surface in question it did not lead to
errors of great magnitude, is inadmissible in an extensive
survey. The spherical excess was indeed roughly computed
for each triangle, but merely for the purpose of shou ing the
amount of the ei-rors of observation ; and the observed
angles of each triangle w ere adjusted so that the sum should
equal 180°, by applying to each an arbitrary correction.
The calculation of the triangles, and the determination Resujts of
of the relative positions of the Paris and Greenwich Obser-the mea-
vatories, with the lengths of the degree of mei idian and sureineiit.
perpendicular, are given in detail in the Phil. Trans, for
1790 ; but the results are not now of much importance, inas-
2 v
354
Trigono¬
metrical
Survey.
Remea¬
surement
of Roy’s
triangles.
TRIGONOMETRICAI. SURVEY.
much as the whole of the observations have been since re¬
peated and recomputed by more scientific and accurate me¬
thods. General Roy’s operations gave the difference of lon¬
gitude between Greenwich and Paris — 2° 19' 51", or in
time 9m- 19s-4<. Legendre found, from the same operations,
9™. 21s- (Memoires de l'Acad. 1788). This last determina¬
tion would appear to be very near the truth, the difference of
the two meridians having been found by fire-signals, ~ Gm-
21s,46 (Henderson, Phil. Trans. 1827) ; by Captain Rater’s
remeasurement of Roy’s triangles, “ 9m- 2PT8 (Phil. 1 rans.
1828) ; and, lastly, by the transit of chronometers from
Greenwich to Paris and back, = 9m- 21s,14 (Dent, Pro¬
ceedings of the Astronomical Society, January 1838).
The account of the remeasurement to which we have
just alluded is given by Captain Rater in the Phil. 'I rans.
for 1828. In 1821 the Academy of Sciences of Paris com¬
municated to the Royal Society their desire that the ope¬
rations for connecting the meridians of Paris and Green¬
wich should be repeated jointly by both countries; and the
proposal having been acceded to, Colonel Colby and Cap¬
tain Rater were appointed by the Royal Society to co-ope¬
rate with M. Arago and M. Mathieu, the commissioners
chosen by the Academy of Sciences. The requisite assistance
having been readily obtained from the Ordnance department,
the operations were begun in the autumn of the same year.
The instrument employed on this occasion was the great
theodolite belonging to the Royal Society, the same which
had been used by General Roy. The signals for connect¬
ing the stations on the opposite coasts were lamps with
compound lenses, constructed on the principle and under
the direction of M. Fresnel ; and Captain Rater remarks,
that the light far exceeded that of any of our light-houses,
appearing at the distance of forty-eight miles as a star of
the first magnitude. Having selected convenient stations
on Fairlight Down and near Folkstone turnpike, the party
carried the instrument across the channel, and observed the
angles made at the stations of Cape Blancnez and Mont-
lambert with those on the English coast. They then re¬
crossed the channel, and observed the angles subtended by
the signals at Cape 'Blancnez and Montlambert from the
stations on Fairlight Down and Folkstone. After some
difficulty, General Roy’s station was discovered on Fairlight
Down, and the observations at both stations were satisfac¬
torily completed on the 27th of October. These reciprocal
observations sufficed to establish the connection between
the two countries; and the object now proposed by Colonel
Colby and Captain Rater w as to connect the triangles with
General Roy’s base on Hounslow Heath. On examination,
the guns marking the termination of the base w^ere disco¬
vered ; but in consequence of the erection of numerous
buildings since 1783, one end of it could not be seen from
the other ; it was therefore necessary to adopt a side of one
of General Roy’s triangles as the measure of the linear dis¬
tances, and that from Severndroog Castle, on Shooter’s Hill,
to Hanger Hill Tower, was selected, these being the near¬
est stations to General Roy’s base which w’ould be identi¬
fied with sufficient precision. In the course of the turn fol¬
lowing summers the angles were observed at all the inter-
arose from the different modes of computation adopted. The
following comparative table of distances given by Captain1 >
Rater shews the agreement between the two independent1*
operations. The measures are here given in imperial feet,
mediate stations, and also the observations completed at
Greenwich which were necessary for determining the azi¬
muths or bearings of the sides of the triangles in respect of
the meridian of the observatory. In the calculation of the
triangles Captain Rater made use of the theorem of Le¬
gendre (which will be afterwards explained), whereas Ge¬
neral Roy’s calculations, as already stated, were made by
considering the surface a plane. The latter method is ob¬
viously incorrect; yet, from the near agreement of the re¬
sults, it is evident that no differences of any consequence
Distance from
Fairlight to Frant 
Fairlight to Tenterden 
Fairlight to Folkstone 
Dover to Notre Dame, I
Calais  !
Notre Dame, Calais, to)
Fiennes T
By Gen. Roy,
Feet.
113850-59
71577 24
154802-70
137459 40
45222-72
By Capt. Kater.
Feet.
113857-34
71580-75
154807-00
137471-99
45221 01
Difference.
Feet.
ti’/a
3- 51
4- 30
12-59
1-71
Although the geodetical operations which had been car
ried on by General Roy, might be regarded as subservient f
to a general survey of the country, they did not form
part of any systematic plan for accomplishing that object;
and on the death of the General, which took place in
1790, some time elapsed before any measures were taken
to prosecute them further. In the introduction to the ac¬
count of the first part of the survey carried on under the
direction of the Board of Ordnance, the renewal of the ope¬
rations is ascribed to the accidental circumstance of the
Duke of Richmond, then master-general, having had an
opportunity of purchasing “ a very fine instrument, the i
workmanship of Mr Ramsden, of similar construction with
that used by General Roy, but with some improvements;
as also two new steel chains of one hundred feet each, made
by the same incomparable artist.” The new instrument is
said1 to have been ordered by the East India Company for
the purpose of surveying their possessions in the East, and
Ramsden had exerted all his ingenuity in endeavouring tu
render it perfect; but some misunderstanding having arisen
about the price, the directors refused it, and it was thus
thrown on the hands of the artist. The Duke of Rich¬
mond having been advised to purchase it for the Ordnance
the instrument thus became the property of the public, anc
has been employed as the principal instrument of the sur¬
vey down to the present time. It has been already stated,
that the instrument used by General Roy was the proper¬
ty of the Royal Society'.
In 1791 the Ordnance survey was begun, and its exe
cution committed to Colonel Williams and Captain (after¬
wards General) Mudge of the Royal Artillery, and Mi.
Dalby. The first operation which they undertook wal
the remeasurement of the base on Hounslow Heath 1
It had been objected to the former measurement, 1st
that some error might be supposed to arise from the end;
of the two consecutive rods being made to rest on tin
same trestle, because when the first rod was taken of
the face of the trestle being pressed by one rod only
would have a tendency to incline a little forward, the ei
feet of which would be to shorten the apparent length o
the base ; 2d, it was supposed that some error might ans
from the casual deviation of the rods from a straight linen
the direction of the base ; and 3d, it was supposed, that fror
the manner of supporting the rods on two trestles only, the
would be liable to bend in the middle. For these reasons i
was determined to remeasure the base by a totally differee
method. Instead of measuring rods, the tw-o new stet
chains above alluded to were used. These were 100 te
in length, and containing 40 links of 2^ feet each. B
links were in form of a parallelogram of half an inch squan
and their length was considered advantageous, as rer-
dering them less liable to apply themselves to any irregj1
larities of the coffers on which they were supported.
*
i atl*
i#c
1 See Professor Playfair s Review of .'iudge’s Account of tlie Survey, in the Edinburgh Review, vol. v.
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
»no- sing the chains, five coffers were arranged in a straight
M ne and supported by courses of bricks ; the chain was then
!!• laced on the coffers, and stretched with a weight of fifty-
ff'x pounds. The method adopted for bringing the marks
I enoting the two extremities of the measuring chain suc-
I essively over the same point was this. In any position the
lain was supported by a post at each end : that at the
eceding end carried a pulley* over which passed the rope
istaining the weight which stretched the chain, while that
: the following end supported a screw apparatus, by means
’which the chain could be drawn back against the weight,
nother post at each end, not connected with the former
• with the chain, supported a scale. Now, the chain be-
g in one of its positions, the scale at the preceding end
as moved by means of screws, until one of its divisions co-
I i cided exactly with the mark on the handle of the chain,
ihis scale remaining in its place, the chain was then car-
led forward into its next position, and adjusted by means
' its screw apparatus, until the mark on its following end
lincided exactly with that division of the scale with which
e mark on the preceding end had coincided. After
irty-eight chains had been measured, one of the chains
as laid aside, on account of one of the links appearing to
; a little bent, and the remainder of the base measured with
e other; the former, alter the defect had been repaired,
i )ing kept as a standard. Experiments were carefully made
r determining the comparative lengths of the two chains,
| id also the rate of expansion ; and in the actual measure-
ent five thermometers were laid close by the chain in the
iffers, and suffered to remain till they all indicated nearly
* e same temperature. The time required for this was in
If meral from seven to fifteen minutes. The two chains were
gain compared after the measurement, and it was found
iat the working chain had been lengthened, through the
ihbing and wearing of the joints, to the extent of ibl di-
’ slons the micrometer, corresponding to *0373 of an
ch. The whole base was divided into thirty hypothe-
tses, but of unequal lengths, and each was reduced to the
irizon by calculation. After the measurement was com-
eted, the lengths of the steel chains were ascertained by
(amsden, by comparison with a 40-inch brass standard scale.
11 reductions being made, the length of the base, by the
‘w measurement, at the standard temperature of 62°
mt not reduced to the level of the sea), was found to be
MOTS 155 feet, being about 2J inches greater than was
•iind from General Roy’s measurement with the glass rods,
ve shall afterwards see, however, that the glass rods and
eel chains were not referred to the same standard, and
>at there is consequently reason to suspect a considerably
u“ater discrepancy. The mean of the two results, or
7,40T2 feet, was assumed as the true length of the base
1 the future calculations.
01 two operations which agree so closely in their results,
ran hardly be said tluit the one is in point of fact better
1 any respect than the other. The practical difficulty in
leasurements ot this kind, is to form correctly the contacts
i coincidences of the extremities of two contiguous rods or
‘u,ns ’ and in this respect the chain has unquestionably an
r vantage, because, on account of its greater length, there
ie ewer coincidences to be made. Nevertheless, when it
1 considered that the chain is not uniformly supported at
V.ery I)0‘nh and that notwithstanding the weight by which
• is stretched, some doubt must remain whether all its points
str‘l'Sht line when brought into its position in the
. 7. anc^ a*so ^le hability to irregular wear from the
,l C lnfg’ .wf are inclined to think, that a measurement by
liahT ° r°^S t0 b0 Preferred to one by a flexible
'oints^f^ K meaSUremen*' keen completed, the terminal
hew* °1 tl0.^ase were permanently marked, by removing
00 en P'Pes and sinking iron guns into the ground, in
such a. position that the axis of the cylinder was placed ex- Trigono-
actlyr in the same vertical line with the terminal points, metrical
'I he muzzles were left above ground, and iron caps were Survey' ^
screwed over them to protect the cylinders from the rain. W~‘v '
In prosecuting the survey, it was resolved, in the first in- Triangula-
stance, to carry a series of triangles from the base southwards, tion in
for the purpose of determining some of the principal sta • !792.
tions on the sea-coast, and also because this would afford
an opportunity of connecting the series with the triangles
of General Roy, and of thereby testing the accuracy of
both operations. Another object of importance to general
science, was to determine the length of a degree of longi¬
tude, by measuring the distance between Beachy Head on
the coast of Sussex, and Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, two
stations lying nearly east and west of each other, above
sixty-four miles distant, and visible from each other in clear
weather, so that they could be made the angular points of
a large triangle. In the early part of the spring of 1792
the ground was examined, and the stations fixed upon ; and
the great theodolite having undergone some improvements
by Mr Ramsden, and a moveable observatory having been
erected for its reception, the triangulation was begun in
the summer of that year. Most of the angles were observ¬
ed more than once. When the stations were not more than Signals,
about fifteen miles distant, staffs were erected for signals,
in which case the angles were repeated till their truth be¬
came certain. For the more distant stations lamps and
white lights were employed. In the use of the latter, it
wras not always possible to repeat the measures ; but every
precaution was taken to place the lights in the proper posi¬
tions, and the charge and firing of them were committed
to soldiers selected for their steadiness. The angle was
taken when the light was going out. In order to preserve
the exact positions of the points over which the axis of the
instrument had been placed, large stones from a foot and a
half to two feet square were sunk in the ground, generally
two feet under the surface, having a hole of an inch square
made in each of them, the centre of which marked the pre¬
cise point of the station.
In the course 0! the summer of 1792, the instrument was Meridians
carried to twelve different stations, commencing with Han-of Diimiose
ger Hill, and ending with Chanctonbury Ring, about six ^ ®eacb
miles north-west of Shoreham. Early in the Spring of the Uea '
following year the operations were resumed ; and the prin¬
cipal object of this year’s business was to determine the di¬
rections of the meridians of Dunnose and Beachy Head, for
the purpose of ascertaining the length of the degree of lon¬
gitude. The method employed for obtaining the meridian,
was that of observing with the theodolite the distance be¬
tween a terrestrial object and the pole-star upon each side
of the pole when the star is at its greatest elongation. This
observation gives the double azimuth nearly, without any
corrections for the star’s apparent motion ; and as the mo¬
tion in azimuth when the star is near its greatest elonga¬
tion is slow, the time was shown sufficiently near by a good
pocket watch. In this manner the angle made by the arc
of the great circle joining the two places with the direction
of the meridian, was observed at both stations; and as the
distance between the stations would become known from
the triangulation, all the elements were obtained for de¬
termining the length of the degree of longitude on the ter¬
restrial spheroid at that latitude. After the observations at
those two places were concluded, the instrument was taken
to a few stations in the neighbourhood of Salisbury, and the
operations of the year terminated at Highclerc.
The greater part of the summer of 1794 was consumed Base on
in the measurement of a base of verification on Salisbury Salisbury
Plain. The measurement was effected in the same manner
as at Hounslow Heath, one of the steel chains being used
for measuring the different hypothenuses, and the other
kept as a standard. The working chain was compared with
356
Trigono-
metriciil
Survey.
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
the standard previous to the operation, and again when the near Shanklin, a distance of about a mile. The mean re- TV
measurement was finished. The details of the operation fractions were found to vary from |th to ^th of the con-
are entirely similar to those respecting the Hounslow Heath tained arc. It was also noticed, that the relative heights
base; and the apparatus was different in no material respect, deduced from elevations.and depressions cannot always be
The base contained ninety-two hypothenuses, and the ap- depended upon (on account of the variable state of the re-
parent length was B66 chains, minus 9-939 feet. The ab- fraction) to less than about ten feet, even supposing them
solute length of the standard chain was assumed to be the to be the mean of two or three independent results, except,
same as it was found by Ramsden in 1791, by comparison perhaps, reciprocal observations are made at the same in-
with the standard scale; and after all the different reduc- stant of time. The observations from which the relative
tions had been applied, the correct length of the base, at altitudes were deduced were made on cloudy days, or to-
the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit, and at the same level wards the evenings, when the tremulous motion of the air
as the base on Hounslow Heath, was found to be 36,571*4 is commonly the least,
feet (nearly seven miles).
On computing the distance between the terminal points
of this base, deduced from the Hounslow Heath base by
different combinations of the triangles, the greatest and
least results were found to be 36,574*8 and 36,573*8 ; the
mean being 36,574*3 feet, or about one inch short of the
measurement. So near an agreement must doubtless be
ascribed, in part at least, to casual compensation of error ;
but it nevertheless affords a very satisfactory proof of the
During the years 1795 and 1796, the triangulation
continued from the stations near the base on Salisbury Plain,in
along the coasts of Dorsetshire, Devonshire, and Corn¬
wall, to the Land’s End, as it was considered desirable to
have an early determination of the latitudes and longitudes
of the great headlands in the channel, and also of the
Scilly Isles. The details of the operations, including the
calculations of the side of the principal triangles, the heights
of the stations, the mean refractions, the distances of a great
great accuracy with which the different parts of the work number of intersected objects from the principal stations,
Length of
perpendi¬
cular de¬
gree.
had been conducted.
The distance between Beachy Head and Dunnose, on
which the determination of the length of a degree of the
great circle perpendicular to the meridian was to depend,
being computed from four different combinations of tri¬
angles, the mean of the four results was found = 339,397*6
feet, and the greatest difference from the mean was less than
four feet. On computing from this, and the observed
angles made by the straight line joining the two stations
with the meridians at each, according to the method
which will be subsequently explained, the length of a de¬
gree of the great circle perpendicular to the meridian at
altitude 50° 41' (nearly that of the middle point between
Beachy Head and Dunnose), was found to be 61,182*3 fa¬
thoms, = 367,093*8 feet; and hence the degree of longitude
at the two stations (which is found by multiplying the de¬
gree of the perpendicular circle by the cosine of the lati¬
tude) was obtained as follows: Beachy Head 232,312 feet,
Dunnose 232,914 feet, the assumed latitudes being respec¬
tively 50° dT' 24" and 50° 37' 7//. These results are re¬
spectively greater by about 772 feet than the corresponding
degrees on the spheroid, which best represents the whole
of the measured arcs of meridian, and of which the elements
are given in Figure of the Earth, p. 563.
In order to mark permanently the two important stations
of Beachy Head and Dunnose, an iron gun was inserted in
the ground at each of the places, having the diameter of
the bore in the same vertical line w-ith the point over which
the axis of the instrument had been placed. Unfortunately
this precaution did not prove sufficient; for w'hen Captain
Kater was about to remeasure the angles at Beachy Head
are given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1797, and
form the last part of the first volume of the Trigonometrical
Survey. The same paper also contains the bearings and
distances from the meridian and parallels, and also the la¬
titudes and longitudes of a number of places observed in
Kent in 1795, with a smaller theodolite (half the size of
the prineijial one), for the purpose of completing the map
of that county.
The next account of the operations connected wdth theOf «
Ordnance survey is contained in the Philosophical Trans-’11
actions for 1800, and is given in the name of Captain Wil¬
liam Mudge alone, Mr Dalby having now retired from the
service. This account describes the operations in 1797,
1798, and 1799, and is divided into three sections, of which
the first contains the calculations of the sides of the prin¬
cipal and secondary triangles extended over the country in
those three years, together w-ith an account of the measure¬
ment of a new base line on Sedgmoor. The second section
contains the computed latitudes and longitudes of those
places on the western coast which had been intersected in
1795 and 1796, and also of such other places as were found
conveniently situated in respect of three new meridians, the
determination of which forms part of the present account,
'ilie last section contains the triangles wThich were carried
over Essex, the western parts of Kent, and portions of the
counties adjoining Kent, Suffolk, and Hertfordshire.
With respect to the determination of meridians, just al¬
luded to, it is to be observed, that by reason of the curva¬
ture of the earth, and the errors consequently arising from
computing on the supposition that the earth is a plane, it
becomes necessary that the direction of the meridian be
determined anew where the operations are extended over
distances of about sixty miles in an eastern or western di¬
in 1826, the gun was not to be found. “ In consequence
of some misapprehension, it had been removed along with
some old guns which were formerly near that place, and thus rection. The distance from Dover to Land’s End is some¬
one of the valuable parts of the survey of Great Britain was what about 300 miles, and between these places five inter-
irrecoverably lost.” (Phil. Trans. 1828, p. 154.) mediate meridians were observed, dividing the distance in-
The account of the survey for the years 1791-4 inclusive, to six nearly equal parts. These were Beachy Head am
in addition to the particulars now stated, gives also the la- Dunnose (already mentioned), Black Down in Dorsetslwu
titudes and longitudes of a great number of places deter- Butterton Hill in Devonshire, and St Agnes Beacon
mined by intersections made from the principal stations, Cornwall. In computing the longitudes and latitudes, the
and referred to the meridian of Greenwich, or, if towards places were of course referred to the nearest of those nic-
the western extremity of the series, to that of Dunnose. ridians; and a place in the middle between two was k
At all the principal stations the angles of elevation and de- ferred to both, and the mean of the results taken,
pression were observed; and these observations being recip- The operations of 1797 commenced with the observa-
rocal, gave not only the relative altitudes of the stations, tion of the pole-star at Black Down, early in April; j”’
but also the mean refractions, assuming the spherical sur- in the course of the summer the great theodolite was ta t”
face of the earth. Vv ith a view to obtain the absolute al- to twenty-one other stations, at which the angles were m
titudes, the height of the station at Dunnose above low termined, all included between the meridian of that static1
water w as ascertained by levelling down to the sea-shore and St Agnes Beacon. It was judged inexpedient to can.
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
jgow the operations from this point into the north of Devonshire
Sp'’* until a new base had been measured, the triangles at pre-
sent being dependent upon those made in Cornwall in the
“yr"*’ previous year.
,of v In 1798 a series of secondary triangles was observed for
ition. completing the survey of Kent and Essex ; but the princi-
pal operation of this year consisted in the measurement of
i1”00 a new base of verification on King’s Sedgmoor in Somer¬
setshire. This new measurement was conducted in the
same manner, generally, as those of the former bases ; but
on account of the irregularity of the ground, which wTas cut
up in all directions by numerous ditches and large drains,
it was thought expedient to have a new chain of fifty feet;
and accordingly one was prepared by Ramsden, similar in
construction to the two 100 feet chains used at Hounslow
Heath and Salisbury Plain. This new chain was not used
for the whole of the measurement, but only in a few cases
when the handles of the 100 feet chain would have had
their places over ditches, or in situations in which there
would not have been the means of correctly placing the
register heads under the handles. The measuring chains
were compared with the standard, not before the measure¬
ment commenced, but after it had considerably advanced,
and again at the end of the operation ; and it was assumed
that the length of the standard chain had remained unal¬
tered since its last determination by Ramsden. The re¬
duced length of the base was 27,680 feet, or nearly 5-^ miles;
and it was supposed by General Mudge that the error can¬
not exceed nine inches.
mni: Xhe next account which we have of the survey is con-
“jP1 tained in a paper which was read before the Royal Society
lni in June 180R entitled “ An Account of the Measurement
of an Arc of the Meridian, extending from Dunnose in
the Isle of Wight, to Clifton in Yorkshire, by Major W.
Mudge.” This forms part of the second volume of the
Survey. The measurement of an arc of the meridian was
contemplated from the commencement of the survey, but
had been delayed for some years on account of the zenith
sector, with which the celestial arc was to be determined,
not having been completed by Mr Ramsden, whose health
was then declining, and who in fact died before the instru¬
ment was entirely finished.
for the purpose of determining the figure and dimen¬
sions of the earth by the measurement of meridional arcs,
it is important that the arc be of considerable length, in
order to diminish the influence of any error in the deter¬
mination of the difference of the latitudes of its extreme
points. On looking at the map of Great Britain, it will be
seen that the longest meridional line contained in it, is one
'yh;ch passes from Lyme in Dorsetshire, northward into
Scotland, and terminates at Aberdeen, comprehending an
i arc of nearly 4° 47'. This line, therefore, presented itself
a-s the most eligible ; but, on a closer examination, it was
hnind that the arc would run through a country abounding
m hills of considerable magnitude, and consequently that
no advantage would probably be gained from observing the
zenith distances of stars at any of the intermediate stations,
on account of the irregular local attraction. General Mudge
therefore selected the meridional line passing from Dun-
nose to the mouth of the Tees, as being the freest from ap-
paient obstructions, and of sufficient length. The choice
o Dunnose as the terminal station likewise presented a
considerable advantage ; for that station having been con¬
nected with the Royal Observatory by the previous opera-
noiis, the astronomical observations made there would serve
o correct the latitudes of the places formerly determined,
ne point selected for the northern extremity was Clif-
on> a small village in the vicinity of Doncaster, nearly on
u meridian of Dunnose ; and a level of sufficient extent
01 tie measurement of a base of verification was found at
1JUiton Carr, in the northern part of Lincolnshire. The
two extreme stations were connected by a chain of twenty- Trigone-
two triangles, lying nearly in the direction of the line to metrical
be measured. Of these triangles, eleven, extending from Slirve-v-
Dunnose to Arbury Hill, near the middle of the line, had
been already observed, and their sides computed from the
Hounslow Heath base. The angles of the remaining ele¬
ven were observed in the years 1801 and 1802, and the
distances computed from the new base.
The base on Misterton Carr was measured in the sum- New base
mer of 1802, by the same apparatus, and exactly according011 Mister-
to the same methods as had been employed in the threeton €alr'
former bases, on Hounslow Heath, Salisbury Plain, and
Sedgmoor. Previously to the commencement of the opera¬
tions, the measuring chains (the hundred feet and fifty feet)
were both compared with the standard chain ; and a similar
comparison was made after the work was completed. It
was assumed that the length of the standard chain was the
same as when it had been compared by Mr Ramsden ; an
assumption which was subsequently proved to be correct
(within very small limits) by a new comparison of the stand¬
ard chain with Ramsden’s brass scale. The extremities of
the base were marked by two large blocks of oak sunk into
the ground, having each a square hole in its upper surface,
into which lead was cast, and ground to a smooth plane ;
and the diagonals of the holes being drawn on the lead,
the intersections of the diagonals formed the terminal points.
After making the necessary reductions for temperature, the
wear of the chains, &c. the true length of the base at tem¬
perature 62° was found = 26,342-7 feet. No reduction was
made for height above the sea, the altitude of the ground
on which the base was horizontally measured being only
thirty-five feet above the surface of the sea in the mouth
of the Humber at half tide. As the correct determination
of this base was of great importance, every precaution wras
taken in the course of the operations, and General Mudge
was of opinion that the error of the measurement in excess
or defect could not exceed two inches.
On computing the first eleven triangles, beginning at
Dunnose, the distance between the stations at Corley and
Arbury Hill, near the middle of the arc, was found to be
117,463 feet; and this depended on the bases on Hounslow
Heath and Salisbury Plain. On computing directly from
the measured base at Misterton Carr, the remaining eleven
triangles, the same distance between Corley and Arbury
Hill was found to be 117,457-1 feet. The difference, there¬
fore, falls short of six feet; but this cannot be regarded as
great, when it is considered that the distance between the
two stations is rather more than twenty-two miles, and that
the whole line from Dunnose to Clifton is nearly 200 miles.
Had the computation been carried on from Dunnose all the
way to Clifton, the length of the base on Misterton Carr,
deduced from those of Hounslow Heath and Salisbury
Plain, would have been found to be about one foot greater
than its measured length.
The whole terrestrial distance between the parallels of Method of
the two stations was computed by the method of parallels computing
and perpendiculars, with reference to the meridians of boththe ,ar.c ot
the extreme stations. The bearings of certain sides of theInenaiaa*
triangles from the meridian of Dunnose were deduced from
the observed angles ; and the sides being respectively mul¬
tiplied into the cosines of the bearings, gave the distances
on the meridian ; the sum of which distances, of course,
was the length of the meridional arc, or rather the sum of
the twenty-two chords deduced from the sides of the tri¬
angles. This method proceeds on the supposition of the
earth’s surface, to some distance on both sides of the line,
being plane ; but as the triangles ran nearly north and
south, and most of them were intersected by the meridian,
and, moreover, as the distance between the meridians of the
two extreme stations was only a few feet, the supposition
leads to no sensible error. General Mudge states that he
358
Trigono¬
metrical
Survey.
Determi¬
nation of
the celes¬
tial arc.
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
took the trouble to calculate the length of the whole line,
by increasing each portion computed from the sines m the
triangles by the difference between the chord and its arc,
and that the result only exceeded the former computation
by about two and a half feet.
The whole length of the arc, from Dunnose to the paral¬
lel of Clifton, was found to be 1,036,337 feet; from Dun-
nose to the point over which the sector was placed at
Arbury Hill, 586,319-5 feet; and, consequently, from
the parallel of Arbury Hill to that of Clifton, 450,017-5
feet.
The geodetical part of the operation being completed,
it still remained to determine the amplitude of the celestial
arc. The instrument employed for the purpose was a
zenith sector, contrived and executed in greater part by
Ramsden. A description of this superb instrument would
here be out of place; but it may be proper to state the
general principle of its construction. The object being
to measure the zenith distances of stars which pass near
the zenith (in order to diminish the effects of refraction),
the sector is constructed by suspending a telescope nearly
vertical, and in such a manner that its axis shall have a
motion in a vertical plane, extending to only a few degrees
on each side of the vertical. From the axis of motion, which
is placed very near the top of the telescope, a plummet is
suspended by a very fine wire ; and on the lower end of the
telescope a scale is placed in the plane of the motion, and
directly before the plummet. Now, it will be obvious, that
as the telescope carries the scale along with it when it is
moved in the vertical plane, while the plummet remains at
rest, the angular deviation of the axis of the telescope from
the vertical will be measured on the scale. It is necessary
that the instrument be capable of being turned half round
in azimuth, for the sake of reversion. When in use, the
plane of the sector is placed in the meridian at one ex¬
tremity of the arc, and the zenith distances of some stars at
their meridian passage observed. It is then transported to
the other extremity, and the zenith distances of the same
stars are there also observed ; and the mean difference of
these distances is the amplitude of the arc, which is by this
means obtained immediately and independently of the lati¬
tudes of the stations or declinations of the stars. The tele¬
scope of the sector in question was nearly eight feet long,
and had an object-glass of four inches in diameter.
The sector, after some preliminary examination at the
Tower, was first set up at the Royal Observatory, for the
purpose of observing the zenith distances of some stars to
be afterwards observed at Dunnose, in order to determine
the latitude of that station. It was then, in the spring of
1802, removed to Dunnose, where it was set up, at a dis¬
tance of about six and a half feet from the station where the
azimuth had been observed in 1791. The whole number
of stars observed was twenty-seven ; and a sufficient num¬
ber of observations having been obtained by the end of
June, the sector w-as then transported to Clifton, where
seventeen of the same stars were observed. Subsequently,
in the same year, the instrument was set up at the station
at Arbury Hill, which is very nearly at the middle of the
arc, and where twelve of the stars which had been seen at
Clifton were observed. In October the party returned to
London, and it was found, on examination, that the sector
was in as perfect a state as when first sent into the field, so
that no error was to be apprehended from derangement or
injury during transportation to the different stations.
On computing the observations, the final results were
found to be as follows (Measurement of an Arc of Meridian,
Trigonometrical Survey, vol. ii. p. 107):
Mean amplitude of the celestial arc between Dunnose
and Clifton 2° 50' 23"-38
 between Dunnose and Arbury Hill 1 36 19 '98
 between Dunnose and Greenwich 0 51 31 '39
For the deductions from those amplitudes combined with Tri?!
the above geodetical measures relative to the degree of the "w
meridian, we refer to the article Figure of the Earth, p. s*
562. It is however to be remarked, that since the pub]i-c'“v
cation of that article, a paper by the celebrated astronomer0f™
Bessel has appeared in the Astronomische Nachrichten (vol.Me
xiv. No. 336), in which an error is pointed out in the de-lka
termination of the celestial arc. It appears that one of the
stars (a Aurigae), observed at all the stations, was incor¬
rectly reduced to the beginning of 1802; and that the error
(which probably arose from applying the correction for nu¬
tation with a wrong sign) amounted to ISA On correct¬
ing this error, and deducing the mean result by a more
exact method of reduction, Bessel finds the amplitudes to
be respectively as under:
Dunnose to Clifton  2° 5(V 23H97
  to Arbury Hill  1 36 20 -398
  to Greenwich  0 51 31 -667
Adopting the above amplitudes as corrected by Bessel, Lenj
and assuming (according to the measurement) the distance“en
between Dunnose and Clifton to be 1,036,337 feet, thedegt
length of a degree of the meridian at the latitude of the
middle point (52° 2' 20") will be found = 364,925-25 feet,
or 60,820-88 fathoms of the scale to which all the measures
given in the survey are referred. General Mudge states
this distance to be 60,820 fathoms. The length of the de¬
gree at the middle point of the arc between Dunnose and
Arbury Hill being found in like manner, gave 60,864 fa¬
thoms, exceeding the above by forty-four fathoms. But as
this latitude is farther to the south, the length of the degree
ought, on the supposition of the earth’s compression, to be less
by about nine or ten fathoms. This anomaly, presented by
the measurement, is usually ascribed to a deflection of the
plumb-line of the sector, occasioned by local attraction.
The third volume of the Trigonometrical Survey ap-Prc ti
peared in 1811, under the joint names of Colonel MudgeM
and Captain Colby. It contains an account of the progress*™'
of the survey from 1800 to 1809 inclusive, and, when taken
in connection with the accounts previously published, com¬
prises the survey of almost all England, the south of Males,
and a part of Scotland. The volume embraces a great va¬
riety of interesting topographical matter. It gives the
angles observed with the great theodolite at the principal
stations; the calculation of the sides of the triangles, amount¬
ing in number to 281 ; the elevations and depressions of the
stations, as seen from each other ; a description of the situ¬
ation of the stations ; an account of the measurement of a
new base on Rhuddlan Marsh, near St Asaph, in North
Wales ; and the prolongation of the arc of meridian from
Clifton northward to Burleigh Moor in Yorkshire. It like¬
wise contains the computed altitudes of the stations, and of
many other remarkable hills, and also the latitudes and
longitudes of all the principal places in the country.
The base on Rhuddlan Marsh was measured in OctoberB.
1806, with the apparatus so often referred to in the preced¬
ing statement. After the necessary reductions were applied,
its true length at temperature 62° was found to be 24,51426
feet. The ground was a flat about four miles north-west of
St Asaph, and its mean height above low-water mark being
only twenty-five feet, no reduction was requisite for height
above the sea. In proof of the agreement between the pro*
sent and the former measurements, the following instances
are given. Computing from the base on Misterton Carr,
the distance between Castle Ring and Weaver Hill (two
stations in Staffordshire) was found to be 111,144-1 feet,
the same distance deduced from the triangulation procee -
ing from the new base in Rhuddlan Marsh was 111,148' >
whence the difference between the two results in a line ex¬
ceeding twenty-one miles is only 4-3 feet. Again, the dis¬
tance from May Hill to the station on Malvern Hills,®
pending on the Hounslow Heath base, was found = 82r
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
359
ensw
ie ni
into
o feet; the same distance, found by computing- from the
Khuddlan Marsh base, was 82,25 b 1 feet; the difference be-
ling thus 8*9 feet. From this base several series of triangles
"were carried in different directions. One series extended
to Anglesea, and thence by Snowdown, down the western
coast of Wales, joining, near Aberystwith, a series proceed¬
ing from the triangles formerly observed in Gloucestershire.
A second series proceeded southward from the base, and
joined the southern triangles in Glamorganshire. A third
series branched out towards the east, and united with those
proceeding westward from the base on Misterton Carr ; and
a fourth series was carried from the Rhuddlan Marsh base,
through Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, into
Scotland, and connected with another series extending from
the Misterton Carr base, through Yorkshire and Northum¬
berland, and the east part of Scotland, as far as the north
I side of the Frith of Forth.
In the different series of triangles now mentioned, the
third angle of the triangle was not observed in many in¬
stances, the peculiar character of the country rendering it
impracticable, or at least very difficult, to carry the large
theodolite to the station. It is stated in the preface to the
volume, that “ with an instrument so excellent as that used
in the survey, except for the purpose of intersecting sur¬
rounding objects, it is perhaps not necessary to adhere te¬
naciously to the practice of observing the third angle of
every triangle.” Notwithstanding this opinion, we think it
is much to be regretted that the important verification ob¬
tained from the observation of the third angle should have
been dispensed with on any account whatever ; and in fact
the observation of many of those very angles, and a conse ¬
quent recomputation of the sides, have since been found
necessary, in order to reconcile the results.
One of the most interesting portions of the volume is the
account of the extension of the arc of meridian northward
from Clifton to Burleigh Moor, a place situated about three
miles north from the town of Gisborough in Yorkshire. In
July 1806, the sector was erected at this station, and the
zenith distances of several stars observed. The observa¬
tions were reduced to the first of January 1806, and those
formerly made at Dunnose having been reduced to the same
epoch, the mean of the whole gave the difference of lati¬
tude between the parallels of Dunnose and Burleigh Moor
= 3° 57' 13"J. The terrestrial distance between the pa¬
rallels of the two places was calculated both on the meri¬
dian of the station at Burleigh Moor and on that of Dunnose,
and the mean of the two results was found = 1,442,852,5
feet. This determination agrees very closely with the for¬
mer determination of the arc between Dunnose and Clifton ;
tor it has been stated that, in respect of that arc, the ter¬
restrial distance was 1,036,337 feet, and the amplitude of
the corresponding arc in the heavens = 2° 50' 23''*38 ; and
assuming the length of the arc to be proportional to its am¬
plitude (which is not sensibly erroneous for an arc of three
or four degrees), the difference of the latitudes of Dunnose
and Burleigh Moor will be found by a simple proportion
= 3° 57' 13"*6. But the difference of the latitudes, as de¬
termined by the sector observations, was 3° 57' 13"*1, and
therefore disagreeing only to the extent of half a second,
or about fifty feet on the ground. The resulting length
of the meridional degree at the mean latitude is 364,943
feet. &
hi ,! ^ Another determination of the length of a meridional de¬
gree was obtained by erecting the sector at the station
of Delamere Forest, in Cheshire, about five miles north of
1 arporley. Eight of the stars which had been observed at
Bunnose were observed at this station ; and the mean of
the observations gave 2° 36' 12"-2 as the difference in la-
titude between the stations on Dunnose and Delamere
orest. 1 he direction of the meridian was likew ise ob-
seiVt“d at this station, and the bearing of one side of a tri¬
angle thereby determined ; which being carried through Tri^ono-
the series of triangles connecting Delamere Forest with metrical
Black Down in Dorsetshire, the distance between the Surve.v-
parallels of Dunnose and Delamere Forest was found
=r 925,188’5 feet. By carrying on the calculation through
the same series of triangles, but with an azimuth deter¬
mined at a different station, the distance between the paral¬
lels was obtained = 925,ISO-? feet. The mean is 925,184-6
feet. Now if wre seek an arc having the same proportion
to the arc between Dunnose and Burleigh Moor which
the distance between those stations has to this distance, we
shall find 2° 36' 13"-2 for the amplitude. But the ampli¬
tude derived from the sector observations is 2° 36' 12"-2.
Hence the difference between the observed and computed
amplitude is only 1", wdiich corresponds to an error of 0"-4
in one degree. The agreement may be considered as sa¬
tisfactory ; but by reason of the distance of Dunnose from
the meridian of Delamere, this determination of the length
of the meridional arc cannot be admitted as of equal certainty
with that of the meridian of Burleigh Moor, in any deduc¬
tions relative to the figure of the earth. The result, how¬
ever, gives 60,823 fathoms, or 364,938 feet, for the length
of a meridional degree in latitude 53° 34', or nearly the
centre of England.
It wmuld far exceed our limits to give a detailed descrip¬
tion of the immense mass of observations and results con¬
tained in this volume, and it is beside our purpose to enter
into any critical examination of its contents. In a w-ork of
such magnitude, and abounding with such a multiplicity of
minute details, it will not be expected that errors can be
entirely avoided; and a considerable number, it must be
admitted, have found their wTay into the volume. In some
respects, also, the deductions have not been made so as to
furnish results possessing all the accuracy possible to be
attained by means of the improved science of the present
day ; but it is to be observed, that many of the more re¬
fined methods of calculation have been introduced into the
practice of geodesy since the volume was published. The
method of assigning weights to the several results, of esti¬
mating the probable errors, and applying corrections ac¬
cording to an uniform fixed rule derived from the theory of
chances, and thereby avoiding arbitrary adjustments, was
then scarcely known. It is due, how’ever, to the present
able and enlightened superintendent of the survey to state,
that all these less perfect methods of computation and re¬
duction have long been abandoned, and that every advan¬
tage which can be derived from the refined theories of Gauss
and Bessel has been brought to bear on the work; and we
have little doubt, that-when the next account of it shall ap¬
pear, the scientific skill displayed in the reductions will be
found to be quite on a par with the instrumental precision.
The preceding abstract brings down the history of the
survey to the end of the year 1809, and we regret that
our account must here be brought to a conclusion ; for
although the work has continued to be prosecuted with
more or less intermission since that time, no further de¬
tailed account has been given to the public. It may not be
without interest, however, to state generally a few particu¬
lars respecting its subsequent progress.
Since 1809, the prosecution of the survey has been
placed under the able direction of Colonel Colby of the of the sur-
Iloyal Engineers. The triangulation which had been carried vey.
to the south-east part of Scotland, as far as the Frith of Forth,
was first continued along the east coast to the borders of
Ross-shire, and subsequently extended to the Shetland
Islands. A series was also carried from the Cumberland
triangles, along the western coast, through Dumfriesshire,
and to the summit of Ben Lomond, connecting all the re¬
markable points in Perthshire. In 1817 a base of verifica¬
tion was measured with the steel chains by Colonel Colby,
on Belhelvie Links, near Aberdeen. Shortly after this, the
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
360
Trigcmo- survey of Scotland was interrupted for a number of years,
metrical an(j scene Gf operations transferred to Ireland, an accu-
v f-lirvey- rate survey of that country being considered, from political
v reasons, as of more urgent importance.
Survey of The Ordnance survey of Ireland is perhaps the most
Ireland. complete operation of the kind that has ever been exe¬
cuted in any country. Hitherto the different bases of ve¬
rification had all been measured with the same apparatus,
and according to the same methods, as were used on Houn¬
slow Heath ; but doubts having arisen respecting the accu¬
racy attainable by means of the steel chains, Colonel Colby,
on entering upon this new field, resolved to have recourse
to an entirely different method of proceeding, and, instead
of chains, to adopt the ingenious compensating apparatus
which has been described in Figure of the Earth, p.
553. By this method, metallic bars of ten feet in length,
and defined by points whose distance remains invariable in
all temperatures, are placed accurately along the line to be
measured; and the distance between the terminal points
of the preceding and following bars is measured by a mi¬
crometer microscope, with a certainty altogether unattain¬
able by measuring rods abutting against each other, or by
observing the coincidence of straight lines on the handles
of the steel chains. The ground selected for the base lies
on the east shore of Lough Foyle, on the north coast of
Ireland, and the line itself forms part of a straight line
drawn from Shaw Mountain to Mount Sandy, nearly north
and south. The whole line measured was nearly eight
miles in length. For a verification, it was divided into two
parts, one about half the length of the other, and the length
of the one deduced from the other in various ways by
triangulation. By this means it was estimated that the
greatest possible error could not exceed two inches. It
was also prolonged by triangulation from the north end to
Mount Sandy, whereby two additional miles were given to
it, so that it may be considered as a base of ten miles, the
probable accuracy of the last part being quite as great as that
of the part determined by the actual application of the mea¬
suring bars. From this base a series of triangles com¬
menced, which proceeded all over the island, and were
connected with those formerly observed in Wales, the Isle
of Man, the west coast of Scotland, and the Hebrides.
Some of these triangles were of enormous extent, the sides
exceeding a hundred miles.
The survey of Ireland having been completed, at least
so far as regards the primary triangles, that of Scotland was
recommenced in 1838, and has already been carried from
the eastern counties westward to the island of Lewis in the
north. At the present time (1840), surveying parties are
also employed at different places in Wales and the north of
England, in observing the angles which had formerly been
omitted, and verifying others which had not been satisfac¬
torily observed.
Ordnance We cannot conclude this brief and imperfect sketch with-
Maps. out alluding to the admirable maps which have been pub¬
lished from time to time, and are now in progress. These
are all designed from the materials collected in the field,
and are not only drawn, but also engraved and printed, at
the Ordnance Map Offices in the Tower, and at Dublin.
Of the maps of England, thirty-eight counties, embracing
all the southern part of the island, have now been publish¬
ed, engraved on a scale of one inch to the mile. The
maps of Ireland, of which eighteen counties are publish¬
ed, are given on the magnificent scale of six inches to the
mile, and not only exhibit, with the utmost distinctness,
the natural features of the country, but even the minutest
topographical details. This series of maps forms a splendid Ti \
national wmrk ; and as no part of the map of Scotland has »! \ i
yet been engraved, we trust that the whole of that country 1' 1
will be given on the same scale.1 ' '
Of the Standards of Length used in the Trigonometrical
Survey.
In the British survey, all the linear measures are expressed
in feet measured from a certain scale ; and in order that the
results relative to the dimensions and figure of the earth may
be comparable with those of other similar operations, it is
necessary to determine the relation of this unit to other
known measures.
General Roy’s measurement of the Hounslow HeathG ;
base was performed with glass rods, on which lengths ofR
twenty feet had been set off by Ramsden, from a standardst *
scale, which is described “ as a finely divided brass scale5'
of the length of forty-two inches, with a Vernier’s division
of 100 at one end and one of fifty at the other, whereby
the thousandth part of an inch is perceptible. It was ori¬
ginally the property of Mr Graham, the celebrated watch¬
maker ; has the name of Jonathan Sisson engraved on it,
but was known to be divided by Bird.” From this scale
the measure was transferred to the glass rods as follows.
A deal plank upwards of thirty feet long, nine or ten inches
broad, and about three inches thick, was set up edgewise
on stands, and planed perfectly straight and smooth. A
silver wire was then stretched along the middle of the edge
from one end to the other, and six distances of forty inches
each were marked off by the side of the wire, at which
points brass pins were driven into the wood, and their tops
polished. A fine dot being then made on one of the ex¬
treme pins, and the silver wire being stretched over the dot
and the middle of the other pins, the extent of forty inches
w as, with the utmost care, taken from the scale, by means of
a pair of beam-compasses, whose micrometer screwr shewed
very perceptibly a motion of the 5000th part of an inch,
and transferred to the following brass pin on the plank.
In this manner all the six lengths were laid off. Two
brass rectangular cheeks were then placed on the plank so as ‘ ;
to bisect the two extreme dots, and present relatively to each
other surfaces perfectly parallel. The glass rods were then s
placed between the cheeks, and the bell-metal buttons
which formed their extremities ground down until the
length (determined by the coincidence of a fine line on the
glass rod with another on the moveable apparatus on the ex¬
tremity of the rod) was accurately fitted between the cheeks,
and was consequently twenty feet of the brass scale.
The scale which it has been usual of late years to adopts .
in wmrks of science as the standard of English measure,b| •
goes by the name of Sir George Shuckburgh’s scale, and isst
described at length in the Phil. Trans, for 1798. The
relation between this scale and several other standards was
investigated by Captain Kater, whose experiments and re¬
sults are given in the Phil. Trans, for 1821. From these
experiments it was found that thirty-six inches of General
Roy’s scale are equal to 36-000930 inches of Sir George
Shuckburgh’s; whence, in order to reduce distances ex¬
pressed in terms of General Roy’s scale to Sir George
Shuckburgh’s, we must multiply by -9999742.
Now it has been stated that the length of the Hounslow
Heath base, as measured by the glass rods, was found to
be 27404-08 feet. Using the above multiplier, the same
distance expressed in terms of Shuckburgh’s scale is
27403-38 feet.
T rom the Estimates of the Office of Ordnance for the year 1840-41, printed by order of the House of Commons, it appears that
the sums of money already granted for the surveys of England, Wales, and Scotland, amount to L.326,163, and that the sum proposed
to he taken m the present year is L. 18,400. On the survey of Ireland there has been expended the large sum of L.619,520, including
L.60,000 for the services of the present year. The number of persons employed on the Irish survey, at the date of the estimates, is
stated to be 2037; and the number employed on the British survey 82.
w
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
In the Ordnance survey, all the bases, excepting the re¬
tent one in Ireland, were measured with a steel chain,
vhich was compared from time to time, generally before
r\nd alter the operation, with a similar steel chain of 100
"eet, which wras not otherwise used in the measurement,
fhe primary measure in this case was a brass standard
orty-inch scale, belonging to Mr Kamsden, and not Ge-
ieral Roy’s. From this standard, six lengths of forty
aches were transferred, by means of the beam-compass, to
prismatic bar of cast iron, into which brass points were
nserted at the proper distances, so that the bar formed a
neasure of twenty feet. In order to transfer this to the
teel chain, a portion of the chain was placed on rollers
xactly parallel to the iron bar, and stretched, as in the
leasurement of the several bases, with a weight of fifty-six
ounds. From the extreme points on the edge of the bar,
larking the distance of twenty feet, fine wire plummets
ere suspended, so as nearly to touch the chain. One end
if the chain, determined by a fine line drawn on the brass
andle, being then brought under the wire by means of an
djusting screw, a point coinciding with the other wire was
mde in the chain. This part of the chain was then shift-
d, and another twenty feet measured in the same manner;
nd thus the whole chain was determined at five successive
perations.
The brass scale which was used in this operation is sup-
osed to he lost, but the prismatic bar is still in existence,
ul forms, therefore, the only authentic standard of the sur-
:.y, the standard steel chain being probably liable to some
teration from rust or wear at the joints. This bar was
so examined by Captain Kater, who found the mean yard
i it to he equal to SfrOOSoT inches of Shuckburgh’s scale,
ssuming this determination to be correct, it follow's that
,ery distance given in the Ordnance survey, in order to be
^pressed in terms of Shuckburgh’s scale, must be multi-
iied by -9999094. Now the Hounslow Heath base was
mnd by the measurement with the steel chains to he
7,404-3165 feet of Ramsden’s standard scale. The length,
icrefore, in terms of Sir George Shuckburgh’s scale, is
7,402-38 feet.
It thus appears that the two measurements of this im-
irtant base, when reduced to the same standard, give the
flowing results:
with the glass rods 27,403-38 feet,
with the steel chain 27,402-38 feet.
he difference is one foot, which is larger than can well he
>nsidered probable, supposing the steel measuring chain
|liave been exactly five times the length of each of the
ass rods. In the account of the survey, the difference is
ated to be 2^ inches; but this was on the supposition
iat the two standards were precisely of the same length.
I’rior to Captain Kater’s experiments, it had been assumed,
i <»in some comparisons with an intermediate scale belorig-
s to the Royal Society, that Ramsden’s scale exactly
Reed with General Roy’s. The latter states (Trigono-
etncal Survey, vol. i. p. 16), that he placed the two
ales (Ins own and the Society’s) together on a table with
Himometers alongside, and that after they had remained
1 ns position two days, Mr Ramsden carefully took a
Tm'1 °k ^irce ^eet; from the Royal Society’s standard
1 1 ns beam-compasses, and applied it to the other scale,
l( 1 "as found to reach exactly to thirty-six inches, the
•nperature being 65°. In like manner, wdien the length
of the steel chains was determined, Mr Ramsden com¬
pared his own brass standard with that of the Royal So¬
ciety, “ and after the two standards had been allowed to
remain together about twenty-four hours, they were found
to be precisely of the same length.” 1 he temperature is
not stated. Now this perfect agreement leads to the in¬
ference that the comparisons were not made with the re¬
quisite care, or that the means employed were insufficient.1
In fact, it was found by Captain Kater, that the difference
between General Roy’s scale and that of the Royal Society
amounted to -00047 of an inch ; a quantity, however, with¬
in the limits of the distance measurable with the beam-
compasses. The principal cause of the difference between
the two determinations of the base may probably be ascrib¬
ed to errors committed in transferring the length of the
scale to the twenty-feet iron prism ; and perhaps also in
part to an erroneous comparison of this rod with Shuck¬
burgh’s scale ; for it is said that the points on the brass pins
inserted in the rod are so worn and enlarged by the appli¬
cation of the beam-compass as to render any exact com¬
parison impossible.
i he standard measure of the Irish base is a distance of
ten feet, defined by two fine points on a bar of cast iron.
We are not acquainted with the length of the mean foot
in terms of Shuckburgh’s scale ; but as none of the results
yet published are given in terms of this base, its accurate
length, in relation to other standards, is at present unim¬
portant.2 _
Of the Selection of the Stations and the Signals.
In conducting a survey over an extensive country, the
choice of stations must in a great measure be determined
by the nature of the ground ; for it is obvious that sig¬
nals can only be erected at places mutually visible from
each other. But although the natural irregularities of the
surface of the ground render an entirely arbitrary dispo¬
sition of the signals impracticable, there will frequently
be room for a choice between two or more points; and it
is therefore important to determine the conditions which
must be fulfilled, in order that the inevitable errors of ob¬
servation may have the least effect on the measured dis¬
tances.
Let A, B, C be the three angles of a triangle, and a, 6, c Effect of a
the sides respectively opposite. In each case the data aresma11 error
the three angles, and one of the sides, as a ; and the ele- °f observa-
ments to be calculated are l> and c, the remaining sides.11011*
The question therefore is to determine the species of tri ¬
angle, in order that the computed lengths of 6 and c may
be the least affected by small indeterminate errors in the
measurement of the angles. Suppose each of the angles
to have been observed, and let the errors of observation be
respectively a, /3, y. When the sum of the observed angles
differs from 180°, or rather from 180° -p the spherical
excess, each angle is corrected by applying to it one third
of the excess or defect. After the angles have thus been
corrected, they still remain affected with the errors of ob¬
servation ; but as the sum is now correct, if is plain that the
sum of the errors is nothing, or that a -f- (3 -j- y r= 0, and
consequently a = — (/3 -j- y). Now-, putting the given
side o=l, the side c is found in parts of a from the for-
sin. (C -f y) sin. C cos. y 4- cos. C sin. y
   and
mula c =
sin. (A -j- a) sin. A cos. a -j- cos. A sin. a ’
2 huheann^F 866 an cxcellenj Paper by Mr Baily in the ninth volume of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society,
lently expresserl ' ‘e ^ ®F'rlIl: Earth, the lengths oi the English arcs of meridian are copied from the Trig. Survey, and are conse-
liuckburMi’s srVn i Kam . n s slan(,ard scale, while all the foreign measurements, as well as those of the Indian arcs, are In feet of
Dt affect the Vah 0 r , uced.accordl,1g to tlle comparative values of the different standards given by Captain Kater. This inadvertence does
■ expressed in c'Lm0 £'yen ear^b 3 axes, and the lengths oi the equatorial and meridional degrees, all of which are understood to
11 leel oi fchuckburgh s scale
VOL. XXI.
2 Z
362
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
Trigono¬
metrical
Survey.
since a and y are very small angles, we may assume cos. a
— 1, sin. a — a, cos. y — 1, sin. y ~ y, by which the formula
becomes, on substituting — (,'3 y) for a,
sin. C -j- 7_cos- C
C — sin. A — (/3 y) cos. A
Dividing the numerator of this expression by the denomi¬
nator, and rejecting the terms in the quotient which con¬
tain the squares and higher powers of (3 and y, we get
sin. C
sin. A
+
/3 cos. A sin. C
sin.2 A
y sin.B
sin.2 A ’
so that the error of the side c is
(3 cos. A sin. C 7 sin. B
sin.2 A sin.2 A
Similarly, the error of the side b is found to be
7 cos. A sin. B
sin.2 A
13 sin. C
sin.2 A "
It now remains to determine the conditions under which
these expressions have the smallest values. Since a + /3
-j- 7 == 0, in every case two of these quantities must have
the same sign, and the third the opposite. If therefore
a and /3 are both positive, y is negative; and if they are
both negative, y is positive ; so that as y must of necessity
be either positive or negative, there are only two chances
for a and ,3 having the same sign. In like manner, there
are also two chances only for oc and y having the same sign
and j3 the opposite, and for /3 and y having both the same
sign'and a. the opposite. It thus appears, that for any two
specified errors, there are only two chances for both having
the same sign, and four chances for their having opposite
signs ; so that in the above expressions the probability that
|S and 7 are of opposite signs, is twice as great as the pro¬
bability of both having the same sign. Now if they have
opposite signs, both expressions will be diminished if cos. A
be positive, that is, if the third angle A be less than 90°, or
less than a right angle. With respect to the relation be¬
tween B and C, which gives the smallest chances of error,
it may be assumed as probable that the two errors (3 and y,
though they have opposite signs, will not differ greatly in
magnitude. But if they are nearly equal, the two expres¬
sions for the errors of b and c will have the smallest values
when B and C are nearly equal. Hence the conditions which
afford the greatest probability of the smallest errors are these:
1. That the angle opposite to the measured side be less
than a right angle; and, 2. that the angles adjacent to that
side be nearly equal. These conditions will be best ful¬
filled on the average of a series, by making the triangles as
nearly as possible equilateral.
If only two angles B and C have been observed, then
there is the same probability of /3 and y having the same
sign or opposite signs. In this case the chance of smallest
error is obtained by making cos. A = 0, that is, when A is
a right angle.
Descrip- In the earlier part of the British survey, the signals made
tion of s g-use of were of various kinds, but principally flag-staffs car-
rials. rying reverberatory lamps, and furnished with concave cop¬
per reflectors about nine or ten inches in diameter, well
polished and silvered, and enclosed in tin cases, having
plates of ground glass in front, to prevent the bad effects
of unequal and unsteady light from exposure to the wind.
Such signals can be seen at the distance of twenty or
twenty-four miles. For more distant stations, Bengal or
white lights were fixed in small sockets, supported on a
tripod of about five or six feet in height. By means of a
plummet, these could be readily placed precisely over the
point marking the station. The now well-known Drum¬
mond light (for the description of wdfich see Mr Drum¬
mond’s paper in the Phil. Trans, for 1826) was practically
applied as a night-signal at some of the stations in Ireland,
and the west of Scotland. But the difficulties and incon- f
veniences of night-signals are so great, and the observa- '
tions attended with so much uncertainty from the unsteadi. ^ l
ness and scintillation of the light, that the practice of ob.'s‘‘ *
serving by night has of late years been abandoned. Atpre-
sent the signals are usually formed by building a conical
pile of stones, in some instances exceeding twenty feet in
diameter at the base, over the point which marks the cen- t
tre of the station. Such signals are of course subject to this
great inconvenience, that they can only be seen in favour¬
able states of the atmosphere; but in all other respects they I
are found preferable to any others. In some of the late
operations where the distances were not very great, a plate
of metal was used, having a narrow vertical slit cut in it;
and in this case the signal consists of the line of light pass¬
ing through the slit, and which can be rendered more bril-
liant by means of reflectors suitably disposed. Colonel Col¬
by has also on some occasions successfully employed the
heliotrope; a method recommended by Gauss, and which
consists in throwing a beam of solar light upon a distantsta- I
tion by reflexion from a small plane mirror, as that of a sex¬
tant or reflecting circle. A description of this ingenious
but not very convenient method of forming signals for geo-
detical purposes is given in Zach’s Correspoudance. Astro-
iwmique, vol. v. p. 374.
Of the Calculation of the Sides of the Triangles.
In measuring angular distances with the theodolite, the
plane of the instrument is carefully adjusted to the horizon,
so that the angle observed is the horizontal angle at the
station ; and, consequently, no previous reduction is ne¬
cessary, on account of the three summits of the triangle to
be computed being unequally distant from the earth's -
centre, as is the case when the angles are measured with a ■
sextant or repeating circle. The practice which was al¬
ways followed in the Ordnance survey, of placing the centre
of the theodolite directly under the centre of the signal,
also obviated the necessity of a calculation for reducing
the observed angle to the centre of the station. Formulae
for both these reductions will however be found in Figure
of the Earth, p. 555.
The three angles of any spherical triangle, as is wells i
known, exceed 180° by a certain quantity, called the sphe-c
rical excess, which is proportional to the area of the tri¬
angle. Let A, B, C denote the angles of a spherical tri- *
angle, r the radius of the sphere expressed in feet,
cr 3’14T59 the ratio of the circumference to the dia¬
meter, and S the number of square feet in the surface or
area of the triangle, then, by trigonometry,
A -j- B + C — 180°
b - 180°
Let E denote the spherical excess — A + B -J- C —180°>
then E —
S X 180°
in degrees, or Ez=
S X 648000"
express-
~ r-n
ed in seconds. In any triangle which can be measured on
the surface of the earth, S is very small in comparison of r,
and therefore E is a very small quantity. (In practice it
seldom exceeds four or five seconds, though in some of tlie
large triangles observed in the west of Scotland, whose slues
exceed 100 miles, it amounted to thirty or forty seconds.)
Hence an approximate value of S will enable us to com¬
pute E with sufficient precision. For this purpose, there¬
fore, the triangle may be regarded as a plane one; and on
denoting by a, b, c, the number of feet in the sides respec¬
tively opposite to A, B, C, we shall have for the area, S =
tab sin. C. Substituting this in the formula for the sp<ie"
rical excess, we get, in seconds,
ab sin. C X 648000
E —
2r ft
•(»>
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
f 1 ure
This formula is deduced on the hypothesis that the tri-
cal ogle is on a spherical surface, but it applies also to triangles
y (y- i the surface of a spheroid ; for it may be demonstrated
“'"tat the spherical excess is the same for triangles on a
iheroid and on a sphere, when the latitudes of the stations
id their differences of longitudes are the same.
— In order to compute the spiierical excess of any triangle,
is necessary to know the value of ?•, the radius of curva-
ire of the spherical surface. Now the curvature of the
c joining any two stations on a spheroid varies with the
titude of the stations, and also with the direction of the
c in question in respect of the meridian ; but for the pre-
nt purpose it will, in general, be sufficient to assume the
lue of r, which corresponds to the curvature of the meri-
i in at the mean latitude of the stations, and even to sup-
I se it constant for a whole series of triangles contained be-
ven two parallels of latitude not distant more than a few
■grees. If, however, the triangles are very large, it may
; necessary to compute more accurately; and in such
_ises the nearest approximation to the true spherical ex-
ss will be found by computing, for the mean latitude of
• e three stations, the curvature of the meridian, and of the
ccle perpendicular to the meridian, and taking the mean
(the two for the value of r ; or, which is nearly the same
ting, by computing the radius of the vertical circle which
i ts the meridian at an angle of 45° at that mean latitude,
i the determination of the curvature of the meridian, the
!b perpendicular to the meridian, and the geodetical line
: iking any oblique angle with the meridian, are required for
rious other purposes connected with the survey as well
the present, we shall here subjoin the formulae by which
ey are severally computed from assumed dimensions and
ipticity of the earth.
Let ALP be the arc of the meridian passing through
e station L, AC the semidiameter
the equator, CP the semi-axis,
VI the normal at L, meeting PC
oduced in N. Assume a rrC P,
»= AC, and e = the ellipticity, or
sell that b — a (\ -f- e), and let
)e the latitude of L, and R the
:dius of curvature of the meri-
in at L; then it is shown in Fi-
IRE OF THE Earth, p. 559, that
Rz:a(I — e -j- 3e sin.2 /) 
Let R' be the radius of curvature of the arc perpendicu-
’ to the meridian at L ; and it is shown in the same ar-
'le, p. 558, that IP = LN, the normal extended to its in-
rsection with the polar axis. Now let n — LM, the nor-
d at L; then, by conic sections, IP : n :: : a2 ; whence
— (1 + e)'~n' But rc — a (l —e cos.21) (Figure of the
umi, p. 559); therefore, rejecting terms containing the
uare of e, as insignificant, we find
L IP = a (I -{- e e sin.2 /) (3).
) the curvature of the oblique circle, let r be the
lius of curvature at the point L of a section of the spheroid
ntaining LN, and making with the meridian an angle — Q;
‘' f1**6 the following expression found by Euler (Lacroix,
ilcul. Differentiel et Integral, vol. i. p. 578).
r _ RR'
~ R sin.2 0 -p. IP cos." 0’
This last expression may be put under a form more con-
l ,nient for calculation. Dividing both terms by substi-
ting 1 — sin.2 6 for cos.2 6, and converting the result into
senes, all the terms of which after the second may be ne¬
eded, we get
r = R (1 4. ft sin.2 6) (4).
Since in any circle the length of a degree is proportional
) t >e radius (it is found by dividing the radius by the con-
363
.(2).
1 of
slant number 5/*295/8), if we make M ~ the length in Trigono-
feet of a degree of the meridian at L, P — the length of a n)etrical
degree of the perpendicular arc, and D — the degree of an Surve7*
arc which makes with the meridian an angle = 6, we shall
have also
D = M (1 + sin.e 6). (5),
which is the expression usually given, and by means of
which the length of the oblique degree is found in terms
of the degrees of the meridian and perpendicular.
Having computed the spherical excess E from approxi- Apportion,
mate values of the lengths of the sides (obtained by sup-mentof
posing the triangle a plane one), the sum of the three ob-error of
served angles should be r= 180° 4- E. But as every ob-0.bserva*
servation is attended with some degree of uncertainty, thetl0n’
probability is infinitely small that the sum will be precisely
equal to this quantity in any case. The difference (which
in general will amount to some seconds) is the error of the
observed angles; and the next question to be considered is,
how should the error be apportioned among the three angles,
so that the probability of the result being true may be
greater than if any other mode of distribution were adopt¬
ed ? If no reason exists for supposing that one angle has
been determined more accurately than another, the error
should of course be equally divided among the three angles ;
but in practice this is seldom the case, for it wall usually
happen that one or other of the angles has been determined
by a greater number of observations, or by observations
made under more favourable circumstances than the others,
and consequently the three determinations are not affected
with the same probable errors. In the earlier period of the
Ordnance survey, and indeed so far as the published account
extends, the apportionment of the error appears to have
been made in a manner entirely arbitrary, or at least ac¬
cording to the observer’s judgment of the relative goodness
of the observations ; but this objectionable practice is now
abandoned, and a uniform method, founded on the theory
of chances, adopted. Suppose several observations to have
been made of the same angle, and that the seconds of read¬
ing are l, l' l", &c., and let m be the average or arithmetical
mean of the whole ; then m — /, m — /', m — l\ &c., are
the errors of the individual observations, and the weight of
the determination, or of the average m, is equal to the square
of the number of observations divided by twice the sum of
the squares of the errors. See Probability, vol. xviii. p.
635, No. 145. In this manner the weight is found for each
angle, and the error of the triangle, that is, the difference
between the sum of the three angles (each being the ave¬
rage of the observed values) and 180° 4- E, is divided into
three parts respectively proportioned to the reciprocal of
the weights, which parts form the corrections to be added
to or subtracted from the angles to w hich they respectively
correspond. We have then three corrected spherical angles,
the sum of which is exactly 180° 4- E.
The three spherical angles of the triangle being thus deter- Methods of
mined, the next step in the operation is to compute the lengths calculating
of the two remaining sides; one side being always known, sides,
either by the measurement of a base, or by the previous com¬
putation of another triangle. Three different methods of
computation have been practised. That which first suggests
itself is to transform the side w'hose length is already known
in feet, into an arc of a circle (which is done by comparing
it with the radius of the earth), and solving the triangle by
the usual formulae of spherical trigonometry. This was the me¬
thod iollowed by Boscovich in his measurement of the Italian
arc of meridian ; and it was also practised in some instances
by Delarnbre; but as it involves a somewhat tedious process
of calculation, it is not that which is generally adopted.
As the distance of any two stations mutually visible from
each other is very small in comparison of the whole circum¬
ference of the earth, the chord of the intercepted arc will
864
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
Trigono- differ from the arc itself by a quantity which may be com-
mctrieal pUted from the known ratio of the chord to the radius o
Survey. t|ie eart]1? but which in general is so small as to be msen-
Y ' sibk. If, therefore, from the observed spherical angles we
deduce in each case the corresponding angles formed by
the chords, and with these compute the sides by plane tri¬
gonometry, we shall obtain the chords of the arcs intercept¬
ed between the stations, and thence the arcs themselves, 01
the true geodetical lines on the spheroid. On this principle
all the triangles of the Ordnance survey have been com¬
puted. A third method, which has been followed in all the
recent continental surveys, and which was also adopted by
Captain Kater in the verification of General Roy s triangles,
depends on a theorem first demonstrated by Legendre ;
namely, that a triangle on a sphere or spheroid, which is
small in comparison of the whole spherical surface, tuners
insensibly from a plane triangle of which the sides are re¬
spectively equal in length to the sides of the triangle on
the sphere, and whose angles are respectively equal to
those of the spherical triangle, each diminished by one third
of the spherical excess. We shall here give formulae for
the two last methods, with an example of their applica¬
tion. ,
To reduce an observed horizontal angle to the angle
formed by the chords of the containing sides, let r be the
Formula
for reduc-
reuuc- termed by the cnorcis or tne conuunmg siuca, ^ —
tion to the ra(j[us 0f the sphere on which the triangle is described ; a,
rds. . . .. , . t i • j _ u.• i—4.1.
chords.
2 sin.
Cos. (A — x) ■=
sin.2 | ,8 + sin.2 ^ / — sin.2
^ -a sin.2 A /3 4- sin.2 — sin.2 ^ a .
Cos. A + z sin. A = —-xki7 -(A)-
Now in any spherical triangle
cos. a —cos. (3 cos, y
Cos. A =
sin. (3 sin. y
1 — 2 sin-2 l a — (1 — % sin.2 J ff) (1 — 2 sin.2 d y)
Cos. A =
cos. 4 j3 cos. | y ’
i (,32 + 72) = iV (I3 + 7) + iJ(I C8 — 7) > ^ sin- A = T,t ,
t1? (z3 + yf (i —cos- A) — tV (^ — yY C1 + cos. a), mfi
and consequently, dividing both sides by sin. A,
a- = tV (/3 + y)2 tan. £ A — jV (13 —yf cot.A. Hi
In this formula x is expressed in parts of the radius = 1;
but in the applications * must be expressed in seconds of arc.
Now if R" denote the number of seconds in the radius
( = 206,264"-8), then 1: a?:: R": seconds in arc x; whence
x R" — seconds in x. Multiplying therefore the above equa-
tion by R", and substituting for a, /3,7, their values, we have
ultimately
* = A (“)! Un. i A ■ R"- cot. J A' R> (6),
b, c, the sides (the radius and sides being both expressed
in feet); and, for the sake of abridging, let
a b 0 c
- = «, . -l3,- = yi
so that a, (3, 7, represent the sides of a similar triangle on a
sphere whose radius = 1. Let A be the horizontal angle
opposite the side a, and A — x the corresponding angle
formed by the chords; the object is to find the correction
x to be applied to the observed angle A. hrom a well-
known formula of plane trigonometry, we have
chord2 j3 -j- chord2 7 — chord* a .
Cos. (A x) — S chord (3 X chord 7
or, since chord a
from which formula x is found in seconds.
In like manner, the corrections are found for the two
other horizontal angles B and C, each being expressed in
terms of the angle itself and its containing sides. Let these
corrections be respectively a;'and x", then it is evident that
x xr x" = E, the spherical excess, and consequently,
that when the true horizontal angles are respectively di¬
minished by x, x', and x", the sum of the three angles thus
reduced will be exactly 180°. These reduced angles are
the angles for calculation ; and on computing from them
the sides, we obtain the chords of the spherical arcs inter¬
cepted between the stations, whence the arcs themselves are
easily obtained by means of the following formula:
Let <p be any small arc in parts of the radius — 1; thenCa m
chord 2<p = 2 sin. <p ; but we have also sin. <p =: <p «
therefore chord 2p = 2p — } f. Now, if we assume !
- — -Y— and consequently
r 24rs
or © — —; then chord -
r r2r r
. . (T
a — chord a 4- -rr-v-
1 ^r~
,(7).
2 sin. | /3 X sin. ^ 7
Now cos. (A -- x) — cos. A cos. x + sin. A sin. a?; and
since x is small, cos. x — 1, and sin. x — x (very nearly);
therefore
Cos. (A — x) = cos. A -f £ sin. A,
and consequently
4 sin. I f3 cos. 10 X sin. | 7 cos. 17
sin.2 J (3 4- sin.2 £y — sin.2 ^ a   sin. J (3 sin. ^7 _
2 sin. ^ (3 cos. ^ X sin. ^ 7 cos. J 7 cos. ^ cos. ^ y ’
thei'efore, by reason of the equation (A),
cos. A + x sin. A sin. ^ (3 sin. £ 7 _
cos. ^ /3 cos. 7] 7
whence we find
x sin. A = sin. | j3 sin. }y — (1 — cos. \ (3 cos. % y) cos. A.
Now the arcs jS and 7 being small, we may assume,
without sensible error, sin. % P = $ /3, cos. £ /3 = 1 — -i/S2;
whence (making also the like assumption for 7), we get
A_&
x sm.
4 8
therefore, since ^ fiy —(g> 7)2
cos. A;
— Ts (Z3
7)2, and
In the last term of this expression the chord may be
taken for the arc, and we have therefore this rule for find¬
ing the arc in terms of the chord. Divide the cube of the
chord expressed in feet by twenty-four times the square of
the radius (in feet), and add the result to the computed
length of the chord; the sum is the corresponding length
of the arc. . . ,
We shall now give an example of the application oi£.j|)
the preceding formulae by computing the sides of one of
the large triangles connecting the west of Scotland with
Ireland, with the requisite data for which we have been
obligingly furnished by Colonel Colby. I he three stations
or angular points are Benlomond in Stirlingshire, Cahns-
muir-on-Deugh in Kirkcudbright, and Knocklayd in the
county of Antrim; the longest side, from Benlomond to
Knocklayd, exceeding ninety-five miles. T he data are as
follows
At Benlomond the angle subtended by the stations on
Knocklayd and Cairnsmuir-on-Deugh was determine
from three observations, giving respectively (we repeat on y
the seconds) 56° 43' 29"-97, 27"-U4, 28"-72. _ The mean is
56° 43' 28"'58 ; whence the errors are respectively + L | •
 1-54, -f- 0-14; the squares of the errors 1-9321, l '
•0196; the sum of the squares 4-3233; the weight (the
square of the rule of observations divided by twice the sum
of the squares of the errors) = 9-7- 8-6466 =r 1-041, an
the reciprocal of the weight-961. ,
At Cairnsmuir-on-Deugh, one observation gave the ang
79° 42' 287-69. The weight is assumed = *1, whence tn
reciprocal of the weight is 10. iqoqt
At Knocklayd, two observations gave the angles L
38"-36, and 35"-43. The mean is 43° 34' 36"-89; the er¬
rors respectively -f- 1*47 and — 1-46 ; the weight ouii
above = -4660.; and the reciprocal of the weight 2-i •
We have therefore the following data for the compu
tion of the triangle:
f ino-
I# ica!
ey.
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
.lenlomond  A = 56° 43' 28"-58
'airnsmuir  B =r 79 42 28 '69
^nocklayd  C = 43 34 86 >89
''utn  180 0 34 16
iwether with the chord of the arc
■lining A and B, obtained from the
imputation of a former triangle, -
iz. chord c = 352,033-48 feet.
The first step of the operation is to compute approximate
dues of the two sides «, b. For this purpose we have the
c sin. A , c sin. B
irmuk a - b ~ sin.c
and it will be sufficient
i use logarithms to five places.
Log. c = 5-54658 Log. c — 5-54658
Log. sim A = 9-92223 Log. sin. B — 9 99295
Co. log. sin. C =r 0-16158 Co. log. sin. C := 0-16158
Log. a =r 5-63039 Log. 5 rr 5-/0111
ence the approximate values of the three sides are
t - 426,960, b - 502,470, c = 352,030 feet.
We have next to find the corrections for reducing the
oserved angles to the chord angles, and for this purpose it
necessary to have an approximate value of the curvature
' the surface. Now the approximate latitude of Ben-
mond (the northernmost station) is 56° 11’, and that of
nocklayd (the southernmost) is 55° 10'; the mean of the
1 io is 55° 40'; and if we adopt this as the value of l, and
I sume the elements of the spheroid given in the article
(CURE of the Earth, p. 563, viz. a = half the polar
:is = 20,852,394 feet, e - = -003322,
’ a 301-026
e formulae (2), (3), and (4), give the following values of
, IF, and r (the radii of curvature in the direction of the
■ [ eridian, the direction perpendicular to the meridian, and
je direction of a line making an angle of 45° with the me-
lian) in feet, viz.
It = 20,924,824, IF = 20,968,900, r = 20,946,814.
u With the value of r thus found, we proceed to find the
the mrd angles corresponding to the observed angles A, B, C,
r means of equation (6). And first to find x, the correc-
>n for A.
Log. (fi + c) = 5-93171
Log. r = 7-32112
8-61059
2
7-22118
Log. tan. | A = 9-73235
Co. log. 16 = S-79588
Log. It" = 5-31443
1F583= 1-06384
Log. (b — c) = 5-17734
Log. r = 7-32112
7-85622
2
5-71244
Log. cot. ^ A = 0-26765
Co. log. 16 = 8-79588
Log. R" = 5-31443
F-231 = 0-09040
Hence x = IF'-SSS —1"-231 = 10"-352. As the cor¬
rections for the other angles B and C are found pre¬
cisely in the same manner, it is unnecessary to give the,
calculation. The results are respectively x' = 14"-684,
x” = 9"-724.
From this we have the spherical excess E (=a--}- x' + x")
= 34"-760. But the excess of the sum of the three ob¬
served angles above 180° was 34"-16, consequently the error
of the observations is — O^-OO. Now, on dividing this error
into three parts proportionally to the three numbers -961,
10, 2-146 (the reciprocals of the weights), we find the cor¬
rections for the observed angles to be respectively 4* 0'’-04,
4- 0"-46, and 4" 0"-10, On applying these corrections, we
obtain the true spherical angles; and on diminishing each
of these last by the corresponding corrections for reduction
to the chords, viz. 10"-35, 14"-68, 9"-73, we obtain the chord
angles, or angles for calculation. The results are as fol¬
lows :
365
Trigono¬
metrical
Survey.
Observed Angles.
56° 43' 28"-58
79 42 28 -69
43 34 36 -89
180 0 34-16
Spherical Angles.
56° 43' 28"-62
79 42 29-15
43 44 36 -99
180 0 34-76
Chord Angles.
56° 43' 18"-27
79 42 14 -47
43 34 27 -26
180 0 0 -00
With the angles in the last column of this table, we are Calculation
enabled to calculate the lengths of the chords opposite A of the
and B. It is now necessary to use logarithms to seven de-ck°rds.
cimals at least. The calculation is as follows.
Log. chord c (= 352033-48) = 5-5465840
Log. sin. A (56° 43' 18"-27) = 9-9222144
Log. sin. *B (79 42 14 -47) = 9-9929499
Co. log. sin. C (43 34 27 -26) = 0-1615956
Log. chord a = 5*6303940
Log. chord b = 5-7011295
and the results are, chord a = 426,966-69 feet, chord b
= 502,492-46 feet, chord c = 352,033-48 feet.
It now only remains to determine the spherical arcs Calculation
corresponding to the above chords. Using the same va-ot the arcs,
lue of the radius as above, namely, log. r = 7-32112, we
find ■
I2':03'2ic = 4'14’
a3 b3
a —7.39 _
24r2 “ ’ 24t-2
and therefore, by equation (7), the distances on the surface
of the spheroid are,
Cairnsmuir to Knocklayd a = 426,974-08
Benlomond to Cairnsmuir b = 502,504-51
Benlomond to Knocklayd   c — 352,037-62
The whole process is brought under one view, by ar¬
ranging the calculations as in the subjoined table.
Stations
Benlomond...
Cairnsmuir...
Knocklayd....
Observed
Angles.
56*43' 28"-58
79 42 28 -69
43 34 36 -89
180 0 34-16
Error, — 0 -60
Observations.
No.
Recip. of
Weight.
0-961
10-000
2-146
Chord Cor
rections.
10-35
14-68
9-73
34-76
Appor. of
Error.
+ 0-04
+ 0-46
+ 0-10
Angles for
Calculation.
56° 43' 18"-27
79 42 14 -47
43 34 27 -26
Calculation.
5-5465840
9-9222144
9-9929499
0-1615956
5-6303940
5-7011295
Chord Sides
opposite each
Angle.
426966-69
502492-46
352033-48
Lengths of
Arcs.
426974-08
502504-51
352037-62
!65
Tsigoiio-
in (ricul
S :rvey.
Legendre’s
theorem.
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
The method now explained is that which has been fol- to compute the spherical excess E from the formula (1), TtJ
be represented re¬
lowed in computing all the triangles of the Ordnance sur
, vey. The following, which is generally adopted in the con¬
tinental measurements of geodetical arcs, is of somewhat
easier application.
As before, let a~r, b-^-r, c-^-r,
spectively by a, (3, y. We have then
^ cos. a — cos. ,S cos. y
Cos. A =  : n—. ;
sin. p sin. y
and since the arcs a, b, c, are small in comparison of r, a
sufficient approximation will be obtained, if, in the develop¬
ment of the sines and cosines in terms of the arc, we retain
the terms only which involve powers not higher than the
fourth, that is, if we make
a? a4 /33
Cos. a = l ^ + 5^4 1 (S = ,6-^;
and also make a like substitution for cos. /3, cos. y, and sin. y.
With these values, the above equation becomes
_ i O' + 7' — u2) 4- (ft4 — O y4) j y
fiy {i-K^ + y'O}
rA + ;3‘ + y' — ZcSp — Zu*
■ 2/32 y2
Cos. A' =
Cos. A =
_ /32 + y~—ft2  
“ 23y ' ^ ^ 2&(3y
Restoring the values of a, fi, y, and denoting the numera¬
tors of the two terms by M and N respectively, we have
^ * _ M ^ N
C0S’ A 2bc + 246cr2 ^ ''
In a plane triangle whose sides are respectively equal in
length to the three arcs a, b, c, let A' be the angle opposite
to the side a ; then
Zr 4- c2 — a~  M
2bc 2bc
On squaring both sides of this equation, and substituting
I — sin.2 A' for cos.2 A', we get — 4Z>2 c2 sin.2 A' = a4 + Z>4
-f c4 — 2a2 ft2 — 2a- c- — 2b2 c2 = N. In consequence of
these two values of M and N, the equation (8) becomes
be 0
Cos. A = cos. A' — —^ sin.2 A'.
br2
If we now assume A=A'+ x, then x will obviously be a very
small arc, and we may suppose cos. a; = 1, and sin. a1 = x,
without sensible error. Hence cos. A == cos. A' — x sin. A',
be
and we have therefore a; = ^ sin. A'; whence
br2
A = A' + sin. A'.
br2
Now, ^ be sin. A'is the area of the rectilineal triangle whose
sides are a, b, c, and which does not sensibly differ from the
spherical triangle ; therefore, denoting this area by S, and
observing that a similar result will be found for B and C, w’e
shall have A = A' + ^ (S -f- r2), B = B' + £ (S -f- r2),
C = C' + 5 (13 4- r1); therefore, since A' -}- B' + C' = 180°,
A -f- B + C —^ (S -f- r2) = 180°, so that S -f- i3 may be
regarded as the excess of the three angles A, B, C of the
spherical triangle above two right angles.
From this demonstration it follows, that if from each of
the angles of any small triangle on the surface of a sphere
or spheroid (for the proposition holds true for both surfaces)
and for this purpose we take the same value of the radius ttefl
of the oblique circle as was determined above, namely, log. s“r!
r =: 7’32112. With this radius, the constant part of the^
spherical excess, namely, 648000-^-2/^ w, becomes 0’37116,
and hence the formula (1) becomes
Log. E = log. a + log. b + log. sin. C -f- (K37116.
Approximate values of a and b (one of them may be the
given side) must now be found. Now, we found above
log. a = 5-63039, log. b = 5-70111; and we have also log.
sin. C = 9-83842. Adding these and the constant number
0-37116 into one sum, we get log. E = 1-54108, and con¬
sequently E = 34 '-760. This value of the spherical excess
agrees exactly (as it ought) with the sum of the three chord
corrections found above.
Having computed the spherical excess, the error of the
three observed angles is found, and apportioned among the
angles in the reciprocal proportion of their respective
weights, and the correct spherical angles deduced in the
same manner as already explained in describing the other
method. Each of the spherical angles is then diminished
by J E = 1 l"-58f; and the results are the mean angles
from which the sides are to be calculated. They are asunder:
Stations.
Benlomond, A..
Gairnsmuir, B..
Knocklayd, C...
Sum 
Corrected Spherical
Angles.
56°
79
43
43'
42
34
28"-G2
29 -15
36 -99
180 0 34 -76
Mean Angles for
Calculation.
56°
79
43
43' 17"-04
42 17-56
34 25-40
180 0 0-00
With these mean angles, and the given side c = 352,037-62
feet (in this case the arc is taken, and not the chord), we
can now compute the other sides a, b.
Log. c (= 352,037-62) = 5-5465891
Log. sin. A (56° 43'17"-04) = 9-9222127
Log. sin. B (79 42 17-56) = 9-9929511
Co. log.sin. C (43 34 25 -40) = 0-1615897
Log. a = 5-6304015
Log. b = 5-7011399
whence a = 426,974*06 feet, and b = 502,504-42 feet.
These results agree almost exactly with those obtained by
the reduction to the chord angles, the greatest difference
being less than a tenth of a foot in a distance exceeding
ninety-five miles.
On comparing the tw-o methods of calculation which have
now- been explained, it will be obvious that the latter, or
that of Legendre, is the simpler of the two, inasmuch as it
requires only the calculation of the spherical excess by a
single operation, whereas the reduction to the chords re¬
quires an equivalent operation for each of the three angles.
The calculation of the chord angles is however, in prac¬
tice, rendered easy by an auxiliary table, in which the cor¬
rection is given for different values of the angle, and of the
sum and difference of its containing sides. But the sphe¬
rical excess may be entered in a table in the same manner.
A sufficient approximation to this quantity, or rather to
„ P P  8 pBlA, the area of the triangle on w'hich the excess depends, may
one third of the spherical excess be deducted, the sines of frequently be obtained by making a plan of the triangle,
the angles thus diminished will be proportional to the lengths and measuring the length of the perpendicular upon the
of the opposite sides, and consequently the sides may be known side by means of a scale of equal parts. In fact, i
computed as if the triangle were rectilineal. It is to be the three angles have been equally well observed, so that
remarked, that the angles to be diminished by one third of the error is to be divided equally among them, the calcula-
the spherical excess, are not the observed angles, but the tion of the spherical excess is not even necessary for coni-
horizontal angles corrected for the errors of observation. puting the sides; as the same mean angles will be obtain6
Calculation As an example of this method, we shall take the same by diminishing each of the observed angles by one thirc o
by Legen- triangle as before. the excess of the sum above 180°. Tables for the rec'ut\
thod.me* i three ao8les liaving been observed, the first step is tion of the spherical angles to the plane of the chords, ant
'v 10-
! ewise for the computation of the spherical excess, are
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
rial ,/eii by Delambre in the first volume of the Base Metrique,
in* | cl also in Puissant’s Traite de Geodesic.
‘ When two angles only of a triangle were observed, the
juctice adopted in the Ordnance survey was to compute
tie reduction of the two observed angles to the plane of the
cords, and to give the angles thus reduced, as the angles
f calculation, true to the nearest quarter of a second,
'lie third angle was then assumed, so that when added to
t; two chord angles the sum was 180°.
cos. I sin. d cos. A -f sin. I cos. </,
Calculation of the Latitudes, Longitudes, and Azimuths.
The formulae which have now been given suffice for the
cnputation of the sides of the principal triangles, or the
dances of the stations from each other; but for the pur-
p e of mapping the country, it is also necessary to deter-
n:ie the latitudes and longitudes of the several stations,
a 1 the inclinations of the sides of the triangles to the me-
ri an. In order to effect this by means of the geodetical
njisurements, the latitude of one station at least, and the
iillination of a side of one of the triangles to the meridian
o hat station, must be determined by astronomical means;
a: when this has been done, the geographical latitudes
as longitudes of all the other stations in a chain of tri¬
al, les, and the inclinations of their several sides to the
nridians which pass through their extremities, may be
Cfliputed. The computation, however, is of such a nature
tl; a small error in determining the direction of the meri-
d i leads to errors of considerable magnitude in the lati-
ti-s and longitudes deduced from it; and it accordingly
b Dines necessary, in the progress of a large survey, to
vi iy the computed results by astronomical observations
aliarious stations not very remote from each other in re-
spit of longitude. It has been stated in the preceding
hiiorical sketch, that eight different meridians were deter-
m:ed by direct observation in the progress of the survey
of England. Ihe problem which usually occurs in prac-
ti may be enunciated as follows,
m liven the latitude and longitude of a station A, and the
■ difence ofAfrom another station B, and also the direction
of ie meridian at A in respect of the straight line AB, to
dairmine the latitude and longitude of B, and the direc-
sin. I —
whence
sin. I— sin. I — cos. I sin. d cos. A + sin. Z (1 cos. d).
But sin. Z sin. I' ~ 2 sin. t (Z — Z') cos. ^ (Z -j- Z')
= 2 sin. ^ A cos. (Z— | f)
= 2 sin. | A (cos. Z cos. £ A + sin. Z sin. A A),
therefore
2 sin. J A (cos. Zcos. ^ A -f- sin. Z sin. ^ A) = cos. Z sin. d cos. A
-j- sin. Z (1 — cos. d).
Now since A the difference of the latitudes can only be a
small arc, we may reject without sensible error all the
terms in the development of the sine and cosine contain¬
ing higher powers of ^ A than the square; that is, we
367
Trigono¬
metrical
Survey.
may assume 2 sin. T A - A, cos. 1 A = 1 _l (A)2,
cr.ll   1 1 T„ U1--    ■ ?. . "2 V2 'V »
S1c U X ^ In Iike manner, since d is small in comparison
of the radius, we may put sin. d = d, 1 — cos. d = J d°~;
whence the above equation becomes, on dividing by cos. Z,
A = cZ cos. A + 1 (d2 — A2) tan. Z. (9).
For a first approximation the second term may be ne¬
glected, and we have then A = rZ cos. A, which is equiva¬
lent to supposing the meridians at the two stations to be
parallel. Substituting this value of A in the second term,
we get for a nearer approximation
\ = d cos. A + 1- d2 sin.4 A tan. Z (10).
This new value of A may be again substituted in the equa¬
tion (9), by which a still nearer value would be obtained ;
but it is unnecessary to carry the approximation farther.
The difference of latitudes A is here expressed in parts
of the radius 1. Let A" be the number of seconds in A;
then A = f" sin. 1" = (l — Z') sin. 1" (Z — Z' being also
expressed in seconds'). The arc d likewise denotes the dis¬
tance on the sphere from A to B in parts of the radius;
therefore, if D be the number of feet in AB, and IF the
number of feet in the radius of the circle perpendicular to
the meridian at A, we shall have <Z = D -f- R'. Makin°-
these substitutions, the last equation becomes
^^ _ D cos. A D2 sin.2 A tan. Z
K' sin. 1'
2 R'2 sin. 1"
ti( meridian at B in respect of AB.’
'n the surface of a sphere whose
ceJre is at the point where the
>h rial at A intersects the polar
of the spheroid, let PAX be
thi meridian of A, PBY the me-
ri"m of B, meeting the former in
then in the spherical triangle
there are given PA the co-
la‘tide of A, the side AB deter-
topd from the triangulation, and
Jh observed angle PAB which
'‘1lle annexed figure) is the sup-
PUent of the azimuth at A, the
nths being supposed to be
e oned from the south towards the west, all round the
cu tu i T ,these data we have t0 deduce PB the
gi, I U 5.° dle angle APB the difference of the lon-
ax nfli Aand and which, added to 180°, is the
zfutl of A as seen from B.
1 a ~ —' AP = latitude of A,
— 'Id0 — BP = latitude of B,
j - 1800 — PAB = azimuth of B seen from A,
In u> iT~ ar? AB in Parts of the radius,
col'espheneal triangle PAB we have
thli sfsiifJ™ A8'0, AB cos- PAB + cos. PA cos. AB ;
1 e cos. P A B = _ cos. (180° — PA B) = — cos. A),
. Tlm f’orrnu,a sives the latitude of the station B, suppos- Correction
ing the surface that of a sphere; but a small correction is for ellipti.
required on account of the compression. To investigate (nt;y-
this, let AM and BN be the normals'
to the spheroidal surface meeting the
polar axis in M and N ; join BM, and
draw MX and NY parallel to the
plane of the equator. The angle
AMX is the astronomical latitude of
the station A, or the latitude Z, and
the angle BMX is the latitude of B,
determined by the above formula.
But the true astronomical latitude
of B is the angle BNY, which is less
than BMX by the angle MBN; we
have therefore to compute this angle, and add its value to
X, the difference between Z and l'. Let MBN =: -vk In
the triangle BMN we have sin. : sin. BNM : • MN • MB
Now sin. BNM = cos. BNY =: cos. I'; and ’if C be the’
centre of the spheroid, then MN = CM —CN; and be¬
cause AB is always a small arc on the spheroid, MB is sen¬
sibly equal to AM; therefore the above proportion gives
AM sin. — (CM CN) cos. l\ If we now assume a
and o to denote respectively the polar and equatorial semi-
diameters, we readily find, from the equation of the ellipse,
Z>2 — a2 1
CM _ • p -AM sin. Z. Substituting a (1 -j-e) for b,
developing, and rejecting terms multiplied by powers of
e, we have (Id — a/) ~ lr — 2e ; whence CM — 2e AM
sin. Z. In like manner, CN = 2e AM sin. I'; consequently
368
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
Trigono¬
metrical
Survey.
sin. •vj/ rr (sin. I — sin. £') cos. V-
Now, sin. I — sin. /' = 2 sin. | (l — l') cos. \ (l + l’) 5 and
,by reason of the smallness of e we may put cos. 2 + /
cos. I' = cos.2 I ; therefore sin. -4/ = 2e sin. A cos. /, or
U, = 2e A cos.2 1. This is the correction for the spheroidi-
city; the corrected difference of latitudes is consequently
A + 4/ = A(l + 2e cos.2 /). Hence on the spheroid the
equation (11) becomes
pcos.A 2ecosSi)(12).
‘-['R'sm.l''+ 2R“sin.r | T
Log. D
Log. IT
_ 5-49735
= 7*32145 Log. (D R')2 =6*35180
  Log. sin.2 A = 9*99658
Log.(D-r-R') =8*17590 Log. tan. / =0-08573'sf*
Log. cos. A = 8*94763 Co. log. 2 sin. 1" =5*01340
Co! log. sin. 1" = 5*31443 Log.(l+2ecos.2/)-0*00116
Log. (1 +2e cos.21)— 0*00116
— 274"*87 = 2*43912
+ 28"* 10 = 1*44867
Difference
of longi¬
tude.
sin. 1" ■■ 2 R'2
To find the difference of the longitudes of A and B, or
the angle at the pole, we have in the above triangle sin. 1 :
sin. PAB :: sin. AB : sin. PB ; that is, since P and AB are
small, P : sin. A::d: cos. 1'; whence P = d sin. A -= cos. I
in parts of the radius, or in seconds of arc
D sin. A (43).
Hence / — /' = — 274"*87 + 28"* 10 = — 246*-77 (the
first term being negative because cos. A is negative),
and /' = / + 4' 6"*77. But / = 50° 37' 7"*30 ; therefore
r = 50° 4P 14"*07. In the Survey, vol. ii. p. 91, the lati¬
tude of Black Down is found by a different mode of compu-
fo4*ir>n —— 4-1 ^ 1
P =
IT cos. /' sin. 1"
Azimuth.
Example
the for¬
mulae.
Let B be the azimuth of AB on the horizon of the sta¬
tion B. To find B we may employ the following property
of spherical triangles, which also holds good for triangles
on a spheroid, viz. tan. ^P : cot. £(PAB + PBA) : :
cos. i(pB — PA) : cos. J(PB + PA) ; that is, since
PAB = 180° — A, and PBA = B — 180°, and conse¬
quently PAB -p-PBA = B — A,
sin. \{l + /')
cot-KB-A^tamiP^^-
Now cot. i(B — A) = tan. (90° — |(B - A)} ; and since
the difference of the two azimuths, or, which is the same, the
sum of the two angles PAB and PBA, is always very nearly
equal to 180°, the angle 90° — ^(B — A) is always very
small, and we may therefore substitute the arc for the tan¬
gent without sensible error. For the same reason we may
take £P for tan. IP. Making these substitutions, doubling,
and transposing, we get
B = 180° + A — P Sm‘  (14)-
cos. ^(/ l)
The two formulae (13) and (14) require no correction on
account of the ellipticity ; for with respect to the first, the
angle APB at the pole is the same on the spneroid as on
the sphere ; and with respect to the second, the correction
is so small as to be altogether insensible.
In deducing the above formulae, it has been supposed that
the azimuth at the station A only has been observed. If the
direction of the meridian at B has likewise been determined
astronomically, then another value of P will be obtained by
substituting B and l for A and /' in the equation (13) ; and
the mean of the results should of course be taken as the
correct value.
of We shall now apply the preceding formulae to the com¬
putation of the latitude, longitude, and azimuth of one of
the principal stations of the survey *, and we shall select that,
of Black Down in Dorsetshire, referring it to the station at
Dunnose in the Isle of Wight. The following elements
are given in the Survey, vol. ii. p. 88, el seq. Distance of
Black Down from Dunnose = D = 314,307*5 feet(= 59*528
miles); latitude of Dunnose = / = 50° 37' 7"*3; angle at
Dunnose between Black Down and the direction of the
meridian towards the north (= 180° — A) = 84° 54/ 52'*5.
From this last angle it is obvious that Black Down lies
westward and a little to the north of Dunnose.
Assuming the same elements of the spheroid as before,
we have e = *003324; whence we easily find 1 -f- 2 e cos.21
— 1*00267, the logarithm of which is 0*00116. We have
also from the formula (3) the radius of the circle perpen¬
dicular to the meridian = 20,963,000 feet, in round num¬
bers ; with this value of R', and the given value of D, the
computation of the equation (12) is as follows:
tation = 50° 41' 13''*8.
For the difference of longitude we have to compute the
formula P = D sin. A -4- IT cos. /' sin. 1" (13). Making use
of the value of /' just found, we have
Log. (D -7- R')= 8*17590
Log. sin. A = 9*99829
Co. log. cos. /' = 0*19822
Co. log. sin. 1" = 5*31443
4862"*3 = 3*68684
Hence P = 1° 21' 27*3. In the Survey the value of Pis
found to be 1° 20' 46''*4. The difference, which amounts to
16", arises from the different elements of the earth’s figure
assumed in the Survey, which give the length of a degree
of the circle perpendicular to the meridian at the latitude of
Dunnose = 367,038 feet; whereas the length of the de¬
gree corresponding to the more correct value of the radius
assumed in the preceding calculation is only 365,874 feet.
It is now known that the differences of the longitudes of
the stations on the southern coast of England are all given
too small, in consequence of this erroneous assumption of
the length of the perpendicular degree.
The longitude of Dunnose west of Greenwich having
been found by a previous operation = 1° 1T 36", that of
Black Down is consequently 2° 32' 38"*3.
It now remains to find the azimuth at Black Down, by
computing the formula (14). Here we have
Log. sin. Ml + /’) (= 50° 39' 10"*C8) = 9*88836
Log. cos. i! (/' — /)(= 0° 2' 3"*38) = 0*00000
Log. P (= 4862"*3) = 3-68684
]o 2' 40"* 12 = 3760"* 12 = 3*57520
and consequently B = 180° -j- 95° 5' 7"*50 FT40' 12,
or B = 274° 2' 27//*38. The observed angle PBA was
94° w 22''*75. Hence the azimuth reckoned from the south
towards the west was 274° 2' 22"*75, which differs from the
computed value by 4"*63. It may be remarked, that tlie
method of determining the azimuths adopted in the feurvey
is attended with some degree of uncertainty. E consists,
as has been already stated, in taking the mean of the »
angles observed with the theodolite between a flag-statt »r
the pole-star at its greatest elongation west and east. Aow,
by reason of the altitude of the pole-star in our latitm
above the terrestrial signal, any error in the adjustmcn
the cross axis of the theodolite to horizontahty produces^
greater error in the resulting azimuth. Captain Rater ( *
Trans. 1828, p. 188) considers the observations ofthe P .
star for determining the perpendicular degree in our
tudes, as wholly unworthy of credit.
Of the Heights of the Stations, and Rif ruction.
In order to complete the explanation of the «
calculation employed in the Survey, it only remains ir>
how the relative altitudes of the principal stations na
■vey
»ono determined, and also the amount of atmospheric refraction,
m''al<which is an element of the same problem.
Let A and B be two stations whose distance from each
other is known, and let AC and
BC be the directions of gra¬
vity, meeting in C, the earth
oeing supposed spherical. Let
\D and BD be the horizontal
ines in the plane ACB, and
uppose a and b to be the ap-
larent planes of A and B re-
pectively, as seen from each
ther. Now, if the rays of
ght proceeded in straight
nes, the angle DAB would
e the depression of B below
he horizon of A, and DBA
TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.
369
h
ie depression of A below the horizon of B ; and since AD
nd BD are perpendicular to AC and BC respectively,
ie sum of these two angles is equal to C, or to the arc of
ie great circle intercepted between A and B. But this
rc is known from the measured distance of A from B, and
ie assumed dimensions of the earth; consequently the
im of DAB and DBA is given. If, therefore, from this
iven sum we subtract the sum of the two observed de-
ressions, namely, DA6 and DBa, there will remain the sum
FBAi and AB«, that is, the sum of the two refractions,
le half of which is the mean refraction, and assumed to be
le actual refraction at each station. Let us put
d — DA&, the observed depression at A,
d' = DBa, the observed depression at B,
C = ACB, the measure of the contained arc,
l — the mean refraction,
id we have
f = !{C-(d + d')} (15).
Now, let H be the point in CB which is on the same
vel surface with A, so that CH = CA ; then HB is the al¬
lude of B above A, which we have to determine. Join
FI, and the angle DALI is equal to half of C. But the
igle BAH is obviously the difference between DAH and
ie sum of DA5 and 6AB. Hence if <p denote the angle
AH, we have
— (^ + ?) (16).
his gives the angular elevation of B above A ; conse-
icntly if <p is expressed in seconds, and AB in feet, then
H will be obtained in feet from the formula
BH = AB X <p sin. 1" (17).
It has been assumed that the objects observed at both
ations are depressed. If' one of them is elevated, then d
d must be taken negatively. It is also to be remarked,
lat for the purpose of finding the refraction, each obser-
ition must be reduced, previously to the calculation, to
!16 ax's °f the instrument; that is to say, allowance must
je Hjade for the difference of level between the axis of
>e instrument at either station, and the object (as the
’P of a flag-staff) at the same station observed from the
her. 1 his allowance is made by computing the angle
htended by that difference at the distance between the
‘Uions, and deducting it from the observed depression, or
hung it to the observed elevation.
For the determination of the absolute altitudes, it is ne-
essary that the heights of one or more of the stations be
■ certained by actually levelling down to the surface of the
"a‘ Ihe heights of all the intermediate stations are then
stablished in the manner now explained, by the reciprocal
ogles of elevation or depression, carried on from station to
Ation ; and it is obvious that a verification will be obtain-
i for every three stations; for the difference of altitude
>'0L, xxi.
Survey.
between A and B, when found by direct observation, ought Trigono-
to be the same as when deduced from the difference of the metrical
heights Of each of those stations, and a third station C.
For estimating the altitudes of places at which the theo-'
dolite was not placed, and where, consequently, reciprocal
observations were not obtained, it was necessary to assume
a mean value of the refraction g, in order to obtain the an¬
gle <p in the equation (16). On account of the wide limits
within which the horizontal refraction is found to vary, this
is attended with some uncertainty, even when every atten¬
tion is paid to the condition of the atmosphere. In gene¬
ral the effect of refraction was assumed to be from TVth to
-f^th of the whole difference of altitude.
As an example, we select the following case from the
Survey. At the station of Black Comb in Cumberland,
Scilly Bank appeared depressed 49' 14"; and at Seilly
Bank, Black Comb was observed elevated 31' 3]"; and the
distance between the two stations is 121,028 feet. From
these data we have to compute the mean refraction and
the difference of altitude.
The height of the instrument at both stations was 5£
feet. Hence if R" denote the number of seconds in the
arc equal to the radius, and x the correction for the height
of the instrument, we have this proportion, 121028 : 5 • 5 ::
R": x; whence, since R" = 206,264-8, x is found z= 9". Sub¬
tracting this from the seconds of observed depression, and
adding it to the seconds of observed elevation, we find d
= 2944" and — d'=: 1900"; whence d -j- d'= 1044". Now
allowing the length of a second of arc at the mean latitude
to be 1011 feet, the distance in seconds is 121,028-^ 101|
— 1192, or C = 1192", and we have by formula (1*5) the
mean refraction g — | { C — (d + d') } = 74", which is very
nearly y^th of the intercepted arc.
With this value of g we obtain (16) p = — 2422";
whence, since sin. 1" — -00000485, we have for the differ¬
ence of altitudes (17)
121028 x —2422 x -00000485 =— 1422,
or the depression of Scilly Bank below Black Comb is 1422
feet. In the Survey, vol. iii. the altitudes of the two sta¬
tions are stated to be respectively, Black Comb 1919 feet;
Scilly Bank 500 feet; whence the difference is 1419 feet.
\Y e have now explained, with as much detail as the limits Authors
which must be prescribed to the present article w-ould per-referred to-
mit, the methods of calculation by which the mutual dis¬
tances of the several stations of an extensive survey, and
their geographical co-ordinates, that is to say, their lati¬
tudes, longitudes, and altitudes, are deduced from the ob¬
servations. These form the principal and essential objects
of a trigonometrical survey of a country. There are how¬
ever various other points of great importance connected
with geodetical measurements, into which, in the present
outline, it is impossible for us to enter; and particularly
the methods of estimating the probable errors of the obser¬
vations, and of the results deduced Rom them, and of ap¬
plying these results to the determination of the form of the
earth’s surface in the country over which the operation ex¬
tends. For information on these points, and indeed on all
other questions relating to the higher geodesy, we refer the
reader to the following works: Delambre, Base du Systeme
Metrique Decimal, Paris, 1806—10; Gauss, Supplementum
Theories Combinationis Observationum Erroribus minimis
obnoxice, Gottingen, 1828; Struve, Breitengradmessung in
den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands, Dorpat, 1831; Bessel, Grad-
messung in Ostpreussen und ihre Verbiudung mit Preussiehen
undRussichen Dreiecksketten, Berlin, 1838; Puissant, Trade
de Geodesic, 2d ed. Paris, 1822 ; and particularly the Nou-
velle Description Geometrique de la France, Paris, 1832-40,
by the last-named author,—a work which w-e could wish to
see imitated in our own country. (g.)
3 a
370
TRIGONOMETRY.
Trigono- 1. Trigonometry is a branch of the mathematics which
tnetry. treats of the relations of the sides and angles of triangles,
^ 1 v "l-y these being expressed by numbers. It is therefore a
theory formed by the union of arithmetic and geometry,
and it treats of a particular class of geometrical figures,
namely, triangles.
There are two kinds of triangles considered in trigono¬
metry; plane, triangles, and spherical triangles. The
former are figures on a plane, and the latter on the surface
of a sphere; hence we have plane trigonometry and sphe¬
rical trigonometry, the principles of which will be explained
in succession. In a triangle there are six things which
may be considered, viz. the three sides, and the three
angles. The main object of the theory is to give rules by
which, when some of these are given, the others may be
found.
2. The application of numbers to express the sides and
angles of triangles has given rise to several terms which
require to be defined before we proceed further.
Definitions.
I. Since angles at the cen¬
tres of equal circles have to Fig. 1.
each other the same ratio as
the arcs on which they stand,
the arcs may be taken as re¬
presentatives or measures of
the angles to which they are
proportional. Thus, let ACB
be any angle contained by
the lines AC, BC: if about C
as a centre, with any distance
or radius AC, a circle ABE be
described, the arc AB, inter¬
cepted between the lines CA,
CB, is the measure of the an¬
gle ACB.
II. The circumference of every circle is supposed to be
divided into 360 equal parts called degrees, and again
each degree is subdivided into 60 equal parts called mi¬
nutes, and each minute into 60 equal parts called seconds;
and an angle is said to be of as many degrees, minutes,
seconds, &c. as there are degrees, and minutes, and se¬
conds in its measure. The degrees in any arc or angle
are indicated by the character ° placed over their num¬
ber, the minutes by an accent', and the seconds by two
accents ". For example, an angle of 25 degrees 12 mi¬
nutes and 14? seconds is expressed thus, 25° 12' 14''—A
right angle is measured by one fourth part of the circum¬
ference, or a quadrant, and it contains 90°.
III. The complement of an arc or angle is the difference
between it and a quadrant, or 90°. Thus, supposing AD to
be a quadrant, the arc BD is the complement of the arc
AB, and the angle BCD is the complement of the angle
ACB.
IY. The supplement of an arc or angle is its difference
from half the circumference, or 180°. Let ADE be a se¬
micircle ; the arc BDE is the supplement of the arc AB;
and the angle BCE is the supplement of the angle ACB.
Y. The sine of an arc or angle is the perpendicular drawn
from one extremity of the arc, on the diameter, that passes
through the other extremity. The line BF is the sine of
the arc AB, or of the angle ACB.
VI. The versed sine is the segment of the diameter be¬
tween its sine and the arc which measures the angle. The
line AF is the versed sine of the arc AB, or the angle t
ACB, and EF the versed sine of the angle BCE. ^
VII. The tangent is a straight line that touches the arc'—^
at one end, and is limited at the other end by a straight
line drawn from the centre of the circle through the other
extremity of the arc. The line AH is the tangent of the
arc AB, or the angle ACB.
VIII. The secant is the straight line drawn from the
centre to the extremity of the tangent. The line CH is
the secant of the arc AB, or angle ACB.
IX. The sine, tangent, and secant, of the complement
of any arc or angle, are called by abbreviation its cosine,
cotangent, and cosecant. Thus, BG = CF, the sine of the
arc BD, is the cosine of the arc AB ; and DK, the tangent
of the arc BD, is the cotangent of AB ; and CK, the secant
of BD, is the cosecant of AB.
Trigonometrical Notation.
The sine of an angle whose measure is A, is expressed
thus, sin. A ; its cosine by cos. A ; its tangent by tan. A;
its cotangent by cot. A ; its secant by sec. A; its cosecant
by cosec. A; its versed sine by ver. sin. A; and its coversed
sine by co. ver. sin. A.
The radius of a circle, when it is supposed the unit of
numbers, requires no symbol: sometimes it is represented
by the abbreviation rad. and also by the letter R.
3. There are two ways in which the theories of trigono¬
metry have been established. One is by employing a pro¬
cess of reasoning purely geometrical, such as has been fol¬
lowed in our article Geometry. In this way the early
writers on the subject constructed their treatises, and it
served very well for plane triangles, but was less convenient
for spherical triangles, by reason of the intricate diagrams
required to represent circles lying in different planes; and
also by the complicated relations of the things to be dis¬
cussed, which could not easily be expressed by words. The
second, which is the more convenient way, is by the sym¬
bolic reasoning of algebra. The section in Algebra on the
Arithmetic of Sines is a specimen of this way of treating the
subject; and it is worthy of remark, that the great extension
that has been given to the subject is in no small degree
due to the simple and convenient way of representing the
sines and tangents, &c. of angles, by the abbreviations, sin.
A, tan. A, &c. instead of referring to the geometrical lines
themselves. As a consequence of this, geometrical construc¬
tions are avoided, and even diagrams are hardly necessary.
4. In applying the notation and doctrines of modern ana¬
lysis to trigonometry, we regard the measures of angles, and
their sines, tangents, &c. as endowed with the properties of
variable quantity ; in particular, we ascribe to them the
quality of being positive or negative. The consequences of
this hypothesis have been fully detailed in the Arithmetic oj
Sines (Algebra), to which we refer the reader. By this
the properties of triangles are expressed by general for¬
mulae, which comprehend all particular cases. This way of
considering the numeral measures of trigonometrical lines
has greatly simplified spherical trigonometry, and all ap¬
plications of both trigonometries to astronomy and geodeU-
cal inquiries.
The Trigonometrical Table,
5. The basis of all trigonometrical calculations is a table
which exhibits in parts of the radius the numeral values ot
the sine, tangent, and secant, of each arc in a series pro-
TRIGONOMETRY.
371
no eding from 0 to a quadrant, the common difference of the
r. rms being an angle of one minute, or some smaller angle.
' Tlie radius beina" considered as an unit, the sines are ex-
essed as decimal fractions of that unit. The quadrant is
•nerally divided into degrees and minutes, this being suf-
ient for most purposes; but tables have been calculated
lich give the sines, and tangents, and secants, to every
i nth second.
6. The Elements of Euclid show how to inscribe regular
j lygons of three, four, five, six, and fifteen sides in a circle.
' ie sides of these polygons may be expressed in numbers
1 calculations derived from the geometrical constructions,
bw, the side of an equilateral triangle in a circle, is the
(ord of 120°, which is twice the sine of 60° ; and the side
< the inscribed square is the chord of 90°, which is twice
t3 sine of 45° ; and the side of the equilateral pentagon is
t 3 chord of 72°, which is twice the sine of 36° ; and the
5 e of the hexagon is the chord of 60°, which is twice the
s e of 30°; and the side of the quindecagon is the chord
< 24°, which is twice the sine of 12°. These sines may
threfore be all deduced from the properties of polygons
i cribed in a circle, as delivered in the Elements. And
g ce the sum of the squares of the chord of an arc and the
ord of its supplement is equal to the square of the dia-
nter (Geom. 17 of 2 and 13 ef 4), the chords of the sup-
1 ments, and thence the sines of their halves, may be
I md. It was in this way the trigonometrical table was
tit constructed by the early mathematicians, Purbach,
Idler, Copernicus, G. Joachimus Rhseticus, and others.
' ie theory of inscribed polygons was extended by Vieta
i o that of angular sections, chiefly with a view7 to the con¬
s' action of the table. This has again been wrought up
i o the Arithmetic or Calculus of Sines, the formulae of
v ich atford great facility in the construction of the table.
, an example, we shall resolve this problem.
7. Problem. To find the sines of one fifth, two fifths,,
t ee fifths, and four fifths, of a quadrant, of which the sine
i equal to the radius. Putting a to denote an arc of 18°,
(te fifth of the quadrant, we are to find the sines of a, 2a,
S, ka. Now, from the nature of the problem, we have
t :se simple relations :
Cos. a — sin. 4a, cos. 2a — sin. 3a,
Cos. 3a = sin. 2a, cos. 4a — sin. a.
id by formula 3 of (E) art. 240, Algebra,
Sin. 2a rr 2 sin. a cos. a,
Sin. 3a =: 2 sin. 2a cos. a — sin. a,
Sin. 4a — 2 sin. 3a cos. a — sin. 2a,
Sin. ba —2 sin. 4a cos. a — sin. 3a.
icrefore Sin. 2a = 2 sin. a sin. 4a,
Sin. 3a =: 2 sin. 2a sin. 4a — sin. a,
Sin. 4a = 2 sin. 3a sin. 4a — sin. 2a,
Sin. 5a =: 1 — 2 sin. 4a sin. 4a — sin. 3a.
i abridge, put sin. a — u, sin. 2a = x, sin. 3a = y, sin. 4a
and we have the following equations:
2uz ~ x A,
2xz = y + u B,
2>jz =■ z + x C,
2zz= \ + y D.
iese express symmetrical relations, which connect the
i ir sines u, x, y, z.
fly subtracting A from C, and dividing the remainder by
II we have
We have now, by subtraction and addition from (1) and (2), Trigono-
sin. a ~ u —
\/b
1
sin. 3a
~y~^bJr
metry.
4
Now the arcs a and 4a being the complements of each other,
also 3a and 2a, and the sum of the squares of the sine and
cosine being equal to the square of the radius, w7e have
2*/ 5)
sin. 2a — x — >s/(\
sin. ?,a —z — ^(1
■y
S) = vlI0.
„!) = voo + ^
Our problem is now resolved.
8. We have found the sines of a series of arcs from 0 to
90°, viz. 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, which differ by 18°. From these,
the sines of a series wdiose terms differ by 9°, may be found
by formulas, which are modifications of formulas (1), (2) of
(P), article 249, Algebra, viz.
• 1 /nno \ Z1 — sin- a
sin. i- (90° — a) — J —
1(90'
+ «) -J
2
1 + sin.
The terms intermediate to those known are,
— sin. 72°
sin. 9°
sin. 27°
sin. 45c
2
• sin. 36°
sin. 63
sin. 81°
m
+ sin. 36°
2
1 4- sin. 72°
•(!)•
1(1 from B, A, D ; y rr: 2xz = 4mz2 — 2u -)r ‘Zuy.
'erefore 2uy =zy 
1
2 »
d hence, (y + w)2 = (?/ — uf + 4mt/
and y -f m =
V5
: 4’
.(2).
By a second interpolation the number of terms in the series
w7ould be doubled, and by a third, the sines of a series of
arcs which are multiples of 2° 15' would be found. In the
VS
same way, from sin. 30° = A, sin. 60° = and sin. 90°
— 1, we may deduce the sines of 15°, 45°, 75°; and at
length the sines of a series of arcs, which are multiples of
3° 45'; then, from the two series, another, the arcs of which
would differ by (3° 45') — (2° 15') = 1° 30' = 90'; and
again the sines of a series of arcs differing by 45'. Indeed
it was in this way the table was first formed.
9. When the sines of two thirds of the quadrant, that is,
from 0 to 60°, are knowm, the sines of the remaining third
can be readily found ; for since sin. (a + i) == sin. (a — b)
+ 2 cos. a sin. b (Algebra, art. 240), if we make a ~ 60°,
then cos. a — |, and 2 cos. a — \, and we have sin.
(60° -f- fr) ^ sin. (60° — 6) + sin. b. By this formula the
numbers in the table may be verified.
The radius being an unit, we have found that the semi¬
circumference or arc of 180° = 3*1415926535 (Algebra,
article 272). This number divided by 180 X 60 = 1080,
gives the arc which measures an angle of one minute
= *0002908882; and since a small arc is nearly equal to
its sine, wre have sin. 1' —*0002908882 nearly. The accu¬
racy of this may be verified by the formula
sin. a = a — -r + tegt —> &c. (Algebra, art. 269).
o 120
The cosine of one minute is found from the sine by the
formula cos. a — ^/(l — sin.2 a), or otherwise, by the series
cos. a = l — —> &c* = *9999999577. Knowing
now7 the sine and cosine of one minute, to find the sines of
2', 3', 4', &c. w*e may proceed thus,—
Sin. 2' = 2 cos. 1' sin. 1',
Sin. S' =.2 cos. V sin. 2' — sin. P,
Sin. 4' =: 2 cos. 1' sin. 3' — sin. 2',
&c.
10. Since the results obtained by the successive opera-
372
TRIGONOMETRY.
Plane
Trigono¬
metry.
tions are only approximations, they will diminish in accu¬
racy as we advance. We may however proceed otherwise
thus. Find, as has been explained, a series ot sines of arcs
differing by 45' from 0° to 60° ; then fill up, by interpolation,
the intervals thus: We have found (Algebra, art. 239)
sin. {a + h) + sin. (a — b) = 2 cos. b sin. a: instead of
a write x + h, and instead of b write h, and we have
sin. (x + 2h) + sin. x — 2 cos. h sin. (x + ^)-
' , A2 , A4 A6
Now cos. /, = 1 _ — +
A1 A6
Put n ta denote the series A2 — ^ +
&c.
,  , — &c. and
3-4 ‘ 3-4-o b’
we have
sin. (x + 2A) + sin. x —2 sin. (x + A) — n sin. (x + A) ;
and sin. (x + 2A) = sin. (x + A) + (sin. (r + A) —sin.
 n sin. {x + A). If A be an arc of one minute, then A
=: -0002908882, and n — -0000000846. Let x denote
any angle, and suppose A to be one minute; the formula
gives
sin. {x + P) = sin. x + (sin. x — sin. (x — 1')}
— n sin. x,
sin. (x + 2') — sin. (x + 1') + (sin. (x + P) — sin. «]•
— n sin. (x + P),
sin. (x + 3') = sin. (x + 2') + {sin.(a;+2')—sin.(a:-{- 1')}
— n sin. (x + 2').
Thus, from the sines of two arcs x— I' and x, which differ by
P, and the constant number ra = 2 (1 — cos. P) = (2 sin.
30")2, the sines of all angles or arcs exceeding a?, and differing
by P, throughout the table, may be found. The most ex¬
tensive table of sines in existence (which is yet in manu¬
script), was computed under the direction of the late M.
Prony in this way. It gives the sines of all arcs in a series
of which the common difference is one ten-thousandth part
of a quadrant with twenty-five decimals.
11. The sines being found, the tangents and secants may
be obtained, each by a single division from the formulae
sin. a 1
tan. a —
sec. a
and therefore do not admit of being directly compared; p
the measures of angles, being arcs of a circle described with Tni1
a given radius, are lines, and therefore expressible by the J
sides. It is however more convenient and easy to use
the sines and tangents, &c. of angles than the angles them¬
selves, in trigonometrical calculations, the rules of which
are to be deduced from the following theorems.
Theorem I. In any right- Fig. 2.
angled triangle, the radius
is to the sine of either of the
acute angles as the hypo¬
tenuse is to the side opposite
that angle. (Fig. 2.)
Let ABC be a right-angled
triangle, of which B is the right
angle ; about C, one of the
acute angles, as a centre, w ith
a radius equal to the radius in
the tables, describe an arc DE as the measure of the angle
C (Def. 1). Draw DF, the sine of the arc DE (Def. 5).
The triangles CDF, CAB are manifestly equiangular, there¬
fore their sides are proportionals ; so that CD : DF CA
: AB, or (putting R to denote radius in the tables) R:sin.
C = CA : AB.
Corollary 1. The radius is to the cosine of either of the
oblique angles as the hypotenuse is to the side adjacent to
that angle. For, to the radius CD, CF is the cosine of C,
and CF): CF = CA : CB.
Corollary 2. Assuming that CD R = 1, wre have
1 : sin.' C = CA : AB ; and 1 : cos. C = CA : CB.
Therefore, supposing the sides of the triangle expressed by
numbers,
- r, AB . „ CB
sm. C zr -^r-r, and cos. C =
CA’
CA
cos. a cos. a
The tangents of the latter half of the quadrant may how¬
ever be found by addition only from the formula
tan. (45° -(-«) = tan, (45° — n) -j- 2 tan. 2a,
which is a deduction from (4) of (O) Algebra, art. 248;
and the secants from this formula,
sec. a — tan. a -j- tan. (43° — ^ a), Algebra, 249.
12. With a table of sines, and tangents, and secants, the
ordinary questions relating to triangles may be resolved by
multiplication and division, but more expeditiously by lo¬
garithmic calculation ; and therefore, in general, mathema¬
tical tables give only the logarithmic sines, tangents, and
sometimes secants, which, however, may be readily found
from the log. cosines.
Part I.—Plane Trigonometry.
13. In contemplating a plane triangle as a figure formed
by three straight lines, we distinguish the sides of the tri¬
angle, the angles at their intersections, and the space or area
which they comprehend. In trigonometry we abstract from
the area, and consider only the sides and angles. There
are in all six angles, viz. the three interior and their adja¬
cent exterior angles. Each of the exterior is the sum of
two interior angles, and of these any two determine the
third ; so that in fact the independent elements of a triangle
are five, viz. its three sides, and any two of its three interior
angles ; and of these any three being given, the remaining
two may be found.
14. The sides and angles are dissimilar in their nature,
I heorem II. In any right-angled triangle, the radius is to
the tangent ot either of the oblique angles as the adjacent
side to the opposite side. (Fig. 2.)
At the point E, one extremity of the arc DE which mea¬
sures the angle C, draw EG perpendicular to CB; then to
the radius CE, EG is the tangent of the angle C (Def. 7).
Now the triangles CEG, ABC being similar, CE: EG
= CB : BA, or R : tan. C = CB : BA.
Corollary 1. The radius is to the secant of either of the
oblique angles as the adjacent side to the hypotenuse; for
CG is the secant of the angle C (Def. 8); and CE:CG
= CB : CA, or R : sec. C = CB : CA.
Corollary 2. Assuming the radius — 1, then
. . BA , ^ CA
tan. A = —, and sec. C = ^
Corollary 3. In any' triangle, if a perpendicular be drawn
from any one of the angles to the opposite side, the seg¬
ments of that side are to one another as the tangents of the
parts into which the opposite angle is divided by the per¬
pendicular.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
For in the triangles ADB, ADC,
BD : DA = tan. BAD : R; and DA : DC = R: tan. CAD.
Therefore, ex cequali, BD : DC — tan. BAD : tan. CAD.
TRIGONOMETRY.
heorem HI- In any right-angled triangle, the sum of the
hypotenuse and one side is to their difference, as the
square of the radius to the
square of the tangent of half Fig. 5.
the contained angle. / A
Let ABC be any right-an-
.3d triangle; draw CD bi-
t sting the angle C.
> Geom. 19, 4,
CA : CB = AD : BD =
AB — BD : BD.
' lerefore, by composition, and
Or. 3 of Theor. II. of Trig.
CA + CB : CB = AB : BD rr tan. C : tan. -|C.
Now CB : BA =r R : tan. C,
tsrofore CA CB : BA — R : tan. -?>C,
and (CA -{- CB)2: BA2 — R2: tan.2 -^C.
Now BA2 = C A2 — CB2 - (CA + CB) (C A — CB)
('EOM. 9 and 13 of 4),
tbrefore
;A + CB)2: (CA + CB) (CA — CB) =: R2: tan.2 ^C,
and CA + CB : CA — CB = R2 : tan.2 J-C.
Tlie first two of these propositions are alone sufficient for
t: resolution of all the cases of right-angled triangles ; the
t rd, which is not commonly given in our books on trigo-
i metry, is however important, because when the hypo-
t mse and a side are given, by its application the same lo-
! rithms serve for finding the remaining side and the tan-
; nt of half the opposite angle.
15. It has been found conducive to brevity and perspi-
i ity, to represent the parts of a triangle, each by a single
Iter: therefore, in any triangle ABC, we shall, in what
flows, employ that notation to denote the sides and angles
: follows. (See figures 2, 3, 4.)
The sides, BC = a, AC =r AB — c;
the angles, BAG = A, ABC rr B, ACB = C.
It will also be sometimes convenient to express ratios by
ictions, the numerators of which are the antecedents, and
e denominators the consequents, so that the expressions
A C
: B = C: D, and — = are to be regarded as identical.
heorem IV. The sides of any plane triangle are to one
another as the sines of the opposite angles. ( Figs. 3 and 4.)
In the triangle ABC, draw AD perpendicular to BC;
en, employing the premised notation, that is, denoting
e sides by a, b, c, and opposite angles by A, B, C,
b: AD =; R : sin. C; and AD : c — sin. B : R ;
therefore, ex cequali, inversely, 6 : c = sin. B : sin. C.
ueorem V. The sum of the sides of any plane triangle
is to the difference, as the tangent of half the sum of the
opposite angles is to the tangent of half their difference.
Continuing the same notation, we have found that
b :c — sin. B : sin. C ;
erefore i c:b — c = sin. B -f- sin. C : sin. B — sin. C.
Now (Algebra, 247, M),
n. B-fsin.C: sin.B — sin.C=:tan. (B + C): tan. 4 (B—C);
erefore, i + c : 6 — c - tan. ^ (B + C) : tan. £ (B — C).
Corollary. Since B -j- C = 180°— A, and therefore
„ , , I(B + C) = 90°_4A,
therefore b c:b — c = cot.^ A: tan. ^ (B — C).
heorem VI. In any triangle, the cosine of half the differ-
once of any two of its angles is to the cosine of half their
s|im> as sum of the sides opposite these angles is to
1 >e remaining side. And the sine of half the difference
o the angles is to the sine of half their sum, as the dif-
uience ot the opposite sides to the remaining side.
Again, denoting the sides by a, b, c, and opposite angles
by A, B, C,
Because sin. A : sin. C = a : c,
and sin. B : sin. C =: b : c ;
therefore sin. A + sin. B : sin. C — a + b : c,
also sin. A — sin. B : sin. C = a — b : c.
Now, sin. A + sin. B = 2 sin. ^ (A + B) cos. ^ (A — B)
(Algebra, 240),
and sin. A — sin. B = 2 cos. 1 (A -f B) sin. 1 (A — B),
and sin. C = sin. (A + B) = 2sin. t (A + B) cos.|(A + B)
(Algebra, 245) ;
therefore
sin. A + sin. B : sin. C == cos. ^ (A — B) : cos. 1 (A + B),
and
sin. A — sin. B : sin. C = sin. 1 (A — B) : sin. | (A + B);
hence cos. 4 (A — B) : cos. J (A + B) = a + 6 : c,
and sin. | (A — B) : sin. | (A -j- B) = a — b : c ;
'I heorem VII. If a perpendicular be drawn from an angle
of a triangle on the opposite side, dividing it into two
segments, the sum of these segments is to the sum of the
sides as the difference of the sides to the difference of the
segments.
In the triangle ACB, AC2 — AD2 -f- CD2, and AB2 =
AD2 + DB2, therefore AC2 — AB2 - CD2 — BD2. Now
AC2 — AB2 = (AC + AB) (AC — AB), and CD2 —BD2
= (CD + BD) (CD — BD) (Geometry, 12, 4) ;
therefore (AC+AB)(AC—AB)=(CD+BD) (CD—BD),
and CD + BD : AC + AB = AC — AB : CD — BD.
Theorem VIII. In any plane triangle, the excess of the
sum of the squares of two sides which contain an angle
above the square of the third side, is to twice the rect¬
angle contained by the sides about the angle, as the co¬
sine of the angle is to radius. (Figs. 3 and 4.)
In the triangle ABC, draw AD perpendicular to BC, we
have, by Geometry, 14, 4, and Cor. 2, Theorem I., of
this,
c~ = a2 + b2—2a X CD, and CD = b C°S' C
It
therefore c2 = a2 + Z»2 — 2ab
cos. C
R
and
«2 + — c2 cos. C
2ab
R
2bc
Zbc
= 1; then
It cos. A _ i2 -f. 2Z>c-f-c2 — a2 _ (5 *4- c)2 — a2
R 2bc ~~ 2bc
313
Plane
Trigono¬
metry.
therefore az + b2 — e2 : 2ab zr cos. C : R.
We have, in the diagram, made the angle C acute, but
the proposition is equally true when C is an obtuse angle ;
because, when C changes from acute to obtuse, the sign
of the cosine of the angle changes from to —.
Theorem IX. In any triangle, the rectangle contained
by two sides is to the rectangle contained by half the
perimeter and the excess of half the perimeter above the
base, as the square of the radius to the square of the co¬
sine of half the angle contained by the sides.
It has been found that a, b, c, being the sides of a tri¬
angle, and A the angle contained by b and c, then, Theo¬
rem VIII.,
cos. A 52 -f- c2 — a2
R — 2bc
To the first of these equals add ^ z= 1, and to the second,
374
TRIGONOMETRY.
Plane
Trigono¬
metry.
Now R f-8-— = 2 C°j(Algebra, 249, P), and
It it^
' (6 + c)2 — cc ■=. (ab -{• c) (6 + ^ — tt)*
Put s = j(a + 6 + c), then 6 + c — a = a + S + c —'^a
— 2(s — «) ; we have now (b + c)2 — or zz 4«(s — a), and,
, , . . cos.24A s(s — a) . !.;
by substituting, —~— =  ^—, and
be : s(s — a) r= R2 : cos.2 ^A.
Theorem X. In any triangle, the rectangle contained by
two sides is to the rectangle contained by the excesses
of half its perimeter above these sides, as the square of
the radius to the square of the sine of half the angle con¬
tained by the sides.
Supposing, as in last proposition, that b and c are the
sides about an angle A, and a the side opposite to a, we
have, by Theorem IX.
cos. A &a + c2— o2
R
26c
R
Subtract the first of these equals from p zz 1, and the se-
26c
cond from —7- — 1, and we have
26c
R — cos. A 26c
c2 -f- a2
(6-c)2
R
Now
R—cos. A
26c
2 sin.3 4 A
26c
(Algebra, 249, P),
b + c).
R “ R2
and a° — (6 — c)2 zz (a -f 6 — c) (a
Put s zz Jj(a + 6 + c),
then a + 6 — czza-l-6 + c — 2c zz 2s — 2c,
and a — 6-|-czza + 6 + c — 2b —2s — 26;
we have now dl — (6 — c)2 zz 4(s — 6) (s — c),
and Sin-2 gA _ ^ — h) (s — c)
d R2 ~ be
and be : (s — 6) (s — c) zz R2 : sin.21 A.
them to trigonometrical calculation. The foundation as h 1
been already observed, is a table which shows, in parts of T!
the radius, the lengths of the sine, and tangent, and secant 1 ^
to every minute or smaller division of the quadrant. Tl ^»
most extensive table of this kind is that of G. Joachimus Rh$
ticus, published in 1596. It gives the sines, &c. to every ten
seconds. The invention of logarithms has in a great rnea
sure superseded the use of the natural sines, as they are
called, and, except for particular purposes, the logarithms
of the natural sines, called logarithmic sines, only are used
Of tables containing these, there are innumerable varieties
according as they are of greater or less extent. The
Arithmetica Logarithmica of Briggs, published in 1628 bv
Adrian Vlacq, in two folio volumes, is the most extensive^
His tables give the logarithms of 100,000 numbers, and lo¬
garithmic sines and tangents to every ten seconds and to ten
places of decimals. Hutton’s Tables give the natural sines,
and tangents, and secants; also their logarithms to every
minute and to seven figures. Callet’s Tables Portatives
give the logarithmic sines and tangents to every ten se¬
conds ; and Taylor’s Tables, in a large quarto, give the
same to every second. For general use, Callet’s are the
most convenient. Tables which give the logarithms of num-
bers and sines, &c. to six, and even to‘five figures, are also
useful. Of the former, we recommend Tables of six-figure
Logarithms, superintended by Richard Farley of the Nau¬
tical Almanac Office (printed for Longman and Co. 1840);
and of the latter, Tables of Logarithms, under the superin¬
tendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know-
ledge (Taylor and Walton, 1839). Those who perform
many calculations find it convenient to have tables of dif¬
ferent extent. The size of our wTork, and the form of its
pages, make it quite unsuitable for a useful logarithmic
table, which should be as portable as it can be made. Ac¬
cordingly we have given none.
17. It is customary to treat first of right-angled triangles,
and next of such as have all their angles oblique.
RIGHT-ANGLED PLANE TRIANGLES.
Theorem XI. In any triangle, the rectangle contained by
• half the perimeter, and its excess above the base, is to
the rectangle contained by the excesses of half the peri¬
meter above the two sides, as the square of the radius to
the square of the tangent of half the angle contained by
the sides.
As in the two preceding theorems, putting 6 and c for
the sides about the angle A, and a for the opposite side,
and s zz^ (« -{- 6 -{- c), we have found that
s (s — a) : be zz cos.2 ^ A : R2,
and be : (s — 6) (s — c) zz R2 ; sin.2 i A ;
therefore, ex cequali,
s(s — a):(s — 6) (.9 —- c) zz cos.2 iA : sin.2 M.
But cos.21A : sin.2 |A zz R2 ; tan.2 ^A ;
therefore s (s — a) : (s — b) (s — c) zz R2 : tan.21x1.
Scholium. Since we have
tan.21A _ (s—b) (s—c) _ 1 t(s—a)(s—b)(s—c)
R2 s(s — a) (s — a)2 s ’
let us put M to denote the expression /(s (s c)
sj s ’
and we have —
M
R s — a
for the angles B, C, and, on the whole,
M „ M
— We have like expressions
tan.i A zz
R, tan.iB zz R, tanAC zz R
S U s — c
■ a
This seems to be the most convenient formula for find¬
ing the angles of a triangle when the sides are given.
16. Having laid down principles, we are next to apply
These form four distinct cases. Adhering to the nota¬
tion premised in article 15, we shall denote the hypotenuse
by the letter 6, the sides about the right angle by a and c,
and the opposite angles by A and C. (See fig. 2.)
Case I. Given the side a, and either of the acute angles
A, C, and consequently (Geometry, 24, 1) both; to find
the hypotenuse 6 and remaining side c.
Solution. R : tan. C zz side a : side c ;
R : sec. C zz side a : hyp. 6 : or cos. C : R zz side a: hyp.i.
Case II. Given the hypotenuse 6, and either of the
acute angles A, C; to find the sides a, c about the right
angle B.
Solution. R : cos. C zz hyp. 6 : side a,
R : sin. C zz hyp. 6 : side c.
Case III. Given the sides a, c about the right angle
B ; to find the angles A, C, and hypotenuse 6.
Solution. Side a : side c zz R : tan. C,
cos. C : R zz side a : hyp. 6.
The hypotenuse C may be found independently of the
angles by the formula 6 zz V(a2 + c2) (Geometry, 13,4).
The angle A is found from C, as above.
Case IV. Given the hypotenuse b, and a side a; to
find the angles A, C, and side c.
Solution. Hyp. 6 : side o zz R : cos. C;
or thus, 6-}-a:6 — azzR2: tan.2 |C;
then side c zz {(6 -j- a) (6 — a)]*
The advantage of this solution is, that the same loga¬
rithms, viz. of 6 4- a and 6 — a, serve to find the side c
and angle C.
* 'M
inr
■ono-
,5.
j
TRIGONOMETRY.
18. Examples of the solution of right-angled triangles.
Case I. Given {
and therefore angle A
a = 514, )
C = 55° 44/,
A = 34 16.)
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
Required side c
and hypot. b.
Fig. 6.
Calculation by Logarithms.
R 10-00000
Tan. C... 10-16666
Side a   2-71096
Cos. C  9-75054
R 10-00000
Side a  2-71096
12-87762
12-71096
Side c = 754-4 2-87762 Hyp. 6 = 912-9 2-96042
R ...10-00000
Sin. A  9-86970
Hyp. b  2-65514
R 10-00000
Sin. C  9-82719
Hyp. b  2-65514
Side a = 334-9 2-52484 Side c= 303-6 2-48233
To save figures, the logarithm of radius may be sub¬
acted or added mentally.
idea  2-67025
idee  2-56229
i 10-00000
Case IV. Given j ^ | Required the angles
and therefore 1 “ “ 350 j A’ C’ ^ ^
Hyp. b  2-82217
Side a  2-49693
R 10-00000
R 10-00000
Sin. C  9-94506
Hyp. b  2-82217
Sin. A = 28° 131'
9-67476 Side e 585-1 2-76723
'I his case may be resolved also thus, by Theor. III.
£ + «  2-99034
h~a  2-54407
R2 20-00000
b + a 2-99034
b — a 2-54407
Tan.2 £C 2)19-55373
2)5-53441
Tan. ^ C = 30° 53 ^
46|
c = 585-1 2-76720
9-77686
C = 61
This second solution, although not given in our books of
igonometry, is better than the first, because the two
angs sought are obtained by the same logarithms, and in-
cpendently of each other.
No notice is here taken of geometrical constructions of
ie cases by scales. We however recommend that the stu-
ent construct all the cases geometrically, and refer him
3 the article Navigation for examples and practical di-
ections.
Here we add together the logarithms of the second and
lird terms of each proportion, and subtract the logarithm of
ie first from their sum. The remainder is the logarithm
•the fourth term, which is the answer.
Case II. Given { ^ £ = 42M2', l Re9fed sides
and therefore angle A = 47 48. ) a an C'
Th. IV.
r. ttt (side a = 4681 Required angles A
Case III. Given ^ c = 36s} and hy8p. j.
Cos. C  9-89683
R 10-00000
Side a  2-67025
an. C = 37° 57' 9-89204 Hyp. b = 593-5 2-77342
The hypotenuse b may also be found, by extraction of
)e square root, thus:
= V (a2 + c2) = V (4682 +3652) = ^(3522409) =593-5.
be greater than 180°, which is impossible (24, 1).
Because - =
sin. C
sin. B
, and sin. B cannot exceed the radius,
therefore ~ cannot be less than :
b . R
and unless the data
satisfy this condition, the solution will be impossible.
Case II. Two sides b, c, and the angle A between them,
are given; to find the angles B, C, and the remaining
side a.
Solution. When A is given, B + C its supplement is
given; then b -f- c : 6 — c = tan.^(B + C) : tan. |(B — C).
(Theorem V.)
Thus -^(B — C) becomes known, and B = |(B -j-C) -f-
|(B — C), also C = ^(B + C) — |(B — C), are known.
All the angles of the triangle being known, and two of its
sides ; the remaining side may be found in two ways by
Case I., or better by either of these proportions,
Cos. |(B — C) : cos. i(B + C) = 5 + c: a, 1 T} y
Sin. i(B — C) : sin. J(B + C) =6 —era./ lheor* Vi'
If both be used, the results will verify each other. The
side a may also be found by Theorem III.
Case IV. The three sides a, b, c are given ; to find the
three angles.
Solution. Find a- = J-(a -f- 6 c),
and M
(s — a) (s — b) {s — c)
}
Then, by Theorem XL, tan. |-A
M
R, tan.
M
• R, tan. £C =
M
R.
375
19. The three angles of any
plane triangle being equal to two
right angles (Geometry, 24, 1),
when two of them are given, the
third is also given.
There are four cases of ob¬
lique-angled triangles.
Case I. When a side a, and
two angles B, C, and conse¬
quently the third angle A, which
is the supplement of B -f- C, are
given ; to find the sides b, c.
Solution. Sin. A : sin. B = t
Sin. A : sin. C = c
Case II. Two sides b, c, and an angle C opposite to one
of them, are given ; to find the other two angles A, B, and
the remaining side a. (Fig. 7.)
Solution. Side c : side b = sin. C : sin. B (Th. IV.)
When B is found, A = 180° — (B -j- C) is known ;
and sin. C : sin. A = side c : side a.
Since any two angles, which make together two right
angles, have the same sine, and the angle B in this case is
to be found by its sine only being known ; it will have two
distinct values, viz. B, and B' = 180°— B. The angle A may
also have two values, A = 180°—(B -f C), and A' = 180°
— (B'-j- C). Thus there will be two triangles ABC, AB'C,
which alike satisfy the conditions of the data. It must
however be considered that the three angles of a triangle
cannot exceed two right angles, therefore if C be an obtuse
angle, B can only be an acute angle, because a triangle
cannot have two obtuse angles. Farther, if the side c op¬
posite to the given angle C be greater than b, in this case
B can have but one value; for when c is greater than b,
then C is greater than either of the values of B, one of
which is 180 — B (Geometry, 13, 1), and C + B will
Plane
Trigono¬
metry.
376
TRIGONOMETRY.
Plane By this rule, the values of the three angles may be
Irigono- rea(j[iy found, and also a verification of the calculation, be-
inetr). cause tfjg sum 0f the lialves of the angles must make ninety
degrees..
Other solutions may be had from Theorems VII. VIII. IX.
X. That from Theorem VII. (which resolves the triangle
into two right-angled triangles by a perpendicular on one
of its sides from the opposite angle) is very generally used
by practical men not much versed in theory ; but the
best solutions are those which follow from 'I heorems IX.
X. XI. These elegant formulae were first found about the
year 1653, by William Purser of Dublin. The modifica¬
tion of Theorem XL, given here as a practical rule, is the
best method we know for resolving this case.
Examples of Oblique-angled Triangles.
f side a = 575 \
Case I. Given angle B = 63° 48' ( Required the
( angle C = 49 25 / sides b, c.
and therefore angle A = 66 47 )
Sin. A 9-963:33 Sin. A 9-96333
Sin. B 9-95292 Sin. C 9-88051
Side a 2-75967 Side a 2-75967
12-71259
12-64018
Side b = 561-4 2-74926 Side c 475-2 2-67685
ri tt r'- ( side & = 345 4 Required an-
Case II. Given S ■, QOO ' i i r> i
/■Firr 7 ^ .side c = 232 > gles A, B, and
( angle C = 37° 20') side a.
Side c 2-36549 From 180° O'
Side b 2-53782 subtract B-j-C — 101 44
Sin. C 9-78280  
angle CAB =78 16
12-32062
From 180 0
Sin.B= 64° 24'| 0 Qrr. Q subtract B'4-C = 152 56
: sin. B'= 115 36  
angle CAB' = 27 4
Fig. 7.
A.
In this example the angle
A has two distinct values, from
which we shall find two values
of BC = a, and B'C = a'.
To find BC.
Sin. C 9-78280
Sin. BAG 9-99083
Side c 2-36549
12-35632
Side BC = a....2-57352
= 374-6
To find B'C.
Sin. C 9-78280
Sin. BA.C 9-65804
Side c 2-36549
12-02353
Side B'C = a'....2-24073
= 174-1
Example 2. In a plane triangle, there are given two
sides, 532 and 358, and the angle opposite to the former,
107° 40'; to find the remaining angles and side.
In this example, the things required have each only one
value. The angles will be found 39° 53' and 32° 27', and i
the remaining side 299-6. J
{ side b = 1230 ) Required anoW 1
J side c = 870 l B, C, and sidt
Case III.
A rr 75°
Given 3 side c = 870 r>,
( angle A = 105°) a.
b + c = 2100, b — c = 360, B -p C rr 180°.
3(B + C) = 37° 30'
b + c “ .... 3-32222 Cos. £ (B _ Q 9-99628
b — c 2-55630 Cos.| — (B-f C)9-89947
Tan.J(B + C) = 37°30' 9-88498 5 + c 3.32222
12-44128
13-22169
Tan.i(B —C)rr 7 29f 9-11906 a = 1680-4 3-22511
B = 44 59f
C = 30 Oi
Asa verification, a may be found from this other propor¬
tion :
Sin. | (B — C) : sin. i (B -f- C) = b — c-.a.
The side a may also be found by Case I. in two ways,
because all the angles and two sides are known.
20. In all the preceding operations, the logarithm of the
fourth term of each proportion has been found by subtract¬
ing the logarithm of the first term from the sum of the lo¬
garithms of the second and third. Now, in every case, when
one number a is to be subtracted from another number b,
wre may obtain the result required by adding the difference
between a, and n any number, and then subtracting the mrai-
ber n from the result. Thus, instead of subtracting7 from
12, w-e may add 3, the difference between 7 and 10, to
12, and then rejecting 10 from 15, the sum, obtain 5 for
the difference between 12 and 7. The reason of this may
be easily understood, and it is evident from algebraic sub¬
traction ; for 5 — a = b {n — a) — n. When a, the
number to be subtracted, is less than 10, then n is conve¬
niently assumed = 10, and when a is between 10 and 20,
then n may be taken = 20. Thus, if 17 is to be subtract¬
ed from 63, the remainder, 46, is found by adding 3 ( = 20
— 17) to 63, and rejecting 20 from the sum.
Hence, in trigonometrical calculation, instead of sub¬
tracting the log. of the first of four proportionals from the
sum of the logs, of the second and third in order to obtain
the log. of the fourth term, we may add into one sum the
logs, of the second and third terms, and the difference be¬
tween the log. of the first and 10, and rejecting, mentally,
10 from the sum, w-e have what is required.
The difference between a logarithm and 10-00000, &c. is
called the arithmetical complement of that logarithm; ami
it is most readily obtained by subtracting every figure, be¬
ginning at the left hand, from 9, and the last significant
figure from 10; thus, the arithmetical complement of
2-73651 is 7-26349, and the arithmetical complement of
9-78460 is 0-21540. By the introduction of the arithmeti¬
cal complements of logarithms, fewer figures are required
in calculations ; for, with a little practice, it w ill be found as
easy to read the arithmetical complements of logarithms
from the table as the logarithms themselves. We have now
this rule for finding a fourth proportional to three giv£,n
numbers. Add together the arithmetical complement
of the logarithm of the first term, and the logarithms of
the second and third terms; the sum is the logarithm 0
the fourth.
As an example, take the above proportion :
Sin. \ (B — C) : sin. }2 {K + C) = b — c: a.
Sin. | (B — C) arith. comp., 0-88465
Sin. i (B + C)  9-78445
b — c  2-55630
a = 1680-4 3-22540
We have the same value of a as above.
TRIGONOMETRY.
377
(side n — 800 ) „ • i .i ,
, SB IV. Given ! side b = Mi [ ®eq“irned the “S'85
( side c = 320 J A’^ L-
2)1682
Logs.
s = |(ct + i + c) — 841 7-07620 Ar. comp. log.
s — a= 41 1-61278
s — b = 279 2-44560
c = 521 2-71684
2)3-85042
M  1-92521
R 10-00000
RM
s — a
RM
s — 6
RM
RM 11-92521
= tan. 4 A 10-312431 A= 64° R 55"
rr tan.4 B 9-4796HR-16 47 23
= tan. 1C 9-208371 C= 9 10 41
Verification 89 59 59.
I nee the angles come out
A = 128° 3' 50" B — 33° 34’ 46", C = 18° 21' 22".
Te verification shows the correctness of the result.
Various applications of trigonometry have been given in
J .nsuration and Navigation ; to these we refer the
r der for more examples in the calculation of triangles.
Part II.-—Spherical Trigonometry.
1. In our treatise on Geometry we have defined a
mmid (Sect. xi. Def. 6). The most simple solid of this
kid is the triangular pyramid, or tetraedron, contained by
fir plane triangles, or faces, each of which has a side com-
Bn with the other three. The angles of these form four
si d angles. Each of the solid angles presents for our con-
seration six plane angles; namely, the three angles about
t solid angle, and the three angles made by the planes of
t faces, which are so related, that any three of them being
gen, the other three may be found. The investigation of
1 mulae which furnish rules by which this may be accom-
p shed, forms the object of what is to follow.
2- In the calculus of sines, the things considered are plane
a ,rles. If two of these be inward angles of a triangle, and
t third the outward and opposite angle, our formula for
t sines, tangents, &c. of the sum and difference of two
a lies (Algebra) will express relations among the angles
( i plane triangle. We are now to investigate formulae
j-dogous to these, which shall involve the angles of a pyra-
i hi. Although the calculus which* treats of angles made
I straight lines in a plane may be established independently
: « 11 circle, yet it is conducive to perspicuity to employ arcs
‘ circles as the measures of angles. This has led to the
1 asur‘ng of the angles of a pyramid by arcs of circles on
| surface oi a sphere whose centre is the vertex; then
angles made by the planes of its faces will be shown by the
-l ffes contained by tangents to the circles at their points
(intersection.
In treating of spherical trigonometry, we shall begin
explaining some properties of the sphere which depend
1 principles purely geometrical.
Definitions.
^ fhere is a solid figure generated by the revolution
senncnele about a diameter which remains unmoved.
V0L. XXL
if .f
S
II. 1 he diameter about which the semicircle turns, is the Spherical
axis of the sphere; and the point which is the middle of Trigono-
that diameter is the centre of the sphere. metry.
III. A straight line draw n from the centre to any point
in the surface of a sphere, is a radius of the sphere. It is
evident that all the radii are equal.
1 heohem I. Every section of a sphere made by a plane is
a circle.
Let ADBE be a sphere, and
DUE the curve line which is the
common section of its surface and
any plane. From O, the centre of
the sphere, draw OF perpendicular '
to the plane DHE, and draw- FFI
to any point in the curve DHE and
join OIL In the triangle OFH,
the angle OFH is a right angle ;
therefore FH = */(OH2 — OF2).
Now- the lines OH and OF are in¬
variable for all points in the curve DHE, therefore FII is
invariable, and the curve DHE is the circumference of a
circle whose radius is FH.
Def. IV. The common Fig. 2.
section of a sphere and any
plane that passes through
its centre, is a great circle
of the sphere. Let ADBE
be a sphere whose centre
is O ; the circle DFE, in
which any plane passing
through O meets the sphere,
is a great circle.
Cor. 1. All great circles
of the sphere are equal;
and any two great circles
mutually bisect each other.
Cor. 2. A great circle may pass through any two as¬
signed points on a sphere, which are not the extremities of
a diameter. For if straight lines be drawn from the centre
to the points, a plane may pass along these lines, and only
one plane, whose common section with the sphere will be a
great circle.
Def. V. The pole of a great circle is a point on the sur¬
face of the sphere, from which all straight lines drawn to the
circumference of the circle are equal.
Let DhE be a great circle, and O its centre; take D
and F any points in its circumference, join OD, OF, and
draw OA perpendicular to the plane of the circle, meeting
the surface of the sphere in A, and join AD, AF ; because
AO is perpendicular to the plane DFE, the angles AOD,
A OF are right angles; therefore AD =r AF, hence A is
the pole of the circle DFE.
Cor. Since a perpendicular to the plane of the circle
DFE through its centre must meet the sphere in two points ;
a great circle has two poles, A, B, which are the extremi¬
ties of a diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane
of the circle, and it can have no more.
Iheorem II. The arcs of a great circle between the poles
and the circumference of another great circle are qua¬
drants.
Let A and B be the poles of a great circle DFE, whose
centre is O ; let ADB be any other great circle that pas¬
ses through A and B and meets the circle DFE in E:
Because the poles of the circle DEF are at the extremities of
AB, the diameter of the sphere that is perpendicular to its
plane, the angles AOD, BOD are right angles, therefore
AD, BD, the arcs of the circle ADB, are quadrants.
Def. VI. A spherical angle is the angle on the surface
3 B
378 TRIGONOMETRY
Spherical of the sphere made by two great circles at their intersec-
Trisrono- . j^- js identical with the angle made by two sti aight
lines in the planes of the circles which touch them at their
trigono¬
metry.
intersection ; and it is also the same as the angle made by
the planes of the circles.
Let AEB, AFB, be two great circles that intersect each
other at A and B (Fig. 2). From O the centre of the
sphere, .and A the intersection of the circles, draw OF, and
AP in the plane of the circle AEB, and OF, AQ in the
plane of the circle AFB perpendicular to AB, the common
section of the circles; the straight lines AP, AQ, will
touch the circles at A, and form an angle PAQ, which is
the spherical angle at A ; and since FAQ is equal to LOr
(Geometry, Part ii. 10, 1), the inclination of the planes
of the circles, this last also expresses the spherical angle
at A. , _ . .
Cor. 1. The adjacent spherical angles which one great
circle makes with another, are together equal to two right
angles; and the vertical or opposite angles made by two
great circles which cut one another are equal.
Cor. 2. The spherical angle made by two great circles is
measured by an arc of a great circle whose pole is at their
intersection.
Def. VII. A spherical triangle is a figure on the surface
of the sphere comprehended by three arcs of great circles,
each of which is less than a semicircle.
If planes be supposed to pass along
the arcs AB, BC, AC, which are
the sides of the triangle; these will
pass through O, the centre of the
sphere, and form at that point a solid
angle O (Geometry, Def. vi. of Part
ii).
Fisr. 3.
Theorem III. Any two sides of a
spherical triangle are together greater
than the third; and the sum of the
arcs which are its sides is less than
the circumference of a great circle.
The arcs AB, AC, BC, are the measures of the plane
angles AOB, AOC, BOC, about the solid angle O. Now,
any two of these plane angles are greater than the third
(Geometry, Part ii. 16, 1), therefore any two sides of
the spherical triangle ABC is greater than the third : and
because the sum of the plane angles about the solid angle
is less than four right angles (17) ; therefore the sum of the
sides of the spherical triangle, which are their measures,
must be less than the sum of four quadrants, that is, less
than the circumference of a great circle.
Theorem IV. If about the angular points of a spherical
triangle, as poles, there be described three great circles
on the sphere; these by their intersections will form a
triangle which is said to be supplemental to the former;
and the two triangles are such, that the sides of the one
are the supplements of the arcs which measure the angles
of the other.
Let ABC be a spheri¬
cal triangle; let EF be
an arc of a great circle
whose pole is A, and FD
an arc of a great circle
whose pole is B, and DE
an arc of a great circle
whose pole is C; these
three arcs forming the
triangle DEF. Let DB
be an arc of a great circle
passing through the points
D, B, and DC an arc of a
great circle passing through the points D, C. Because B is
Fig:. 4.
the pole of the arc DF, the arc BD is a quadrant (Th. II,$
and because C is the pole of the arc DE, the arc CD is a 1
quadrant. Since then the arcs BD, CD, are both quadrants 1
D is the pole of a great circle that passes through the'v
points B, C; but only one great circle can pass through
two points on the sphere not directly opposite, therefore D
must be the pole of the arc BC. In the same way, it will
appear that E is the pole of the arc AC, and F the pole of
the arc AB. Produce the arcs AB, AC, if necessary, till
they meet the arc EF in G and H ; the point A beim’-
the pole of the arc GH, the angle A will be measured bv
GH. Now EH and FG being both quadrants, EH -f FG
— 180°; but EH FG — EF -j- GH, therefore EF q.
GH 180°, that is, EF, a side of the triangle DEF, is the
supplement of GH, the measure of the angle A. In the
very same way, it will appear that DF is the supplement of
the angle B, and DE the supplement of the angle C; and
because the triangle ABC may be formed from the triangle
DEF exactly in the same way that DEF is constructed
from ABC, namely, by describing great circles about the
angles D, E, F, as poles, the triangles and their relations to
each other may be interchanged. Hence it appears that BC,
AC, AB, the sides of the triangle ABC, are the supple¬
ments of D, E, F, the angles of the triangle DEF.
Theorem V.^ The three angles of any spherical triangle
are greater than two right angles, but less than six.
In the triangle ABC (fig. 4), the measures of the angles
A, B, C, together with DE, EF, DF, the sides of the sup¬
plemental triangle DEF, make six right angles. (Th. IV.)
Now the sum of the sides of the triangle DEF is less than
four right angles (Th. III.), therefore the sum of the three
angles A, B, C, is greater than tw'o right angles; and be¬
cause the three inward angles of any triangle, together with
the adjacent exterior angles, are equal to six right angles,
therefore the inward angles alone are less than six right
angles.
4. We might proceed in this way, establishing the whole
doctrine of spherical trigonometry by a series of synthe¬
tical demonstrations; such was the practice of the ear¬
lier writers)on this subject. This however has now given
way to a more convenient and elegant method of proceed¬
ing, which dispenses with complicated diagrams represent¬
ing on a plane surface circles on a sphere. It deduces by
the angular calculus the whole theory of spherical trigo¬
nometry (including also the theorems already here demon¬
strated) from a single proposition, in a manner probably
first followed out by Bertrand of Geneva in his Developpe-
merit nouveau de la Partie Elementaire des MathenmtiquH
(Geneva, 1778). Lagrange seems to have overlooked this
work, for in his elegant memoir, entitled Sjdutionsde rptelques
Problhnes relatifs aux Triangles Spheriques, avec une Ann-
Igse complete de ces Triangles, given in vol. ii. of Journal
de I’Ecole Polytechnique, he has attributed the theorem to
De Gua, who also gave it in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for 1783.
5. Our article on the Arithmetic of Sine- (Algebra,
sect. 25) is an example of what may be done by the p°''er
of analysis alone in deducing an extensive theory from a few
simple geometrical principles. Such is the way in whici
Lagrange and later writers treat of spherical trigonometiy
We shall also follow the method of Delambre, who, in
Astronomic Theorique et Pratique, chap, x., instead of nu
merous rules deduced from geometrical constructions, .nr
determining when angles or arcs are less or greater tmm
quadrants, considers their slues and cosines as positive m
negative quantities, according to the principles of ana y ^
geometry, as explained at article 225 in Algebra. 10
what has been there explained, it appears that,
(1.) A sine is positive when the arc is less than 1 >
but negative when the arc between 180° and 360 .
iff
m (2.) If an arc be taken negatively, its sine is negative in
nl. e first half of the circle, hut positive in the second.
( (3.) The cosine of an arc = 0 is unity: it is 0 when the
c rr 90°; between arc — 0 and arc — 90°, the cosine is
wtive, and between arc 90° and arc — 270° the co-
pe is negative, and between 270° and 360° it is positive.
positive and a negative arc have the same cosine, so that
5 a given cosine the arc may be taken either as positive or as
gative.
. sin. A , . ....
(4.) Since tan. A = — — A, the tangent is positive in the
Mil
TRIGONOMETRY.
hi
Fig. 5.
is. A’
st quadrant of the circle, because the sine and cosine
re both positive ; it is negative in the second, because the
:ie is positive and the cosine negative; it is positive in the
lird quadrant, because the sine and cosine are both nega-
Ll e; lastly, it is negative in the fourth quadrant, because
12 sine is negative and the cosine positive. The tangent
ir: 0 when the arc is 0 or 180°, and infinite when the arc
i90° or 270°.
(3.) When the arc is known, we can always give the tan-
:jnt the proper sign. If the arc x is not known, and we have
siply tan. x = a, it cannot be known whether the arc be
] sitive or negative ; if a be a positive number, the tangent
1 longs alike to two arcs, # and 180° + f a be e-
£tive, tan. a belongs to an arc between 90° and 180°, or
i tween 270° and 360°. The problem therefore admits of
to solutions.
But if tan. x — and that the two terms of the fraction
n
Pi! ;: positive, then x x- 90°. If m be positive and n nega-
te, # X 90° ; when m and n are both negative, x ^ 180° ;
1 tly, if»i be negative and n positive, x ^ 270°.
(6.) The rule of the signs for cotangents is the same as
J 1 i
Hffl 1 the tangents, since tan. x —  , or cot. x — .
cot. x tan. a;
(7.) The rule for the signs of secants is the same as
tit for cosines, seeing that sec. x=——.
cos. x
(8.) The rule for cosecants is the same as for sines, since
1
c;ec. x=   .
sin. x
(9.) When an arc is known, the sign of its sine is known;
11 when x, an unknown arc, is to be found from sin. x ~
'/the sine belongs alike to x and 180° — x, if a be posi-
t e; or to 180° q- x, and 360° — x, if a be negative.
(10.) When an arc a is known, the sign of its cosine is
! nwn ; but if we have cos. x — b, we do not know whether
be in the first or fourth quadrant if x is positive, or
] ether it be in the second or third when x is negative.
r Ie problem therefore has also, in this case, two solutions.
e nature of the problem may however determine that
J 'cb the algebraic rule leaves ambiguous. Delambre, in
j Astronomy, says, “ These rules are general, and easily
•fnembered, and never mislead a calculator ; while, on the
( Urary, the rules with which most w-riters have compli-
< ed trigonometry, are so perplexing that there is hardly
j a author that has not given false ones.” The rule of the
s ns " as long neglected by astronomers, on the known
I neiple that improvements come slowly into general use.
fi- Tet ABC be a spherical triangle, and let O be the
] ure of the sphere ; draw the radii OA, OB, OC. The
• i(l angle at O is contained by the three plane angles
B, BOC, AOC, and the measures are the arcs AB, BC,
-> which are the sides of the triangle ABC.
" ! ple P0!nt A in the plane AOB, draw AD touching the
Ab, and meeting the plane BOC in D ; and in the
‘ne AOC draw AE touching the arc AC, and meeting
• plane BOC in E. The angle DAE contained by the
Jgents AD, AE, is the same as the spherical angle BAG
e ’ V1v* Join the points D, E by a straight line, which
379
Spherical
Trigono¬
metry.
will be at once the base of the plane triangles DAE, DOE,
the vertices of which are joined by the line AO, a radius of
the sphere. We shall throughout make this line the unit,
and express it by 1. Let us now denote the sides and angles
of the spherical triangle ABC as follows.
The sides BC = a, AC = b, AB = c ;
The angles BAG = A, ABC = B, ACB - C.
We have now
AE — tan. b =
sin. b
cos. b
AD — tan. c zr
OE — sec. b —
OD = sec. c =
1
cos. V
1
cos. c
By plane trigonometry (Th. VIII.), in the plane triangle
ADE,
j-jP2 / — AF2 _p. AD2 —2 AE’AD cos. A,
^ = tan.2 b -j- tan.2 c — 2 tan. b tan. c cos. A ;
and in the triangle ODE, we have also
DE2 f= OE2 + OD2 — 2 OE-OD cos. a,
| = sec.2 b -f- sec.2 c— 2 sec. b sec. c cos. a.
Hence, subtracting the sides of the first of these equa¬
tions from the sides of the second, and considering that
sec.2 b — tan.2 6—1, sec.2 c — tan.2 e — 1, we have
0 — I l — 2 sec. b sec. c cos. a + 2 tan. b tan. c cos. A ;
and hence, again dividing the terms by 2, &c.
sec. b sec. c cos. « zz 1 tan. b tan. c cos. A ;
. . cos. a , . sin. b sin. c .
that is,  7 = 14   cos. A ;
cos. b cos. c cos. b cos. c
and multiplying both sides by cos. b cos. c,
cos. a — cos. b cos. c 4- sin. b sin. c cos. A.
This is the formula given by Bertrand, and it comprehends
in itself the whole principles of spherical trigonometry.
7. Since the same property must belong alike to the three
sides, we may interchange the letters which represent them
and the angles, and thus have
* I- . .
Cos. a — cos. b cos. c 4- sin. b sin. c cos. A...(l)
Cos. b — cos. a cos. c 4- sin. a sin. c cos. B...(2)
Cos. c — cos. a cos. b 4- sin. a sin. b cos. C...(3)
8. To deduce other formulas from these, we add and
subtract the first and second, and thus get
, , f (cos. b 4- cos. a) cos. c
cos. b 4- cos. a —' W , • 7 *\-
~ | 4- (sin. a cos. B 4- sin. b cos. A) sin. c,
j f (cos. b — cos. a) cos. c
cos. 6 — cos. « = < , >. „ A, •
\ 4- (sin. a cos. B — sm. b cos. A) sm. c;
and from these again, by transposing the first term on the
right-hand side,
rry \ /1 N f sin. a cos. B ) • „
(cos. i + cos. a) (1 - cos. c) = { + sin. 6 cos. A / 3 n‘ c'
f i \/i . \ f sin. a cos. B I •
(cos. b — cos. a) (I 4- cos. c) = j _ ghl> h cos> A | sin. c,
and taking the products of the corresponding sides, and
considering that 1 — cos.2 c — sin.2 c, we have, after divid¬
ing by sin.2 c,
cos.2 b — cos.2 a — sin.2 a cos.2 B — sin.2 b cos.2 A.
Now, since cos.2 b 4- sin.2 b — cos.2 a 4- sin.2 a,
we have cos.2 b — cos.2 a — sin.2 a — sin.2 6;
therefore, sin.2 a — sin.2 b zzsin.2 a cos.2 B — sin.2 b cos.2 A;
380
Spherical
Trigono¬
metry.
TRIGONOMETRY.
and sin.* a (1 —cos.2 B) = sin.* b (1 —cos.* A);
that is, sin.2 a sin.2 B = sin.2 b sin.2 A,
and sin. a sin. B = sin. b sin. A.
From this last, we form these three formulae,
II.
Sin. b _ sin. B
Sin. a sin. A
Sin. c sin. C
Sin. a sin. A'
Sin. b sin. B
Sin. c — sin. C'
•0).
.(2)
(3)
9. By No. 3 of formulae (I.)
cos. c — cos. a cos. b -j- sin. a sin. b cos. C,
therefore cos. b cos. c — cos. a cos.2 b
sin. a cos. b sin. b cos. C.
But by No. 1 of formulae I.
cos. b cos c — cos. a — sin. b sin. c cos. A ;
therefore cos. a—sin. b sin. c cos. A — cos. a cos.2 b
sin. a cos. b sin. b cos. C ;
and cos. a (I — cos.2 b) ~ sin. b (sin. c cos. A +
sin. a cos. b cos. C).
In this expression put sin.2 b for !•—cos.2 Z>, and divide
both sides by sin. b ; the result is
cos. a sin. b — sin. c cos. A -f- sin. a cos. b cos.
But by formula 2 of II. sin. c — S1---- sin. C ; therefore
J sin. A
, • • ^cos* A . in
cos. a sin. b — sm. a sin. L --  - 4- sm. a cos. o cos. L.
sin. A
Divide now by sin. a, and put cot. a for and cot. A for
sin. a
and there is obtained
sm. A
cot. a sin. b = cot. A sin. C cos. b cos. C.
By changing b into c and C into B, we have also
cot. a sin. c — cot. A sin. B -f- cos. c cos. B.
By treating these two formulae like those in articles 7
and 8, we obtain a class of six formulae, viz.
III.
Cot. a sin. b — cot. A sin. C -f- c°s- b cos. C (1)
Cot. a sin. c — cot. A sin. B -j- cos. c cos. B (2)
Cot. b sin. a = cot. B sin. C + cos. a cos. C (3)
Cot. b sin. c — cot. B sin. A -f cos. c cos. A (4)
Cot. c sin. a — cot. C sin. B + cos. a cos. B (5)
Cot. c sin. b — cot. C sin. A -f- cos. b cos. A (6)
In these formulae, the letters which represent the parts
of the triangle are not so symmetrically arranged, as in
the two former groups; and on that account they are less
easily remembered. This inconvenience will be obviated by
attention to the following remarks.
(1.) Both members of each formula begin with the pro¬
duct of a cotangent and a sine.
(2.) The first member is formed from any two of the
three side$, and the first term of the second member con¬
tains an angle opposite to one of these, and the angle op¬
posite to the side which is not in the first member.
(3.) I he last term of the second member is formed bv
the two cosines of the same arcs of which the sines are al¬
ready in the equation.
10. Resuming equation (w) in the preceding article, viz.
cos. a sin. b — sin. a cos. b cos. C -f sin. c cos. A,
change a into b and b into a, also A into B, and we have
sin. a cos. b = sin. b cos. a cos. C -f sin. c cos. 15 ;
and multipling both sides by cos. C,
sin.a cos. b cos. C — sin. b cos. a cos.2 C -}- sin. c cos. B cos. C.
This value of sin. a cos. b cos. C being substituted in the
former equation, it becomes
cos. a. sin. b — sin. b cos. a cos.* C ^
sin. c (cos. B cos. C -f- cos. A),
and by transposing the first term of the second side, t:
cos. o, sin. b ( 1 —cos.2 C) = sin. c (cos. B cos. C -f cos. A). * •
that is, cos. a sin. b sin.2 C = sin. c (cos. B cos. C -f cos. A).
Now by (3) of formulae II., sin. b sin. C = sin. c sin. B
therefore this last expression being substituted in the first
side of the equation instead of its equal, and both sides be¬
ing divided by sin. c, we have
cos. a sin. B sin. C = cos. B cos. C -J- cos. A.
And by treating the expression just found, as we did those
in articles 7, 8, 9, we have these formulae:
IV.
Cos. A — —cos. B cos. C -j- sin. B sin. C cos. a (1)
Cos. B == — cos. A cos. C + sin. A sin. C cos. b (2)
Cos. C — — cos. A cos. B sin. A sin. B cos. c (3)
11. The sides of a spherical triangle being still denoted
by a, b, c, and its angles by A, B, C, let A', B', C',
and a', b', d, be arcs or angles, such that
a + A' — 180°, 6 + B' = 180°, c + C' = 180°;
A + a' = 180°, B + &' = 180°, C + d = 180°.
Then we have
cos. a — — cos. A', cos. b =■ — cos. B', cos. c — — cos. Cv,
sin. a = sin. A', sin. b = sin. B', sin. c =■ sin. C';
cos. A = — cos. a', cos. B — — cos. 6', cos. C = —cos.c',
sin. A rr sin. a', sin. B = sin. b', sin. C = sin. c.'
Let these values of the sines and cosines of a, b, c and
A, B, C be substituted in formulae I. and IV.; they then
become
cos. A' = —cos. B' cos. C' -j- sin. B' sin. C' cos. a',
cos. B' = — cos. A' cos. C' -f- sin. A' sin. C' cos. b1,
cos. C = —cos. A' cos. B' -j- sin. A' sin. B' cos. c*;
cos. a' — cos. b' cos. d -{- sin. b' sin. d cos. A',
cos. b' — cos. a! cos. d -}- sin. a' sin. d cos. B',
cos. d — cos. a! cos. br sin. a' sin. b' cos. C'.
Hence, from I. and IV., if the arcs b’, d be taken as the
sides of a spherical triangle, then the arcs A', B', C' must
necessarily be the measures of its angles; thus we have
proved analytically our fourth theorem, which has been de¬
monstrated in article 3, from considerations purely geome¬
trical. This theorem, which has been known for two
centuries past, may be expressed thus: Amy spherical tri¬
angle may be changed into another of which the sides and
angles are respectively the supplements of the angles and
sides of the first. This is the supplement or polar triangle.
12. The four sets of for¬
mulae which have been in¬
vestigated in articles (6),
(7), (8), (9), (10), are
sufficient for resolving all
cases of spherical triangles.
When one of the angles is
a right angle, they become
more simple. We shall now
adapt them to that case.
Fig. 6.
Right-Angled Spherical Triangles.
Let us suppose that A rr 90°, then cos. A and cot. A
are each — 0, and sin. A rr 1.
From 1 and 2 of form. I. cos. a rr cos. 6 cos. c.
From 1 and 2 of II.
From 1 and 2 of III.
From 4 and 6 of III.
sin. B rr
sin. C zr
sin. a
cot. a sin. 6 rr cos. b cos. C,
cot. a sin c rr cos. c cos.
cot. b sin. c rr cot. B,
cot. c sin. b rr cot. C.
rical
f cos. B cos. C = sin. B sin. C cos. a,
mo-. From IV ^ cos. B = sin. C cos. b,
ry. ( cos. C — sin. B cos. c.
By considering that the cotangent of an arc is the reci-
rocal of the tangent, and that the tangent is equal to the
ne divided by the cosine, we now obtain these ten for-
uilaj for right-angled triangles, in which A is the right angle.
V.
Cos. a = cos. b cos. c   (1)
„ sin. b . „ sin. c
Sin. B = _Tr-7., sin. C ~  (2) (3)
TRIGONOMETRY.
381
Cos. B =
Tan. B
sin. a
tan. c
tan. a
tan. b
cos. C =:
tan. C =
sin. a
tan. b
tan. a
tan. c
•W (5)
■(6) (7)
sin. V
Cos. a — cot. B cot. C (8)
cos. B cos.C nm
CoS. b =   77, cos. c — .  (9) (19)
sin. C’
13. These ten formulae, which
sin. B
may however be
ex-
jessed in words by six, are of continual use in astronomy.
is therefore desirable that they should be comprehended
i the fewest number possible of practical rules, simple
id easily remembered. Such were found by Napier, the
ventor of logarithms, and are known by the name ot
'apiers Rules of the Circular Parts. They are not new
opositions, but are merely enunciations, wdiich, by aparti-
ilar arrangement and classification of the parts of a tri-
igle, include all the six proportions. They are perhaps
e happiest example of artificial memory that is known.
In a right-angled spherical triangle ABC, setting aside
e right angle A, there remain the sides AC ~ b and AB
c about the right angle ; the hypotenuse BC — a, and
e two oblique angles B, C. The first two of these, viz.
e sides b, c, and the complements of the remaining three,
i. 90° — a, 90° — B, 90° — C, are called the five circu-
r parts. They are called circular, because, when taken
their order, they go round the triangle.
Fig. 7.
IT When one of the five circular parts is taken as the
iddle part, the two next to it, one on each side, are called
e adjacent parts; and the other two, each of which is se¬
dated from the middle by an adjacent part, are called the
>posite parts.
^Ihus, if 90° — a be the middle part, 90° — C and
1° — B are the adjacent parts, and b and c the opposite
uts * it 90° — B be the middle part, 90° — a and c are
le adjacent parts, and 90° — C and b are the opposite
jrts ? and if c be the middle part, 90° — B and b are the
jjacent parts, and 90° — a and 90° — C the opposite
l9s; and so on.
1 his arrangement being made, the rule of the circular
11 k is contained in the following proposition :
R
i. (90° — «) j Z tan'
or R
“{=
The rectangle under radius and the sine of the middle Spherical
part, is equal to the rectangle under the tangents of the adja- Trigono-
cent parts ; also to the rectangle under the cosines of the op- inetry‘
posite parts. '
It may assist the memory if we represent the middle
part by the letter M, the adjacent parts by the letters A,
«, and the opposite parts by the letters O, o ; the rule will
stand thus:
R • sin. M tan. A • tan. a ; R • sin. M = cos. O • cos. 0.
15. To verify the rule, let 90° — a, the complement of
the hypotenuse, be the middle part; then 90° — C, and
90° — B will be the adjacent, and 6, c the opposite parts;
and by the rule,
(90°-—B) tan. (90°—C)
cos. b cos. c;
cot. B cot. C. This is form. (8)
cos. b cos. c This is form. (1)
Let 90° — B, the complement of one of the oblique an¬
gles, be the middle part, then 90° — a and care the adjacent
parts, and 90° — C and b the opposite. The rule gives
R • cos R I = cot‘ a tan- c Form- (4> 5)
| = sin. C cos. b Form. (9, 10)
Let b, one of the sides about the right angle, be the
middle part, then 90° — C and c will be the adjacent parts,
and 90° —a and 90° — B the opposite parts. In this
case, by the rule,
=: cot. C tan. c  Form. (6, 7)
sin. a sin. B  Form. (2, 3)
These are all the cases of right-angled triangles.
In applying the rule of the circular parts to resolve any
case of right-angled triangles, consider which of the three
quantities named (the two things given and the one re¬
quired) must be made the middle term, in order that the
other two may be equidistant from it, that is, may be
both adjacent or both opposite; then the one or the other
of the theorems which constitute the rule will give the
value of the thing required.
Suppose, for example, that c a side about the right angle,
and a the hypotenuse, are given to find the angle C. It
appears that if c be made the middle part, then 90° — a
and 90° — C are the opposite parts; and therefore that
R • sin. c = sin. a sin. C, and sin. a : sin. c — R : sin. C.
16. Delambre has avowed that he found it easier to re¬
member the six formulae for right-angled triangles than to
apply Napier’s rules. In astronomy, the sun’s longitude
(©) is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, of which
the right ascension (^R) and declination (D) are the
sides about the right angle, the obliquity of the ecliptic (w)
is one of the oblique angles. Let the other oblique angle
be denoted by A, then the six formulae for right-angled
spherical triangles adapted to astronomical calculation will
stand thus:
Sin. D — sin. w sin. 0,
tan. JR = cos. m tan. ©,
R • sin. b
{ =
tan.
cos.
cos.
cos.
D
©
O
A
— tan. oi sin. JR,
= cos. JR cos. D,
= cot. to cot. A,
sin. w cos. JR.
The practical astronomer, who has continual occasion to
use the first four of these formulae, will find no difficulty in
retaining them in his memory. But Napier’s rules will
probably be most easily remembered by students of that
science.
17. The general formulae, I., II., III., IV., serve for
all spherical triangles ; but they admit of transformations,
which make them more convenient for logarithmic calcu¬
lation.
Resuming the formulae, (I.) wre put the first under these
two forms.
382
TRIGONOMETRY.
Spherical Cos.ozz (cos.5cos. c — sin.Z»sin.c)4-sin.5sin.c(l -f-cos.A),
Trisrono- Cos.« —(cos. 6cos. c + sin.6 sin.c) — sin.Z»sin.c(l —cos. A).
metry~ Now, by the calculus of sines (Algebra, articles 239
v ^ and 248),
Cos. b cos. c — sin. b sin. c — cos. (b + c),
Cos. b cos. c -J- sin. b sin. c zr cos. {b — c),
1 + cos. A = 2 cos.2 i A, 1 — cos. A = 2 sin.2 JA.
Hence, by substituting, we get
Cos. o~ cos. (&+ c) -f- 2 sin. b sin. c cos.2 ^ A,
Cos. a = cos. (b — c) — 2 sin. b sin. c sin.2 fj A ;
and transposing, and observing that by the calculus of sines
(Algebra, art. 240),
Cos. a — cos. (b + c)= 2 sin4 (a-\-b + c)sin4 (b +c—a)’
Cos. (b —c) — cos.a= 2 sin4 (# + c — ^) sin- } (« + ^ — c)>
we have
Sin. 6 sin. c cos.2 1 A — sin. ^ (a -f- b -)-c) sin. ^ (& + c — a),
Sin. b sin. c sin.2 J A = sin. | (a c — b) sin. (a + ^ — C)1
To abridge, let us put ^(a-{-6 + c)=:s;
then | (b -j- c — «);=$-
Ha + c — b) = s-
l(a + b—c)=s
■ a,
-b,
We have now cos.2 ^A :=
sin. (s
sin.2 ^A =
sin. s sin. (s— a)
sin. b sin. c ’
b) sin. (s — c)
sin. b sin. c
There are expressions exactly like these for the squares
of the cosines and sines of the halves of the angles B, C ;
and from the whole we obtain
i. 5 sin. (s — a)
Cos.lA= /S • , •
V sm. o sm. c
sin. s sin. (s —
Cos.'JB
=/
coS.4c=y^
s)
sm. a sin. c
sin. s sin. (s — c)
sin. a sin. b
> >
....(a)
Sm.jA=
*** sin. b sin. c
sin. (s—a) sin.(s — c) >
sin. o sin.c ’
/sin. (s —a) sin. (^— b)
sin. a sin. b
Sin.^Brz^/
Sin.^C = y
sin.2 A
18. Because tan.2 4A — —VG ? therefore
cos.2 ^ A’
tan.2 |-A
sin. (s— b) sin. (s — c)
— sin.« sin. (s — a)
sin. (s — a) sin. (s — b) sin, (s — c)
1C. Thus we have these three formulae:
tan. ^A
M
sin.(s-
-x, tan. hB .
a) a sm. (^
M
M
■by
tan. JC r= ——, v
a sm. (s — c)
!> •••(7)
J
Sin. = /
Sin. jjb —
sin. B sin. C
cos. S cos. (S -
B)
Sin. |c
=y
sin. A sin. C
— cos. S cos. (S — C)
sin. A sin. B
, |> ...(a')
cos. (S — B) cos. (S — C)
sin. B sin. C
cos. (S — A) cos. (S — C)
sin. A sin. C
/ cos. (S — A) cos. (S — B)
COS. 77 C — ^ / “ ■; 7 . -j-x •
2 V sin. A sm. 15
“ia=y
‘•i*=y
sin.2 (s—a) s111-5
yf sin.(5—a) sin. (s — b)s\n.(s — c) 1
\ —  * sin.   /»
and it is observable that in this expression the sides a, b, c
M
enter exactly alike. We have now tan. JA ~ ^ By
putting B and b, also C and c, successively, instead of A
and «, we find like expressions for the tangents of IB and
sin. A sin. B
20. Dividing now the cosines of the halves of the sides
by their sines, thereby getting expressions for the tangents,
and proceeding as in article 18, putting1;
/ ( cos. (S — A) cos. (S — B) cos. (S — C)1
M'=*y \ i’
we have these formulae:
(/)
M' i, M'
Cot. la= ro cot. ±b =
cos. (S — A)’
cos. (S — B)
cot.
M'
The formulae in this and the preceding article are ex¬
actly like those found for the angles of plane triangles.
Those for the tangents of half the angles (which we be¬
lieve to be given in this form for the first time) seem to be
most convenient for use in all cases. In using the others,
if half the angle sought be nearly a quadrant, its cosine
cos. (S — C)
The sum of the three angles of a spherical triangle al
ways exceeds two right angles; therefore S, half their surn,
exceeds a quadrant; and hence cos. S will be a nega'
quantity, and — cos. S will be positive, and its square root
a real quantity. ,, , »Hat
In astronomical calculations, it very seldom happen
the angles are wanted, from the three sides Being given-
21. Becurring to the formulae (a), (/3) of article 1 >
deduce from them the following equations.
Sin, 4B cos. |C_ sin, (s — c)_ sin. (a +
sin. a ~ sin. a
-b)
cos. ^ A
Sin. ^Ccos.^B
sin.(.s — b) sin.
cos. 4 A
sm. a
sin.«
ought to be sought rather than its sine; and the reverse, Spy
if the angle be small. ’
19. We may treat our fourth group of formulae, of which "Wr
the first is
Cos. A — — cos. B cos. C -j- sin. B sin. C cos.
in all respects as we have the first, putting it under these
forms:
Cos. A = — (cos. B cos. C — sin. B sin. C)
— sin. B sin. C (1 — cos. a),
Cos. A = — (cos. B cos. C + sin. B sin. C)
-j- sin. B sin. C (1 + cos. a) ;
from which we have, by the calculus of sines (Algebra,
art. 239), &c.
Cos. A + cos. (B + C) = — sin. B sin. C (l_cos.a),
Cos. A + cos. (B — C) = sin. B sin. C (1 cos. a).
Now
Cos.A -f cos.(B-j-C)— 2 cos4( A+B+C) cos4(B -f C—A),
Cos. A + cos. (B—C)— 2 cos4( A + C—B) cos.(Aq-B—C),
1 — cos. a — 2 sin.2 \a, 1 -f- cos. a —2 cos.2 \a.
Therefore, putting
S rr e (A B C),
so that S — A — |(B-1-C — A),
S —B= i(A + C —B),
S —C=|(A + B — C),
we have
Sin. B sin. C sin.2 \a — cos. S cos. (S — A),
Sin. B sin. C cos.2 = cos. (S — B) cos. (S — C).
There are like expressions which involve the squares of
the sines and cosines of \b and \c, from all which we de¬
duce
cos. S cos. (S — A)
TRIGONOMETRY
Cos. i B_cos4C
sin. ^ A
Sin. JB sin.^C
2^ 
sin. s
sin. a
sin. — a)
 2
1 (a 4- ^ +c)
sin. a
sin. ^ + c •
0
>A
sin. a
sin. a
3y adding and subtracting the sides of these equations,
ail observing that
iin. £B cos. }2C dh sin. cos. “ sin. ] (B z±z C),
os. iB cos. JC qp sin. ,^B sin. }2 C = cos. }2 (B =±= C),
Si-1 (a + 6—<■) + sin. }2 (a + c—6) = 2 sin. ^ « cos. }2(b—c),
S (a+ b —o) —sin. £(«-(-c—6) := 2cos.^a sin.-|(A—c),
S . i («+i + c) — sin. }2(b + c—a)=2 sin. |a cos. ^ (b + c),
s • K^+c+a)+sin‘ +c—a) — ~cos- 2a s^n- 5 +6‘)>
Sin. a — 2 sin. cos.
has been proved in Algebra, articles 240 and 247),
obtain the following results :
(3)
Sin. £(B -f- C)_ cos. (b — c)
iA
cos.
Sin. |( B — C)_ sin. -K^ — c)
cos. I-A
Cos. 4(B + C)
sin.
cos. 1(6 + c)
 (1)
 C2)
 (3)
 (4)
sin.^A cos.
Cos. ^(B — C)__ sin. 1 (6 -f- c)
sin. 1A — sin. -|a
i hese formulae were first given by Gauss, in his work
Heoria Molus Corpori/m Ccdestium.
!2. Let us now divide the sides of formula (1) by those
olformula (3), also the sides of ( 2) by the sides of (4),
aii the sides of (4) by the sides of (3), and, lastly, the
sirs of (2) by the sides of (1) ; and put tan. in the results
® iriead of —also cot. instead of
(0
cos. (6
cos.
we then have
c)
cos. + c)
sin. Ub — c')
Tan. |(B 4- C)
cot. ^ A
Tan.i(B—C)_
cot. |A — sin. -1(6 4- c) 
Tan. 5(6 4- <?)_ cos. l (B— C)
tan. \a ~ cos. ^ (B 4- C)
Tan. 1(6 — c) sin. 1 (B — C)
tan.
..(1)
.(2)
.(3)
.(4)
sin. ^ (B 4> C)
I These formulae, expressed in wTords as proportions, are
mmonly called Napier s analogies. He however only
gje the last in the concise form which it here presents. The
t d, as he left it, had two common divisors in the terms
ota ratio, which he overlooked. His commentator Briggs
r toved the defect, and, in addition, deduced the first
ail second formulae from the third and fourth by the
tl'orem here demonstrated in art. 11. Thus he is en-
fpd to share with Napier in the honour of having dis-
- ered these very elegant properties of spherical triangles.
Trom the first and second of these formulae, there is
h nd, by division, this other formula:
(4)
•I
Tan. ^(B 4-JT) _ tan. ^(6 4- c)
Tan.^(B — C) ”" tan. ^(6 — c) ’
fhis formula is also due to Napier.
f3. There are some properties of spherical triangles which
y be more concisely proved by the formulae than by
{jpmetrical reasoning. Such are those which follow’.
!• In a spherical triangle, the greater angle is opposite
I t the greater side, and conversely.
hat a, 6, c be the sides of a spherical triangle, and B, C
1 ‘ angles opposite to the sides 6, c. It appears from for-
1 la (2) of 5, article 21, that
) 2 * *
COS. A(Z
Sin.lfB —C)
Sin. ^(6 — c)
The second member of this equation is always a positive'
quantity, therefore the first must also be positive. This
can only be true on the hypothesis that when 6 is greater
than c, then B is also greater than C. The truth of the
converse follows from the same principle.
II. The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are
equal, and conversely.
For we have
Cos. z2a sin. ^ (B — C) — cos. | A sin. ^ (6 — c).
When b — c, the second side of the equation becomes
~ 0, therefore the first side must also be rr 0. This re¬
quires that B = C. The converse follows from the same
formula.
III. Any two sides of a spherical triangle are together
greater than the third.
It appears from article 17, that
c,. .. N sin. 6 sin. c cos.2 i A
Sin. i(6 4- c — a) — j———1—2-..
2 1 ‘ ' sin. ^ (a 4- 6 4- c)
The second side of this equation is always a positive
quantity, therefore the first must also be positive. This
requires that 6 4- c be in every case greater than a. This
proposition has been otherwise proved geometrically, Theo¬
rem III.
IV. We have found (article 21) that
Cos. (6 4- c) sin. ^A — cos. ^ (B 4" C) cos.
Now sin. -JA and cos. are always positive, because
each arc is less than a quadrant. Therefore cos. j?(b -f- c)
and cos. ^ (B 4- C) have always the same sign ; and hence
^(6 4- c) and ^ (B -f- C) are of the same affection, and
B 4- C, 6 4- c, either both less than a semicircle, or both
equal to it, or both greater.
V. The hypotenuse a of a right-angled spherical triangle
is less or greater than 90°, according as the sides 6, c, about
the right angle A, are of the same affection, or of different
affection ; that is, in the former case, both less or both
greater than 90° ; and in the latter, one less and the other
greater than 90°.
This follow's immediately from the formula cos. a —
cos. 6 cos. c (art. 12) ; for if 6 and c be both less than 90°
or both greater, they have like signs, and their product has
the sign 4"5 which indicates that a is less than 90°. If one
of the two 6, c be less and the other greater than 90°, they
will have different signs, and the sign of their product will
be —, and a must be greater than 90°.
VI. The same rule applies to each of the sides 6, c ; for
6 will be less than 90° if a and c be of the same affection,
but greater than 90° if a and c are of different affection.
VII. The formula cos. a — cot. B cot. C shows that the
hypotenuse a will be less than 90° when B and C are of
the same affection, but greater than 90° if they be of dif¬
ferent affection.
VIII. Also, that either of the angles B, C, will be less
than 90° if a and the other angle be of the same affection,
but greater than 90° if they be of different affection.
IX. The formula cos. B =r cos. 6 sin. c shows that the
angle B and the opposite side 6 are always of the same af¬
fection.
X. The formula tan. c — tan. a cot. B shows that the
hypotenuse a and either side c are of the same affection if
the angle they contain be acute, but of different affection
if the angle be obtuse.
XI. Lastly, the formula tan. 6 — sin.c tan. B proves that
the side and the opposite angle are always of the same
affection.
XII. In any spherical triangle ABC, draw AD an arc
of a great circle perpendicular to the base BC, thus form¬
ing two right-angled triangles ADC, ADB, which have
383
Spherical
Trigono¬
metry.
334
Spherical a common side AD. We have
Trigono-' (avt. ]3) tan. AD — tan. C sin.
t ^ __ tan_ y gin> }3i3 . hence tlie
angles ACD, ABD, are either
both acute or both obtuse. If’
therefore ACB and ABC be of
the same affection, the perpendi¬
cular falls within the triangle
ABC ; but if the angles ACB' and d
AB'C are of contrary affection,
TRIGONOMETRY.
Case V. Given a side b with the adjacent angle C to
find the hypotenuse a, the side c, and the angle B. These T4 :
are to be found by (4, 5), (6, 7), (9, 10).
Tan. a
tan. b
cos. C
cos. B =
Solution.
R, tan. c —
b sin.
sin. b tan. C
R '
C
n'
R
the perpendicular falls without the triangle AB C.
Solution of Right-Angled Triangles.
Case VI. Given the two oblique angles B, C, to find the
hypotenuse a, and the sides b, c. T hese are found by (8)
(9, 10).
Solution.
, . , . .. „ cot. B cot. C
A spherical triangle may have one right angle, or it Cos. a — ^
may have two, or three. If it have two right angles, the
sides opposite to these will be quadrants, and the third the
measure of the remaining angle. If it have three right
angles, it will be equilateral, and its sides quadrants. We
shall set aside these cases, and consider only that in which
one of the angles is a right angle, and the other two ob¬
lique, which may be either acute or obtuse. The side op¬
posite to the right angle is named the hypotenuse.
The solutions are to be derived from the formulae in art.
12; and as in the investigations, to abridge, the radius was
supposed to be the unit, we shall in the rules express it as 24.
in the formulae of plane trigonometry by the letter R. blem.
Case I. Given the hypotenuse a and b, one of the sides
Problem. Let M, N, P be given quantities, and x an
about the right angle, to find the other side c, and the unknown arc or angle ; it is proposed to find x from this
oblique angles B, C. These are to be found from formulae equation :
(1), (2, 3), (4, 5).
Solution.
sin. b
Cos. c —
cos. a
R, sin. B
R, cos.
c = “"--R.
tan. a
cos. b ' sin. a
If a and b be of the same affection, then c must be less than
a quadrant, and also the measure of the angle C. But if a
and b be of different affection, then the side c and the angle
c must be both greater than quadrants. The angle B and
the side b will be of the same affection.
Case II. Given the sides b and c about the right angle,
to find the hypotenuse a, and the angles B, C. Here the
formulae to be used are (1), (6, 7).
Solution.
_ cos. b cos. c „ tan. b T. „ tan. c
Cos. „ , tan. B = — R, tan. C = . , R.
R sm. c sin. o
In all the cases it must be considered whether the arcs
found be less or greater than quadrants, by the algebraic
signs + or —, which belong to the given arcs and angles
as expressed in article 5.
Case III. Given the hypotenuse a, and an oblique angle
B, to find the sides b, c, and the other oblique angle C. I he
formulae to be employed are (2, 3), (4, 5).
Solution.
Now tan.
<P =
v sin. <p
•0)
M
P P
and sin. (x + f) — jyj s*n* P — cos‘ ^ ^
Thus (p and x = (x -\- $) — 9 are both determined.
The assumptions tan. <p or cot. p are evidently always
possible, since an arc p may be found whose tangent or co¬
tangent shall have any real value whatever.
Sin. b
sin. a sin. B
R ’
COS. Q
tan. c —
tan. a cos.B
R ’
tan. b
tan. a
R.
Case IV. Given a side b and the opposite angle B, to
find the hypotenuse a, the side c, and the angle C. This
is resolved by (2, 3), (6, 7), (9, 10).
Solution.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Sin. a —
R, sin. c —
tan. b
R, sin. C zz
cos. B
- R.
sin. B tan. B ~ ' cos. b
In this case each of the things required has two values,
because an arc and its supplement have the same sine.
Hence two disdnct triangles may be found from the same
data; this is called the ambiguous case of right-angled
spherical triangles.
/ cos. B cos. C
cos. b — ——- R, cos. c = p
sm. C sin. B
In addition to what has been said in regard to the arcs
or angles sought being less or greater than quadrants, it
may be useful to remember, that when the thing to be
found by the formulae is either a tangent or a cosine, and
when of the tangents or cosines employed in its computa¬
tion, one only is an obtuse angle, the angle required is also
obtuse. In what follows we shall consider R — 1.
Oblique-Angled Spherical Triangles.
Before entering on these, we shall resolve this pro-
M cos. .r -f- N sin. a? P.
Let us assume M — v cos. p, N = v sin. p ; where v de¬
notes a number, and p an angle, both to be determined.
Our equation may now be expressed thus.
v (cos. p cos. x -J- sin. p sin. a;) P ;
P
hence v cos. (x — p) P, and cos. (a; — p) —
V COS. P iVl
antl v -  
— cos. p~ sin. p‘
P P
Therefore cos. (a?—■£>) = ^ cos. p z= sin. p....('2)
The' angle p is determined by the first equation, and
the angle (x — p) by the second ; therefore x = (x — <f)
p is found.
If we assume M := r sin. p, and N — v cos. p, we have
v (sin. p cos. x -p cos. p sin. x) — P,
and v sin. (a; -f p) = P;
N
then cot. — (1)
TRIGONOMETRY.
385
[ 25. There are six cases of oblique-angled triangles,
•iich may be resolved by the formulae which have been
ivestigated ; but in some cases they will be modified so
■% to adapt them to logarithmic calculation.
Case I. Given the three sides a, b, c, to find the angles
B, C.
'Solution. Find s —
/ f sin. (a —
= v i 
M
%(a b c),
■ a) sin. (s •— b) sin. (a
I
then
M
Tan. |-A = .—, ,,
" sin. (s — a)
tan. rr
M
(s-by
Tan. |C=
M
sin. (s — c)‘
* This solution has been found in article 18.
Blase II. Given two sides a and b, and the angle A op-
jqite.
T.) The angle B may be found from formula II. thus :
sin. A sin.&
Sin. B =
sin. a
P The affection of F» is ambiguous, unless it can be de-
ttmined by the rule A -f- B is greater or less than 180°,
affording as a + 6 is greater or less than 180° (art. 23).
’ 2.) The side c is to be found from this equation :
[cos. b~\ cos. c + [sin. b cos. A] sin. c — cos. a.
Comparing this with the equation of art. 24, viz. M cos. a:
N sin. x = P, we have
M = cos. b, N = sin. b cos. A, P = cos. a ;
ad following the analysis by which the angle % has been
t re determined, we find that if
Tan. <p — tan. b cos. A,
then cos. (c — f) =
cos. a cos.
cos. b
cos. a sm. <p
sin. b cos. A'
The first value of cos. (c — p) being the more simple, is
t'lbe used. The arcs c — tp and <p being now' both known,
o; known.
3. To find the angle C, we have, from formula III.,
[cos. b~] cos. C + [cot. A] sin. C =: cot. a sin. b.
T re, referring to article 24, we have M — cos. b, N=cot. A,
lib cot. a sin. b; therefore, assuming
Tan.
<p =
cot. A
'flu have
cos.
b'
P* /p . cot. a sin. ft sin. <2>
ife • os. (L — p) — cot. a tan. b cos. <z — r 
r cot. A
1' rom either of these formulai the angle C is determined.
Jase III. Given the sides a, b, with the included angle
( to find the angles A, B, and side c.
I) dhe angles A, B, may be found from two of Na¬
ff s analogies in article 22. Thus we have
Ta„.HA+B) = co,lC-^A£=§),
^(A-B) = co„JC$^)
Having now half the sum and half the difference of the
* ,des A and B, each may be found by a known pro-
i >s. They may be otherwise found, by subsidiary angles,
«m formula I.
(2.) The side c is to be found from the equation
[cos. a] cos. b + [sin. a cos. C] sin. b — cos. c.
Here we have M — cos. a, N sin. a cos. C, P zr cos. c;
we therefore make tan. <p — tan. a cos. C.
v cos. c cos. ®
?)=
Then cos. (b
and hence cos. c = c°^-co8lff-?).
XXI.
COS.
Case I\. T wo angles A and B, and c the side between Spherical
them, are given, to find the sides a, b, and angle C. Trigono-
(1.) The sides a, b may be found from Napier’s formu- metry*
lae, article 22, thus,
Tan. 1 (a -{- 6)
tan. ^ c
cos. (A — B)
Tan. ^ (a — b) ~ tan. ^ c
sm.
sin.
cos. | (A + B)’
i(A-B)
4 (A + B)
Half the sum and half the difference of the sides a, b being
found, each is thereby determined.
(2.) The angle C is found from the formula
[sin. A cos. c] sin. B — [cos. A] cos. B — cos. C.
Here M sin. A cos. c, N = cos. A, P — cos. C.
We now' assume
Cot. <p — tan. A cos. c.
rp, . /T> x cos. C sin. <p
Ihensin.(B — p) = r
and cos. C =
cos. A ’
A sin. (B — p)
sin. p
Case V. Tw'o angles A, B and a side a opposite to one
of them, are given, to find the sides 6, c, and the angle C.
(1.) The side b is found by this formula :
S:n b S*n‘ a S*n’ ^
sin. A
(2.) The side c is found by this formula:
[cot. «] sin. c— [cos. B] cos. c — cot. A sin. B.
Here M zr cot. a, N = cos. B, P — cot. A sin. B
therefore assume
„ cot. a
Cot. p ~
we
cos. B’
and have sin. (c — <p) — cot. A tan. B sin. p.
(3.) The angle C is found from the formula
[sin. B cos. a] sin. C — [cos. B] cos. C = cos. A.
Here M r= sin. B cos. a, N — cos. B, P rz cos. A.
We assume cot. <p — tan. B cos. a
, . cos. A sin. p
(C — P) =
Then sin.
cos. B
Case VI. Given the three angles A, B, C, to find the
sides a, b, c.
Ihe solution of this case has been found in art. 19.
Find S z= i (A + B + C),
and M' =. / 4 cos. (S — A) cos. (S —B) cos.(S —C) \.
cos. S j ’
M' . . . M'
Then cot.
cos. (S— A)’
cot. 4 b
cot. ^ cz=
M'
(cos. S — B)’
cos. (S — C)
These formulae are altogether analogous to those by
which the angles are found from the sides. This case rarely
occurs in the application of spherics to astronomy.
The analytical artifice of subsidiary angles, by which the
formulae are adapted to logarithmic calculation, corresponds
to the resolving of an oblique spherical triangle into two
right-angled triangles, by an arc of a great circle drawn
from its vertex perpendicular to its base.
For the application of spherical trigonometry, see Prac¬
tical Astronomy, chap. i. (vol. iv. page 63).
The treatises on trigonometry are innumerable. The
most considerable is that of Cagnoli, in Italian, of which
there is a French translation. On the history of trigono¬
metry, and the progress of its improvement, the reader will
find the most ample information in Delambre, Histoire de
I Astronomic Ancienne, Histoire de l'Astronomic du Moyen
Age, and Histoire de VAstronomic Moderne. See also his
Astronomic Theorique et Pratique, vol, i. chap. 10.
3 c
386
Trill
.11
Trinco-
malee.
T R I
TRILL, or Shake, in Music, an embellishment too fre¬
quently abused. It chiefly consists of a rapid alternate
transition from the one to the other of two contiguous
sounds of the musical scale, but has various modifications
and names. Consult the Methode de Chant ot the Paris
Conservatory of Music.
TRIM is the county town of the county of Meath in
Ireland. It is situate upon the banks of the river Boyne,
in the midst of a level, fertile, and populous district, and
is distant thirty-two miles from Dublin. It is a place or
great antiquity, and was formerly of such importance that
several of the earlier Irish parliaments were held here. In
consequence of its being made the residence and seat ot
government of the De Lacys, the inhabitants received
many valuable privileges, which have partly come down to
them at the present time. The town is built without re¬
gard to regularity, but it possesses many good private
houses. The new county prison is a spacious and remark¬
able building, and the county court-house is also well built;
but none of the other public buildings can be praised for
their appearance. For several years the town has been de¬
clining, and at present it does not possess any trade or ma¬
nufacture. Here are the ruins of King John’s Castle,
which is perhaps the most extensive in Ireland. On the
opposite side of the river are the remains of a very ancient
and extensive abbey. The value of the commons or land¬
ed property, and other burgage property, is between L.700
and L.8Q0 a year. The commons are divided into burgesses
and freemen’s lots, and belong for life to the individuals
who are either burgesses or freemen. The corporation
consists of a portreeve, burgesses, and freemen, without re¬
striction as to the numbers of the two latter. Die popu¬
lation in 1821 amounted to 2304, and in 1831 to 3282.
TRIMAPOOR, a town of India, in the Southern Car¬
natic, thirty-six miles south-south-west from Tanjore. Long.
78. 55. E. Lat. 10. 21. N.
TRIMBUCK, a strong fortress of Hindustan, in the
province of Aurungabad, situate near the source of the
Godavery. It surrendered to the British in 1818, after a
short bombardment. Long. 73. 42. E. Lat. 20. 1. N.
TRINCOMALEE, a town, fortress, and excellent har¬
bour in the island of Ceylon, situated on the north-east of
the island. It is of greater extent than Colombo, but con¬
tains fewer houses, and is much inferior in population and
appearance. The fort is very strong, and commands the
principal bays, particularly the entrance into the harbour.
It has also a citadel, called Fort Ostenburg, erected on
a cliff which projects into the sea; nor can it be attacked
till after the capture of the lowTer fort. It was originally
built by the Portuguese, from the ruins of some cele¬
brated pagodas. In the bay the shores are so bold, and
the waters so deep, that it is almost possible to step from
the rocks into the vessels moored alongside. At the ex¬
tremity of the rock on which the fort stands, a strong bat¬
tery is erected, and there the flag-staff is placed. The
harbour is good, and affords security to shipping in all
seasons and weathers, being deep and capacious, and land¬
locked on all sides. From its convenient situation, it is of
great consequence to a maritime power ; for when the
violent monsoon commences, all vessels on the coast of Co¬
romandel, and the east side of the Bay of Bengal, are obliged
to put to sea, and then Trincomalee is their only place of
refuge. The great expectations that were formed of this
place by the British government have not however been
realized. Owing to the barren and unproductive nature
of the surrounding country, but few inhabitants have been
collected. Provisions are scarce, and there is nothing to
induce merchants to settle in the town. Hence the society
is almost exclusively composed of the officers of the regi¬
ments stationed here. The lower classes are chiefly Hin¬
dus from the opposite coast, and a few gold and silver-
T H I
smiths, who are native Ceylonese. The adjacent woods t
abound with wild hogs, buffaloes, and elephants, the latter ^
being frequently shot within a mile of the town. The T,ii
Portuguese were the first Europeans who were in posses-^
sion of this place. It was taken from them by the Dutch,
with whom it remained till the year 1782, when it was cap¬
tured by the British. From them it was taken by the French
under Admiral Suffrein, who restored it to the Dutch;
but it was retaken by the British in 1795, and has ever since
remained in their possession. Long. 81. 23.E. Lat.8.31.N,
THING, a market-town of England, in the hundred of
Dacorum and county of Hertford, thirty-one miles from
London. It is a neatly built place, with some good houses.
The church is a fine venerable Gothic structure, with a
square tower; and in the chancel are some very fine
monuments. It has also an endowed charity-school.
There is a well-supplied market on Friday. This town is
on the great road to Buckingham, and is in contact with
the Grand Junction Canal, and with the London and Bir¬
mingham railroad, which last has a station here fer taking
up and setting down passengers. From this arrangement a
great increase is anticipated, both in houses and inhabitants.
The inhabitants amounted in 1811 to 1847, in 1821 to
3286, and in 1831 to 3488.
THING ANG, a Malay town and principality on the east
side of the peninsula of Malacca, between the fifth and
sixth degrees of north latitude. It carries on a considerable
traffic. The imports are opium, iron, steel, Bengal piece-
goods, blue and other cloths, with coarse cutlery. 1 he com¬
modities received in return are gold-dust, pepper, and tin,
the last article being imported in Malay and Buggess prows.
TRINIDAD, the largest of the windward West India
Islands, is separated from the province of Venezuela by the
Gulf of Paria, and at one point is not more than twenty
miles from the American continent. It is situated between
10° and 11° north latitude, and 61° and 62° west longi¬
tude. The island is nearly square, being generally about
fifty miles long by thirty broad; but from the furthest
point (Hicacos) on the south-west to the furthest point on
the north-west (Point Galera), it reaches to above ninety
miles, and contains an area of 2020 square miles, it
was discovered by Columbus on the 31st July 1498, and
taken possession of by the Spaniards in 1588. Sir Walter
Raleigh visited it in 1595, and committed some outrages
in the capital. In 1797 it was captured by Sir Ralph
Abercromby, and has remained a British settlement ever
since. The richness of its soil, the luxuriance of its
vegetation, its finely wooded hills, beautiful rivers, and
magnificent landscapes, have distinguished Trinidad as
the Indian Paradise. This island is evidently a section
of the opposite continent, disjoined either by a volcanic
or oceanic eruption. The same strata of earth, the same
rocks and fossils, are common to both. Besides several
craters and volcanoes in the island, there are two sub¬
marine volcanoes, one south of Cape de la Brea, and the
other in the Bay of Meyaro. But the most remarkable
phenomenon in the island is the asphaltum or pitch lake,
situated on a small peninsula, and occupying the highes
part of the point of land. It is nearly circular, and more
than a mile and a half in length. It is remarkable for111
extraordinary mutability of its surface; the small islet of t*;
evening being often found a gulf in the morning, and t is
again is succeeded by another islet, adorned with the mos
luxuriant vegetation. The usual appearance and consis
tence of the asphaltum is that of pit-coal, but ot a
colour, melting like sealing-wax, and in hot weather i ^
actually liquid an inch deep. It is rendered ductile y
gentle heat, and when mixed w'ith grease or pitch, acqu"^
fluidity. The highest mountain-range is on the nor ^
near the coast, some parts of which reach an e|j-vat‘on ^
nearly 3000 feet. There are also chains of hills, u
T R I
ss elevation, in the centre and on the south coast. They
,, run from east to west. The island has the advantage of
■ irnerous streams, some of them navigable by small ves-
The exports amounted in 188SJ to L.235,657, of
^ lich L.220,168 was for sugar and molasses. The imports
■ the same period amounted to L.229,697. Port of Spain,
: l#2 capital, contains a population of 9860, of whom 1489 are
Elites. The population of the island in 1832 consisted of,
nites, 3G83 ; free blacks, 16,302 ; slaves, 20,265; total,
\l ,250. In the island there are eight free schools with 373
t iclars, and twenty-two private schools with 412 scholars.
TRINITARIANS, those who believe in the Trinity ;
i )se who do not believe therein being called Anti-trini-
11
T R I
1 ians.
% TRINITY, in Theology, the ineffable mystery of three
Bjrsons in one Godhead ; the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
I Trimty-Sunday, a festival observed on the Sunday next
flier Whitsunday, in honour of the holy Trinity. The ob-
& ration of this festival was first enjoined in the council of
!es, in the year 1260.
Ji (Trinity Buy, a deep bay on the north-east coast of New
Jblland, between Cape Grafton and Cape Tribulation.
I Trinity Island, an island in the North Pacific Ocean,
ocovered by Captain Cook. The east point is in long. 206.
4. E. and lat. 56. 33. N.
TRINO, a city of Italy, in the province of Vercelli
b! kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated on the river As¬
tra, at the point where it falls into the Po. It is a well-
hilt place, and is divided into two parts by a long and fine
«3et, with elegant arcades on both sides, and a canal in
t ‘ middle. It has a cathedral, four monasteries, five nun-
r ies, with each a church. Trino contains 6200 inhabi-
II ts. It has a great trade in cattle and in smoke-dried
■Hus, which are in high repute through the whole of Italy.
IlWas once fortified, but the defences have been neglected,
illng. 18. 8. E. Lat. 45. 8. N.
1RINOBANTES, an ancient people of Britain, sup-
p cd to have occupied Middlesex and Essex.
1RINOMALEE, a town and fortress of the south of
Ilia, in the Carnatic. During the wars of the last cen-
t y, this place was often taken and retaken by the con-
t ding parties. Among the natives it was always more
f urns for its sanctity than its strength. Its situation is on
#mountain, on the top of which is a Hindu temple, from
v ich it is believed that a subterranean fire will issue, to
ptroy any profane intruder. In its vicinity the British
treated the combined armies of the nizam and Hyder
rjf' Trinomalee is thirty miles south-south-west from
4 ittapet, and thirty west from Gingee. Long. 79. 10. E.
If. 12. 16. N.
t l RIO, or Terzetto, in Music, a composition for three
yties or for three instruments. Among the most striking
listrumental trios are those by Mozart and Beethoven for
vi1 in, viola, and violoncello, and for pianoforte, violin, and
v| onceho, &c. The term trio is also applied to a move-
n't in ;^th time, which often follows the minuet in a piece
0 nstrumental music.
• RIP AT O OR, a town of Hindustan, in the Southern
natic, fifty-eight miles south-south-west from Tanjore.
ig. 78. 40. E. Lat. 10. 10. N. This is also the name of
* 'Se °pcn village in the Barramahal province, 120 miles
s- th-west from Madras. Long. 78. 42. E. Lat. 12. 32. N.
T HIPET TY, a town in the south of India, province of
1 Carnatic, containing a celebrated Hindu temple, to
ch many thousand pilgrims annually resort. Long. 79.
E- Lat. 13. 31. N.
ITU PH 1HONG, in Grammar, an assemblage or con-
C t.^ree vowels *n ooe syllable, as quce.
' JJELL I i me, in Music. See Music.
1 PR *n Antiquity, a famed sacred seat or stool,
i-orted by three feet, on which the priests and sibyls
were placed to render oracles. It was on the tripod that
the gods were said to inspire the Pythias with that divine
fury and enthusiasm with which they were seized at the de¬
livery of their predictions.
-i RIPOLI, a country of Africa, in Barbary, bounded on
the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the south by the
country of the Beriberies, on the west by the kingdom of
Tunis and Biledulgerid, and on the east by Egypt. It is
about 925 miles along the sea-coast, but the breadth is
various. Some parts of it are pretty fruitful, but that to¬
wards Egypt is a sandy desert. It had the title of a king¬
dom, but is governed by a dey. Early in the last century
T ripoli shook off its dependence on the Grand Turk. In
other respects the government is not essentially changed;
it is still a military despotism of the most ferocious descrip¬
tion. Its piracies are now confined to Naples, Sardinia,
and other states which have no efficient navy. See Bar-
bary States.
Tripoli, the capital of the state of the same name in Bar¬
bary, is a considerable town, with a castle and a fort. See
Barbary States.
Tripoli, called Tripolis of Syria, to distinguish it from
Tripoli in Barbary, received its name from its being an¬
ciently formed of three cities at a small distance from each
other, one of which belonged to the Aradians, or ancient
kingdom of Arad, the second to the Sidonians, and the third
to the I yrians, perhaps as a common mart to those mari¬
time powers. The present town of Tripoli is built at the
distance of a mile and a half from the other, upon the de¬
clivity of a hill facing the sea, in longitude 35. 50. east from
Greenwich, and latitude 34. 20. north.
TRIPOLIZZA, a town of Greece, the capital of a can¬
ton of its name, as well as, under the Turkish government,
of the province of the Morea. It stands in an undulated
valley at the foot of Maenalus, and, according to tradition,
was built from the ruins of three neighbouring towns. It
is about twenty-two miles south-west from Argos, and thirty
north-west from the ruins of Sparta. Before the revolution,
it was a tolerably well-built place, surrounded w'ith walls,
had a citadel, four large mosques, and six Greek churches,
with 12,000 inhabitants. In the contest which led to the
abandonment of the Morea by the Turks, this place was the
theatre of bloody events. In 1821 it was occupied by the
Turks and Mahommedan Albanians, when it was besieged
from August to October by the Greek leader Colocotroni.
The Albanians entered into a secret treaty with the Greek
commander; and on the 5th of October, at an early hour,
the besiegers made an assault, favoured as they were by the
traitors in the garrison. T he battle raged during the whole
day, the Turks defending, from house to house, their positions
with great firmness, till fires were kindled in several parts;
and the Greeks, being fully masters, put to death the Turks,
without distinction of age or sex, to the number of more
than 6000 individuals. The plunder of this city was one of
the means by which the Greeks w ere enabled to carry on
the war, and to make themselves masters of the Pelopon¬
nesus. As Ibrahim Pacha with his Egyptian forces was in
possession of Navarino in 1825, he also took possession of
Tripolizza, and when he abandoned the Morea, he left this
town a heap of ruins. The country around it is fertile; and
if a good government should be established in the country,
Tripolizza may yet revive, and become a flourishing city.
TRIPONTARY, a town of Hindustan, in the territories
of Cochin, ten miles from the port of Cochin. Long. 76.
20. E. Lat. 9. 57. N.
TRIPOSSOOR, a tow n of Hindustan, in the Carnatic,
thirty miles west by north from Madras. It was taken by
Hyder m 1/80, and was retaken in 1/81 by the British.
Long. 78. 57. E. Lat. 13. 9. N.
TRIREMIS, in Antiquity, a galley with three ranks of
oars on a side.
387
Tripoli
Trirends.
388
T R I
T R O
Trismegis-
tus
Triumvir.
TRISMEGISTUS, an epithet or surname given to one
of the two Henneses.
TRISYLLABLE, in Grammar, a word consisting of
three syllables.
TRITANY, a town of Southern India, in the Carnatic,
forty-five miles west by north from Madras. Long. < 9. 45.
E. Lat. 13. 9. N.
TRITON, a sea-demigod, held by the ancients to be an
officer or trumpeter of Neptune, attending on him, and car¬
rying his orders from sea to sea.
TRITONE, mMusic, a major fourth, such as from F to B.
TRITURATION, the act of reducing a solid body into
a subtile powder ; called also pulverisation and levigation.
TRIUMPH, a public and solemn honour conferred by
the ancient Romans on a victorious general, by allow¬
ing him a magnificent entry into the city. 1 he greater
triumph, called also curulis, or simply the triumph, was
decreed by the senate to a general, upon the conquering
of a province, or gaining a signal victory. I he day ap¬
pointed for the ceremony being arrived, scaffolds were^
erected in the forum and circus, and all the other parts ot
the city where they could best behold the pomp. I he se¬
nate went to meet the conqueror without the gate called
Capena or Triumphalis, and marched back in order to the
Capitol; the ways being cleared and cleansed by a number
of officers and tipstaffs, who drove away such as thronged
the passage or straggled up and down. I he general was
clad in a rich purple robe, interwoven with figures of gold,
setting forth his great exploits; his buskins were set with
pearl; and he wore a crown, which at first was only laurel,
but afterwards gold; in one hand he bore a branch ot lau¬
rel, and in the other a truncheon. He was carried in a
magnificent chariot, adorned with ivory and plates ot gold,
drawn usually by two white horses ; though sometimes by
other animals, as that of Pompey, when he triumphed over
Africa, by elephants, that of Mark Antony by lions, that
of Heliogabalus by tigers, that of Aurelian by deer. His
children were at his feet, and sometimes on the chariot
horses. The procession was led by the musicians, who
played triumphal pieces in praise of the general. These
were followed by young men, who led the victims to the
sacrifice, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned
with ribbands and garlands. Next came the carts and
waggons, loaded with all the spoils taken from the enemy,
together with their horses, chariots, &c. These were followed
by the kings, princes, and generals, who had been taken
captives, loaded with chains. Next appeared the trium¬
phal chariot, before which, as it passed, they all along strew¬
ed flowers, and the people with loud acclamations called
out lo triumphe ! The chariot was followed by the senate,
clad in white robes, and the senate by such citizens as had
been set at liberty or ransomed ; and the procession was
closed by the priests and their officers and utensils, with a
white ox led along for the chief victim. In this order
they proceeded through the triumphal gate, along the
Via Sacra, to the Capitol, where the victims were slain.
In the mean time all the temples were open, and all the
altars loaded with offerings and incense ; games and com¬
bats were celebrated in the public places, and the city be¬
came a scene of general festivity. The less splendid form
of a triumph was called an Ovation; a term supposed to
have been derived from ovis, because on such an occasion
sheep, and not oxen, were usually sacrificed. The proces¬
sion commonly began at the Albanian Mount, from whence
the general with his retinue made his entry into the city,
tie walked on foot, wearing a garland of myrtle, and was
attended by a band of music.
TRIUMVIR, one of three persons who govern absolute¬
ly, and with equal authority, in a state. It is chiefly ap¬
plied to the Roman government. Cmsar, Pompey, and
Crassus, were the first triumvirs, who divided the govern¬
ment among them. There were also other officers so call- Tr
ed ; as the triumviri or tresviri capitales, who were the
keepers of the public gaol. They had the office of punish- Tr('
ing malefactors, for which purpose they employed eifft
lictors.
TRIVADY, a town of Southern India, in the province
of the Carnatic, containing a large temple, which serves as
a citadel. Long. 79. 45. E. Lat. 11. 42. N.
TRIVALENOOR, a town of Southern India, in the
Carnatic, thirty-five miles west by south from Pondicherrv
Long, 79. 30, E. Lat. 11. 51. N.
TRIVANDAPATAM, a town of Hindustan, in the
province of Travancore, sixty miles north-west from Cape
Comorin. Long. 76. 55. E. Lat. 8. 27. N.
TRIVATOOR, a town of Southern India, in the Car¬
natic, sixty miles south-west from Madras. Long. 79. 40.
E. Lat. 12. 38. N.
TRIVICARY, a village of Southern India, in the Car¬
natic, situated on the north bank of the Villenoor river,
about fifteen miles west by north from Pondicherry. This
was once a place of much greater extent, but is now
greatly decayed.
TRIVIDY, a town of Southern India, in the Carnatic,
twenty-four miles south-west from Pondicherry. Long. 79.
40. E. Lat. 11. 44. N.
TROAS, a country of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, of which
Troy was the capital. When Troas is taken for the whole
kingdom of Priam, it may be said to contain Mysia and
Phrygia Minor ; but if it is taken for that part of the
country where Troy was situated, its extent is confined
within very narrow limits. Troas was anciently called Dar-
dania.
TROBRIAND Islands, a cluster forming part of the
archipelago of Louisiade, discovered by D’Entrecasteaux.
The most northern point is in long. 151. 8. E. lat. 8. 24.S.
TROCHTEUS, in Prosody, a foot consisting of a long
and a short syllable.
TROCTOU, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near the
coast of Queda. Long. 99. 33. E. Lat. 6. 30. N.
TROGLODYTES, an ancient people of Ethiopia, who are
said to have lived in caves under ground. Pomponius Mela
gives a strange account of the Troglodytes. He affirms
that they did not so properly speak, as shriek; and that they
lived on serpents.
TROGUS Pompeius, a Latin universal historian to the
time of Augustus Caesar, of whom we have only an abridge¬
ment by Justin, flourished about 41 b. c.
TROITSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the government
of Orenburg. It is tolerably well built, having straight
and regular streets, and contains about 500 houses. It
has wooden fortifications, which form a square, and which
are flanked with towers, and encompassed by a ditch and
glacis. It is a commercial place, being an emporium lor
the trade with the Asiatic tribes. The trade is carried on
in the exchange, a large square, built on the opposite side
of the river Oui or Ouk, which flows by the city. Long.
55. 30. E. Lat. 54. 15. N. This is also the name of an¬
other town of Asiatic Russia, situated about ninety miles to
the west of the former, and containing 3000 inhabitants,
who are mostly engaged in cultivation.
TROITSKO Sauskaia, a fortress of Asiatic Russia,
situated near the Chinese frontier, on the Kiachta, "’here
is fixed the court for managing the discussions that arise
with the Chinese. Troitsko is 345 miles south of Irkouts •
TROLLHATTEN, a town of Sweden, in the depart¬
ment of Elfsborg and province of East Gothland. It18 Pe¬
culiarly situated on the river Gothelf or Gothelbe, w i^1
flow's from the lake of Werner, and falls into the sea
near Gottenburg, and here forms a very great cataract, o
rather a succession of cascades. Before the stream r®aC
this spot, it is compressed, by the narrow passage it a
T R O
T R O
389
'p
reed through the rocks, into a state not unlike that in
Inch water rushes from a pipe, and thus has a surprising
■locitv- ^ falls by four cascades about 100 feet; and as
e lower of these cascades slopes at the bottom, the whole
, shes down with such impetuosity that the noise which it
akes is heard at the distance of twelve miles. As the shores
this lake produce vast quantities of iron and of timber,
lich would become of increased value if the falls could be
oided, the government was induced to construct a canal,
lich was begun in 1793 and completed in 1800, at a
;eat expense for so poor a country. This canal is a pro-
i sdous work, and though scarcely more than two English
i les in length, has nine locks, by which vessels descend
nre than 100 feet. Each of these locks is twenty-two
lat long and seven feet wide. More than 3000 vessels
I ssed it in one year, paying tolls, which produce a good re-
trn for the money expended. A project is now in pro-
;ess which will make this canal still more beneficial,
finals are forming to unite the lake of Werner with the
jeilniar and Maler Lakes, by which, when accomplished,
issels will be enabled to pass from Stockholm to Gotten-
Itrg, across the kingdom, and thus avoid the passage of
,|e sound and the Danish tolls. Trollhatten was only a
\ lage when the works began, but is now an increasing
ivn, and has several iron-wwks, whose machinery is set
i motion by the falls. It likewise has some considerable
cablishments for building ships.
TROMBONE. See Music.
TROMP, Martin Havpertz Van, a celebrated Dutch
iimiral, was born at the Bailie, in Holland. He raised
; nself by his merit, after having distinguished himself on
: my occasions, especially at the famous engagement near
hraltar in 1607. He passed for one of the greatest sea-
m who till that time had appeared in the world ; and was
dared admiral of Holland, even by the advice of the
ince of Orange. In that character he defeated a large
lanish fleet in 1630, and gained thirty-two other victories
sea ; but was killed when under deck, in an engagement
th the English, in 1653.
IRON, St, a city of the Netherlands, in the province of
mburg and arrondissement of Elasselt. It is situated on
e river Mecselbeek, and on the road from Liege to
ussels. It contains 7300 inhabitants, who are employed
making fire-arms, swords, and cutlery ; and the females
iike some thread-lace. St Tron is celebrated for a battle
ight there in 1793, in which the French were defeated
the Austrians. Long. 6. 9. E. Lat. 50. 45. N.
IRON AGE, an ancient customary duty or toll, for the
dgliing of wool. According to Fleta, trona is a beam to
.’igh with, mentioned in the stat. Westm. 2, cap. 25. And
)nage was used for the weighing of wool in a staple or pub-
niart, by a common trona or beam ; which, for the tron-
e of wool in London, was fixed at Leadenhall. The
! lyorand commonalty of London w'ere ordained keepers of
| e beams and weights for weighing merchants’ commodi-
s. with power to assign clerks and porters, &c. of the
eat beam and balance; which w eighing of goods and
ires is called tronage; and on pain of forfeiture, no stranger
is to buy any goods in London before they were weighed
die king’s beam.
1ROON, a thriving towm in Ayrshire, with an excellent
tural harbour, having nineteen feet of water at the lowest
R In 1831 the population amounted to about 1000 per¬
is. See Ayrshire.
TROPHONIUS’S Cave, or Oracle, a cave near Leba-
i in Boeotia, between Helicon and Chaeronea (Strabo); so
led from Irophonius, an enthusiastic diviner, who, des¬
iding into this cave, pretended to give answers and pro-
'ince oracles, and was hence called Jupiter Trophonius.
K 1 as entered this cave never afterwards smiled; and hence
e proverbial saying of a man who has lost his mirth, that
he is come out of Trophonius’s cave. Dr Clarke found the
cave choked up with stones.
TROPHY (Tropceum), among the ancients, a monu¬
ment of victory.
TROPICS. See Geography.
TROPPAU, a circle of the Austrian principality of Mo¬
ravia, commonly denominated the duchy. It is situated
between the rivers Oppa and Oder, and contains three cities,
one market-town, and 78,600 inhabitants. The capital is
the city of the same name, a place well built and fortified,
and the seat of a provincial judicature. It contains 880
houses, with 10,760 inhabitants, carrying on manufactures
of woollen goods, paper, soap, and fire-arms. Long. 12. 45.
25. E. Lat. 49. 50. 1. N.
TROSACHS, the name given to that romantic glen
which separates Loch Kateran (Katrine) from Loch Ach-
ray, in the Western Highlands of Perthshire. The name
signifies in Gaelic the Bristled Territory ; a signification
perfectly applicable to the confused mass of abrupt crags
which, in some convulsion of nature, has been separated
from the neighbouring mountains of Ben Vennu and Ben-
An. These crags are of the most extraordinary and fan¬
tastic forms; and being covered wuth a profusion of trees
and shrubs, the diversity of hues which they yield, mixed
with the shades of the deep ravines, and the highly pic¬
turesque and wooded acclivity of the lofty Ben-An, gives
a depth and wildness to the pass, not to be equalled, it is
supposed, in the world. This rugged and narrow defile is
about one mile and a half in length, and w as first rendered
an object of popular attention by Sir Walter Scott, in his
poem of the Lady of the Lake. The modern road for the
use of tourists, which passes through it, has in a great degree
marred its solitude.
TROUBADOURS, poets that flourished in Provence
during the middle ages. They wrote poems on love and
gallantry; on the illustrious characters and remarkable
events of the times ; satires, which were chiefly directed
against the clergy and monks; and a few didactic pieces.
The troubadours were great favourites in different courts,
diffused a taste for their language and for poetry over Eu¬
rope, which was about that time sunk in ignorance and
rudeness. An “ Llistoire des Troubadours,” in 3 vols. 12mo,
was published by Millet; but it has been entirely superseded
by the more recent labours of Raynouard and Diez.
TROVER, in Law, an action that a man has against
one that, having found any of his goods, refuses to deliver
them upon demand.
TROWBRIDGE, a market-town in the hundred of
Melksham and county of Wilts, ninety-nine miles from
London. It is situated upon an eminence near the river
Ware, a branch of the river Avon, and is irregularly built.
The principal street is spacious and well built; but the
minor streets are narrow', and contain many ancient houses.
The town is paved and lighted with gas. The church is a
spacious and well-built edifice, having a large tower at
the west end, surmounted by a spire. There are also
places of worship for dissenters. The inhabitants are chiefly
occupied in the manufacture of woollen cloth, mostly ker¬
seymeres and superfine broad cloth. The population
amounted in 1821 to 9545, and in 1831 to 10,863.
TROWERT Island, a small island in the Eastern
Seas, near the south coast of Java. Long. 105. 45. E. Lat.
7. 2. S.
TROY, or Troja, the capital city of Troas, or, accord¬
ing to others, a country of which Ilium w as the capital. It
was built on a small eminence near Mount Ida, and the
promontory of Sigaeum, at the distance of about four miles
from the sea-shore. Dardanus, the first king of the country,
built it, and called it Dardania ; and from Tros, one of his
successors, it was called Troja,; and from Hus, Ilion. T his
city has been celebrated by Homer and Virgil.
k
390
T E O
T R U
Troy A description of the plain of Troy by Chevalier has been
Weight, published in the third volume of the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Koval Society of Edinburgh.1 The city
of Troy, according to him, stood on the present site of the
modern village of Bournabashi, which is situated four
leagues from the sea, on the side of an eminence, at the
termination of a spacious plain, the soil of which is rich and
of a blackish colour. Close to the village is to be seen a
marsh covered with tall reeds; and the situation is impreg¬
nable on all sides except at Erin (Homer’s loivzbg), the hill
of wild Jig-trees, which extended betw een the Scsean gate
and the sources of the Scamander. In the plain there are
several conical mounds or barrow s, some of them a hundred
feet in diameter at the base; and these the author main¬
tains to be the identical tombs raised over the ashes of the
heroes of the Trojan war. Since Chevalier’s dissertation
appeared, this plain has been investigated by Mr Morritt,
Sir William Gell, Dr Clarke, Mr Hobhouse, Mr Acland, and
several other travellers and writers. Dr Clarke traversed the
ground in different directions seventeen times. He rejects
the hypothesis of Chevalier, and, reasoning from the autho¬
rity of Strabo, and from the site of New Ilium, which he
ascertained by inscriptions found among ruins, he fixes the
situation of Troy four or five miles to the northward of
Bournabashi, near a sluggish rivulet, called Califat Osmack,
which he considers to be the Simois. The name of the
Scamander is still preserved in the Mender, the most con¬
siderable stream in the district, rising in Mount Ida, as de¬
scribed by Homer; and the Thymbrius is still preserved
in the Thymbrek. Dr Clarke also finds objects correspond¬
ing to the Callicolone, the tomb of Ilus, and the Throsmos
or mound of the plain. But very strong objections have
been stated to his opinions by Mr Hobhouse and others;
and, upon the whole, the more this subject is investigated,
the more insuperable difficulties seem to present themselves
to any attempt to identify the places and objects alluded to
by the poet.
Troy Weight, one of the most ancient of the different
kinds used in Britain. The ounce of this weight was
brought from Grand Cairo in Egypt, about the time of the
crusades, into Europe, and first adopted in Troyes, a city of
Champagne ; whence the name.
The pound English Troy contains twelve ounces, or
57G0 grains. It was formerly used for every purpose, and
is still retained for weighing gold, silver, and jewels ; for
compounding medicines; for experiments in natural phi¬
losophy ; and for comparing different weights with each
other.
Scotish Troy- Weight was established in the year 1618,
by James VI., who enacted that only one weight should be
used in Scotland, viz. the French Troy stone of 16 pounds,
and 16 ounces in the pound. The pound contains 7600
grains, and is equal to 17 oz. 6 dr. avoirdupois. The cwt.
or 112 lb. avoirdupois contains only 103 lb. 2| oz. of this
weight, though generally reckoned equal to 104 lb. This
weight is nearly, if not exactly, the same as that of Paris
and Amsterdam; and is generally known by the name of
Dutch weight. Though prohibited by the articles of union,
it continued to be used in weighing iron, hemp, flax, most
Dutch and Baltic goods, meal, butcher-meat, unwrought
pewter and lead, and some other articles. See Weights
and Measures.
TROYES, an arrondiesement of the department of the f
Aube, in France. It extends over 589 square miles, is di- !
vided into nine cantons, and these into 121 communes, con- ^
taining, in 1836, 90,923 inhabitants. The chief city, of the''"
same name, is also the capital of the department. " It is s;.
tuated on the river Seine, and is the seat of a bishop, and
of the departmental courts of law and revenue. The ca¬
thedral, dedicated to St Peter, is a fine old and large Gothic
building. There are other four churches, among which
that of St Martin is distinguished by remarkably fine painted
glass windows. Troyes is now a place of great manufactur¬
ing industry, making large quantities of woollen and cotton
goods. Much linen is made and admirably bleached. It
has also establishments for making glass, paper, leather
brandy, and vinegar. Its traffic is very considerable, and
it has an appearance of great prosperity. It was at one
period a capital of the duchy of Burgundy, where the states j
assembled. It is stated to have then contained upwards of I
60,000 inhabitants. It had in 1836 a population of 25,563
Long. 3. 59. 29. E. Lat. 48. 18. 15. N.
TRUMPET, a musical instrument, the most noble of
all portable ones of the wind kind; used chiefly inwar,
among the cavalry, to direct them in the service. As
to the invention of the trumpet, some Greek historians
ascribe it to the Tyrrhenians ; but others, with greater
probability, to the Egyptians, from whom it might have
been transmitted to the Israelites. The trumpet was not
in use among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war,
though it was in common use in the time of Homer. Ac¬
cording to Potter {Arch. Greec. vol. ii. cap. 9), before the
invention of trumpets, the first signals of battles in
the primitive wars were lighted torches; to these suc¬
ceeded shells of fishes, which were sounded like trumpets.
And when the trumpet became common in military use, it
may well be imagined to have served at first only as a
rough and noisy signal of battle, like that at present in
Abyssinia and New Zealand, and perhaps with only one
sound. But even when more notes were produced from
it, so noisy an instrument must have been an unfit accom¬
paniment for the voice and poetry ; so that it is probable
the trumpet was the first solo instrument in use among the
ancients.
TRUMPET, Articulate, comprehends both thespeA-
ing and the hearing trumpet, is by much the most valuable
instrument, and has, in one of its forms, been used by people
among whom we should hardly have expected to find such
improvements. That the speaking trumpet, of which theSpe
object is to increase the force of articulate sounds, should4™1
have been known to the ancient Greeks, can excite no
wonder ; and therefore we easily admit the accounts which
we read of the horn or trumpet, with which Alexander
addressed his army, as well as of the whispering caverns
of the Syracusan tyrant. But that the natives of Peru
were acquainted with this instrument, will probably sur¬
prise many of our readers. The fact, however, seenas in¬
controvertible.
In the History of the Order of Jesuits, published at
Naples in 1601 by Beritavia, it is said, that in the year
1595 a small convent of that order in Peru, situated in a
remote corner, was in danger of immediate destruction by
famine. One evening the superior, Father Samaniac, im¬
plored the help of the cacique. Next morning, on opening
Chevalier s work, written in I rench, was translated into English, and illustrated with notes, by Professor Dalzel. Edinb. 1/91,
It soon afterwards appeared in a German translation, to which Heyne contributed a preface, and other additions: “ Bescbreibung llj
Ebene von 1 roja, u. s. w. Leipzig, 1792, 8vo. This was followed by “ Lie Ebene von Troja, nach dem Graten Choiseul Gouffter, un
andern neuern Ileisenden; nebst emer Abhandlung des Hern. Major Muller in Gottingen, und Erlauterungen tibbr den SchauplaU aa
ihas, und die darauf vorgefallnen Begebenheiten, von Carl Gotthold Lenz.” Neu-Strelitz, 1798, 8vo. Nor must we here overlook a
short but learned dissertation of Spoliti, “ I)e Agro Trojano in Carminibus Homericis descripto” Lipsine, 1814, 8vo. A more recu
wor». on the subject was published by Mr Maelaren : “ A Dissertation on the Topography of the Plain of Troy, including an Exatama i
° l ^ pinwna of Demetrius, Chevalier, Dr Clarke, and Major llennell.” Edinb. 1822, 8vo.
L
is! i
TRUMPET.
g, 13 gate of the monastery, he found it surrounded by a
r mber of women, each of whom carried a small basket of
pvisions. He returned thanks to heaven for having mi-
r :ulously interposed, by inspiring the good people with
j y for the distress of his friars. But when he expressed
tithem his wonder how they came all to be moved as if
mutual agreement with these benevolent sentiments,
t-:y told him it was no such thing; that they looked upon
hi and his countrymen as a pack of infernal magicians,
wo by their sorceries had enslaved the country, and had
ibjivitched their good cacique, who hitherto had treated
tim with kindness and attention, as became a true wor¬
shipper of the sun ; but that the preceding evening at sun-
si he had ordered the inhabitants of such and such vil-
k!es, about six miles olf, to come that morning with provi¬
sos to this nest of wizards. The superior asked them
itiwhat manner the governor had -warned so many of
tlim in so short a time, at such a distance from his own
mdence. They told him that it was by the trumpet;
at! that every person heard at his own door the distinct
t|ns of the order. The father had heard nothing; but
Itiy told him that none heard the trumpet but the in-
h itants of the villages to which it was directed. This
«»! isi piece of very curious information ; but, after allowing
aiood deal to the exaggeration of the reverend Jesuits, it
cmiot, we think, be doubted that the Peruvians actually
pressed this stentorophonic art. Por we may observe
ti l the effect described in this narration resembles what
v\now know to be the effect of speaking trumpets, while
iti; unlike what the inventor of such a tale would naturally
a ignorantly say. Till speaking trumpets were really
L wn, we would expect the sound to be equally diffused
oiall sales, which is not the case; for it is much stronger
inhe line of the trumpet than in any direction very oblique
idt.
fbout the middle of the seventeenth century, Athana-
si Kircher turned his attention to the philosophy of
send, and in different works threw out many useful and
s< ntific hints on the construction of speaking trumpets;
b his mathematical illustrations w'ere so vague, and his
o i character of inattention and credulity so notorious, that
felsome time these works did not attract the notice to which
tl y were well entitled.
Uiout the year 1670, Sir Samuel Morland, a gentleman of
gipt ingenuity and science, directed his attention to this
si icct, and proposed as a question to the lloyal Society of
iPidon, What is the best form for a speaking trumpet ? which
' railed a stentorophonic horn. He accompanied his de-
Wr.d with an account of his own notions on the subject
(' lich he acknowledged to be very vague and conjectural),
a an exhibition of some instruments constructed accord-
11 to his views. They were in general very large conical
tl e‘s> suddenly spreading at the very month to a greater
I i • ^le‘r Hfect was really wonderful. They were
tj d in St James’s Park ; and his majesty, King Charles II.,
s a lung in his ordinary colloquial pitch of voice through
a,‘imipet only five and a half feet long, was clearly and
it distinctly heard at the distance of' iOOO yards. An-
<Ht person, selected we suppose for the loudness and dis-
utness of his voice, was perfectly understood at the dis-
‘ce 0 ‘<)ur uhles aud a half. The fame of this instru-
.R soon spread. Morland’s principles were refined, consi-
lng t e novelty of the inquiry, and differed considerably
j a atber Kircher’s. The aerial undulations (for he
las very accurately concerning the nature of sound) en-
| 'our to difluse themselves in spheres, but are stopped
]], e ,e> an(l therefore reundulate towards the axis
"uves hom a bank ; and meeting in the axis, they form
.391
a strong undulation a little farther advanced along the Trumpet.
tube, which again spreads, is again reflected, and so on, '—v 
t*H d arrives at the mouth of the tube greatly7 magnified,
and then it is diffused through the open air in the same
manner as it all proceeded from a very sonorous point in
the centre of the wide end of the trumpet. The author
distinguishes with great judgment between the prodigious
reinforcement of sound in a speaking trumpet and that in
the musical trumpet, bugle-horn, conch-shell, &c.; and
shows that the difference consists in the violence of the
first sonorous agitation, which can be produced by us
only on a very small extent of surface. The mouth-piece
diameter, therefore, of the musical trumpet must be very
small, and the force of blast very considerable. Thus one
strong but simple undulation will be excited, which must
be subjected to the modifications of harmony, and will be
augmented by using a conical tube.1 But a speaking
trumpet must make no change on the nature of the first
undulations; and each point of the mouth-piece must he
equally considered as the centre of sonorous undulations, all
of which must be reinforced in the same degree, otherwise
all distinctness of articulation will be lost. The mouth¬
piece must therefore take in the whole of the mouth of the
speaker.
When Sir Samuel Morland’s trumpet came to be gene¬
rally known on the continent, it was soon discovered that
the speaker could be beard at a great distance only in the
line of the trumpet ; and this circumstance was by a Mr
Cassegrain {Journ. des Spavans, 1672, p. 131) attributed
to a defect in the principle of its construction, which he
said was not according to the law’s of sonorous undulations.
He proposed a conoid formed by the revolution of a hyper¬
bola round its assymptote as the best form. A Mr Hase
of Wirtemberg, on the other hand, proposed a parabolic
conoid, having the mouth of the speaker placed in the fo¬
cus. In this construction he plainly went on the principle
of a reflection similar to that of the rays of light; but this
is by no means the case. The effect of the parabola will
be to give one reflection, and in this all the circular undu¬
lations will be converted into plane waves, which are at
right angles to the axis of the trumpet. But nothing hin¬
ders their subsequent diffusion ; for it does not appear that
the sound will be enforced, because the agitation of the
particles on each wave is not augmented.
The.subject is exceedingly difficult. We do not fully
comprehend on what circumstance the affection or agitation
of our organ, or simply of the membrana tympani, depends.
A more violent agitation of the same air, that is, a wider
oscillation of its particles, cannot fail to increase the im¬
pulse on this membrane. The point therefore is to find
what concourse of feeble undulations will produce or be
equivalent to a great one. The reasonings of all these re¬
storers of the speaking trumpet are almost equally specious,
and each point out some phenomenon which should cha¬
racterise the principle of construction, and thus enable us
to say which is most agreeable to the procedure of nature.
Yet there is hardly any difference in the performance of
trumpets of equal dimensions made after these different
methods.
The propagation of light and that of elastic undulations
seem to require very different methods of management. Yet
the ordinary phenomena of echoes are perfectly explicable
by the acknowledged lawrs either of optics or acoustics ;
still however there are some phenomena of sound w hich
are very unlike the genuine results of elastic undulations.
If sounds are propagated spherically, then what comes into
a room through a small hole should diffuse itself from that
hole as round a centre, and it should be heard equally well
II tTr 1 ''lie sound Oi the bugle-horn, of the musical trumpet, or the French horn, is prodigiously loud, when we consider the small
° ttlruugh which a moderate blast is sent by the trumpeter.
392
T R U M PET.
Trumpet, at twelve feet distance from the hole in every direction.
—v—-'Yet it is very sensibly louder when the hearer is in the
straight line drawn from the sonorous body through the
hole. A person can judge of the direction of the sounding
body with tolerable exactness. Cannon discharged trom
the different sides of a ship are very easily distinguished,
which should not be the case by the Newtonian theory ; tor
in this the two pulses on the ear should have no sensib.e
difference. . .
The most important fact for our purpose is this: an
echo from a small plane surface in the midst ot am open
field is not heard, unless we stand in such a situation that
the angle of reflected sound may be equal to that ot inci¬
dence. But by the usual theory of undulations, this small
surface should become the centre of a new undulation,
which should spread in all directions. If we may make an
analogous experiment on watery undulations, by placing a
small flat surface so as to project a little above the water,
and then drop in a small pebble at a distance, so as to
raise one circular wave, we shall observe, that when this
wave arrives at the projecting plane, it is disturbed by
and this disturbance spreads from it on all sides. It is in¬
deed sensibly stronger in that line which is drawn from it
at equal angles with the line drawn to the place where the
pebble was dropped. But in the case of sound, it is a fact,
that if we go to a very small distance on either side ot the
line of reflection, we shall hear nothing.
Here then is a fact, that whatever may be the nature of
the elastic undulations, sounds are reflected from a small
plane in the same manner as light. We may avail ourselves
of this fact as a mean for enforcing sound, though we can¬
not explain it in a satisfactory manner. We should expect
from it an effect similar to the hearing of the original sound
along with another original sound coming from the place
from which this reflected sound diverges. If therefore the
reflected sound or echo arrives at the ear in the same in¬
stant with the original sound, the effect will be doubled ; or
at least it will be the same with two simultaneous original
sounds. Now we know that this is in some sense equivalent
to a stronger sound ; for it is a fact, that a number of voices
uttering the same or equal sounds is heard at a much
greater distance than a single voice. How this happens,
we cannot perhaps explain by mechanical laws, or assign
the exact proportion in which ten voices exceed the effect
of one voice; or the proportion of the distances at which
they seem equally loud. We may therefore, for the pre¬
sent, suppose that two equal voices at the same distance are
twice as loud, three voices three times as loud, &c. There¬
fore, if, by means of a speaking trumpet, we can make ten
equal echoes arrive at the ear at the same moment, we may
suppose its effect to be to increase the audibility ten times ;
and we may express this shortly by calling the sound ten
times louder or more intense.
But we cannot do this precisely. We cannot by any
contrivance make the sound of a momentary snap, and those
of its echoes, arrive at the ear in the same moment, because
they come from different distances. But if the original noise
be a continued sound, a man’s voice, for example, uttering
a continued uniform tone, the first echo may reach the
ear at the same moment with the second vibration of the
larynx, the second echo along with the third vibration, and
so on. It is evident, that this will produce the same effect.
The only difference will be, that the articulations of the
voice will be made indistinct, if the echoes come from very
different distances. Thus, if a man pronounce the sylla¬
ble taw, and ten successive echoes are made from places
which are ten feet farther off, the tenth part of a second
(nearly) will intervene between hearing the first and the
l ist. This will give it the sound of the syllable thaw, or
perhaps raw, because r is the repetition of t. Something
like this occurs when, standing at one end of a long line
of soldiers, wTe hear the muskets of the whole line discliarg. Tr
ed in one instant. It seems to us the sound of a running'-
fire
The aim therefore in the construction of a speaking
trumpet may be, to cause as many echoes as possible to
reach a distant ear without any perceptible interval of
time. This will give distinctness, and something eqliiva-
lent to loudness. Pure loudness arises from the violence
of the single aerial undulation. To increase this may be
the aim in the constructipn of a trumpet; but we are not
sufficiently acquainted with the mechanism of these undula¬
tions to bring this about with certainty and precision;
whereas we can procure this accumulation of echoes with,
out much trouble, since we know that echoes are, in fact,
reflected like light. We can form a trumpet so that many
of these lines of reflected sound shall pass through the
place of the hearer. We are indebted to Mr Lambert of
Berlin for this simple and popular view of the subject; and
shall here give an abstract of his most ingenious Disserta¬
tion on Acoustic Instruments, published in the Berlin Me¬
moirs for 1763.
Sound naturally spreads in all directions; but we know
that echoes or reflected sounds proceed almost strictly in
certain limited directions. If therefore we contrive a trumpet
in such a way that the lines of echo shall be confined with¬
in a certain space, it is reasonable to suppose that the sound
will become more audible in proportion as this diffusion is
prevented. Therefore, if we can oblige a sound which, in
the open air, would have diffused itself over a hemisphere,
to keep within a cone of 1*20°, we should expect it to be
twice as audible within this cone. This will be accomplished
by making the reflections such that the lines of reflected
sound shall be confined within this cone. We here sup¬
pose that nothing is lost in the reflection. Let us examine
the effect of a cylindrical trumpet.
Fig. 1.
A. M
Let the trumpet be a cylinder ABED (fig. 1), and ^
C be a sounding point in the axis. It is evident that all
the sound in the cone BCE will go forward without any
reflection. Let CM be any other line of sound, which we
may, for brevity’s sake, call a sonorous or phonic Hm.
Being reflected in the points M, N, O, P, it is evident that
it will at last escape from the trumpet in a direction fU
equally diverging from the axis with the line CM. l‘ie
same must be true of every other sonorous line. There¬
fore the echoes will all diverge from the mouth of the trum¬
pet, in the same manner as they would have proceeded from
C without any trumpet. Even supposing, therefore, tia
the echoes are as strong as the original sound, no advan¬
tage is gained by such a trumpet, but that of bringing t«e
sound forward from C to c. This is quite trifling when to
hearer is at a distance. Yet we find that sounds may
heard at a very great distance, at the end of long, narroffi
cylindrical, or prismatical galleries. It is known that a'0l^
may be distinctly heard at the distance of several hun r
feet in the Roman aqueducts, whose sides are Per ef.J
straight and smooth, being plastered with stucco,
smooth surface of the still water greatly contr‘^utef t0 pje
effect. Cylindrical or prismatical trumpets must there o
be rejected. ,
Let the trumpet be a cone BCA (fig. 2), of w^lC.)r|i{
is the axis, DK a line perpendicular to the axis, and
TRUMPET.
393
, t; path of a reflected sound in the plane of the axis. The
I t angle of reflection IH A is equal to the last angle of in-
c lence FHC. The angle BFH, or its equal CFD, is equal
t the angles FHD and FCH ; that is, the angle of inci-
dice CFD exceeds the next angle of incidence FHC by
t; angle FCD, that is, by the angle' of the cone. In
)jfe manner, FDH exceeds CFD pp, 2.
bi the same angle FCD. Thus
eiry succeeding angle, either of
jiiidence or reflection, exceeds
til next by the angle of the cone.
01 the angle of the cone a, and
]c|i be the first angle of incidenc e
P»C. The second, or DFC, :s
l\-a. The third, or FHC, is b —
2‘„ &c.: and*the nth angle of inci-
dtice or reflection is b — n a, after
fueflections. Since the angle di-
miishes by equal quantities at each
siisequent reflection, it is plain,
jfljt whatever be the first angle of
Irldence, it may be exhausted by
tli diminution; namely, when n
tiles a exceeds or is- equal to b.
Terefore, to know how many re-
fiftions of a sound, whose first
iildence has the inclination b, can
bJmade in an infinitely extended
tie, whose angle is a, divide b
hi a; the quotient will give the
ninber n of reflections, and the re-
niinder, if any, will be the last angle
o incidence or reflection less than
ni It is very plain, that when an
lille of reflection IHA is equal to
on ess than the angle BCA of the
fclje, the reflected line HI will no
rare meet with the other side CB
o he cone.
iVemay here observe, that the greatest angle of inci-
ce is a right angle, or 90°. This sound would be re¬
ted back in the same line, and would be incident on the
osite side in an angle 90° — <7, &c.
has we see that a conical trumpet is well suited for
c fining the sound ; for, by prolonging it sufficiently, w7e
jt\ keep the lines of reflected sound wholly within the
c e. And when it is not carried to such a length as to
d this, when it allows the sounding line GH, for example,
t escape without farther reflection, the divergency from
t axis is less than the last angle of reflection BFH by
1 1 the angle BCA of the cone. Let us see what is the
( section between the length and the angle of ultimate
j Election.
* | We have sin. (b — a) : sin. b — CD : CF, and CF =
() — s'm-b
have the common difference a. Therefore the last reflected Trumpet,
sound was moving parallel to the opposite side of the cone,v'-—
and cannot again meet it. But though we cannot assign
the length which will give the rath reflection, we can give
the length which will give the one immediately preceding,
whose angle with the side of the cone is a. Let Y be this
length. We have Y = CD X -n‘ This length will al-
low every line of sound to be reflected as often, saving once,
as if the tube were infinitely long. For suppose a sonorous
line to be traced backwards, as if a sound entered the tube
in the direction i h, and were reflected in the points h,f d,
D, the angles will be continually augmented by the con¬
stant angle a. But this augmentation can never go farther
than 90° -f- a. For if it reaches that value at D, for in¬
stance, the reflected line DK will be perpendicular to the
axis CN; and the angle ADK will be equal to the angle
DKB, and the sound will come out again. This remark is
of importance on another account.
Now, suppose the cone to be cut off at D by a plane per¬
pendicular to the axis, KD will be the diameter of its
mouth-piece; and if we suppose a mouth completely oc¬
cupying this circle, and every point of the circle to be
sonorous, the reflected sounds will proceed from it in the
same manner as light would from a flame which completely
occupies its area, and is reflected by the inside of the cone.
The angle FDA will have the greatest possible sine when
it is a right angle, and it never can be greater than ADK,
which is =z 90° ^ a. And since between 90° ^ a, and
90° — ^ a, there must fall some multiple of a, call this mul¬
tiple b. Then, in order that every sound may be reflected
as often as possible, saving once, we must make the length
of it X = CD X —^
sin. a
Now, since the angle of the cone is never made very
great, never exceeding ten or twelve degrees, b can never
differ from 90° above a degree or two, and its sine cannot
differ much from unity. Therefore X will be very nearly
CD CD
equal to — , which is also very nearly equal to —j— ;
sin. ct £ sin. t> cl
because a is small, and the sines of small arches are nearly
equal and proportional to the arches themselves. There is
even a small compensation of errors in this formula. For
as the sine of 90° is somewhat too large, which would give
X too great, 2 sin. ^ais also larger than the sine of a. Thus
let a be 12°: then the nearest multiple of a is 84° or 96°, both
of which are as far removed as possible from 90°, and the
error is as great as possible, and is nearly y^th of the
whole.
This approximation gives us a very simple construction.
Let CM be the required length of the trumpet, and draw
ML perpendicular to the axis in O. It is evident that sin.
MCO : rad. = MO : CM, and CM or X = =
sm.^ d
sin. (A _ay alul si"-(* 2 a): sin. (b a) — CF: LM _CD
I < I, and CH = CF x s'n’ ^
= CD x
sin. b
X
ia
&c.
sin.(6—2a) ^ sin.(b—a)
s = CD x sin- ^
I S, (6—2a) S sin.(4—2a/
Therefore if we suppose X to be the length which
give us n reflections, we shall have X ~ CD X
sin. b
JTence we see that the length increases as
e angle— « a) diminishes; but is not infinite, unless
« is equal to i. In this ase, the immediately preced-
g angle of reflection must be a, because these angles
vol. xxi. &
2 sin.^ a’
If therefore the cone be of such a length, that its dia¬
meter at the mouth is equal to the length of the part cut
off, every line of sound will have at least as many reflec¬
tions, save one, as if the cone were infinitely long; and the
last reflected line will either be parallel to the opposite side
of the cone, or lie nearer the axis than this parallel; con¬
sequently such a cone will confine all the reflected sounds
within a cone whose angle is 2 a, and will augment the
sound in the proportion of the spherical base of this cone to
a complete hemispherical surface. Describe the circle
DKT round C, and making DT an arch of 90°, draw the
chord DT. Then, since the circles described with the
' 3 D
394
TRUMPET.
Trumpet, radii DK, DT, are equal to the spherical surfaces generated 1. Then it is evident that all the lines dratvn from p
by the revolution of the arches DK and DKT round the within the cone APB, proceed without reflection, and art^
axis CD, the sound will be condensed in the proportion of diffused as if no trumpet had been used
DK2 to DT2.
This appears to be the best general rule for constructing
the instrument; for, to procure another reflection, the tube
must be prodigiously lengthened, and we cannot suppose
that one reflection more will add greatly to its power.
It appears, too, that the length depends chiefly on the
angle of the cone, for the mouth-piece may be considered
as nearly a fixed quantity. It must be of a size to admit
the mouth when speaking with force and without constraint.
About an inch and a half may be fixed on for its diameter.
When therefore we propose to confine the sound to a cone DA, proceed as it they
of twice the angle of the trumpet, the whole is determined had come from R. For the
by that angle. For since in this case LM is equal to CD, lines reflected from KB
r ^ x CD2 proceed as if they had
LM (or CD) : CM and Cil • corrie from Q ; and lines
But 2 sin. A a : 1 = DK : CD,
and 2 sin. }y a \ 1 — CD : CM;
therefore 4 sin.2 i a : l = DK : CM,
2. All the sonorous lines which fall from P on KB are
reflected from it as if they had come from Q.
3. All the sonoi'ous lines between BP and dP have suf¬
fered but one reflection ;
for d n will no more meet
DA A' so as to be reflect¬
ed again.
4. All the lines which
have been reflected from
KB, and afterwards from
we have DK : CD
And
CM ~
DK
DK
very nearly. And
4sin.2^a sin.'a
since DK is an inch and a half, we get the length in
inches counted from the apex of the cone ~
Ik
2 sin.
a
DK
From this we must cut olf the part CD, which
, DK'
or very nearly -; ,
sm.a
or h—.—,
2 sm. a
measured in
2 sin.-^a’
inches, and we must make the mouth of the same width
3
2 sin. a
On the other hand, if the length of the trumpet is fixed
on, we can determine the angle of the cone. For let the
3
length (reckoned from C) be L; we have 2 sin.2 a —
! a —2~j > and sio
■n = J»
V
coming from Q and re¬
flected by DA, proceed as
if they had come from R.
Therefore draw R A o, and
also draw7 R g m parallel
to KB, and draw Qc A q,
Qi^,Pc,and Vb. Then,
.5. All the lines between
b P and c P have been
twice reflected.
Again, draw SB/?, B r R,
r u q,S x A, Tly x,Q,z y.
6. All the lines between
u P and 0 P have suffered
three reflections.
Draw7 the tangents T A /,
VBr, crossing the axis in
W.
7. The whole sounds
will be propagated within
the cone v W t. For to
every sonorous point in
the line KD there corres¬
ponds a point similar to Q,
regulating the first reflec-
the mouth is
But before we can pronounce with precision on the per- reflections, as if they had come from points in the surface
formance of a speaking trumpet, we must examine into the the same sphere. The only difference in the demonstra-
manner in which the reflected sounds are distributed over ti°n is, that the centres Q, R, S of the successive reflections
the space in which they are all confined. ' are not in one plane, but in a spiral line winding round tbe
Let BKDA (fig. 3) be the section of a conical trumpet surface of the sphere according to fixed laws. The fore-
by a plane through the axis; let C be the vertex of the g0'ng conclusions are therefore general for all the sounds
cone, and CW its axis ; let TKV be the section of a sphere, which come in all directions from every point in the area of
having its centre in the vertex of the cone; and let P be the mouth-piece.
a sonorous point on the surface of the sphere, and P a f e l Thus it appears, that a conical trumpet is well fitted rot
the path of a line of sound lying in the plane of the section, increasing the force of sounds by diminishing their final di*
great^ circle of the^ sphere^ take KQ m KP, DR vergence. For had the speaker’s mouth been in the open
= DQ, and KS = KR.
rallel to DA ; and draw
DrawQB4; also draw Qofwpa- air, the sounds which are now confined within the cone
PB, P r/, P A. vWt would have been diffused over a hemisphere ; ana "c
i.
2 L f
Thus let six feet or 72 inches be chosen for the length
of the cone, we have sin. a = ./ ttt- —vtu = 0-14434 <■ j .... ,
V 144 48 tion from KB ; and a point similar to R, regulating the se-
= sin. 8° 17' for the angle of the cone; and the width at cond reflection from DA ; and a point S regulating the
 3 • r, .pi ■ r • , ■ third reflection from KB, &c. And similar points will be
2 sin.«“ 1 mcies. I his oeing taken founcl regulating the first reflection from DA, the second
from 72, leaves 61-6 inches for the length of the trumpet. I !Vom and !he th1irdA fro™ 5A’ &c'an<J bnes drawn
And since this trumpet confines the reflected sounds to “0m a}\ d,ese through A and L must lie within the tan*
p.~-2 gents 1 A and VB.
a cone of 16° 34', we have its magnifying power “i——,
(^ DT)2 sin.2 45°
— — 96 nearly. It therefore condenses
8. Thus the centres of reflection of all the sonorous lines
which lie in planes passing through the axis, will be found
, nTyr?r2 — - 2 jo qm — ueiiny. it uieruiuie conuenses *n k116 suiface of this sphere ; and it may be consideied asa
9 U j \ sin. T o ^ _ sonorous sphere, whose sounds first concentrate in W, and
the sound about 96 times ; and if tbe distribution were uni- are then diff used in the cone zAVtf.
form, it would be heard -y/yg, or nearly 10 times farther i* It may be demonstrated nearly in the same manner, that
off; for the loudness of sounds is supposed to be inversely the sonorous lines w7hicb proceed from P, but not in the
as the square of the distance from the centre of undulation, plane passing through the axis, also proceed, after various
L
T R U M P E T.
C( that prolonging tne trumpet must confine the sounds
1. more, because this will make the angle BWA still
stiller; a longer tube must also occasion more reflections,
as. consequently send more sonorous undulations to the
at a distance placed within the cone v W t.
I \Te have now obtained a very connected view of the
v ile effect of a conical trumpet. It is the same as if the
vile segment TKDV were sounding, every part of it with
anntensity proportional to the density of the points Q, R,
S,-/c. corresponding to the different points P of the mouth-
pice. It is easy to see that this cannot be uniform, but
mi.t be much rarer towards the margin of the segment.
Iti ould require a good deal of discussion to show the den-
giliof these fictitious sounding points; and we shall con-
te, ourselves with giving a very palpable view of the dis-
tr:ution of the sonorous rays, or the density (so to speak)
ofihe echoes, in the different situations in which a hearer
nu! be placed.
fe may observe, in the mean time, that this substitution
of: sounding sphere for the sounding mouth-piece has an
e>a.’t parallel in optics, by which it will be greatly illus-
trj’d. Suppose the cone BKDA (fig. 3) to be a tube
polihed in the inside, fixed in a wall B a, perforated in
B i and that the mouth-piece DK is occupied completely
by flat flame. The effect of this on a spectator will be
tlmame, if he is properly placed in the axis, as if he were
loning at a flame as big as the whole sphere. This is very
ev nit.
is easy to see that the line
Ic is equal to the line lef a P ;
thlefore the reflected sounds also
cojc to the ear in the same mo¬
rons as if they had come from
th • respective points on the sur-
fad of the substituted sphere.
Uless, therefore, this sphere be
emmously large, the distinctness
oi tticulation will not be sensibly
af'ite'!, because the interval be-
tv i'n the arrival of the different
ec! es of the same snap will be in-
semjble.
ur limits oblige us to content
on elves with exhibiting this evi-
di similarity of the progress of
ec from the surface of this pho-
niiiphere, to the progress of light
fr(l the same luminous sphere
sldng through a hole of which the
djdieter is AB. The direct inves¬
ted ion of the intensity of the sound
T ‘ferent directions and distances
, d take up much room, and
g! no clearer conception of the
3r‘fct. The intensity of the sound
•fijiy point is precisely similar to
J JHfensity of the illumination
ohihe same point; and this is
395
Fitr. 4.
F oitional to the portion of the
nous surface seen from this
Pn t through the hole directly,
®n -0 the square of the distance in-
c! Ay. The intelligent reader will
ire ^ dl8tinct conception of this
g, Ll, ro'y 4, which repre¬
ss the distribution of the sonor-
n me huuur-
d<..r!Va,nd ,by con^quence the
ersRn!!- °Ut,1]ef which raay be expected in the cliffer-
^ituations of the hearer.
tf JILT a,r^ady observed, the effect of the cone of
Pe is perfectly analogous to the reflection of light
fiom a polished concave conical mirror. Such an instru- Trumpet,
ment would be equally fitted for illuminating a distant ob- —
ject. We imagine that these would be much more power¬
ful than the spherical or even parabolic mirrors commonly
used for this purpose. These last, having the candle in the
focus, also send forward a cylinder of light of equal width
w ith the mirror. But it is well known, that oblique reflec¬
tions are prodigiously more vivid than those made at
greater angles. Where the inclination of the reflected
light to the plane of the mirror does not exceed eight or
ten degrees, it reflects about three fourths of the light
which falls on it. But when the inclination is §0°, it does
not reflect one fourth part.
We may also observe, that the density of the reflected
sounds by the conical trumpet ABC (fig. 4) is precisely si¬
milar to that of the illumination produced by a luminous
sphere TDV shining through a hole AB. There will be a
space circumscribed by the cone formed by the lines TB^
and VAv, which is uniformly illuminated by the whole
sphere (or rather by the segment TDV), and on each side
there is a space illuminated by a part of it only, and the
illumination gradually decreases towards the borders. A
spectator placed much out of the axis, and looking through
the hole AB, may not see the whole sphere. In like man¬
ner, he will not hear the whole sounding sphere: he may
be so far from the axis as neither to see nor hear any part
of it.
Assisting our imagination by this comparison, we perceive
that beyond the point w/ there is no place where all the re¬
flected sounds are heard. Therefore, in order to preserve
the magnifying power of the trumpet at any distance, it is
necessary to make the mouth as wide as the sonorous sphere.
Nay, even this would be an imperfect instrument, because
its power would be confined to a very narrow space; and if
it be not accurately pointed to the person listening, its
power will be greatly diminished. And we may observe,
by the way, that we derive from this circumstance a strong
confirmation of the justness of Mr Lambert’s principles ;
for the effects of speaking trumpets are really observed to
be limited in the way here described. Parabolic trumpets
have been made, and they fortify the sound not only in the
cylindrical space in the direction of the axis, but also on
each side of it; which should not have been the case, had
their effect depended only on the undulations formed by
the parabola in planes perpendicular to the axis. But to
proceed.
Let BCA (fig. 5) be the cone, ED
the mouth-piece, TEDV the equiva¬
lent sonorous sphere, and TBAV the
circumscribed cylinder. Then CA
or CB is the length of cone that is
necessary for maintaining the mag¬
nifying power at ail distances. We
have two conditions tobefulfilled. The
diameter ED of the mouth-piece must
be of a certain fixed magnitude, and
the diameter AB of the outer end must
be equal to that of the equivalent so¬
norous sphere. These conditions de¬
termine all the dimensions of the
trumpet and its magnifying power.
And, first, with respect to the dimen¬
sions of the trumpet.
The similarity of the triangles ECG £
and BCE gives CG : ED = CF : AB;
Fig. 5.
but CG = BF — iAB, and CF
= CG + GF = GF + J AB; there¬
fore £AB : ED = GF + £AB : AB,
and AB : ED is 2 GF + AB : AB ;
therefore 2 GF x ED -j- AB x ED = AB2, and 2 GF X
ED = AB2 — AB x ED = AB x (AB — ED) and GF
T R U M P E T.
_ ABx(A B ED) on tjie otjier jian(] because
~ 2 ED
AB2 AB X ED = 2 GF X ED, we have AB2—AB
X ED + ED2 =: 2 GF x E D +1 ED'2, or (AB — £ ED)2
= 2 GF x ED + i ED2,and AB=r y' (2 GF X ED + J ED2)
+ 1ED.
Let x represent the length of the trumpet, y the diame¬
ter at the great end, and in the diameter ot the mouth-piece.
Then x - (V rZ^l, and y=V(2 xm -f J nr ) + \m. Thus
2 m
the length and the great diameter may be had reciprocally.
The useful case in practice is to find the diameter for a
proposed length, which is obtained by the last equation.
Now if we take all the dimensions in inches, and fix m at
an inch and a half, we have 2 x rn — 3 x, and nr = 0’5G2o,
and J m = 0-75 ; so that our equation becomes y =
^/(3 x + 0-5625) + 0-75. The following table gives the
dimensions of a sufficient variety of trumpets. Ine first
column is the length of the trumpet in feet; the second co¬
lumn is the diameter of the mouth in inches; the third co¬
lumn is the number of times that it magnifies the sound;
and the fourth column is the number of times that it in¬
creases the distance at which a man may be distinctly heard
by its means; the fifth contains the angle of the cone.
tan. a and thus we obtain the angle a. But if ^
the radius CE be atco rated 1, T# is
== 2 sin. Therefore —
•J 2, and E # is
power of the trumpet is =
O • U
2 sin. -
-, and the magnifying
2 _ 1
     -• Thenum-
4 sin.2- 2sin.‘'-
bers, therefore,, in the third column of the table are
each = ^— .
2 sin.2^-
But the more usual way of conceiving the power of the
trumpet is, by considering how much farther it will enable
us to hear a voice equally well. Now we suppose that the
audibility of sounds varies in the inverse duplicate ratio of
the distance. Therefore if the distance d, at which a man
may be distinctly heard, be increased to 2, in the propor¬
tion of EG to T y, the sound will be less audible, in the
proportion of T (/- to E G2. Therefore the trumpet will
be as well heard at the distance z as the simple voice is
heard at the distance d. Therefore ^ will express the ex-
V 2
AB
Inches.
Magnifying.! Extending.! ACB.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
15
18
21
24
6-8
9-3
11-2
12-8
14- 2
15- 5
16- 6
17- 7
18- 8
19- 8
20- 7
21- 5
24-
26 2
28 3
30-2
42-6
77-8
112-4
146-6
180-4
214-2
247-7
281-3
314-6
347-7
380-9
414-6
513-6
612-3
711-2
810-1
6-5
8-8
10-6
12-1
13- 4
14- 6
15- 7
16- 8
17- 7
18- 6
19- 5
20- 4
22-7
24-7
26-6
28-5
24 53
18 23
15 18
13 24
12 04
11 05
10 18
9 40
9 08
8 42
8 18
7 58
7 09
6 33
6 05
5 42
tending power of the trumpet, which is therefore
2 sin.!
In this manner were the numbers computed for the fourth
column of the table.
When the angle BCA is small, which is always the case
in speaking trumpets, we may, without any sensible error,
ED m
consider Eg- as —
^V2 = -^
2 ^
2"
And T# = TC X \/ 2 z
]L
ED in all is — 1-5.
The last two columns are constructed on the following
considerations. We conceive the hearer placed within the
cylindrical space whose diameter is BA. In this situation
he receives an echo coming apparently from the whole sur¬
face TGV; and we account the effect of the trumpet as
equivalent to the united voices of as many mouths as w ould
cover this surface. Therefore the quotient obtained by di¬
viding the surface of the hemisphere by that of the mouth¬
piece will express the magnifying power of the trumpet.
If the chords g E, g T, be drawn, we know that the sphe¬
rical surfaces T # V, E# D, are respectively equal to the
circles described with the radii T y, E^, and are therefore
as T and E gn~. Therefore the audibility of the trumpet,
when compared with a single voice, may be expressed by
T d1
—Now the ratio of T to E<?2 is easily obtained.
E/
For if E/ be drawn parallel to the axis, it is plain that
B/ — ^ ^ , and that Ef is to B/ as radius to the
tangent of BCF ; which angle we may call a. Therefore
This gives a very easy com¬
putation of the extending and magnifying powers of the
trumpet.
. y
The extending power is = v 2
The magnifying power is = 2 —.
We may also easily deduce from the premises, that if the
mouth-piece be an inch and a half in diameter, and the
length x be measured in inches, the extending power is very
nearly — f x | and the magnifying power n fa?.
An inconvenience still attends the trumpet of this con¬
struction. Its complete audibility is confined to the cylin¬
drical space in the direction of the axis, and it is nma-
faintly heard on each side of it. We are therefore oblige
to direct the trumpet very exactly to the spot where «e
wish it to be heard. This is confirmed by all the accounts
we have of the performance of great speaking trumpets, t
is evident, that by lengthening the trumpet, and theremre
enlarging its mouth, we make the lines 1 Bi and VAccx
pand (fig. 4) ; and therefore it will not be so difficult o
direct the trumpet. e c ]?.
But even this is confined within the limits of a few ie
grees. Even if the trumpet were continued without en ,
the sounds cannot be reinforced in a wider space than '
cone of the trumpet. But it is always advantageous to i
crease its length ; for this makes the extreme tangents e
brace a greater portion of the sonorous sphere, an
increase the sound in the space where it is all re“eC ,
And the limiting tangents TB, VA, expand still m0.^’ r
thus the space of full effect is increased. But
these augmentations is very small in comparison ot U t
mentation of size. If the trumpet of fig- 5 were ma
I ’
T R U M P E T.
397
* 3et-
±ii
ki
,
a
uidred times longer, its power would not be increased
' le ^ • i i
We need not therefore aim at much more than to pro¬
ice a cylindrical space of full effect; and this will always
, done by the preceding mips, or table of constructions,
fe may give the trumpet a third or a fourth part more
igth, in order to spread a little the space of its full effect,
<f thereby make it more easily directed to the intended
iject. But in doing this we must be careful to increase
ie diameter of the mouth as much as we increase the
hgth ; otherwise we produce the very opposite effect, and
] ike the trumpet greatly inferior to a shorter one, at all
i stances beyond a certain point. For by increasing the
hgth while the part CG remains the same, we cause the
ngents TB and VA to meet on some distant point, be-
, ud which the sound diffuses prodigiously. The construc-
i n of a speaking trumpet is therefore a problem of some
j^ety ; and as the trials are always made at some consider-
; le distance, it may frequently happen that a trumpet
i lich is not heard at a mile’s distance, may be made very
ijdible two miles off, by cutting off a piece at its wdde end.
After this minute consideration of the conical trumpet,
I might proceed to consider those of other forms. In par-
t ular the hyperbolic, proposed by Cassegrain, and the
jrabolic, proposed by Base, seem to merit consideration.
At if we examine them merely as reflectors of echoes, we
> all find them inferior to the conical.
With respect to the hyperbolic trumpet, its inaptitude
ievident at first sight; for it must dissipate the echoes
ipre than a conical trumpet. Indeed Mr Cassegrain pro-
teds on quite different principles, depending on the me-
(‘anism of the aerial undulations : his aim was to increase
Hie agitation in each pulse, so that it may make a more for-
ole impulse on the ear. But we are too imperfectly ac-
minted with this subject to decide a priori; and expe-
i. nee shows that the hyperbola is not a good form.
With respect to the parabolic trumpet, it is certain that
i the mouth-piece were but a point, it would produce the
nst favourable reflection of all the sounds ; for they would
; proceed parallel to the axis. But every point of an open
nith must be considered as a centre of sound, and none
it must be kept out of the trumpet. If this be all ad-
..tted, it will be found that a conical trumpet, made by
e preceding rules, will dissipate the reflected sounds much
ks than the parabolic.
Those who have endeavoured to improve the speaking
impel on mechanical principles, have generally aimed at
jreasing the violence of the elastic undulations, that they
jy make a more forcible impulse on the ear. This is
e object in view in the parabolic trumpet. All the undu-
ions are converted into others w hich are in planes perpen-
cular to the axis of the instrument; so that the same little
« lass of air is agitated again and again in the same direction.
i'om this it is obvious to conclude, that the total agitation
pi I I H be more violent. But, in the first place, these violent
■is j I Stations must diffuse themselves laterally as soon as they
jlil t out of the trumpet, and thus be weakened, in a propor-
tk ’I >n that is perhaps impossible for the most expert analyst
|ltl determine. But, moreover, we are not sufficiently ac-
jfl lainted with the mechanism of the very first agitations, to
j ! able to perceive what conformation of the trumpet will
.use the reflected undulations to increase the first undula-
his, or to check them. For during the production of a
•ntinued sound in a trumpet, it must happen that a parcel
air, which is in a state of progressive agitation as it
akesa pulse of one sound, may be in a state of retrograde
ptation as it is part of a pulse of air producing another
»und. We cannot (at least no mathematician has yet done
) discriminate, and then combine these agitations, with the
'telligence and precision that are necessary for enabling
5 to say what is the ultimate accumulated effect. Mr
Lambert, therefore, did wisely in abstaining from this intri- Trumpet,
cate investigation ; and we are highly obliged to him for
deducing such a body of demonstrable doctrine from the
acknowledged, but ill understood, fact of the reflection of
echoes.
We know that two sounds actually cross each other with ¬
out any mutual disturbance; for w?e can hear either of them
distinctly, provided the other is not so loud as to stun our
ears, in the same manner as the glare of the sun dazzles
our eyes. We may therefore depend on all the conse¬
quences which are legitimately deduced from this fact, in
the same manner as we depend on the science of catoptrics,
which is all deduced from a fact perfectly similar, and as
little understood.
But the preceding propositions by no means explain or
comprehend all the reinforcement of sound which is really
obtained by means of a speaking trumpet. In the first
place, although we cannot tell in what degree the aerial
undulations are increased, w e cannot doubt that the reflec¬
tions which are made in directions which do not greatly de¬
viate from the axis, do really increase the agitation of the
particles of air. We see a thing perfectly similar to this in
the waves on water. Take a long slip of lead, about twm
inches broad, and having bent it into the form of a para¬
bola, set it into a large flat trough, in which the water is
about an inch deep. Let a quick succession of small drops
of water fall precisely on the focus of the parabola. We
shall see the circular waves, proceeding from the focus, all
converted into waves perpendicular to the axis; and we
shall frequently see these straight waves considerably aug¬
mented in their height and force. We say generally, for
we have sometimes observed that these reflected waves
were not sensibly stronger than the circular or original
waves. We do not exactly know to what this difference
must be ascribed ; we are disposed to attribute it to the fre¬
quency of the drops. This may be such, that the interval
of time between each drop is precisely equal, or at least
commensurable, to the time in which the waves run over
their own breadth. This is a pretty experiment; and the
ingenious mechanician may make others of the same kind
which will greatly illustrate several difficult points in the
science of sounds. We may conclude, in general, that the
reflection of sounds, in a trumpet of the usual shapes, is ac¬
companied by a real increase of the aerial agitations ; and
in some particular cases we find the sounds prodigiously in¬
creased. Thus, when we blow through a musical trumpet,
and allow the air to take that uniform undulation which can
be best maintained in it, namely, that which produces its
musical tone, w here the whole tube contains but one or two
undulations, the agitation of a particle must then be very
great ; and it must describe a very considerable line in its
oscillations. When we suit our blast in such a manner as
to continue this note, that is, this undulation, we are cer¬
tain that the subsequent agitations conspire with the pre¬
ceding agitation, and augment it. And accordingly we
find that the sound is increased to a prodigious degree. A
cor de chasse, or a bugle horn, when properly winded, will
almost deafen the ear ; and yet the exertion is a mere no¬
thing in comparison with what we make when bellowing
with all our force, but with not the tenth part of the noise.
We also know, that if we speak through a speaking trum¬
pet in the key which corresponds with its dimensions, it is
much more audible than when w e speak in a different pitch.
These observations show, that the loudness of a speaking
trumpet arises from something more than the sole reflection
of echoes considered by Mr Lambert. The very echoes are
rendered louder.
In the next place, the sounds are increased by the vi¬
brations of the trumpet itself. The elastic matter of the
trumpet is thrown into tremors by the undulations which
proceed from the mouth-piece. These tremors produce
L
398
T R U M P E T.
Trumpet- pulses in the contiguous air, both in the inside of the trum-
pet and on that which surrounds it. These undulations
within the trumpet produce original sounds, which are add¬
ed to the reflected sounds; for the tremor continues for some
little time, perhaps the time of three, or four, or more
pulses. This must increase the loudness of the subsequent
pulses ; we cannot say to what degree, because we do
not know the force of the tremor which the part of the
trumpet requires; but we know that these sounds will not
be magnified by the trumpet to the same degree as if they
had come from the mouth-piece ; for they are reflected as
if they had come from the surface of a sphere which passes
through the agitated point of the trumpet. In short, they
are magnified only by that part of the trumpet which lies
without them. The whole sounds of this kind, therefore,
proceed as if they came from a number of concentric sphe¬
rical surfaces, or from a solid sphere whose diameter is
twice the length of the trumpet cone.
All these agitations arising from the tremors of the trum¬
pet tend greatly to hurt the distinctness of articulation ;
because, coming from different points of a large sphere,
they arrive at the ear in a sensible succession, and thus
change a momentary articulation to a lengthened sound,
and give the appearance of a number of voices uttering the
same words in succession. It is in this way that, when we
clap our hands together near a long rail, we raise an echo
from each post, which produces a chirping sound of some
continuance. For these reasons it is found advantageous
to check all tremors of the trumpet by wrapping it up in
wmollen lists. This is also necessary in the musical trumpet.
With respect to the undulations produced by the tre¬
mors of the trumpet in the air contiguous to its outside,
they also hurt the articulation. At any rate, this is so much
of the sonorous momentum uselessly employed, because
they are diffused like common sounds, and receive no aug¬
mentation from the trumpet.
Hearing It is evident that this instrument may be used for aid-
trumpet. jng t[ie hearing; for the sonorous lines are reflected in
either direction. We know that all tapering cavities great¬
ly increase external noises; and we observe the brutes
prick up their ears when they want to hear uncertain or
faint sounds. They turn them in such directions as are
best suited for the reflection of the sound from the quarter
whence the animal imagines that it comes. Let us apply
Mr Lambert’s principle to this very interesting case, and
examine whether it be possible to assist dull hearing in
like manner as the optician has assisted imperfect sight.
The subject is greatly simplified by the circumstances of
the case ; for the sounds to which we listen generally come
in nearly one direction, and all that we have to do is to
produce a constipation of them. And we may conclude,
that the audibility will be proportional to this constipation.
Therefore let ABC, fig. 6, be the cone, and CD its axis.
precisely to that quantity. What part of the cone should Tr
be cut off, may be determined by the former principles
Call the angle ACD, a. We have Ce = ^
sin. (2n -f l)a>
when the sound gets the last useful reflection. Then we
have the diameter of the mouth AB = 2 CA • sin. a, and
that of the other end ef =. Ce ' 2 sin. a. Therefore the
sounds will be constipated in the ratio of CA2 to Ce2, and
the trumpet will bring the speaker nearer in the ratio of
CA to Ce.
When the lines of reflected sound are thus brought to¬
gether, they may be received into a small pipe perfectly
cylindrical, which may be inserted into the external ear.
This wall not change their angles of inclination to the axis
nor their density. It may be convenient to make the in¬
ternal diameter 6f this pipe of an inch. Therefore
Ce • sin. a is ~ -Jth of an inch. This circumstance, in con¬
junction with the magnifying power proposed, determines the
1
6 sin.a
other dimensions of the hearing trumpet. For Ce:
CA sin. a i r1 v s‘n- (^n + 1 a)
sin. (dn -J- ijci o sin. ct
Thus the relation of the angle of the cone and the length
of the instrument is ascertained, and the sound is brought
nearer in the ratio of CA to Ce, or of sin. (2?i -f 1) a to
sin. a. And seeing that we found it proper to make
(2n + 1) « = 90°? we obtain this very simple analogy,
1 : sin. a — CA : Ce. And the sine of ^ the angle of the
cone is to radius as l to the approximating power of the
instrument.
Thus let it be required that the sound may be as audible
CA
as if the voice w ere 12 times nearer. This gives -^ = 12;
and sin. a zz
12’
cone =: 9° 34'. Then CA
= 24
From this take Ce
Ce
and a — 4'/', and the angle of the
1  l _H4
eXlTT —
6sin.-« 6 X ~ 6
Therefore the length of the cone is 24 inches.
CA
The sound may be conceived as coming in the direction
RA, parallel to the axis, and to be reflected in the points
A, b, c, d, e, till the angle of incidence increases to 90°;
after which the subsequent reflections send the sound out
again. We must therefore cut off a part of the cone ; and,
because the lines increase their angle of incidence at each
reflection, it w ill be proper to make the angle of the cone
an aliquot part of 90°, that the least incidence may amount
— rr 2, and the length of the trum¬
pet is 22 inches. The diameter at the mouth is 2Ce = 4
inches. With this instrument one voice should be as loud
as 144.
If it were required to approximate the sound only four
times, making it 16 times stronger than the natural voice
at the same distance, the angle ACB must be 29°, Aemust
be 2 inches, AB must be l^d inch, and tf must be jd ol
an inch.
It is easy to see that when the size of the ear-end is the
same in all, the diameters at the outer end are proportional
to the approximating powers, and the lengths of the cones
are proportional to the magnifying powers.
We shall find the parabolic conoid the preferable shape
for an acoustic trumpet; because, as the sounds come into
the instrument in a direction parallel to the axis, they are
reflected so as to pass through the focus. The parabolic
conoid must therefore be cut off through the focus, that the
sounds may not go out again by the subsequent reflections;
and they must be received into a cylindrical pipe ot one
third of an inch in diameter. Therefore the parameter ot
this parabola is one sixth of an inch, and the focus is one
twelfth of an inch from the vertex. This determines the
whole instrument; for they are all portions of one para¬
bolic conoid. Suppose that the instrument is required to
approximate the sound 12 times, as in the example of the
conical instrument. The ordinate at the mouth must be
12 times the 6th of an inch, or 2 inches; and the mouth
diameter is four inches, as in the conical instrument. Them
pet. >r the length, observe that DC in fig. 7 is ^th of an inch,
T R U
T R U
399
; tl MP is 2 inches, and AC is T'2th of an inch, and DC2
^:dP = AC : AP. This will give AP - 12 inches, and
| Hjiths; whereas in the conical tube it was 22. In
1 e manner, an instrument which approximates the sounds
i ir times, is only l]th inch long, and lith inch diame-
Mti* at the larger end. Such small instruments may be
'jry exactly made in the parabolic form, and are certainly
Inferable to the conical. Bui, since even these are of a
vry moderate size when intended to approximate the
smd only a few times, and as they can be accurately
tide by any tinman, they may be of more general use.
tie of 12 inches long, and 3 inches wide at the larger end,
sould approximate the sound at least 9 times. C
A general rule for making them—Let m express the ap-
[iiximatingpower intended for the instrument. The length
( the instrument in inches is — ^~ l\ and the diameter
a the mouth is The diameter at the small end is al-
vys one third of an inch.
In trumpets for assisting the hearing, all reverberation of
t: trumpet must be avoided. It must be made thick, of
t least^ elastic materials, and covered with cloth exter-
i ly. For all reverberation lasts for a short time, and pro- '
<; les new sounds, which mix with those that are coming in.
i must also observe, that no acoustic trumpet can se-
p;ate those sounds to which we listen from others that are
tude in the same direction. All are received by it, and
i' gnihed in the same proportion. This is frequently a
V'y great inconvenience.
I here is also another imperfection, which we imagine
ci> not be removed, namely, an odd confusion, which can-
)) be called indistinctness, but a feeling as if we were in
midst of an echoing room. The cause seems to be
■ : Bearing gives us some perception of the direction
the sounding object, not indeed very precise, but suffi-
[ ^ 80 ™st purposes. In all instruments which we
o described for constipating sounds, the last reflections
* made in directions very much inclined to the axis, and
mod in many different degrees. Therefore they have
appearance of coming from different quarters, and in-
^ 0..t e perception of a single speaker, we have that of
funding surface of great extent. We do not know any
*1 sound ^re' en^n^ an<^ ^ie sarae time increasing
1T .ilere Is a" observation which it is of importance to
fi no 1 i the0,’y of acoustic instruments. Their per-
ti,« r00 a°fS n0t Seem to correspond to the cotnputa-
c nTdfd,°n !he theory- Wben they are tried, we
e V In t lat t ley ma&nify so much. Indeed it is not
n a measure by which we can estimate the de¬
ll'o ' f udllnhty. When a man speaks to us at the dis¬
ci 'k' i anc^ t^ien at ^be distance of two yards, we
>' s- tl y 1 k that tllere }s any difference in the loud¬
ly of t);0,;g 1 theory says that it is four times less in the
c wo experiments; and we cannot but adhere to
the theory in this very simple case, and must attribute the Truncheon,
difference to the impossibility of measuring the loudness
of sounds with precision. And because we are familiarly
acquainted with the sound, we can no more think it four
times less at twice the distance, than we can think the vi¬
sible appearance of a man four times less when he is at a
quadruple distance. Yet we can completely convince our¬
selves of this, by observing that he covers the appearance
of lour men at that distance. We cannot easily make the
same experiment with voices.
But, besides this, we have compared two hearing trum¬
pets, one of which should have made a sound as audible at
the distance of 40 feet as the other did at 10 feet distance;
but we thought them equal at the distance of 40 and 18.
I he result was the same in many trials made by different
persons, and in different circumstances. This leads us to
suspect some mistake in Mr Lambert’s principle of calcu¬
lation ; and wre think him mistaken in the manner of esti¬
mating the intensity of the reflected sounds. He conceives
the proportion of intensity of the simple voice and of the
trumpet to be the same with that of the surface of the
mouth-piece to the surface of the sonorous hemisphere,
which he has so ingeniously substituted for the trumpet.
But this seems to suppose that the w’hole surface, generated
by the revolution of the quadrantal arch TEG round the
axis CG (fig. 4), is equally sonorous. We are assured that
it is not; for even if we should suppose that each of the
points Q, R, and S (fig. 3), are equally sonorous with the
point P, these points of reflection do not stand so dense
on the surface of the sphere as on the surface of the mouth¬
piece. Suppose them arranged at equal distances all over
the mouth-piece, they will be at equal distances also on the
sphere, only in the direction of the arches of great circles
which pass through the centre of the mouth-piece. But in
the direction perpendicular to this, in the circumference of
small circles, having the centre of the mouth-piece for their
pole, they must be rarer in the proportion of the sine of
their distance from this pole. This is certainly the case
with respect to all such sounds as have been reflected in
the planes which pass through the axis of the trumpet; and
we do not see (for we have not examined this point) that
any compensation is made by the reflection which is not in
planes passing through the axis. We therefore imagine
that the trumpet does not increase the sound in the pro¬
portion of gE* to gT~ (fig. 5), but in that of ~ to fj .
(jrt/ C I
Mr Lambert seems aware of some error in his calculation,
and proposes another, which leads nearly to this conclu¬
sion, but is founded on a principle which we do not think
in the least applicable to the case of sounds. (b. b. b.)
Trumpet, Marine, an old musical stringed instrument,
said to derive its name from its inventor Marino or Ma-
rigni. Mersenne describes it as a monochord and as a di¬
chord. See his Harmonicorum libri xii. Paris, 1652, pro¬
position 37 of book 2d, pp. 56, 57, 58. It was played with
a bow, and the sounds were stopped by the fingers gently
touching the string, so as to produce the harmonics of the
string, in the same manner as is practised on the violin, &c.
The loud, harsh, and peculiar tone of the trumpet-marine
was increased by the bridge being fixed by one end only
to the sound-board, while the other end was free, and al¬
lowed to strike against the sound-board, according to the
vibration of the string, &c. The sounds above the funda¬
mental of the open string, followed those of the aliquots
mentioned in article Music. The reader may consult an
ingenious paper upon the marine trumpet in the fourth vo¬
lume of the late Professor Robison’s Mechanical Philoso¬
phy, edited by Dr Brewster in 1822, pp. 486-500.
TRUNCHEON, a short staff or baton used by kings,
generals, and great officers, as a mark of their command.
400
TRY
T S I
Trundle
Trypliio-
dorus.
TRUNDLE, a sort of carriage with low wheels, for
drawing heavy and cumbersome burdens.
TRUNK, among botanists, that part of the herb which
arises immediately from the root, and is terminated by
fructification ; the leaves, buds, and auxiliary parts of the
herb not entering into its description. See Vegetable
Physiology.
TRUNNIONS, or Trunions, of a piece of ordnance,
are those knobs or bunches of metal which bear it up on
the cheeks of the carriage.
TRURO, a town in the hundred of Powder and county
of Cornwall. It stands at the confluence of two rivers, the
Kenwyn and the Allen, which surround the place, and below
it unites with an estuary which is a part of the harbour of
Falmouth, so that at spring tides it is navigable for vessels
of 200 tons burden. In this way the chief products of the
tin-mines are conveyed to the requisite markets for con¬
sumption. The town is well built, and some recent addi¬
tions have been made, which have increased its beauty.
The church is a spacious building, and is a good specimen
of the architecture of the age in which it was erected, that
of the reign of Henry VIII. The town-hall, besides its
peculiar purpose, is used for holding the quarter-sessions
for the county. There is a building called the Coinage
Hall, where the process of coining the tin is carried on, and
where the parliaments of the lord warden oi the stanneries
and the courts of the vice-warden are held, for the adju¬
dication of whatever relates to the trade in tin, the chief
object of pursuit in this place. Truro is an incorporated
town, and by the recent law is divided into two wards,
having a mayor, six aldermen, and seventeen councillors.
It returns two members to the House of Commons. It has
an endowed grammar-school, with exhibitions at Oxford.
There are two w eekly markets, one on Wednesday, the
other on Friday. The population amounted in 1821 to
2719, and in 1831 to 2925.
TRUSS, a bundle or certain quantity of hay, straw, &c.
A truss of hay contains fifty-six pounds, or half a hundred
weight. Thirty-six trusses make a load.
TRUTH, a term used in opposition to falsehood, and
applied to propositions which answer or accord to the na¬
ture and reality of the thing of which something is affirmed
or denied.
TRYPHIODORUS, a poet of some note in the declin¬
ing ages of Greek literature, was a native of Egypt, but the
rest of his history is very obscurely known. “ All that can
be determined in relation to our author’s age,” says Merrick,
“ is that he lived between the reigns of [Alexander] Severus
and Anastasius, the former of whom died at the beginning
of the third century, and the latter at the beginning of the
sixth.” His w ritings wrere numerous, and several of them
are mentioned by Suidas. One of these is described as
Marathoniaca; a poem, which apparently related to the
victory at Marathon. Another of his poems was founded
on the story of Hippodamia; and a third, which is more
frequently mentioned, was a lipogrammatic, or letter-drop¬
ping, Odyssey. “ It is generally believed,” as Merrick states,
i( that the poem was divided into as many books as there
are letters in the Greek alphabet, and that in the first book
there wras no word which had an alpha in it; in the same
manner he is thought to have proceeded through the whole
work, leaving out in each book that letter by which the
number of it was distinguished.” The fantastic plan of
this poem is well known to the English reader, from one of
Addison’s papers on false wit, Spectator, No. 59. All the
works of Tryphiodorus have however perished, with the ex¬
ception of his poem on the destruction of Troy, TX/ou
''AXanr/g, which consists of 681 hexameter verses.
The first edition of this poem was printed by Aldus, in
an octavo volume which has no date, and which likewise
includes the two poems of Quintus Calaber and Coluthus.
That of Tryphiodorus was reprinted in several collections T
and not unfrequently in a separate form. An edition, ac’ C!
companied with a translation into Latin verse, and some li
annotations, was pubkshed by Jamotius, Lutet. 1557, 8vo l!
The poem was afterwards published with a double version ^
in prose and verse, by N. Frischlinus, and the castigations,."
of Rhodomannus, Francof. 1588, 4to. The Greek text
was edited by H. Rumpius, Hamb. 1617, 8vo. A good
edition, containing the metrical version of Frischlinus, and
the select notes of previous editors, added to some of his
own, was published by James Merrick, Oxon. 8vo. He
likewise translated the poem into English verse, and be¬
sides adding copious notes, prefixed an elaborate “ Disser¬
tation on the Life and Writings of Tryphiodorus.” The
imprimatur of his version is dated in 1739, that of the
Greek and Latin edition in 1741 ; but no date appears in
either of the title-pages. T he Greek text, with a Latin
version, Salvini’s translation into Italian verse, and select
annotations, was edited by Bandini, Florent. 1765, 8vo.
Another edition of Tryphiodorus was accompanied with a
poetical translation into Italian verse hy A. T. di Villa,
Modena, 1774, 8vo. Two, editions, with various illustra¬
tions, were published by T homas Northmore, Loud. 1791,
8vo, Lond. 1804, 8vo. A splendid edition, including a
few emendations and critical notes, was more recently su¬
perintended by Schafer, Lipsise, 1808, fob
TSCHEElkOW’S Island, an island in the North Pa¬
cific Ocean, observed by Vancouver in 1794, and so call¬
ed after the companion of Behring’s discoveries. Long, of
the centre, 205. 4. E. Lat. 55. 49. N.
TSCHERNIGOW, a province or government of Eu¬
ropean Russia, which extends in north latitude from 52° 22'
to 53° 17', and in east longitude from 30° 13'to 24° 43',
and comprehends 25,564 square miles. It is an undulating
district, with no lofty hills. The soil is of moderate ferti¬
lity, producing rye, barley, and oats, and a small quantity
of inferior wheat. The crops of hemp and flax afford the
chief employment. The heavy products are sent by water
to Odessa ; and many cattle are bred, and sent to Germany
for sale. The population amounts to 1,378,000 persons,
all professing the Greek religion. The province is divided
into twelve circles, which contain very few large towns for
their extent.
Tschernigow, the capital city of the province of that
name, as well as of the circle in which it stands. It is 773
miles from St Petersburg. It is situated on the banks of the
river Desna, is defended by a fortress on a hill; and is the |
seat of an archbishop, who has a cathedral with a magnifi¬
cent cupola. It contains about 2000 houses,.with 10,90(1
inhabitants, who make some linen goods. Long. 31.13. E.
Lat. 51. 27. 10. N.
TSIOMPA, a country of Eastern Asia, between Cam¬
bodia and Cochin China, and now subjected to the latter
kingdom. T he country properly called Tsiompa is barren,
intensely hot, and very unhealthy during a great part of the
year. It however produces a little cotton, indigo, and silk,
though of inferior quality. The inhabitants are tall, strongly
made, of a reddish complexion, with the nose somewhat
flattened. _ 1
TSONG-MING, an island near the coast of China, in the
Eastern Seas, near the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang river,
about fifty miles in length and fifteen in breadth. ihe
land is level, the air temperate and healthy, and the coun¬
try in general pleasant. The land is well cultivated, ex¬
cept tow ards the north, where reeds grow naturally, an
produce a considerable revenue, as they are used forbui
ing houses, and also for fuel, w'hich is Exported to 1
neighbouring islands. The country is dfvi^ed by an m
finite number of canals, which have high| banks to gua^
against inundations. That portion of tlpe1 island wine >■
cultivated extends to the sea on the south side, and pr(J
A
T U C
es two crops every year, one of grain, and another of
■rici or cotton. Wheat, barley, and other grains, are also
luced. Another description of land, though it appears
'ba en, abounds in salt, which is an article of export. Long.
54. E. Lat. 31. 38. N.
UAK, a small island in the Red Sea, about two miles
froii the coast of Arabia. Long. 41. 58. E. Lat. 5. 58. N.
UAM, a handsome town in the county of Galway, Ire-
lan. It is situate on a rivulet, in a low but healthy situa-
tio, and is laid out on a regular plan ; the market-house
0Cjlpying the centre, from which four broad streets di¬
ve, e. Ot late, several useful improvements have been made,
in idening the streets, erecting schools and other public
inanitions ; but in the smaller streets and outlets, squalid
pocrty prevails to a great extent. Tuam boasts of very
hi< antiquity in its ecclesiastical history; but no remains
of i s religious institutions now attest its former magni-
fiC)ice. It still however retains its importance, being
nd the seat of the bishop of Tuam, as well as of the titular
arcbishop of the same see. The cathedral is an ancient
bunmall edifice; while that of the Roman Catholics is by far
thinnest of the modern buildings belonging to that body
in eland. Here is also a handsome educational edifice
beinging to the Catholics, called St Jarlath’s College.
Hire is a barrack for soldiers, and various other public
bailings. Tuam has very much improved within these
fenyears; it carries on a considerable retail trade, and
a jtnat deal of agricultural produce is sold at the week¬
ly arket. It possesses an extensive brewery, several tan-
neiis and flour-mills, and the manufacture of linen and
cone canvass is carried on very successfully. There
aniieveral free schools, at which some hundreds of chil-
dr:. are yearly instructed. Tuam is situated on the great
thfoughfare, and is distant from Dublin 126 miles. Ibe
cororation consists, by the charter of James I, of a seve¬
re n and twelve free burgesses. The population in 1821
anumted to 4571, and in 1831 to 6883.
UBA, a small river of Asiatic Russia, which falls into
tli Yenisei, in the government of Kolyvan, sixteen miles
so h-west of Abakansk.
UBERCLES, among physicians, denote little tumours
wl :h suppurate and discharge pus, and are often found in
th lungs, especially of consumptive persons.
UBINGEN, a city of the kingdom of Wirtemberg, in
tli circle of the Black Forest, the capital of a surrounding
bu wick of the same name. It stands at the junction of
th river Ammer with the Neckar, and is enclosed by walls
am ditches, and has a castle, called the Pfalz, which con-
ta 5 many antiquities and curiosities. There are four
cl •dies, 880 houses, and, in 1830, 7220 inhabitants, some
ot diom are employed in making hosiery goods. Tiibin-
gcis chiefly an object of interest on account of its uni-
vi ity, which has long been celebrated for the number of
eu lent scholars that it has produced. Many of the pro-
fei irs in the other German universities have been stu-
d ts at Tubingen. The branches of study pursued are,
th ilogy both Catholic and Protestant, jurisprudence, me¬
diae in all its branches, philology, philosophy, and agricul-
0 . There are two hospitals, an anatomical theatre, an
d irvatory, a veterinary school, a chemical elaboratory,
ar several collections of natural history, with a library of
d e than 30,000 volumes, besides valuable manuscripts.
1J students amounted in 1831 to 887. They board among
inhabitants at very cheap rates. Long. 8. 58. 16. E.
4 - 48. 31. 9. N.
fUCOPIA, an island in the Pacific Ocean, discovered
Quires in 1606. Long. 167. E. Lat. 12. S.
1UCUMAN, a province of Paraguay, in South Ame-
r hounded on the north by the provinces of Los Chicas
a Choco, on the east by Choeo and Rio de la Plata, cn
1 s°uth by the country of Chicuitos and Pampas, and on
ou xxi.
T U M 401
the west by Chili. It now forms part of the republic of Tudela
Buenos Ayres. See Buenos Aykes. (|
TUDELA, a town of Spain, in the province of Navarre. Turnbt‘lan
It stands on the river Ebro, near its reception of the waters
of the Queiles. It has a magnificent bridge of seventeen '
arches across the Ebro, and is surrounded with a country
highly fertile, and which yields abundance of wine, oil,
wheat, hemp, and all kinds of garden-fruits and vegetables.
It contains an old castle, ten parish churches, eight monas¬
teries, 1500 houses, and 7295 inhabitants.
TUDURA, a village of Southern India, on the west
bank of the Tunga river. It has in its vicinity a forest of
fine timber. Long. 75. 25. E. Lat. 13. 40. N.
TULA, a province of European Russia, extending in
east longitude from 35° 49' to 38° 45' and in north latitude
from 52° 53' to 54° 56', and comprehending 11,997 square
miles. It is generally a level district, with a few undula¬
tions; there are no lofty hills, very few forests, and no large
lakes. It is chiefly drained by the river which comes from
the province of Kaluga, and enters that of Moscow, and
sometimes by overflowing inundates a great extent of land.
The climate is healthy, and much milder than that of the
adjoining province of Moscow. It is chiefly an agricul¬
tural country, yielding abundance of corn, but the growth
of rye very far exceeds that of wheat. Of each description
of grain there is a yearly surplus for exportation. The popu¬
lation amounts to 1,393,700 persons, all of the Greek church,
except a few' Germans established in or near the cities. The
province is divided into twelve circles.
Tula, a city of Russia, the capital of a circle and of a
province of its name. It is 606 miles from St Petersburg,
and stands at the junction of the river Upawith the Tuliza.
It is in part surrounded with a w’all, is very antique, with
crooked and narrow' streets, and houses chiefly built of wood.
It is the seat of a Greek bishop, whose diocese comprehends
the whole province, as w'ell as that of Kaluga. It has twenty-
eight churches, a seminary for ecclesiastical education, a
public college for the education of nobles, about 4000 houses,
and 38,000 inhabitants. Among its establishments of ma¬
nufactories, the most prominent is that of the emperor for
the fabrication of arms of every description, which employs
near 500 workmen, and provides arms and equipments for
more than 15,000 men yearly. Long. 33. 56. 14. E. Lat.
54. 14. 40. N.
TULGOM, or Tulgong, a small town in Aurungabad,
in the territories of the Mahratta peshwa. This place is
noted as the scene of the defeat of the Bombay army in
1778, and its subsequent retreat. In 1806 the town and
neighbourhood was almost depopulated by a famine.
TULL, Jethro, an Oxfordshire gentleman who farmed
his own land, and introduced a new method of culture, to
raise repeated crops of wheat from the same land without
the necessity of manure ; the principles of which lie pub¬
lished in a Treatise on Horse-hoeing Husbandry.
TULLE, an arrondissement of the department of the
Correze, in France, which extends over 999^ square miles,
and is divided into twelve cantons and 117 communes, with
129,799 inhabitants in 1836. The capital is the city of the
same name, situated at the junction of the river Solane with
the Correze. It is also the capital of the department. It
was once more celebrated for its manufactures than it is at
present; but some woollens are still made, and some thread
lace. Close to the city is an establishment for making
muskets and other arms. In 1836, the town and suburbs con¬
tained 9700 inhabitants. Long. 1. 37. E. Eat. 45. 16. N.
TULWUNDY, a town of Hindustan, province of La¬
hore. It is celebrated as the birth-place of Baba Nanoe
Shah, the founder of the religion of the Sikhs. Long. 75.
E. Lat. 31. 15. N.
TUMBELAN Islands, a cluster of small islands in the
Eastern Seas. Long. 107. 58. E. Lat. 1. N.
3 E
402 TUN TUN
Tumbrell TUMBRELL, Tumbrellum, or Turbichetum, is an en- tremely active and brave in their occupation, attacking^, „
TU1 »‘,ne punishment, formerly employed for the correction with bows and arrows, then prmcipa weapons, the fiercest ,
of scolds and unquiet women. animals, even bears; and the delicacy and quickness ot' 'h
TUMCURU, a town of Southern India, in the province sight by which they trace the game is almost incredible.'*
of Mysore, defended by a good fort. It contains from 500 1 he light mark which its steps leave on the moss or on the
to 600 houses. Long. 77.12. E. Eat. 13. 15. N. grass is a sufficient indication. The sable is the most va-
I UMENE, a district of Tobolsk, in Asiatic Russia, luable of the animals which they pursue. I hey clothe them-
with a capital of the same name, situated on the southern selves rudely with the skins of rein-deei and wild sheep,
bank of the Tura, at its confluence with the Tumenka. having the hair or wool turned inward dining the winter;
It was built in 1586, on the site of a Tartar town, of wdiich in summer they wear the same skins tanned, ihey orna-
the traces still remain. It has a suburb, inhabited by Tar- ment this simple costume with beads and glass, ihey are
tars and Bucharians. It contains 800 houses, with nine praised as honest, brave, and frank, holding lying in detes-
churches, a convent, and a nunnery. It has a foundery of tation, and theft and baud being unknown among them,
bells, manufactories of soap, and considerable tanneries. The females are in general chaste, though a custom pre-
Long. 100. 14. E. Lat. 57. N. vails among some of the nomadic tribes of lending their
TUMLOOK, a small town of Bengal, in the district of wives to strangers. On the women devolve all the do-
Hooghly. Ibe lands in the neighbourhood are extremely mestic duties. Joacertain age they aie handsome, but after
low% and only protected from inundation by embankments, they grow old they are hideous. According to the last
It is the head-quarters of an agency for the manufacture of enumeration, the iunguses in the government of Irkoutsk
salt, which is a government monopoly. It is thirty-five miles amounted to 13,264 males and 11,000 females ; but from
south-west from Calcutta. Long. 88. 2. E. Lat. 22. 17. N. their wandering mode of hfe, this census is supposed to be
I UN, a large vessel or cask, of an oblong form, largest imperfect. In the government of lobolsk, the reported
in the middle, and diminishing towards its two ends, girt number amounted to 19,193. r
about with hoops, and used for stow'ing several kinds of I UNGUSKA, the name of three large l ivers of Asiatic
merchandise for convenience of carriage; as brandy, oil, Russia, the tributaries of the Yenisei, ihe Lowrer Tungus-
sugar, skins, &c. ° ka, the most northerly of the three, has the longest course.
Pun is also the name of a measure. A tun of wine is It takes its rise in the northern part of the government of
four hogsheads ; of timber, a square of forty solid feet; and Irkoutsk, and after running parallel to the Lena, takes a
of coals, twenty hundredweight. westerly course, when it joins the Yenisei near limichansk.
I UNBRIDGE, a town of the hundred of the same name, Its course is estimated to be 1000 miles in length. Hie
in the lathe of Aylesford, and county of Kent, thirty-one Middle Tunguska, after a course of between 500 and GOO
miles from London. It stands on a branch of the Medw'ay, miles, falls into the Yenisei in lat. 62° N. The Upper
called the Tun, which is navigable, and by which coals and Tunguska contains a larger body of water than either of
other goods are conveyed from the Thames. It is a well- the other two. It originates in the southern part of Lake
built and clean town, with a handsome church, of modern Baikal, and flows through a broken and rocky channel. It
construction. There is a well-endowed grammar school, bears the name of Angara in the first part of its course, till
which has many exhibitions at Oxford and Cambridge. The after it receives the Him, when it is called the iunguska.
ruins still exist of that ancient castle, which has been the It then flow's west, and joins the Yenisei in 59° N.
scene of many events in our national history. There is a TUNICA, a kind of waistcoat or under garment, in use
well-supplied market on Friday. The inhabitants amounted among the Romans. They wore it within doors by itself,
in 1821 to 7406, and in 1831 to 10,380. and abroad under the gown. The common people could
Tunbridge Wells, a town partly within the parish not afford the toga, and so went in their tunics; whence
of Speldhurst, in the hundred of Washington and lathe of Horace calls them populus tunreatus. _ ; ^
Aylesford, but the larger portion in Tunbridge. It is thirty- TUNING-FORK, a steel instrument with two prongs
six miles from London, and six from the town of Tunbridge, and a handle, used to regulate the pitch of voices, or of in-
It has been long celebrated for its mineral springs, which struments that require to be tuned,
are strongly impregnated with iron. It consists of four di- TUNING-HAMMER, an instrument used by piano-
visions, viz. Mount Ephraim, Mount Pleasant, Mount Sion, forte tuners to twist round the iron pegs to which the wilts
and the Wells. The three former are composed of good are fastened at one end, or to fix these pegs by hanamer-
houses, let as temporary residences, and the latter consists ing them into their holes. ■
of rows of houses of smaller dimensions and expense. The TUNIS, a country of Africa, bounded on the north ant
place is much frequented in the summer, as well for the cast by the Mediterranean Sea and the kingdom of Tripoli,
water as for the purity of the air. In the town are manu- on the south by several tribes of the Arabs, and on tie
factures of wood, commonly called Tunbridge ware. The west by the kingdom of Algiers and the country °f Lsa •
inhabitants of Speldhurst amounted in 1821 to 2297, and in It is 300 miles in length from east to west, and 2o m
1831 to 2640, but the greater part of the new'buildings are breadth from north to south. See Africa. , /.v
within the parish of Tunbridge. Tunis, a large town of Barbary, and the capital o ^
IUNE, in Music, means either a short and popular me- kingdom of the same name. It is seated on the poin
lody, or correct intonation in singing or playing. See Mu- of the Gulf of Goletta, about eight miles from the pace
sic, Organ, Song, Iemperament, Tonality. where the city of Carthage stood. It is of an oblong oret
TUNG USES, a wandering native race of Asiatic Rus- and is about four miles in circumference, with ten ar^e
sia, who occupy the whole south-eastern portion of that streets, five gates, and thirty mosques, ihe houses
vast territory, being first found on the banks of the Yeni- all built with stone, though but one story high, 11
sei, and extending all the way eastward to the sea of Ok- walls are very lofty, and flanked with several strong 0
hotsk. I hey resemble the Mongols in their countenance, It has neither ditches nor bastions, but a good citace ,
though it is larger and still more flattened. They have on an eminence on the west side of the city. its P°PU . r
small eyes, and a smiling physiognomy, and long black was estimated by Mr Blaquiere at 130,000. ^ 16 n ranal,
hair, which they allovy freely to hang over their shoulders, of Tunis has a very narrow entrance, through a sma .
ILey gain their subsistence, like all the other savages, by In the city they have no w-ater but what is kept m ci» ^
hunting and fishing, ranging through the woods and along It is a place of great trade, and is ten miles hom
the rivers, without any permanent abodes. They are ex- Long. 16. 10. E. Lat. 36. 42. N.
L
IMj
TUNNEL.
TUNNEL. A tunnel is simply a hole bored through a
■''In, in order to carry a canal, a road, or a railway, in an
■anantflgeous course, and is generally resorted to as a means
"V lessening the expense which would ensue if an open
citing were made. There are other reasons which may
reder this mode of proceeding advisable; such as gaining
tl, consent of a landholder, who wxmld object to a cutting
tlpugh his property, but would have no dislike to a tunnel;
hi- various other local causes: but the general reason for
£! h a mode of proceeding is the consideration of expense.
], order to enter into this inquiry, the first step is to
ri ce plenty of borings, for the purpose of examining the
gijlogica! structure of the proposed hill. If these are con-
snired satisfactory, trial shafts should be sunk quite to the
iiiaided bottom, as by these the quantity of water to be
ejected will be discovered. It should be particularly at-
tijded to, as water is one of the greatest annoyance* to be
euountered in tunnelling. The readiest way is to measure
ilj water into a cask, and ascertain the number of gallons
pi minute. To do it readily, the shaft should be about
fl r feet in diameter, rather more than less; and no loss will
b occasioned by making it large, as, if the situation is pro-
pjy chosen, it may afterwards be converted into a working
sift.
flie necessary power to drain being taken into account,
ai. the geological structure of the ground being ascer-
!,tried by the borings, we have thus the elements for making
a.estimate of the relative expense of forming a tunnel or
aopen cutting. Questions of expediency will also have to
b taken into the account; such as, how the spoil from a
trnel can be deposited, and at what expense in the pur-
dseof land; whether earth in large quantities is requisite
fean adjacent embankment; and if we lose this by making
aannel, at what price can a side-cutting be made to com-
p:(te the embankment; and various other questions con-
n rted with the locality, which can only be determined on
n
spot. Sometimes the earth for the tunnel can be taken
o laterally, the working shafts being horizontal; and in
t ; case the work is called a gallery, and not a tunnel. This
p’ cess will in general lessen the expense.
n the present state of civil engineering, a tunnel can be
Tide through any object, from a rock to a quicksand ; and
t question of making it turns chiefly on the expense,
v ich w ill vary from L.20 a yard in sandstone, which is
>:
fey to cut, and which will stand without brick-work, up
t L.100 i\Y\(\ T. 1 4.0 Q XTOV/'l i /"i -I -II o vx 11 /1
t L.100 and L 140 a yard in quicksand and bad ground,
r airing twenty-seven inches thickness in the brick-work,
1 mostly to be laid in concrete. The Thames tunnel has
c 4 about L. 1200 a yard. Here, however, there have been
£ ere difficulties of a peculiar nature to contend with, and
i s a double tunnel. In general the rocky strata will be
< .‘apest, as no brick-work will be required. Hard shale, and
i fact any thing which will not cut by a spade, is best re-
V'ed by blasting, and not by the pickaxe. In some cases
tigh clays will be found, against which a pickaxe is nearly
'I dess, as it merely indents a hole where it sticks, without
bsening any thing. Blasting will have no effect on this :
tcbets will answer very well, and cross-cut saws best of
I he borings should be numerous, so as to give all the
: ata. Chalk, for instance, will often contain large holes
eu with gravel, which on being opened during the execu-
•i of the work, will pour in on the unsuspecting miner
e water.
AUur due consideration, having determined on a tunnel
1 ie place proposed, the engineer next decides on the
0 and shape, both being in some measure regulated by
i W1
i|t>n 1115 ^,r a canaf> die form is generally an entire oval, the lower portion forming the water-way; and on one or both sides a retain-
.j‘s I’ydt, and filled in behind, to form the towing-path. Sometimes a wood camsheet is substituted for the wall, and cross sleepers
la a canal, of course, every thing must be level from lock to lock.
403
what the tunnel is intended to carry, ^jut, as respects the
shape, this is also dependent on the nature of the ground,
and the degree of weight which the brick-work will have to
support. For instance, in a wet quicksand, which ap¬
proaches the nature of a fluid, with an equal pressure all
round, the shape should approximate as nearly as possible
to that of a circle; and for any other kind of pressure, the
form of the tunnel should be proportionally modified.
Curves and rises or falls should by all means be avoided if
practicable.1
In setting out a tunnel, the engineer should have a tran¬
sit instrument, placed in a fixed observatory, and standing
on a pier insulated from the building; and if there is any
road near it, the pier must be insulated from the ground to
a depth of six, eight, or ten feet, according to the nature of
the traffic on the road, in order to insure stability and a
freedom from vibration. A distant mark should then be
taken in the line of the tunnel, and a fixed point placed as
the adjusting spot for the line of direction : the farther this
is off the better. Intermediate marks for the working and
ventilating shafts may then be set out correctly ; and as
these are sunk, plummets, suspended from points accurately
set out by the transit instruments, may be constantly tried
as to the proper direction. These plummets should be of
iron, and should be let down into buckets of water, to
check the vibration ; or, what is better, they should hang
in cups of mercury. When the shafts are cleared out to
the bottom, other transit instruments may be placed in
them, the plumb-line and transit being kept as far from
each other as possible. The intersection of the vertical
hairs in the transit with the plumb-line, will then enable the
engineer properly to set out the work.
Tunnels have been known to draw water off the wells as
far as a mile distant. 1 his may generally be remedied in
every case except that of a canal containing salt water, by
sinking the wells deeper, which for the most part restores
them to nearly their original state. When a salt-water canal
is to pass through a tunnel, compensation had better be
made to the parties as soon as it is discovered that an injury
has been done. In all cases of canal tunnels, care must
be taken that they are run deep enough to insure a pro¬
per supply of water to allow for waste, lockage, and leak¬
age, where the supply is contingent on a tideway. It will
be very expensive to remedy this afterwards, and will most
probably require the erection of a steam-engine to pump
up a sufficient quantity.
Some of the old canal tunnels, through an injudicious eco¬
nomy, were constructed without a towing-path. The boats
are in these cases pushed through by men lying on their
back on the deck, or on a projecting board placed for the
purpose. They then set their feet against the side-walls
of the tunnel, and advancing them alternately, foot the
boat along, the helmsman steering against them. This bar¬
barous plan, which has occasioned serious loss of life, is now
generally abandoned ; but no tunnel or canal can be call¬
ed perfect unless it has a towing-path on both sides. In
the tunnels, an iron hand-rail should invariably be set up
next the edge of the towing-path ; and if there is but one
of these, its width should be so increased as readily to ad¬
mit the horses to pass each other. Some of the old tunnels
above described were completed for less than four pounds
per yard ; and one, the old tunnel on the Grand Trunk
Canal at Harecastle, in Staffordshire, constructed by Brind¬
ley, only cost L.3. 10s. 8d. It was ten feet in diameter,
and consisted merely of a semicircular brick arch, which
sprung from the water-line of the canal. The variation in
Tunnel.
sleepers
404
TUNNEL.
1G
19
25
27
12
17
14
134
22
25
22
23}
12
22
10
10|
Tunnel, size from this may be judged of by the following examples
'-""v'"—on railways.
Yards long. Ft. high. Ft. wide.
Liverpool and Manchester Rail- j
way tunnels—Wapping to 2200
Edge Hill )
Lime Street 1 rai*6
Primrose Hilh London, and Bir- | jp5Q
mingham Railway /
Kilsby ditto 2420
Canterbury and Whitstable  880
Leeds and Selby  700
Whitby and Pickering  130
Leicester and Swannington 1760
In the agreement entered into with the contractor, the
price of the contract, and a schedule, by which any extra or
additional works are to be executed, should be stated; and
likewise the mode of payment, and the nature of any reten¬
tions. The time for completion, and fines for exceeding this
time, should be clearly and distinctly laid down; with the
condition that all payments are subject to the engineer’s ap¬
proval of the work. The contractor should find all tools,
machinery, labour, and materials of an approved kind, get¬
ting out all foundations, excavations, shafts, culverts, drains,
roads, &c.; and he should provide all centrings, colfer-dams,
pumping apparatus, scaffolding, fencing, and other requisite
materials ofevery description, according to the specifications,
plans, and drawings, and the instructions which he may from
time to time receive from the engineer. In the case of a
railway, he should lay the permanent way, the materials
being in this case found for him; and in a canal he should
construct all the locks and gates, if there are any at either
end of the tunnel, and form the towing-path. When he
does not employ a sufficient number of men on the work,
the engineer should have power to engage more, after giv¬
ing him a week’s notice of his intention. These may be re¬
tained temporarily or permanently, as may be required, and in
all cases using the contractor’s materials, the men’s pay be¬
ing deducted from the price of his contract.. The engineer
should also have the power of ordering the discharge of
any foreman or workman acting improperly, or doing his
work with carelessness ; a power which he should be cau¬
tious not to use without strong reasons. The ground over
the tunnel should be fenced off previously to commencing
the work. The contractor should be restricted from enter¬
ing on any adjoining land without leave; and if this should
be necessary after the leave is obtained, the required land
should be immediately fenced in. Temporary roads, for
the conveyance of materials from the high roads, when re¬
quired, should be formed by the contractor; as also those
necessary for conveying away the spoil-earth. If the com¬
pany who are forming the tunnel are called upon by any
of the surrounding occupiers, they should have power to
compensate them for any damages, and to place the sums
thus paid to the contractor’s account.
The contractor should not be allowed to sublet any
portion of the work without permission in writing from
the engineer. He should also be bound to take down
or otherwise alter any work not approved of by the en¬
gineer, and to remove all unsound materials. All mate¬
rials, from the moment they are brought on the site of the
works, become the property of the persons for whom the
tunnel is made, and the contractor must not remove them
again without permission ; but the company or other per¬
sons making the tunnel are not to be answerable for the
damages which any materials may sustain. These and simi¬
lar clauses in the agreement, are of course only provided for
cases of emergency, and would seldom require to be acted
on. The contractor should make ail the alterations and ad¬
ditions which he may be instructed to do by the engineer,
and no others. He is to be furnished with copies of the plans T 1
sections, and other drawings, also of the specification, and W
is himself to see if these are correct; he is also to do all that
may be reasonably implied, although not actually expressed
in the drawings and specification. It is usual to dedurt
ten per cent, from the payments; the whole of which is
not returned to the contractor till twelve months after the
completion of the work, he being bound to keep it in re¬
pair for that length of time. The payments are in general
made monthly, including those for extra and additional
works, after being approved by the engineer, who is to cer¬
tify the same. It is also usual in large works of this kind
when the contractor has more than two millions of bricks
on the site of the work, to allow him half or two thirds of
their cost.
When the tunnel is for a railway, the company deliver
the permanent-way materials at the nearest convenient
place, and the contractor brings them to the works, defray¬
ing the charge of wharfage, if any. In the eveilt of anydis-
putes, the decision of the principal engineer is in all cases
to be final.
The drawings should consist of, 1. a general section of the
tunnel longitudinally, containing all the measurements to
an exact scale ; the positions of any ventilating shafts if such
are required; their length, breadth, thickness of brick¬
work, &c.
2. View's of the fronts and wings, wuth plans and sections
of the foundations and wing-walls, showing the curves and
batters.
3. Plans and sections of the ventilating shafts, and the
iron-work connected with them on the working shafts.
4. Transverse sections of the tunnel, with any other de¬
tails as to drains, and all other necessary information; and
plan and section of fronts.
5. A general plan of the property through which the
tunnel passes, showing the width to be fenced in.
6. If for a railway, plans of the rails, blocks, and the
mode of laying them. If for a canal, plans of the locks and
gates, with all other necessary details.
The specification should define in words the situation
and termini of the tunnel, and the number and dimensions
of the locks, if for a canal; and should then enumerate the
various wmrks, such as fencing off the ground above, one
chain in width, till the tunnel is completed; sinking ven¬
tilating and working shafts; excavating and building the
tunnel; building the fronts; laying the drainage; excavating
in open cutting at each end, if required; forming and turf¬
ing the slopes, and fencing and ditching them, and the tops
of the fronts ; depositing all the earth in a given place, so as,
when soiled, to be fit for agricultural purposes; ballasting
and laying the way, if for a railway; but if for a canal, mak¬
ing all the necessary locks and feeders, forming the towing-
path, building lock-houses, deviating roads if required, and
keeping the whole in repair for one year.
The temporary fencing should be on each side of the
tunnel one chain in width, between which all work and ma¬
terials are to be comprised. It should be of split oak posts
nine feet apart, mortised for the reception of three hori¬
zontal oak or larch bars; the posts three and a half met
above ground, and the bars having one intermediate stay
or prickpost firmly nailed to each of them. This fencing
should be substantially fixed previously to the commence¬
ment of any other work, so as to exclude sheep and catte
from the intermediate space, and protect the surrounding
land from damage. On the outside of the fencing a did ■
should be formed, four feet wide at the top, one foot "K-c
at the bottom, and one and a half foot deep, communicatuv
with any existing water-courses or drains, so as effectua .
to prevent any of the shafts which may be sunk frorj^
jury by the overflow of water during the progress o
work. The strictest attention should be paid to this stipu
i lei-
ast
TUNNEL.
405
1 *1
tion near every shaft; and should the situation of any
'■laft require for its protection a larger ditch in the line of
ncing, or a puddled ditch round its site, the contractor
ould be required to make it at his own cost.
When ventilating shafts are necessary, they may be built
any required size. In railway tunnels from 2000 to
>00 vards long, two shafts sixty feet diameter will be suf-
•ient. They are best built from the top ; for instance,
cavate ten feet down, and build the shaft for that height,
en divide the circumference into parts about ten feet
de, and excavate every alternate one of these, leaving the
# hers to support the ring of brick-work; and when these al-
rnate ones are bricked up to the ring above, the remain-
(r earth is all taken away, and the bricking continued till
e second ring is completed and connected with the first,
ien the same process is repeated till the whole is con-
mied to the required depth.
The thickness of the brick-work is of course in propor-
nn to the size and height. For a shaft sixty feet diame-
ir and 120 feet high, the following would be sufficient in
ijfiivourable ground. The tunnel, where the shaft inter¬
acts it, should be entirely of stone, and on this a course of
!>ne four feet square, on which the shaft stands; then the
tst forty-six feet to be three feet thick ; the next seven-
isn feet, two feet eight inches thick ; the next seventeen
12t, two feet three inches thick; and the last or upper
!. .teen feet, one foot ten inches thick, coped with stone for
e railing. The boundary wall might be one foot one and
• half inch thick, with footings, and an increase in the foun-
. tions, if thought necessary.
They should be built in alternate courses of headers and
: -etchers, each brick being well flushed up ; and where
e tunnel intersects the shaft it should be faced with stone,
ch stone to be eighteen inches upon the curve of the
ffit, toothing into the brick-work in the soffit of the tun-
1 by being three and four feet long alternately ; the wdrnle
ily fitted in their beds, and neatly hammer-dressed, each
ing secured to the adjoining one with malleable iron
iwels run in with lead.
Stone coping should be set upon the shafts a little above
e level of the ground, into which iron railing may be
ced. The stones to be secured by lead joggles, three
urths of an inch square, and run one inch into each stone,
he iron railing should be about three feet high, of malle-
qle iron, three fourths of an inch square, and five inches
i slant from centre to centre, set three inches into the cop-
g, and run with lead. A half-round hand-rail should
1 riveted on each upright, an inch and a half wide, as a
fish.
Shafts of the above size should be enclosed with a circu-
r wall seventy-two feet in diameter, twelve feet high, and
urteen inches thick, with a plinth of eighteen inches, and
stone coping sixteen inches wide and four inches thick,
leathered and throated. In this wall there should be a
I )orway. The space or pa‘h between the wall and the
I aft should be paved with bricks, having a gentle slope
itwards, with holes through the wall about every three
et, to let out the water.
1 he whole bottom of the shaft should be soundly filled
, sufficiently deep, with good concrete beaten firmly down ;
jd whenever the excavation is larger than the dimensions
the shaft, the space should be fi led perfectly solid with
uck-bats, and grouted with Romai cement, with which
ie shafts are to be built; but the enclosing wall may be
ailt with mortar. Whenever wrater occurs in sinking any
l the shafts, it must be completely excluded from them by
lining of puddle, or Roman cement if necessary.
In short tunnels it may sometimes be advisable to drive
heading, about four feet wide and five feet high, right
lro'igh, before excavating it; and the contractor should
e flowed to sink what air-shafts he thinks proper, provid¬
ed they are not in the line of any road, nor within fifty feet Tunnel,
of any working shaft. They may be from three to" four
feet diameter in the clear, supported on iron curbs, carried
up ten feet above the surface, and coped with stone.
To determine the number of working shafts, regard must
be had to the time allowed for the completion of the work,
and the nature of the part to be excavated. The shafts
must be just so close together that every face can be raised
and bricked half the distance to the next shaft, two months
before the given time for completion, leaving these two
months for building the fronts, and laying the way if for
a railway ; and in all cases a larger allowance had better be
made, in case of accidents.
The number having been determined on, their places
should be shown on the drawings. They should be nine
feet in diameter inside, and nine inches thick ; the bricks
to be all heading, and to be well bedded in Roman cement.
The shafts should be kept free from all bulges and imper¬
fections ; they should rest on an iron curb-ring, forming a
key between the bottom of the shaft and the top of the tun¬
nel ; and they should be carried up ten feet above the sur¬
face, and coped with stone.
In excavating where the ground is bad, the contractor
should not, without permission, advance beyond the com¬
pleted brick-work more than six feet. Ten feet w'ill in most
cases be a convenient length ; but in this the engineer must
form hisjudgment from the nature of the ground. The space
excavated must be well secured, in the manner to be here¬
after stated. The dimensions of these supports are to be
approved of by the engineer. The invert, sides, and roof,
should be cut out as nearly as possible of the size the tun¬
nel will be when finished. When more than this is taken
out, it should be securely made good; in every case one
man being employed at each face solely in filling and ram¬
ming in, if under the invert, with well-pounded clay, and
if on the sides or top, with suitable materials, rammed in
with every other course of bricks at the sides, and, as soon
as the succeeding excavation will allow it, at the top. But
when the ground is very bad, the bars are to be left in, at
the pleasure of the engineer. The cills should not in ge¬
neral rest on the brick-work, but on trestles, so as to be in¬
dependent of the side-w'alls. If this is not done, the holes
where they have rested should be made good, whenever they
are withdrawn, with brick and cement.
When any two faces are within fifty yards of each other,
a heading should be driven to connect them, and insure the
proper direction of the line at the junction. The contractor
should also be bound to drive any headings the engineer
may direct, either for drainage or otherwise. I he en¬
gineer should, at the contractor’s expense, from time to
time give the contractor marks, in the way to be hereafter
shown, to let him know how the line of the work is to be
regulated.
Twenty-seven inches thick in the sides and top, and
eighteen inches in the invert, in Roman cement, will be the
most ever required, even in a quicksand ; and as the na¬
ture of the ground improves, this may be lessened, till we
arrive at the point where it will stand of itself. Each brick
should be well bedded with a wooden mallet, and every
joint thoroughly flushed when mortar is used. When the
shape of the tunnel requires it, the bricks must be moulded
taper. In the arch they are laid in concentric rings, half a
brick thick, taking care that the additional number of bricks
requisite for each additional ring is put in, which is easily-
calculated. In a tunnel twenty -seven feet high, and twen¬
ty-three wide, it will be five more for every ring. A course
of stone should be laid in at the springing of the side-walls
from the invert; the stones about three feet long, well
bedded in mortar, on four courses of very sound and hard
bricks.
It will generally happen that excavations are to be made
406 TUN
Tunnel. at each end after the tunnelling has sufficiently advanced.
These excavations should be turfed, if possible, as soon as
they are finished ; and if turf is not to be had, they must be
soiled at least eight inches thick, and sown at the proper
season with equal parts of rye and clover seed, in the pro¬
portions of three pounds of the mixed seed per acre.
The top of the slopes and the ends of the tunnel should
be protected with a ditch, a wood-railing, and a line of
quicks. The ditch should be five feet wide at the top, two
feet deep, and with slopes that will stand according to the
nature of the soil, which, if very bad, will render it neces¬
sary to widen the top. The earth from the ditch will form a
mound to be neatly turfed, having the best of the vegetable
soil in its middle, where a double row' of three years old
quicks, twro years transplanted, should be set in the propor¬
tion of twelve quicksets to a lineal yard. The fence of split
oak is to be set on the inner edge of the ditch, as before
described. The quicks should be weeded and cleaned
twice a year, and others planted in the room of those which
have not taken root.
A brick drain should be laid the whole length of the tun¬
nel, in Roman cement, with the end-joints open half an
inch for the passage in of wrater from the ballasting; and if
the shafts let in water, a conveyance half-round pipe must
be fitted to the bottom of them, to lead the water down the
side of the tunnel into the drain.
With respect to the spoil, if made into banks, the turf
should first be removed, to be afterwards put on the top.
Convenient sites should be found, so that the spoil shall be
useable for agricultural purposes ; and where turf enough
to cover it cannot be had, it must be soiled and sown with
seed at the proper season.
All damages to the adjoining land must be paid by the
contractor; but if the parties making the tunnel are, as is
usually the case, a public company, under an act of parlia¬
ment, they should assist the contractor in getting the ne¬
cessary land, with the powers of their act. It is understood
that the contractor has the full use of the one chain in
width along the line of the tunnel, free of all charge, on
which to erect any buildings or machinery he may require,
laying railways or roads for conveying aw7ay spoil and bring¬
ing in materials, lifting-engines, pumping-engines, or any
other apparatus; and it is also understood, that if any ma¬
terial turns up fit for making bricks, he is to have the ad¬
vantage of applying it to that purpose.
In case of having any roads to divert, or new ones to
make, the ground should be excavated the required width,
and one foot deep; when, if it is moist, brushw'ood should
be placed upon the bottom, and then gravel, till the centre,
when the whole is well beaten, is two feet above the exca¬
vated bottom, with a rounding of six inches on the surface.
None of the gravel or broken stones should be larger than
will go through a two-inch ring. A ditch,railing, and quicks,
as before described, are then to be put up.
I he engineer is in all cases to be the judge of the thick¬
ness of the brick-work, which should be provided for in the
schedule of prices; as also, whether laid in cement or mor¬
tar. It should also be clearly defined whether or not the
contractor is to be liable for any damage done to the land
from the failing of the surface during the execution of the
works, or if the regular continuity of the brick-work is de¬
stroyed, arising from irregular shrinking or settlement in
the arch., imperfection in the centring, or any other cause.
He should also be bound to .remove all the temporary fencing,
and clear the surface after the works are completed.
The materials should all be of the very best kind. The
bricks should be sound, hard, and well shaped, being mould¬
ed taper wherever the form of the tunnel requires "it. The
sides may be built in English bond, or alternate heading
and stretching; but the arch and the invert must be in con¬
centric half-brick rings. The mortar should be of the best
N E L.
lime and sharp sand, in the proportions of three to one, and t
passed through a pug-mill, the lime being ground under'-!""'
edge-stones in its dry or unslaeked state. The Roman "
cement should be perfectly fresh burnt, and capable of
setting hard; it should be mixed with an equal quantity of
sand, and none used which has set. The stone should be
of a sound and hard quality, perfectly free from flaws. The
cast iron employed in the curbs for the shafts should be of
the best No. 2 iron, and the castings perfectly clean and
cleared from air-bubbles or pin-holes, and no stopping or
packing should be allowed. The whole of the malleable
iron-bolts, See, employed, should be made of the best scrap,
iron. The bolts for retaining the tunnel fronts should be
tested to twenty-five tons, and tested in pairs to try the
couplings. When concrete is used, it should be five mea¬
sures of clean riddled gravel, and one measure of lime, and
not mixed till immediately before it is required to be
placed in its intended situation.
There should be a specified time for the contractor to
begin and finish each portion, such as the working shafts,
the ventilating shafts, the excavation, &c.; and he should
be bound to execute a given quantity of tunnelling per week,
sending the engineer a weekly return of all descriptions ot
men employed on the works, distinguished into classes.
When the rails, chairs, blocks, and other permanent-way
materials are delivered to the contractor, he is then respon¬
sible for them. They need not be delivered till the tunnel
is complete. Ballasting is to be used of broken stone or
gravel for bringing up the blocks to the required height,
without any mixture of clay or other substance capable of
containing water ; it should set quite hard. If broken stones
are used, they should be passed through a two-inch ring.
The ballasting, which may, if required, be shot down the
shafts, an inclined plane at the bottom canting it the right
way, should be spread over the invert, and beaten into a
firm and solid mass, by means of heavy beaters, worked by
at least two men, till it is consolidated at the proper height
to receive the blocks or sleepers, which are also to be im¬
bedded as firmly as possible. The contractor will have to
drill tw o holes in each block to receive the treenails, and to
cut a proper bed for the chairs on the sleepers. No spikes
should be driven into sleepers till proper holes are bored.
The sleepers should be imbedded by beaters, and the blocks
by lifting them one foot high by a spring lever, and then
letting them fall till no difference of level is perceived.
The rails must be laid perfectly level and parallel, and the
joints even and true, with an allowance for expansion and
contraction suitable to the temperature to be furnished by
the engineer. The utmost care and attention should be paid
to so essential a point as the laying of the permanent way.
In excavating the working or ventilating shafts, it will be
the best method to sink with a roll till they are fifty or sixty
feet deep: this is worked by hand, and then with a horse-gim
Fig. 13, Plate CCCCXCIV. If the ground is hard, the roll
should be used longer, as this will be the cheapest way. The
roll is worked by two men, and if they have to stand still oc¬
casionally for the bucket, or skip as it is termed, to be filled)
it will be a less expense than if a horse, horseboy, and bank-
man (to land the skip), have to wait for the fillers. In work¬
ing rocks, they will frequently have to wait for the blast.
A working shaft of nine feet diameter will be found suf¬
ficient ; and in commencing it, place four cills across, as re¬
presented in the drawing, fig. 13, about twelve or fourteen
inches square. On them place the standards for the winch,
as shown; then begin the excavation, going on till the groum
discovers signs of weakness; then put in a curb (a), which is a
wooden ring the size of the shaft, three inches thick, anu as
wide as the intended brick-work, for which four inches an
a half will in most eases be sufficient. But if the ground is
very soft, cut back into it and make the curb wider; tien
brick the shaft from the curb to the top, and go on excava
L
TUNNEL. 40
igdown the dotted line (^c), leaving the earth at (ec) to When tlie side--wallsareraised to the springingof the arch, Ttmnel.
•upport the curb («). Timber props (d) may also be set up a cili(e), fig. 15, is built in with them; then the centring, which’  
n further support, if thought necessary. with its cill (i), is all fixed together, is got up and"wedded
When the ground again shows signs of weakness, exca- to the required height. The laggins (kk) are pieces of euar-
ate inwards, as at (a), and filling up with another curb, pro- tering which go from centre to centre, and on them the
eed as before, according to the nature of the ground. Tak- bricks are laid; (cc) are the queen-posts, (d) is the strainino--
)g out one fourth, one sixth, or one eight of the circum- piece, (aa) principal beams butting against (b), (mm) are
rence, and putting in the same quantity of the curb, brick the ribs on which the laggins lie; and if the centring is
up to the curb above, and then take out another portion large, these may be joined over the queen-posts and struts,
f the earth; or, if possible, proceed in pairs. In some rare cases the cill (e) is not laid on the side-
When it is found expedient to use the gin, two pulleys walls and bricked in, as leaving a hole would, if the weight
mst be fixed, as shown in the drawing, fig, 13, for the rope was great, be dangerous. Whenever this happens, trestles
»run over, and the supports or standards made proportion- are set up from the bottom to support the cill (e).
ly stronger. Having in this way completed the working Sometimes in quicksands or other bad ground, a slip will
aafts, the next process is to sink down to the bottom of the happen, in spite of all exertions to the contrary. This oceur-
mnel: it is of no consequence whether enough is taken out rence will perhaps take place, if the rakers are not got up,
ir the invert or not. The excavation should then be com- although the crown-bars, side-bars, and cills are up. It
enced at the top of the tunnel, first running a heading at arises principally from a pressure on the face, throwing the
le upper part, a little exceeding the length intended to be cill back and letting the bars down. When it does happen,
it in. This length must depend entirely on the nature of a shaft must be sunk from above, and the ground beaten
jie ground, varying from three to fifteen feet up to rock, perfectly firm and solid from bottom to top, and the work
iInch wants no brick-work. The excavating is then conti- then proceeded with as in any other new length. The slip
led downwards from the heading; and when got out, the will often extend to the surface, and will then take the ap-
irth is propped up by the mining centres, mostly composed pearance of a hollow dome.
‘round timber, as shown in Plate CCCCXCIV. All this In the upper portion of the arch, where the bars cannot
•opping is above the centring; it is composed of two cills be withdrawn, and the vacancy between the brick-work and
ta), fig. 10, close to the face of the tunnel, between which the excavation filled up and rammed in till the completion
e the props (2$). These cills might be fastened by an earth- of the brick-work, it should invariably be done at the very
rew (c), fig. 16, worming into the face of the tunnel. The earliest possible period, which will be when the next length
own and side bars (dd) are then introduced; the two upper of excavation has proceeded far enough to let the workmen
les are called crown-bars, and all the rest side-bars. The have sufficient space to perform it with soundness; and
ick end of the bars rests on the props, and the smaller whenever the material through which the tunnel is making
id on the last length of brick-work in the tunnel. From is of so bad a nature as not to admit the withdrawal of the
ich cill stretchers (ee), fig. 16 and 10, are fixed, the other bars and planking, without a risk of disturbing either the
id taking the last brick-work; also raking stretchers or form or stability'of the brick-work, they must be left in,
.kers (J)), figs. 10 and 16, the ends of which are let in according to the judgment of the engineer; consequent-
1 as to have a firm hold on the last brick-work. 'I he ly their value should invariably form an item in the sche-
11s may be from twelve to fourteen inches square when dule of prices under which the contractor is constructing
e ground is bad ; the crown-bars fourteen inches diameter his work.
the thick end, the stretchers, rakers, and props, being in Tunnelling under rivers presents considerable difficulty,
•oportion; and their thickest ends placed as shown in the as has been experienced in that under the Thames. The
•awing, reducing their sizes in better ground. It is advis- first tunnel was commenced at Gravesend in the year 1790,
ile to buy the timber whole, and cut it up according as but the scheme was speedily abandoned. In 1804 another
ie stram is found to vary. was commenced from Kotherhithe to Limehouse; but after
I he number of side-bars depends entirely on the nature sinking an eleven-feet shaft forty-two feet, the difficulties
the ground. Sometimes they will only be required down were such that the work was suspended. The diameter was
‘ t‘ie 10P c‘|l> and in other grounds they must be carried then reduced to eight feet, and at seventy-six feet deep a
mn to the invert. Sometimes, when, from the weight of drift was carried 923 feet under the river, which was only
ie face, it is seen that many stretchers must be used, three 150 feet from the opposite shore": the engineer then report-
s are pnt in. 1 he props also to the crown and side bars ed that farther progress was impracticable. Several other
iry with the pressure; and for this purpose, they are made to plans were devised, till in 1823 Mr Brunei proposed his for
date to a point, which changes accordingly. Thus the prop a double tunnel between Rotherhithe and Wapping, the
fig. 10, would in rock be perpendicular; and if the ground soil there being a tenacious blue clay. The Rotherhithe
die prop (4) was bad, and likely to come in, the prop (h) shaft is fifty feet diameter 150 feet distant from the river,
iould be inclined in the position of the dotted line. The being forty-two feet high and three thick, built on the sur-
| ops between and under the cills are all perpendicular; face and excavated afterwards; the earth and water being
-tween each crown and side bar there are stretchers to drawn out by a steam-engine on the top. It was thus sunk
-“ep them apart at the proper distance. When the prop- in its place in a body, and by this means passed through a
og is completed, the next object is to get up the centring bed of gravel and sand twenty-six feet deep, which had
V i r!'ck‘work (which is formed in the manner shown caused great inconvenience in the former attempt. See
1 "S* hi), of the required shape for the tunnel, leaving a fig. 11.
Uco h‘sf' enough to take the brick-work and laggins be- The fifty-feet shaft was sunk sixty-five feet, and from the
Ken the centring and the propping apparatus. The in- lower level a twenty-five feet shaft was sunk to eighty feet
* u r ^rSt ^len tlle side-walls, by means of for drainage. At sixty-three feet the tunnel commences
ie eading frame (jf), which goes up to the springing, hav- dipping two and a quarter feet per 100 feet. The excavation
supports (f/y). 'Hiis leading frame, which is in fact a was thirty-eight feet wide and twenty-two and a half high,
n.pcite, is set up next the face of the tunnel, and from it or a sectional area of 850 feet; and the bottom, at the
string their lines; and when finished, the deepest part of the river, is seventy-six feet below high
f i™6 ta^e.s to P'eces> ar,d is got out till a new water. The excavation was effected by a shield composed
. T 01 tae work is excavated, and it is then put together of twelveframes close together, having each three cells above
one another for the miners (fig. 18) : 400 feet were bricked
408
a unqum.
TUN
complete in ten and a half months. In May 1827 and
'January 1828 the river burst in. These accidents were
overcome by throwing down bags of clay from above. 1 he
w'ork was however suspended for several years, not from
any doubt of its success, but from want of funds. It has
again been commenced, and has now reached the whaif-
wall on the Wapping side.
The shafts will contain easy flights of steps for foot-pas¬
sengers, and the descents for carriages are intended to be
circular, to give them an easy slope. The middle wall was
first built solid for greater strength ; but openings were then
made, so that each tunnel has ready communication with
the other. The entire length will be 1300 feet. During
the excavation each portion ot the shield advances sepa¬
rately; and in front, polling boards are pressed firm against
the earth by screws. These boards are removed singly to
excavate, and the first is always replaced before a second is
taken down. Fig- 17 shows through the tunnel a view of
the twelve parts of the shield as worked. They, of course,
are all of a length, extending to the outer parts of the
brick-work in all parts.
In Plate CCCCXCIV., fig. 14 shows the mode of support¬
ing the shafts in a canal or railway tunnel when finished,
by the iron curb, separate drawings of which are given in
figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9; fig. 12 shows the mode of drawing the
curves for the tunnel exemplified in North Church Tunnel
on the London and Birmingham Railway ; fig. 5 is the front
of Stowehill Tunnel; fig. 1 is the front, fig. 2 is a section of
the wing-walls, fig. 3 a section through the centre, and
fig. 4 plans at top and bottom of Linslade Tunnel. All the
figures are to the same scale, that under fig. 11 ; except
figs. 17 and 18, which are to the scales near them. (b. h.)
TUNQUIN, or Tonquin, a large kingdom of India be¬
yond the Ganges, bordering on the Chinese provinces of
Uuangsee and Yunan, and separating that empire from
Cochin-China and Cambodia. It is situated between the
seventeenth and twenty-third degrees of north latitude.
It is bounded on the east by the Gulf of Tunquin, and on
the west by Laos, Lactho, and part of the province of Yu¬
nan in China. This country is of an extremely diversified
surface. The districts to the north and west, towards China,
are wild and mountainous, with no very distinct boundary;
and the breezes from these heights, and towards the sea,
always preserve a tolerable degree of coolness. Mountains,
extending from east to west, separate Tunquin into two di¬
visions, of which the northern is considerably larger than
the southern. A prolongation of these ridges separates Lac¬
tho from Laos, and others separate Tunquin from Cochin-
China. These mountains are of great elevation, and many
of them terminate in sharp peaks. The central part of the
country consists of a vast alluvial plain traversed by numer¬
ous rivers, chiefly tributaries to the great river called Sai-
gong, which flows through the whole breadth of Tunquin,
and on which all the principal towns are situated. The
seasons or monsoons are here, as in other tropical countries,
divided into wet and dry. The rains begin in May and
end in August, and are accompanied with thunder loud and
terrific. There are few countries better supplied with
water than Tunquin and the lower parts of Cochin-China.
The country of Tunquin is watered by above fifty rivers
that flow towards the sea, several of which, by their union,
form the large stream which passes Backing. This river,
which was navigable about 150 years ago, when Dutch
vessels ascended the stream to within fifteen leagues of
Backing, has now thrown up many islands, and its mouth
is so obstructed by a bar of sand, that the Chinese junks
which trade to this country can no longer ascend the stream.
The country is inundated and rendered fertile by the
tropical rains, and thus yields ample crops of rice and
other productions. Potatoes, yams, and other roots, fur¬
nish also a copious supply of subsistence. The usual tro-
T U N
pical fruits abound, such as mangoes, lemons, cocoa-nuts, Tun,,
ananas ; and the most delicious oranges, as also the peach O
the plum, the pomegranate, and the citron, are produced!
The tea-plant.is almost as common as in China, but not being
attended with the same care, is not so valuable. The areca,
the betel, the indigo, the sugar-cane, also grow in these
fertile plains. Vines have been planted, but the grapes
do not come to maturity. Mulberry trees are plentiful, and
supply food for silk-worms. The country also contains much
large timber fit for building; beautiful cabinet woods,such
as eigle wrood, cocoa-nut, and other palms, bamboos, and
rattans. There are mines of various metals; and iron ore
is procured in a state of great purity. It is also asserted
that there are tin-mines in the mountainous tract towards
China, the working of which is prohibited. Particles of
gold are found in many of the Tunquin rivers, and salt and
saltpetre are in great plenty and of good quality.
Among the wild animals to which the woods afford am¬
ple cover, are found the elephant, which is the property of
the monarch ; and the buffalo, which is employed for agri¬
cultural purposes. Neither the sheep, nor the ass, nor the
hare, nor the camel, is known; but the hog and the goat
are abundant. The horses are a contemptible breed. The
rhinoceros is occasionally discovered, and tigers of the
largest size are found. There are bears of a diminutive
species, and deer and monkeys of all sorts. The country
is much infested with rats, and with reptiles and insects,
some venomous, others innocuous. Fish are remarkably
plentiful, and furnish the inhabitants with a greater supply
of food than they derive from the terrestrial animals. In
addition to the common sorts of fish, there are turtles, tor¬
toises, crabs, shell-fish, and moluscas, the substance of which
is gelatinous, and greatly relished by the Chinese, however
distasteful to European palates. Ducks and poultry are
numerous, and very cheap.
The trade of Tunquin can hardly be described as very-
considerable, and it is chiefly carried on by merchants from
China and Siam. The chief manufactures to be obtained
at Tunquin are silks and lackered ware. The silks are both
raw and wrought; they are very beautiful and cheap, while
the lackered ware is scarcely inferior to that of Japan. Gold
may also be obtained in considerable quantity. Other ar¬
ticles of export are earthenware, drugs, Chinese paper,
dyeing woods, musk, rhubarb, tortoise-shell, ginger, cassia,
ebony, ivory, sugar, and molasses. In the seventeenth cen¬
tury the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French, had fac¬
tories in Tunquin ; but they have been long since abandon¬
ed. At present the Chinese experience greater favour than
any other nation, and are allowed to ascend the rivers; a
privilege also granted to the Portuguese at Macao; but nei¬
ther are allowed to establish factories on shore. In fun-
quin there are reckoned to be twelve principal cities; name¬
ly, Backing, or Keeho, said to contain 40,000 inhabitants;
Hanring, 15,000 to 20,000; Tranhac, 10,000 to 15,000;
Causang, 7000 to 8000 ; Vihoang, a town on the river that
passes through Tunquin, up to which the Chinese junks can
ascend; Hunnam,atown on the same river, containing about
5000 inhabitants. There are, besides, six other towns con¬
taining from 6000 to 7000 souls. .
Tunquin is divided into ten districts, of which the centra
district, named Xunam, is by far the most populous, con¬
sisting of a vast plain, watered by numerous naviga e
streams, and in the density of its population resembling a
Chinese province. We have no data for any accurate es
timate of the population of the country. It has been com
puted by a missionary at eighteen millions; but this is pr®
bably far beyond the truth. One tenth of the inhabitan
are supposed, like the Chinese, to live constantly on lt
water. The Tunquinese, deriving their origin
from the
Chinese, are distinguished by a general resemblance^^
them in their language and manners. Their language ‘
TUN
T U R
40f)
uin. lodified dialect of the Chinese, but so greatly changed
—' nd corrupted, that the spoken language is now wholly un-
itelligible to a native of China, though the written charac-
;r is understood, being the same in both countries. Print-
)g is known in Tunquin, but the people generally are rude
tid uninformed; such limited knowledge as they possess
, eing confined to the mandarins. Their printing is of the
idest kind, their types being of wood, and not moveable ;
ut being rather a mode of stereotype, and every additional
ook requiring new plates and characters, few are printed,
nd these have in general a reference to religion and law',
'he historical works are inaccurate ; those on moral subjects
re mostly translations from Chinese works, or commenta-
es on them ; and the sciences have remained stationary
ir nearly a thousand years. The people resemble the Chi-
ese in their shape and features; but the additional prac-
ce which they have adopted of blacking their teeth, gives
, iem a hideous appearance. The blackness of the teeth is,
owever, considered as singularly ornamental, and takes
lace generally at the age of sixteen or seventeen. Like
he Chinese, they allow their nails to grow to an immode-
tte length. They differ however from the Chinese in
leir laborious habits, being extremely indolent, and not
isily roused to any vigorous exertion ; and their task be-
ig accomplished, they soon relapse into their former state
5; 'sloth and repose. They are remarkably coarse in their
lode of eating, using for food what among other nations is
jected with disgust. Not only are particular parts of the
finoceros and the elephant eaten, but grasshoppers, mon¬
eys, horses, and dogs, with mountain rats, lizards, and
ime kinds of worms and snakes. They refuse the milk
m ijf animals in any shape, holding it in extreme aversion,
hey have the same repugnance to fresh eggs. They eat
1 manner of odious reptiles and noxious animals, and
refer drinking water in a tepid state. Their laws and
istitutions bear all the marks of a rude and barbarous
;rople. Punishments are decreed against all sorts of crimes
ith particular minuteness, but with little discrimination,
eing not at all proportioned to the nature of the offence;
lose against manners being more rigorously punished than
1 rimes dangerous to society. There is no proper security
ir natural rights; nor is life and property protected against
le despotic rule of the emperor. It is dangerous, for ex-
I ijuple, to excel in any profession of art, as the talents of
11lie artificer are immediately put in requisition to work gra-
s for the emperor, or the governor of a province, or even
ny common mandarin. They are restrained in many cases
y a species of sumptuary laws. The bulk of the people are
ot allowed to build their houses of stone, or more than one
lory high ; and the larger edifices, such as temples and pa-
ices, are generally constructed of wood, or of wood and
rick mixed. The roads are generally very bad, there be-
ig only one of a superior description from Backing, the
apital of Tunquin, to the capital of Cochin-China, a dis-
mce of nearly 500 miles.
1 heir religion is a modification of the Buddhist system,
early resembling that which prevails in China, but blend-
d with many local and peculiar superstitions. The higher
lasses are described as adherents of Confucius, who sub-
ut to the worship of images and other ceremonies through
eference to public opinion. Some of the more barbarous
ribes worship the tiger and the dog. To the first, human
esh is offered, and other disgusting oblations to the latter,
races of the same worship are to be found among the
mountaineers on the borders of India, as well as among the
ndo-Chinese nations.
Ihe Christian religion was first introduced by the Por-
uguese about the beginning of the seventeenth century,
incJ subsequently by the French, while they had commer-
'ia establishments in the country. At an early period the
csuits sent missionaries into the country, and had made
vou xxi.
considerable progress when they were expelled. During Tuppel
the eighteenth century, the exercise of the Christian relf-r li
gion was generally prohibited, and at particular periodsTummmrt*'
persecuted with the greatest cruelty. In later times, the ^ "
missionaries have suffered more from the mandarins and
inferior officers than from the emperor.
Tunquin, along with Cochin-China, Cambodia, and Siam-
pa, are recorded to have anciently formed part of the Chi¬
nese empire; but on the'Mogul invasion of China from
Tartary in the thirteenth century, the Chinese governors
of Tartary took that opportunity to throw off the badge of
dependence. In this manner several distinct kingdoms
were created, the rulers of which continued to acknow¬
ledge for many years a nominal subjection to the authority
of China. The Tunquinese rulers gradually assumed a
greater degree of independence, and, about 1553, are said
to have extended their dominion over Cochin-China. The
subsequent history of this country is confused and obscure,
consisting of a series of assassinations and revolts, and a per¬
petual fluctuation of boundaries. A revolution commenced
about the year 1774 ; and it terminated after a sanguinary
warfare of twenty-eight years, leaving the empire as it at
present exists. Tunquin was finally conquered in 1800 by
the emperor of Cochin-China, and has ever since continued
under the delegated authority of that sovereign. (f.)
TUPPEL, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Del¬
hi, situated on the east side of the Jumna, forty-seven miles
south-sourh-east from the city of Delhi. Long. 77. HO.
E. Lat. 28. 5. N.
1 UPTEE, a considerable river of Hindustan, formed by
the union of numerous streams. It has its source near the
village of Batool, among the Injardy Hills, whence it pur¬
sues a westerly course through the provinces of Khandesh
and Gujerat, until it falls into the sea about twenty miles
below Surat. It has a bending course of 500 miles, through
a fertile country, which produces much of the cotton that
is exported from Surat and Bombay.
TURA, a small river of Irkoutsk, in Asiatic Russia,
which rises in the district of Nertschinsk, and falls into the
Ingoda.
TURBAH, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bahar, district of Chuta Nagpore. Long. 85. 5. E. Lat.
22. 32. N.
TURBAN, the head-dress of most of the eastern nations.
It consists of two parts, a cap, and a sash of fine linen or
taffety artfully wound in divers plaits about the cap. The
cap has no brim, is pretty flat, though roundish at top, and
quilted with cotton, but does not cover the ears. There is
a good deal of art in giving the turban a fine air ; and the
making of this article is a particular trade. The sash of the
Turks’ turban is white linen ; that of the Persians’ red wool¬
len. These are the distinguishing marks of their different
religions. Sophi king of Persia, being of the sect of Ali,
was the first wdio assumed the red colour, to distinguish
himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar, and
whom the Persians esteem heretics.
TURCJE or Turci, supposed to be the Tvsci of Ptole¬
my, whom he places between Caucasus and the Montes
Ceraunii. The name is said to denote, “ to desolate or lay
w'aste.” See Turkey.
TURCOMANS, a nomadic Tartar race, who are spread
over many districts of Western Asia. Their native seat
seems to be in the regions east of the Caspian, in the vast
plains between it and the Aral. In their wars with the
Kalmucs, the latter often proved victorious, and they were
in consequence forced to fly into the Russian governments
of Astracan, Oufa, and Orenburg, and there they con¬
tinued to reside till the year 1770, when they succeeded
in freeing themselves from the Kalmuc yoke. The wan¬
dering tribes, who range over the unclaimed space that
lies between the territories of Russia and China on the west
3 F
410
Turgot.
T U It
and on the east, and which on the south is bounded by
the kingdom of Persia and the lofty central mountains of
Asia, are also known under the denomination of the 1 urco-
mans. These have from time immemorial followed a pure¬
ly pastoral life, wandering from place to place, as the choice
of pasture guided them, and have employed themselves en¬
tirely in feeding their flocks and herds, their whole means
of subsistence, and who can never be persuaded to re¬
side in towns or villages. They claim a hereditary right to
the extensive and uncultivated tracts which they occupy,
and which, being unfit for agriculture, and never haying
been the seat of a stationary population, afford to those who
take advantage of them a sustenance for their cattle. For
further details of this and the other barbarous tribes who
occupy these tracts, see the article Tartary.
TURGOT, Anne Robert Jacques, Baron de I’Aulne,
a celebrated philosopher and statesman, was born at Paris on
the 10th of May 1727, of a very ancient Norman family.
His father was a long time provost of the corporation of
merchants, during which he was the object of general ad¬
miration on account of his prudent administration. Turgot
was the youngest of three brothers, and was destined for
the church. He had scarcely attained the age at which
reflection commences, when he resolved to sacrifice all tem¬
poral advantages to liberty and conscience, and to pursue
his ecclesiastical studies without declaring his repugnance
to their proposed object. At the age of twenty-three years
he took his degree, and in December 1749 was elected
prior of the Sorbonne. The time when it was necessary
for him to declare that he would not be an ecclesiastic was
now arrived. He announced this resolution to his father
by letter, showing the motives which induced him to de¬
cline the clerical profession. His father consented, and he
•was appointed master of requests. He prepared himself for
this office by particular application to those branches of know¬
ledge which are most connected with its functions and du¬
ties, viz. natural philosophy, agriculture, manufactures, com¬
merce, &c. About this period he wrote some articles for
the Encyclopedic, which attained great celebrity. Of these
the principal are, Etymology, Existence, Expansibility, Fair,
and Foundation. He had prepared several others, but the
persecution against the Encyclopedic induced him to decline
further contributions.
In 1761 Turgot was appointed intendant of Limoges,
where he gave activity to the society of agriculture ; open¬
ed a mode of public instruction for female professors of mid¬
wifery ; procured for the people the attendance of able phy¬
sicians during the raging of epidemic diseases; established
houses of industry, supported by charity (the only species
of alms-giving which does not encourage idleness) ; intro¬
duced the cultivation of potatoes into his province, &c. &c.
While he proceeded with unremitting activity and zeal in
promoting the good of the people over whom he was placed,
he meditated projects of a more extensive nature, such as
an equal distribution of the taxes, the construction of the
roads, the regulation of the militia, the prevention of a scar¬
city of provision, and the protection of commerce.
On the death of Louis XV. the public voice called Tur¬
got to the first offices of government, as a man who united
the experience resulting from habits of business to all the
improvements which study can procure. After being only a
short time at the head of the marine department, lie was,
August 24, 1774, appointed comptroller-general of the
finances. During his discharge of this important office, the
operations which he carried on are astonishing. He sup¬
pressed twenty-three kinds of duties on necessary occupa¬
tions, useful contracts, or merited compensations. He abo¬
lished the corvee, or the labour required from the public
for the highways, saving the nation thirty millions of livres
annually. He set aside another kind of corvee, which re¬
spected the carriage of military stores and baggage. He abat-
T U R
ed the rigour in the administration of indirect impositions, to T .
the great profit of the contributors, the king, and the finan-^-^
ciers ; besides effecting many other essential improvements
in political economy. At length, however, by the artifices
of the courtiers, he was deprived of his offices ; and in re¬
tirement he devoted himself to the studies which he had
cultivated in his youth. He died on the 20th of March
1781. An edition of his works, in 9 vols. 8vo, was com¬
menced in 1808 and completed in 1811. He composed, it
is said, the celebrated Latin inscription intended for a pic¬
ture of Dr Franklin.
Eripnit coelo fulmen, mox sceptra tyrannis.
TURIN, one of the continental provinces of the king¬
dom of Sardinia, in the ancient division of Piedmont. It is
bounded on the north-east by Ivrea, on the east by Asti,
on the south by Saluzzo, on the south-west by Penerolo,
and on the north-west by Savoy, and it extends over 3209
square miles. A promontory of the Cotta Alps terminates
a ridge of mountains on the north-west, the highest point
of which on the border of Savoy is the Rochemalon. The
rest of the province consists of gentle hills, small valleys, and
some extensive plains, and a soil for the most part of high
fertility. Its waters flow to the sea through the Po, which
on its right bank receives the rivers Melevere and Bonna,
anti on its left the Clusone, the Eisola, the Dora-Iiiparia,
the Stura, the Oreo, and the Dora Raltea. In the north¬
west division are some extensive woods, and in the moun¬
tains mines of iron and of vitriol, and quarries of marble and
limestone. It is a country of good pasturage, and the fields
produce abundant crops of wheat, maize, barley, and beans.
The vineyards yield much wine, and the mulberry trees
feed a vast number of silk-worms. It is a manufacturing
district, making linen, silk, and cotton goods, hats, hosiery,
chocolate, brandy, liqueurs, paper, pottery, china, glass, and
some curious kinds of work in wood and in ivory. These
articles form the basis of its trade with the surrounding
countries, and furnish exports from the maritime towns to
foreign kingdoms. The province contains twelve cities,
fifty-four market-towns, and 347 villages; and in 1833 the
inhabitants amounted to 808,526.
The capital is the city of the same name, which is also
that of the whole kingdom. Turin is the residence of the
monarch, the seat of the central boards of the govern¬
ment, and the see of an archbishop. It stands on a point
of land formed at the junction of the river Dora-lliparia
with the Po. It is surrounded with walls and deep ditches,
and protected by fifty bastions and many outworks; and
has a citadel on the south-west side, furnished with ra¬
vines, a regular pentagon, and said to be one of the strong¬
est fortresses in Europe. The city is divided into the new
and old town, has level and straight streets crossing each other
at right angles, with eleven plazas or squares, and, as far
as regards the exterior, with many magnificent buildings.
The most striking public edifices are the royal palace in
the Piazzo di Gastello, the old palace, that of Aosta and of
Carignan, the Collegio di Nobili, and the council-house.
Among tlie private edifices are more than thirty called pa¬
laces, belonging to the nobility. There is a fine Gothic ca¬
thedral, and forty-seven other churches, with sixty-seven
chapels and many monasteries and nunneries. Among se¬
veral hospitals, the most remarkable is the Carita, which is
capable of receiving 2500 patients. The university, found¬
ed in 1405, and renovated in 1630, is a fine building, fur'
nislied with various museums, and a library of 60,000 vo¬
lumes. . For the enjoyment of the inhabitants, Turin ias
four theatres, a Corso, the public gardens of the palace, tie
walks on the Po called the Rondeau, and some others on
the glacis, as well as the parade for carriages, called tic
Carettino. There are some manufactures carried on, t1L>
most extensive of which is that of silk, including velve s,
«Y:
1
T U R
•,limasks, and ribbons. Some coarse woollen coods are
nade, and some small establishments prepare leather, cho-
olate, rosoglio, smifF, paper, china, and curious works in
Vax, wood, and ivory. The city with its suburbs contains
2?, 100 inhabitants, many of them far from affluent. Lon<r.
. 29. 25. E. Lat. 45. 4. 14. N.
TURINSK, a town of Tobolsk, in Asiatic Russia, and
ie capital of a district of the same name, situated along the
anks of the river Tura. It was built about the year 1660,
T u it
411
Turkey.
and contains 4000 inhabitants, with six churche-s and a con-Turivicary
vent. j here is a separate suburb for the Tartars. Long.
98. 40. E. Lat. 57. 56. N. S _
1 URIVICARY, a town of Hindustan, in the Mysore
territories, forty-seven miles north from Seringapatam. It
consists of an outer and an inner fort, strongly defended by
a ditch and mud-wall, with a suburb at a little distance
containing above 700 houses. It possesses two very an¬
cient temples. Long. 76. 50. E. Lat. 13. 7. N.
TURK E Y.
Turk or Toork is the generic name of a great family
f nations which has been settled for time immemorial in
Western Asia and the adjoining portions of Europe, and
r which a branch has been for several centuries in posses-
on of the countries around the eastern shores of the Me-
terranean Sea, which, on that account, have received
jom Europeans the name of Turkey. The Turks have
'merally been considered to'be members of the Cauca-
ari variety of mankind ; but learned orientalists have now
icceeded, by the aid of the Chinese annals, in identifying
iem with the Hiong-nu, a people who lived to the north-
est of China many centuries before the Christian era, and
Tried on frequent and sanguinary wars with the celestial
npire. From that region their migrations can be traced
t'Stward, till they finally settled in those parts of Asia and
urope in which they are now found. The Osmanlee or
ttoman I urks, who live in Turkey, and their brethren the
artars of Casan, Astrakhan, and Crimea, have indeed some
' the physical characteristics of Caucasians; but the No¬
us, Kirghiz, Turcomans, and others farther east, who speak
ire lurkish dialects, have a different organization, ap-
oaching nearly to the Mongolian character It has there-
re been inferred, that the Turks originally belonged
the Mongolian tribes ; and that the portion of them
ivv possessing Caucasian features must have acquired them
intermixture with the Caucasian races, whom they in-
ded and subdued.
1 he existing Turkish empire dates only from the end of
e thirteenth century, when it was founded by Osman or
thman, a 1 urk of a noble family, who had been driven
^stward from Khorasan by the invasion of Zengis Khan,
sman first invaded the Greek territory of Nicomedia on
e 27th of July 1299; but the true era of the empire
iy he dated from the conquest of the city of Prusa, the
pital of Bithynia, which surrendered to his son Orchan in
20. 1 his Orchan was a restless, ambitious, cruel prince,
io greatly extended the limits of the empire, took pos-
ssion of Gallipoli, and penetrated into Thrace. Amu-
I., his son, subdued without resistance the whole of
irace from the Hellespont to Mount Haemus, and made
1 Irianople the seat ol a viceroyalty. He established in
f 02 the famous military bands called yengi cheri, new
1 diers (corrupted into janizaries), once the shield and bul-
ik of the empire, but in later times the cause of number-
s revolts and revolutions. These troops were composed
< ginally of young Christian captives that had been taken
war and educated in the Mahommedan religion. They
re trained to warlike exercises, and inured to obedience
' I'eveie discipline ; and as every sentiment which en-
isiasm can inspire, and every mark of honour which the
1 our ol the prince could confer, were employed to ani-
| ‘te them with martial ardour, and excite in them a sense
t leir own importance, these janizaries soon became the
* n SlrenS^1 ar*d pride of the Ottoman armies.
it the assassination of Amurath in 1389, he was succe-ed-
y >is son Bajazet, surnamed Ilderim, or the Thunder-
■h whose reign forms one of the most splendid epochs in
the i urkish annals. He subdued and stripped of their he¬
reditary possessions the Seljukian emirs of Asia Minor,
whose revolts and disturbances had embarrassed the pro¬
gress of his predecessors, and protracted the downfall of the
Greek empire. His conquests in Europe were equally ra¬
pid and important, and whatever adhered to the Greek
empire in I brace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, acknowledged
his sway. He turned his arms against Sigismond king of
Hungary, and in 1396 defeated, in the battle of Nicopolis,
a confederate army of a hundred thousand Christians, the
greater part of whom were slain or driven into the Danube.
Ihe ferocious conqueror commanded his prisoners to be
massacred in cold blood, with the exception of a few of the
chief nobles, who were set at liberty on the payment of a
ransom of 200,000 ducats. But Bajazet had now reached
the height of his greatness. His conquests in Armenia and
on the banks of the Euphrates had brought him into colli¬
sion with the famous Mogul conqueror Tamerlane; and in
1402 the plains around the city of Angora were the scene
of the memorable battle which ended in the captivity of
Bajazet, and the temporary humiliation of the Turks. The
death of Tamerlane, and the contentions which arose among
his sons, relieved the Turkish provinces from the Mogul
yoke. Solyman the son of Bajazet obtained the Euro¬
pean dominions of his father, Mousa reigned over the
remnant of his dominions in Asia, while Mohammed, the
youngest of the sons, held Cappadocia. Eleven years
elapsed in the mutual endeavours of the sons of Bajazet to
supplant each other, before Mohammed effected his final
triumph, and assumed the title of sultan. At his death in
1421 he bequeathed an undivided empire to his successor,
Amurath II. The reign of this sultan contributed greatly
to increase the splendour of the Turkish empire. He made
himself master of Adrianople, by which Romania and Ana¬
tolia were again united under one sceptre; and reduced to
subjection Servia, Macedonia, Thessaly, Albania, and the
whole of Greece to the north of the isthmus. He also be¬
sieged Constantinople, but was diverted from his enter¬
prise by the dexterity of the Greek emperor, who stirred
up against him a competitor for the throne, assuming
the name and character of Mustafa, the eldest son of Ba¬
jazet. But the impostor was at length defeated and put to
death. The conquests of Amurath received a considerable
check from the skill and valour of Hunniades, the cele¬
brated waiwode of Transylvania, and of the Albanian chief
George Castriot, whom the Turks call Scanderbeg ; but the
fatal battle of Varna, in which Ladislaus king of Hungary
and 10,000 Christians were slain, destroyed the hopes that
were entertained of checking the progress of the Turkish
arms. Amurath twice abdicated the throne, and twice was
compelled by the exigencies of the empire to resume the
sovereignty. He was succeeded in 1451 by Mohammed
II.> the conqueror of Constantinople. (For a full account
of this memorable siege we must refer to the article Con-
stantinopolitan History.) On the 6th of April 1453,
the standard of the prophet was planted before the gate of
St Romanus; and after a siege of fifty-three days, “ that Con-
412
History.
TURKEY.
stantinople which had defied the power of Chosroes, the Ottoman empire reached its highest state of perfection; and !!„*
Chacran and the khalifs, was irretrievably subdued by the the arts and sciences, literature, and commerce flourished
arms of Mohammed the Second. Her empire only had under his enlightened and munificent policy. His domi.
been subverted by the Latins; her religion was trampled nions extended from Algiers to the rivei Euphrates, and
in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.” Constantinople from the farther end of the Black Sea to the extremity 0f
was taken by the Turks on the 29th of Mav 1453, two Greece and Epirus. The latter years of his reign were
thousand and five years after the foundation of Rome, and imbittered by domestic dissensions and cruelties. During
eleven hundred and twenty-three after Constantine had the siege of Sigeth, a city of Hungary, before which the
removed the seat of the empire from Rome to Byzantium. Turks lost 30,000 men, Solyman expired, in the seventy.
Three years after the taking of Constantinople, Moham- fourth year of his age and forty-first of his reign,
med laid siege to Belgrade, from which, after an obstinate His son and successor, Selim II., besieged and took Cy-
resistance, he was at length repulsed with the loss of his prus ; but in the famous sea-fight at Lepanto, in 1571, the
large ordnance and forty thousand of his best troops. Aban- Turkish fleet was utterly destroyed by Don John of Aus-
donino- his attempt upon Hungary, the sultan undertook tria. Selim afterwards invested and took Tunis by storm,
an expedition into Greece, and about the year 1460 sue- putting the garrison to the sword. On his death, Amurath
ceeded in subduing the whole of the Morea. In 1466 the III. ascended the Ottoman throne, and extended his do-
famous Scanderbeg, who for twenty-three years had resisted minions on both sides by the addition of Tigris in Persia,
all the power of the Ottoman empire, was finally compelled and of Raab, one of the strongest fortresses in Lower Hun-
to take refuge at Lyssa, in the Venetian states, where he gary. His son, Mohammed III., has no claim to notice,
died. Mohammed had now extended his sway over the except on account of his barbarity. He began his reign
whole of Asia on this side of Mount Taurus, and over all by strangling nineteen of his brothers, and ordering twelve
the provinces in Europe which had formerly belonged to of his father’s wives whom he suspected to be pregnant to
the eastern division of the Roman empire. Not satisfied be drowned. The w'arw'ith Hungary wras carried on through-
with these conquests, he had despatched his most able ge- out the whole of his reign, which lasted about nine years,
neral, Achmet Pasha, to invade Italy ; and the capture of During the inglorious sway of his son Achmet L, the affairs
the strong city of Otranto had laid open that country to of Turkey underwent a material change for the worse,
him, and spread universal consternation, when the danger Peace was concluded wdth Hungary; but the sultan was
was averted by the death of the sultan in the fifty-first year involved in a disastrous war with Persia, in which the Turk-
of his age, a. d, 1481. Mohammed was succeeded by his ish troops w^ere entirely defeated. On his death, his bro-
son Bajazet II., w-hose claims to the vacant throne were ther Mustapha ascended the throne; but his actions hav-
however disputed by his brother Djem or Zisimes.1 But ing clearly proved his incapacity and imbecility, the jani-
the claims of Bajazet were supported by the janizaries ; and zaries and the divan compelled him to resign the govern-
his competitor, after various unsuccessful struggles, was ment after a reign of five months, and threw him into
compelled to seek shelter in Italy, where he was assassinat- prison. His nephew, Osman, the son of Achmet, a boy of
ed at the instigation of Bajazet. The infamy of the deed twelve years of age, was then proclaimed emperor. This
is ascribed to Pope Alexander VI., who is said to have re- prince having formed the design of curbing the power of
ceived 300,000 ducats for his reward. Bajazet, after a the janizaries, these turbulent soldiers rose in insurrection,
reign of thirty years, intimated his intention to resign the deposed and murdered the sultan, and recalled his uncle
crown to his son Achmet; but his youngest son Selim, Mustapha from his prison to the imperial throne. These
having secured the assistance of the janizaries, compelled atrocious proceedings, however, excited general indignation
his father to abdicate, and then put him to death. Selim throughout the Asiatic provinces ; and Abasa, the power-
was a successful prince, and during his short reign of nine ful pasha of Erzerum, took up arms to avenge the murder of
years conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damas- Osman. After the lapse of a few months, the janizaries
cus, and Gaza, and defeated the Persians. On the death themselves abandoned the cause of Mustapha, who was
of Selim, Solyman surnamed the Magnificent, one of the again deposed, and was soon afterwards strangled. Under
most accomplished, enterprising, and warlike of the Turkish Amurath or Morad IV., surnamed Gasi, the Intrepid, affairs
princes, ascended the Ottoman throne. Having quelled assumed a new appearance, and the glory of the Ottoman
some insurrections in Asia, he commenced hostilities against empire was in some measure restored. He put to death
the European princes, and entering Hungary, made him- great numbers of the janizaries, and by his energetic and
self master of Belgrade, then reckoned the chief barrier of ferocious measures reduced these mutinous and formidable
that kingdom against the Turkish power. He next turned troops to a state of subordination. He took Bagdad from
his victorious arms against the island of Rhodes, then the the Persians, and massacred the greater part of the inha-
seat of the knights of St John of Jerusalem. After incre- bitants, after an obstinate resistance, which cost him the
dible efforts of valour and military skill, the knights obtained flower of his army. A debauch of wine put an end to his
an honourable capitulation, and retired to the small island of life, in the thirty-first year of his age and the seventeenth
Malta. Solyman next advanced into Hungary and at the bat- of bis reign. His brother Ibrahim, who succeeded him,
tie of Mohacz (a. d. 1526) defeated and slew the Hungarian was a weak and imbecile prince, deformed in body, and
monarch, with 20,000 of his men, and took possession of the destitute of courage. The administration of the govern-
capital and the chief fortresses. Three years later he formed ment was wholly in the hands of the vizir Mustapha and
the siege of Vienna, but was compelled to retreat with the the sultana Valide, the widow of Achmet I.; while Ibrahim
loss of 80,000 of his soldiers. In 1541 he again invaded gave himself up entirely to the prosecution of his pleasures,
Hungary, and taking advantage of a civil contest between till at length his vices rendered him so odious that he "as
two rival claimants of the vacant throne, he annexed the deposed and strangled. During his reign, a bloody "ar
disputed kingdom to the Ottoman empire. He entered broke out between the Turks and the Venetians, whidi,
into a destructive war against Persia, and eventually sue- after being carried on with great fury for the space "
ceeded in obtaining a considerable increase of territory twenty-four years, ended in the extinction of the Venetian
between the Araxes and the Tigris. During the reign of power in the Egean Sea. The alleged ground of qua'T^
this prince, the political and military administration of the was the reception into a Venetian port of six Maltese ga
Historians differ in opinion as to the pretensions of these princes. Some affirm that Djem was the eldest son, others that he claims
the crown because he was the sou of a sultan, whereas Bajazet was born before his father ascended the throne.
T U R
it
n
U;
>ys which had captured an Ottoman ship of war. The di-
'■an used various pretences to allay the suspicions of the
renetians, and throw them off their guard, till, in May
543, the Turkish fleet set sail for the important island of
andia, and disembarked an army of 70,000 men on the
land. As the Venetians had provided no means for its
Tence, the whole island, w'ith the exception of the capital,
as, after a sanguinary resistance, reduced in less than two
0
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ike
[it;
ike
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let
i
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let
ne
115
lltf
trei
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ira
to
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ears. Mohammed IV., the son of Ibrahim, was scarcely
wen years of age at the deposition of his father. His mi-
irity was one continued scene of intestine discord and
wolt. During this reign, war again broke out between
ie Austrians and Turks, and after having been carried on
r some time with varied success, was concluded by a
eaty for twenty years. On the termination of this war,
e power of the Ottoman empire was directed against the
ty of Candia. The siege was actively carried on during
e space of twenty-nine months, when the garrison was
length forced to capitulate ; and thus ended one of the
lost memorable sieges of modern history, in which the Ve-
jitians lost above 30,000 men, and the Turks more than
!20,000. About this period, the Zaporagian Cossacks threw
I the Polish yoke, and placed themselves under the pro-
ction of Turkey. A war in consequence broke out be-
'een the Turks and the Poles ; but the result was advan-
:geous to the Porte, who obtained the sovereignty of the
iportant districts of the Ukraine and Podolia. Shortly
Ster, however, the Hetman of the Cossacks having been
sated with contempt by the sultan, these proud and fickle
irbarians abjured the Turkish service, and transferred
. eir allegiance to the Russian czar.
In 1683 the distracted state of Hungary induced the
van to break the treaty wdth Austria; and the Turkish
rmy, under the grand vizir Cara Mustapha, penetrated
Vienna, and formed the siege of that city on the 14th of
ily. The siege was protracted till the 12th of Septem-
t, when the allied army, under the famous John Sobieski,
tacked the besiegers, routed them wdth prodigious slaugh-
r, and obtained possession of their camp, together with
eir artillery, baggage, and magazines. A succession of
ittles followed, in all of which the Turks wrere overthrown,
he number of their enemies speedily augmented, and in
i e short space of tour years all the vast conquests of the
urkish sultans, westward of the Danube, were wrested
)m them, with the solitary exception of the fortified city
Agram. 1 hese extraordinary reverses caused the army
revolt against their commanders, and excited a general
surrection, which cost the sultan his throne. His brother,
tlyman II., who succeeded him in 1687, was distinguished
i his austerity, sobriety, and devotion. He was happy in
s domestic government, but unsuccessful in his wars. He
is succeeded in 1690 by Achmet II., the youngest son of
' tan Ibrahim. He too was a weak and credulous prince ;
i td though the affairs of the empire were conducted with
eat prudence and vigour by the grand vizir Kiuperli,
e Ottoman empire declined, and the Turks during this
'gn were driven out of Hungary and Transylvania. The
cession of his nephew Mustapha II. to the Ottoman
'one gave a new turn to the affairs of the Porte. Pos-
ssu of gi eater vigour and ability than his predecessor, he
so ved to command his troops in person. He accordingly
0 t 'o field, passed the Danube at the head of 50,000
cn, carried Lippa by assault, and, falling suddenly on a
■ a" o; ^mPer'alists under Veterani, one of the bravest and
'S 0 ce^s the emperor, he defeated them, and closed
e campaign with success. But two years afterwards he
as defeated by Prince Eugene, in the bloody battle of
Ln a, a small village on the western bank of the Theiss,
« ,e kingdom of Hungary. About 20,000 Turks were
tea on the field, and 10,000 were drowned in their
emI) 10 escal)e» and the magnificent pavilion of the
K E Y. 413
sultan, and all his stores, fell into the hands of Prince History.
Eugene. These terrible disasters compelled Mustapha to'^v—"
solicit a peace, and a treaty was shortly after signed at Car-
lowitz, which guaranteed Hungary, Transylvania, and Scla-
vonia to the Austrians; Azoph to the Russians; Podolia,
the Ukraine, and Kaminiecz to the Poles ; and the Morea,
with a strong frontier in Dalmatia, to the Venetians. Short¬
ly aftei these misfortunes, an insurrection was excited among
the soldiers by a sense of the national disgrace, and Musta¬
pha was dethroned.
His brother and successor, Achmet III. gave an asylum
to Charles XIL king of Sweden, at Bender, a Turkish town
in Moldavia, after his defeat at the battle of Pultowa. (See
Russia and Sweden.) A war broke out between the
Russians and the Turks, in which the czar Peter, having
imprudently suffered himself to be cooped up in an angle
formed by the river Pruth, was reduced to the greatest ex¬
tremities, and compelled to make peace on terms dictated
by the Turkish general. Being unsuccessful in his war
against Kouli Khan and the Persians, Achmet was depos¬
ed, and was succeeded by Mohammed V.
From the deposition of Achmet III. in 1730, to the ac¬
cession of Mustapha HI. in 1754, nothing of importance
occurs in the history of the Turkish empire. During the
reign of this latter sultan, was begun and terminated that
destructive war with Russia which broke out in 1769, and
lasted till 1774, when the successes of the Russians com¬
pelled the sultan, Abdul Hamid, to terminate the unequal
contest by the dishonourable treaty of Kainardghi. By
this treaty Russia obtained possession of the tract between
the Bog and the Dneister, known by the name of New
Servia, the forts of Yenikaleh and Kertcsh in the Crimea,
and the fortress of Kilburn, at the embouchure of the Dnei-
per, opposite to the town of Ockzakow\ The Krim Tar¬
tars were declared independent, and Russian merchant-ves¬
sels were admitted to the free navigation of the Bosphorus.
About this time a formidable rebellion broke out in Egypt,
which w7as suppressed chiefly by the wise conduct and in¬
trepid behaviour of Hassan Bey, the capitan pasha, who at
the age of seventy fought with all the ardour of youth, and
all the skill of the most consummate general. That vete¬
ran, however, was recalled before he was able to carry all
his patriotic designs into execution, that he might aid the
divan with his counsel in the critical situation into which
the empire was brought by the arrogant claims of the court
of Russia. The result of the deliberations was a precipi¬
tate declaration of war against that power, contrary to the
better judgment of the old pasha. The war commenced
in the autumn of 1787, and the hordes of Tartars which
were first brought into the field were everywhere defeated
by the superior discipline of the Russian troops, command¬
ed by Prince Potemkin. Some enterprises which were un¬
dertaken by the Turks against the island of Taman and the
Crimea, were attended with as little success as the attempts
of the Tartars, while the emperor Joseph declared to th»
Porte that he would assist Ids ally the empress of Russia
with an army of 80,000 men. Four Austrian armies were
accordingly assembled, one at Carlstadt in Croatia, under
the command of General de Vins ; another at Peterwaradin
in Hungary, commanded by General Langlcis ; a third on
the borders of Lithuania, under General Febris ; and the
fourth in the Buckowine, under the orders of the Prince of
Saxe-Coburg. Other two generals, ten lieutenant-gene¬
rals, and thirty major-generals, were all ordered to prepare
for active service in the frontier armies.
The ivar between the Turks and the Austrians was car¬
ried on with varied success. At first the advantage was
evidently on the side of the former, and the Austrians were
repulsed w'ith disgrace in their attempt to obtain possession of
Belgrade. The prince of Saxe-Coburg displayed indeed
prodigies of valour; but being opposed to a superior force,
U4 T U R
History, he was long obliged to act only on the defensive. He was at
 V"'-'’ length joined by a body of Russians under General Solti-
kof, and preparations were made for commencing in form the
siege of Choczim, which was surrendered to the allied armies
on Michaelmas day 1780, after a defence which would have
done honour to the ablest general in Europe. Still, however,
success seemed to lean to the side of the 1 urks. I he grand
vizir made a sudden incursion into the Bannat, and spread
consternation and dismay to the very gates of Vienna. Ihe
Austrian affairs seemed approaching to a very alarming
crisis. Not only the splendid views of conquest, which
were beheld in the imagined partition of a tottering em¬
pire, had totally disappeared, but had left in their place the
sad and gloomy reverse of a discontented and impoverished
people, an exhausted treasury, and an army thinned by pes¬
tilence and desertion. In this situation of affairs, Marshal
Laudohn was with some difficulty drawn from his retire¬
ment to take the command of the army in Croatia ; and
under his auspices fortune began to smile on the Austrian
arms. He quickly reduced Dubicza and Nevi, though they
were both defended with the most obstinate bravery. He
then sat down before the Turkish Gradisca; but the au¬
tumn rains ensuing with such violence that the Saave
overflowed its banks, he was compelled to raise the siege.
During this period the war in the Bannat raged with the
utmost violence. Much desperate valour was displayed on
the one side, and many brave actions were performed on
the other ; while a great part of that fine but unfortunate
country suffered all the desolation and ruin that fire and
sword, under the dominion of vengeance and animosity,
could inflict.
In the midst of these military operations, Selim III., the
only son of the sultan Mustapha, mounted the imperial
throne. The new emperor did not want either courage or
prudence, and he continued the war with Russia and Austria
with great spirit and resolution. Marshal Laudohn renewed
his attempts upon Gradisca as soon as the season would per¬
mit, and, after a brave defence, it fell into his hands. This
with some other successes roused the emperor from his state
of inactivity, and made him seriously determine on the at¬
tack which he had long meditated on Belgrade. The enter¬
prise was intrusted to Laudohn, who, with his usual good
fortune, made himself master of the place in less than a
month. The rest of the campaign was little else than a
series of the most important successes. While one detach¬
ment of Laudohn’s forces took possession of Czernitz in
Wallachia, another made itself master of Cladova in Servia.
Bucharest, the capital of the former of these provinces, fell
without opposition into the hands of Prince Coburg, while
Akerman, on the Black Sea, was reduced by the Russians,
and Bender surrendered to Prince Potemkin, not without
suspicion of sinister practices.
Soon after this the emperor Joseph died, and his successor
Leopold showed a desire for peace. After the reduction of
Orsova, therefore, which happened on the Kith of April
1790, the war wras carried on with languor on the part of
Austria, and in the month of June a conference w as agreed
on at Reichenbach, at which the ministers of Prussia, Aus¬
tria, Britain, and the united provinces, assisted, and at
which also an envoy from Poland was occasionally present.
After a negotiation which continued till the 17th of August,
it was agreed that a peace should be concluded between
the Austrians and the Ottomans ; and that the basis of this
treaty should be a general surrender of all the conquests
K E Y.
made by the former, retaining only Choczim as a securitv lu
till the Porte should accede to the terms of the agreement
when it also was to be restored.
In the mean time the empress of Russia persevered in
hostilities, and carried on the war with great vigour and
success. In the campaign of 1790, the Russian general
Suwaroff carried the strong fortress of Ismail by an assault
which for violence and bloodshed has no parallel in modern
times. The Ottoman empire seemed on the verge of de-
struction, when the empress at length, induced by the
darkening aspect of European affairs, concluded with the
Porte a definite treaty of peace at Yassy on the 9th of Ja-
nuary 1792. The stipulations of the treaty of Kainardghi
were renew ed. The river Dneister was recognised as the
boundary of the two empires. Oczakow was ceded to Rus¬
sia, with the territory between the Bog and the Dneister;
and the cession of the Crimea, of the isle of Taman, and
part of the Kuban, was again formally confirmed.
It was evidently the desire and endeavour of the Otto¬
man government to keep aloof from the terrible wars and
changes which accompanied the French Revolution; but the
invasion of Egypt by the French compelled the sultan to
abandon the system of neutrality which he was anxious to
maintain. (A full account of this event will be found under
the article Egypt.) On the recommencement of hostilities
with France, attempts were made to induce the Porte to
take part in the war against that country. “ Russia and
England united their strength against France in the divan,
and the sultan wras the sad spectator of a contest of which
he was himself the unwilling umpire, the ostensible object,
and the proposed prey. The victory of either party alike
menaced him with ruin, he had to choose between the
armies of France and the fleets of England. Never was
sovereign so situated between two negotiators, one armed
with the power of the land, the other with that of the sea;
both to all appearance able to destroy, but neither capable
of protecting him against Ins antagonist. The precipitate
flight of the British ambassador bad scarcely relieved him
from the embarrassment of making a selection between the
menacing parties, when bis capital was alarmed for the
first time by the presence of a hostile force, and the last of
calamities seemed reserved for the reign of Selim.1 The 1
good fortune which interposed to save the seat of empire
was not extended to the sovereign, and the evils which
were inevitable from the triumph of either party gathered
fast around him from the day that saw the city of the taith-
ful delivered from the insults of a Christian flag.”2
The year 1807 witnessed one of those sanguinary insur¬
rections which have so often convulsed the Ottoman em¬
pire. The cause of this revolt, which cost Selim his throne,
was an attempt to introduce the improved system of Euro¬
pean tactics into the military and naval establishments.
T he sultan had evinced, at an early period of his reign, a
determination to attempt some changes in the organization
of the military force, and for this purpose new regulations
were issued in 1796. 'The chief arrangement was the levy
of 12,000 men, who were to be disciplined according to
the principles of European tactics, and armed in every
respect like British or French soldiers. The new troop
were to wear a uniform, and were to be taught the manna
exercise ; and, in order to detach them as much as possible
from the janizaries, it was resolved they should belong no
minally to the corps of bostanges. For these bostange fu¬
sil eers, as they were called, were erected handsome bar-
About three weeks after the departure of the British ambassador from Constantinople, Admiral Duckworth, with eight sail of t e jj1*'
two frigates, and two bomb-vessels, passed through the straits of the Dardanelles, and advanced within two leagues of Cape bt Stefauo. 0
a sudden calm having rendered the hnglisli fleet stationary, the fortifications of the capital were so strengthened that it was soon ren cr
perfectly free from danger, and the British admiral was under the necessity of hastening from the Propontis before his return was u
<1. red impracticable.
Hothouse’s Letters on Albania.
TURKEY.
415
ill;-1
,ra(i5 three miles to the north east of Pera, capable of con-
taiing 15,000 soldiers. For the same purpose, barracks
wei also constructed at Scutari, with exercising ground
an; all other conveniences. The inspector of the new
troiis was one of the principal men of the empire. A re¬
fer was introduced into all the military departments.
Tl lopges, or cannoniers, were improved in every respect.
Tli r old barracks wrere demolished, and new ones were built
on (regular and better plan. Idle arabdges, or troops of
the waggon train, were also reformed. The gunpowder
iiiaafactories, which had been in a most inefficient state,
we (placed on an entirely new footing. The bombardiers,
anuntly furnished from the ziameths and timars, or mili-
tarifiefs, underwent a total change by the new regulations.
Thlminers, a corps much neglected, were increased, and
attiihed by the new constitution to the bombardiers. The
mape was put under the superintendence of a ministry
for fed on the plan of European admiralties ; and the com¬
ma! of vessels, which had usually been set up to sale,
wa given only to those who were qualified for the oifice.
Dr docks, caulking basins, a harbour for fifty new gun-boats,
anciall the necessary appurtenances of a great arsenal,
we t built at the edge of the water at Ters-Hane; and
det-ins for similar contrivances were to be applied to the
otlii principal harbours of the empire. In addition to
the institutions tor the formation of the new troops, and
the nprovement of the Ottoman navies, a general regula-
tioiorovided that the janizaries should be regularly exer¬
cise in the use of the musket, with their sukas and other
ass ants. Magazines lor victualling the armies were con-
stn ted on the Danube, and at other points near the seat
of ir. In order to provide for the increased disburse-
meilsof the public exchequer, a new7 revenue was created ;
anulbr this end a treasury was formed, under the control
of great state officer, chosen from among the chief
mt jof the empire. Such is a brief outline of the new re-
gul ions issued by Selim ; and skilful and enlightened
thogh they were, they excited great dissatisfaction in most
ela:.‘s of the community. The janizaries, in particular,
for aw in the formation of the new troops the extinc-
tioifef their owrn influence, and therefore determined upon
rev t. Their discontent was privately fomented by Mousa
Pam, the kaimacam, a cruel and ambitious character, who
ent itained the most deadly hatred against the superior
offilrs ol the divan, and had long resolved to excite a re¬
vel lion for the purpose of destroying them. The first
syi toms of insurrection manifested itself among the troops
bei iiging to the garrisons of the Dardanelles. A certain
nui ber of adventurers, under the name of yamaks, or as-
astjts to the batteries, had shortly before been added to
thi'iizam-jedid, for the service of the batteries of the Bos-
pb(|is. They carried the same arms as the nizam-jedid,
andvere trained to the same discipline. It was at length
fes ived to incorporate them with the other troops ; and ac-
cov ugly, on the 25th of May 1807, an order was issued for
clo mg them in the new uniform. The yamaks imme-
dia ly rose in open mutiny, and put to death the reis-ef-
fe" , who had brought the commands of the sultan. Hali
Ag the commandant of the batteries on the Asiatic shore,
wai mrderqd on the same day, and his corpse was also thrown
•nt lie Bosphorus. On the next morning, the yamaks, to
the lumber of three thousand, having assembled in the
Pan of Buyukdere, elected a chief, and marched directly
e capital. At this juncture the kaimacam intimated
0 1 e several ortas of janizaries that the time was come
,rAer*urn'na the new institutions; and accordingly, on
. 1 they rose, and, as the signal of insurrection, car-
wtheir camp-kettles to the well-known place called Et-
, 1 :'n>an °pen square near the aqueduct of Valens, w hich
leen from time immemorial the camp of the insur-
w1 i. “ The sultan,” says Sir John Hobhouse, “ was now-
awakened to a sense of bis danger; he assembled his mini- History,
sters at the seraglio, and the 28th of the month was passed v""-
in negotiation with the insurgents in the Etmeidan. Dur¬
ing the day the fate of Selim was on the balance ; he trans¬
mitted to the Etmeidan an offer to abolish the new institu¬
tions, to which the janizaries returned no other answer than
a demand for the immediate execution of all the mini¬
sters who had advised and presided over the nizam-jedid.
Then it was that the kaimacam insidiously assured him
that the sacrifice was necessary, and would appease the
rebels. All was not yet lost. If at that moment the gates
of the seraglio had been shut, a cannon had been fired,
and the head of Mousa Pasha himself had been struck off
and thrown over the walls, Selim would have triumphed
and retained the throne of his ancestors. But the instant
peril and the presence of his enemies bewildered the fa¬
culties and so absorbed the resolution of the sultan, that
he seems to have despaired of resistance, and to have
placed all hopes of safety in submission alone. It was not
suggested to his mind, that with the new troops of Scutari
and Tchiftlik, and other soldiers in the vicinity of the ca¬
pital, he might speedily assemble 30,000 men, not less de¬
voted to himself than inimical to the janizaries; and that
until their arrival he could maintain the seraglio against
the rebels, by arraying the forces of his numerous body¬
guard. Yet the testimony of all the reports prevalent at
this day in Constantinople concurs in the persuasion that
such an opposition, with the instant death of the kaimacam,
would have dismayed the insurgents and crushed the rebel¬
lion. But the traitor prevailed, and with a cruel ingenuity
contrived to include in the prescription the names of two
old and innocent men, the kehayah-bey and the reis-ef-
fendi, who were called to a conference with Mousa, and,
on leaving the room unsuspicious of their danger, were
carried away to the second gate and strangled. The num¬
ber of heads presented to the janizaries early on the morn¬
ing of the 29th wras seven ; but the ruffians, rising in their
insolence, w7ere not satisfied with the bloody offering, and,
on recognising the aged victims of the resentment of
Mousa, declared that they had required another sacrifice.
£ The heads w7ere not those of the enemies whose punish¬
ment they had demanded.’ The sultan hearing this last in¬
telligence, sent for the mufti, and on learning that he with¬
held his advice, found that he had ceased to reign.
“ The janizaries, headed by the traitor Mousa, had already
found their way into the seraglio, when the sultan retired
to the mosck of the palace, and wrapping himself in the
robe of Mahomet, took his seat in the corner of the sanc¬
tuary. Here he was found by the mufti, who entreated
him to submit to the wishes of the people, and to resign
the crown. Another report says that, previously to this
moment, he had told his attendants that he would reign no
more, and ordered them to bring his successor before Inin,
The circumstances of this actual deposition were not ex¬
actly known ; but on the evening of the same day (the
29th) it was understood in all the quarters of the capital
that the most injured, if not the best, of the Ottomans had
stepped from a throne to a prison, and that the reigning
monarch was his cousin, Mustapha the Fourth, eldest son
of Sultan Abdulhamid.” This prince was thirty years
old when he was placed on the throne. Of a feeble cha¬
racter and limited attainments, he became a mere instru¬
ment in the hands of others, and was the servant rather
than the master of the armed multitude to whom he was
indebted for his elevation. The supreme power was in
the hands of the janizaries, the new institutions were abo¬
lished, the new troops dispersed, and their principal officers
executed. Their triumph, however, was but of short
duration, and the punishment which they so justly deserved
was speedily inflicted. Mustapha Bairactar, the pasha of
Rudshuk, owed his elevation to the personal regard of the
416
turkey.
History, dethroned sultan, and determined to avenge his fall. So conflagration into a strong stone tower, used as a powder R
magazine, which the janizaries attacked in vain. Butm'
the middle of the night the whole city was shaken by a
tremendous explosion ; and it was found that the maga¬
zine, with the grand vizir, had been blown into the air,
whether by accident or design is to this day unknown.
' early as October 1807, he formally intimated to the sultan,
that he should advance to the capital to reform the abuses
of the state, and to assist him in the administration of pub¬
lic affairs. Accordingly, having collected an army of forty
thousand men, he marched to Constantinople, and en- „ . , , ,
camped on the plains of Daout Pasha, four miles from the During the two following days the contest raged with un-
citv There his camp soon became the centre of the bu- abated fury, till the forces of the arsenal and of Tophana
siness and affairs of the Porte, whose chief officers directed united themselves to the janizaries ; and the death of Bai-
their visits of ceremony to the tent of the triumphant ge- ractar becoming known, the Seimens withdrew from the
neral But the pasha, conscious that his authority in such combat. In the mean time, the officers of Mahmoud had
a state of affairs was unstable, resolved upon the restoration strangled the imprisoned Mustapha; and the sultan having
of the sultan Selim. The 28th of July 1808 was fixed no longer any thing to fear from the partiality of the ja-
noon for the enterprise; and as Mustapha had appointed nizaries for his predecessor, commanded the cannonading
that day for a hunting expedition, Bairactar determined to to cease, and at the same time announced to the janizaries
enter the palace during his absence, and, by preventing that the Seimens were abolished for ever
his return, exclude him from the throne. Unfortunately *u~ —1 i— K"
the secret transpired; and when, at the appointed time,
Bairactar marched to the seraglio, he found the gates
closed, and the body-guard under arms. Orders were
given for an immediate assault; and after a brief contest,
the insurgents forced their way into the seraglio. But the
interval proved fatal to Selim. At the commencement of
the contest, the emissaries of Mustapha were despatched to
his apartments, and after a powerful resistance, that ill-
fated prince was thrown down and strangled. After the
murder of Selim, the strictest search was made for Mah¬
moud, the youngest son of Abdulhamid, and the only remain¬
ing prince of the blood-royal. But a faithful slave had con¬
cealed him in the furnace of a bath, and before the place
of his concealment could be discovered, the insurgents had
forced their way into the interior of the palace. Advancing
to the third gate, they called aloud for the instant appear¬
ance of Selim, when the eunuchs of Mustapha, casting the
body of the murdered monarch before them, exclaimed, surrendered as prisoners of war. The result might have
“ Behold the sultan whom you seek!” Bairactar, over- been fatal to the Turkish empire ; but in 1812 the prospect
powered by his feelings, threw himself on the disfigured of the arduous struggle with France induced Russia to
corpse, and wept aloud ; till Seid Ali, the capitan pasha, make peace with the Porte, on the latter ceding Bessarabia
exhorting him to seize the moment for revenge, he instant- and part of Moldavia. At the peace of Tilsit, Napoleon
]y aroused himself, and commanded that the Sultan Mah- left the Turkish empire single-handed to fight or fall, though
moud should be proclaimed, and Mustapha arrested. The it had been induced to take up arms solely by French pro¬
command was immediately obeyed; Mustapha was con- raises and intrigue. The neglect was deeply felt by the
signed to the prison of the seraglio, and Mahmoud was re- Ottomans, and it received its just punishment when toe
leased from his painful concealment, and placed on the Ot- unexpected pacification of 1812 released the Russian army
toman throne. On the ascension of Mahmoud, Bairactar just in time to interrupt the distressed French troops m
was of course made grand vizir; and he avenged with their attempt to pass the Beresina. The sultan being now
unsparing severity the death of his benefactor. The traitor happily freed from foreign enemies, resolutely entered on
Mousa Pasha lost his head, and all the officers of the ya- the difficult task of reducing to obedience the great officers
maks and the most seditious of the janizaries were strangled of his empire, who during the distracted state of the conn-
and cast into the Bosphorus ; and the females of the harem try had virtually exercised independent power; and in the
who had rejoiced at the death of Selim were sewed up in course of a few years, the famous Ali Pasha and the other
sacks and precipitated into the sea near the shores of powerful and rebellious satraps wmre all deprived of t .eir
Prince’s Island. governments, and most of them executed. In 1B21 e-
The vizir openly avowed his intention of reforming the gan that celebrated insurrection which, after a bloo y
system of the janizaries, and retrenching their privileges; of eight years, terminated in the complete emancipation o
and it was resolved to revive the order of the Seimens, the Greeks from the Turkish yoke. (See yBEEC d
who might supply their place, and be regulated accord- Meanwhile the tranquillity of the empire was again t
ing to the discipline of the nizam-jedid. The name of this ened by the janizaries. They had chosen to take uni
corps was more odious to the janizaries than even that of at certain members of the divan ; and, in consequence^
Selim, as belonging to an institution more ancient than their representations, in November 1822 four of tie ^
their own ; and they were only the more resolved to ruin noxious ministers were exiled, and Ilalet Eftenni,
the author of the innovation. Bairactar, however, becom- keeper of the signet, w as put to death. I his inter
The friends of
the late vizir saved themselves by embarking on board a
vessel at the Seraglio Point; but the victorious janizaries
completed their vengeance by the destruction of the mag¬
nificent barracks of Sultan Selim at Scutari and Tchiftlik,
at the latter of which, five hundred Seimens defended them¬
selves with desperate valour against a multitude of assail¬
ants, until their quarters were fired, and they all perished
in the flames. Thus terminated the most tremendous re¬
volution that Constantinople had experienced since it fell
under the power of the Turks, and w hich, after dethroning
two monarchs and spilling the best blood of the empire,
ended in the destruction of the meditated reforms, and the
entire re-establishment of the ancient institutions.
During these events, the wrar with Russia had languished;
but on the accession of Mahmoud, the armies on both sides
were augmented, and the contest was carried on with great
ferocity. The campaign of 1811 was short, but disastrous
to the Porte, the main body of the Ottoman army having
ing elated by prosperity, began to despise their enmity;
and, blinded to the danger by which he was surrounded,
came to the fatal resolution of dismissing the greater part
of the provincial troops, and thus remained almost unpro¬
tected in the midst of an infuriated soldiery thirsting for
his destruction. On the night of the 14th of November,
several thousands of janizaries, issuing from their quar-  j , — , _ werc
ters, surrounded the palace of Bairactar, and set fire to the formity with these designs, one hundred and fifty ®e
building. The vizir and his friends escaped from the selected from each orta of the janizaries, who were id
however, is supposed to have been the remote cause
destruction of these troops. The necessity of iutr0 nC'
new systems of discipline had long been apparent to e ^
thinking man, and the government was anxious to co^-
but every attempt had hitherto proved fatal to the inn ^
tor. The sultan resolved to make another e“orVCOI1.
the janizaries resisted, to extirpate them^ altogether-^
I '
turkey.
ry. d in European tactics by Egyptian officers. As it was de¬
clared that this was merely a revival of an exercise used by
! olyman, matters proceeded quietlyfor some time, till, in June
823, when the troops were brought together to exercise,
iey discovered for the first time that they were practising
he very evolutions which they had all determined to resist,
furious insurrection immediately took place, the palace of
e Porte was pillaged and stripped, and the insurgents, to
e number of twenty thousand men, assembled in the well-
icwn Etmeidan. The sultan perceived that the crisis
iich he had both expected and feared had now arrived,
. d he determined at once to put an end to a domination
• licit had been found so intolerable. He directed the sa¬
ted standard of the prophet to be raised, and the zealous
ussulmans rushed from all qimrters to range themselves
i der it. Pie issued orders to the pasha aga, and to the
togee basin or commander of artillery, to hold themselves
i readiness with their troops. Before, however, proceed-
i r to extremities, four officers of rank were despatched
I: the Etmeidan, with offers of pardon if the insurgents
luld immediately disperse; but the offers were scorn-
i'ly rejected, and the officers w^ere wantonly put to death,
he aga pasha had by this time collected about 60,000
rn; and surrounding the Etmeidan, where the janizaries
^ re assembled in a dense crowd, totally unsuspicious of
t: sultan’s intention, he opened upon them a general dis¬
ci irge of grape-shot, which killed vast numbers. The survi-
vs retired to the barracks, which were close by, and there
s it themselves up. But orders were immediately given to
s file to the buildings. I lie artillery thundered upon the
ylls; and after a desperate resistance, in which they slew
s'reat number of the assailants, the janizaries wyere utterly
tterminated. Tor two days afterwards, the gates of the
; cy continued closed, and strict search was made for such
c the janizaries as might have escaped the slaughter in the
I neidan, and these, when found, were immediately exe-
o ed. About twenty thousand were put to death in the
c i'ital alone, besides the numbers which perished in the
F vinces. Thus, after four centuries and a half, this for-
n .and capricious corps, once the great bulwark of
t empire, but eventually the pest and disturber of the
cimunity, and an insuperable barrier to all improvement,
vn totally destroyed, and the imperial throne freed from
it intolerable yoke.
in 1828 war again broke out between Turkey and Russia.
2 first campaign was unfavourable to Turkey, but not
cipfftely decisive. In 1829, however, the Russian ge-
ni al Uiebitsch succeeded in passing the formidable barrier
<> fie Balkans; and the war being closed in September by
peace of Adrianople, Turkey consented to several ar¬
es fioth humiliating and injurious,
diortly after occurred that rupture between the sultan
r Mehemmed Ah, the pasha of Egypt, which shook the
oman empire to its foundations. In every conflict the
KisI) troops vvere completely overthrown. The battle
Kaiol" i eC>1( ?^ ^Ie *ate °* Syria> an(l the victory at
; placed the sceptre almost within the grasp of the
to1t r mS ,a' In this. extremity the sultan was reduced
a, t|,r’!mi)1 necess,ty °f applying for aid to Russia;
cl I pH S1 i10 mtervention of that power, peace was con¬
ic If’ d 'I'10le °f Syria’ with its dependent terri-
- >1 ewarded the successful rebellion of Mehemmed Ali.
it rnllie' * 'e S!j aI1 an(^ his powerful subject again came
h i? p 'i°n; a,H tIie Turkish army, under the" seraskier
r( ed hr Ti C,r0SSeTf! ^le Euphrates, but was completely
■i . I at N“iK near Aleppo, and t.,e
417
three days, and was succeeded by Abdul Medjid, a youth Statistics,
of nineteen years of age. 'I he young sultan was taken '
under the protection of the five great European powers ;
and on the 15th of July 1840, a treaty was concluded bv
Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, for the settlement of
the eastern question, France having refused to become a
party to it. By the terms of this agreement, Mehemmed
was offered the hereditary government of Egypt and of the
pacha!ik of Acre. Having however refused to comply
wnh the terms, he has been excommunicated, and his for¬
feiture proclaimed by the sultan and the ulema; and the
fleets of the allied powers have proceeded to reduce the forti-
fied places on the coast of Syria. rI hey have already obtained
possession of Beyrout, Saide, and St Jean d’Acre ; the last
of which was evacuated by the Egyptian troops after a
bombardment of only three hours’ duration, on the 3d of No¬
vember 1840, though it had cost Ibrahim a siege of seven
months to i educe it in 1832, and though he had subsequently
made it one of the strongest fortresses in the world, (b. q.)
STATISTICS.
The Turkish empire extends continuously into the three
quarters of the old world, occupying the contiguous south¬
eastern corner of Europe, the south-western corner of Asia,
and the north-eastern corner of Africa; between 20° and
48° north latitude, and 16° and 48° east longitude. Its
gieatest extent is in the direction of the meridian, measur¬
ing 1680 geographical miles from north to south, and 1570
from east to west; but its area by no means corresponds to
a squaie of that extent, for its form is most irregular, and
its outline is deeply indented by seas and deserts. There
is accordingly great variety in'the estimates which have
been formed by geographers of its superficial contents.
Make Brun states it at 815,196 square miles; but, includ¬
ing all its appendages, it may be stated in round numbers
at little less than 1,000,000 square miles, of which one sixth
is in Europe, three sixths or one half in Asia, and the
remainder in Africa. The empire is naturally divided into
three very distinct portions, the European, the Asiatic, and
the African; and these we shall describe separately.
Turkey in Europe.
Ci n nrtau : ; " nu-Lii .nieppo, anu tne
E Dtians t! • a'v ba?Sage, fell into the hands of the
I kisli a’n/ “l.dl1SaSter was Allowed by the loss of the
atffia. a i- , tlle caPitan pasha carried to Alex-
w had inno.C, 1VGre,c! UP t0 Mehemmed Ali. The sultan,
01- x.\i & Cen ^isease^ survived this engagement only
In its present reduced dimensions, excluding Greece and
the islands, but still including the dependent states of Mol¬
davia, Wallachia, and Servia, this country has an extent of
about 700 miles from east to west, between the western
border of Croatia and the channel of Constantinople, or the
mouths of the Danube, and of 650 from north to south,
between the frontier of Greece and the northern extremity
of Moldavia, including an area of nearly 180,000 square
miles.
In its general aspect Turkey may be described as divided
into t\\ o great portions ; the one consisting of the low coun¬
try between the base of the Balkan range on the south and
the Carpathians on the north, extending north-eastward to
the bordel’s of Russia, and forming the basin of the Lower
Danube ; and the other all the rest of the country southward
to the frontier of Greece. The nucleus of the latter por¬
tion is formed by various ranges of mountains which have
been considered to be only a prolongation of the Alps, or
at least as connected with that range by the very hilly
country which is found at the north-eastern corner of the
Gulf of \ enice. All the best maps, however, are crowded
with false indications; not only false or ill-spelled names,
but also ill-placed localities. Hills and even large rivers are
totally omitted, while many parts of the maps on which
hills are marked are merely imaginary representations. All
the maps exhibit a central chain of great magnitude ; but in
418
turkey.
Statistics reality tire Balkans, from Sophia to the Black Sea, are in
N-—ceneral only a range of small heights. The central p^i l o
the chain may be crossed anywhere in a day, or in some
Mountains, parts even in a few hours. _ The principal chains of moun¬
tains may be enumerated in the following order. 1. i ne
Tchar (ancient Scardus), a high and extensive range, which
forms the western part of the central chain. 2. The Des-
poto-dagh (ancient Rhodope), which begins near Dubnitza
and Djumaka, and runs in an east-south-east direction, di¬
minishing in height till it terminates rather abruptly about
six leagues south-west of Adrianople. Its loftiest summits
are towards the west, and reach an elevation of 8000 feet,
or probably more. 3. The group of hills which occupies
a lar^e and very wild tract of country between 42 and 43
30' N. lat. and 19° and 21° 20' E. long, and is but little
known. 4. The chain of Pindus, which extends from Met-
zovo (39° 50' N. lat.) to the north-west, beyond the lake of
Ochrida, where some parts of the chain reach an elevation
of 6000 or 7000 feet. Its southern extremity is connected
with Olympus by a somewhat lower chain, which separates
Thessaly from Macedonia. 5. I he true Balkan (ancient
Hannus), which extends eastward from the neighbourhood
of Sophia, to Emineh Burun on the Black Sea. It is a
much lower chain than the Despoto-dagh; the southern
slopes are generally very steep, but on the north side it is
only the highest ridge which is much inclined, and on that
side also the country falls by a series of parallel ridges di¬
minishing in height towards the Danube, which flows past
a series of small hills on the Bulgarian side, while on tne
Wallachian side the country is flat. The western part of
the Balkan probably reaches an elevation of 4000 feet; but,
near the sea, the summits are only from 1800 to 2000 feet
above its level. 7. The preceding chains are connected by
a large undulating high country or plateau, extending flora
east to west between Sophia and Pristina, and forming the
upper part of the basin of the Morava. From this plateau
ranges of mountains extend in every direction into Servia,
Macedonia, Albania, and Thrace, some of which attain the
elevation of 5000 or 5500 feet. 8. South of Adrianople,
between the Maritza and the Dardanelles, are the low ridges
and plateaus of the Tekir-dagh, which rise only to the
height of about 900 feet; but to the south-east of Aimadt-
schik there is a somewhat higher range, which, near the Sea
of Marmora, is probably 300 or 400 feet higher'than the
Tekir. 9. Along the south-western shore of the Black Sea,
a very low chain extends from the Bosphorus to the north¬
west,forming the water-shed between that sea and the basin
of Adrianople. It is not in immediate connection with the
Balkan ; w hile, on the other hand, towards the Bosphorus it
becomes divided into a number of small hills situate on low-
lying plateaus. 10. Between the lower Strymon and the
lower Vardar, on the coast of Macedonia, there is a group
of low hills, of which the almost insulated ridge of Athos
may be considered as the south-eastern extremity. A pro-
pninent character of the orography of European Turkey is
the presence of vast cavities or high plains.at the foot of
the mountains, and the number of extensive cross fractures
in the latter. The plains may be regarded for the most
part as longitudinal valleys, and some, if not all of them, ap-
Lakes. Pear t0 have been once the beds of lakes. Only a few lakes
however now remain, as those of Ochrida, Kastoria, Joanina,
and Scutari, and even these are rapidly filling up.
The only river of any importance is the Danube, which
‘has been already described. (See Danube.) It now forms
the northern boundary of the territory under the immediate
government of the Padishah, and is navigable for steam¬
boats upwards from the Black Sea to the interior of Ger¬
many, excepting only at the Irongate, on the borders of
Hungary, where the navigation is effectually interrupted by
rapids. The navigation of the Danube being of essential,
importance to the commerce of the Austrian empire, and
theS,
the lower part of it being not only circuitous and obstructed
with shallows, but also exposed to interruption from the
fiscal and sanatory regidations of the Russian government,
which has got possession of the river-mouths, a convention
was some years ago entered into between the Austrian and
the Turkish governments, the latter of which undertook to
form a canal from the Danube near Rassova, to Kustendjil
on the Black Sea; but the work is not yet begun, and it
has been proposed, more recently, to substitute a railway.
In a country consisting of so many high plains, and inter.(
sected by so many lofty mountains, the climate must neces¬
sarily be" very various. Along the western coasts the cli¬
mate partakes somewhat of that of Italy, though colder,
owing to the vicinity of the mountains; but the maritime
regions along the east coast are exposed to the north-east
winds, which blow frequently, and bring intense cold and
thick fogs and rain from the Black Sea. At Constantino¬
ple the climate is extremely changeable ; the temperature
will sometimes fall 31° in a single hour. Indeed it depends
upon the north or the south wind, whether one is shiver-
ing in the cold of Russia, or luxuriating in the balmy air
of Greece. The winters are extremely long and severe;
the roads are often blocked up with snow, and the wind
on the Bosphorus is often so violent, that all communica¬
tion between the city and the villages far up the channel
is cut off. Upper Macedonia and Thrace (the modern Ru-
melia) were considered by the ancients to be cold countries;
and it was in the former that they placed the residence of
Boreas. The country nevertheless is rich in corn and woods,
and well adapted for the vine. For the climate and natural
productions of the other provinces, see the articles Alba¬
nia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Moldavia, Wallachia,
and Servia.
Turkey in Asia.
Rivers.
This large and important part of the empire is situate
betAveen 31° and 42° N. lat. and 26° and 48° E. long. ^ Its
greatest length, measured diagonally from the mouth of the
Dardanelles to the mouth of the Euphrates, exceeds 1400
miles; and its greatest breadth, from the southern border
of Palestine to the north-eastern extremity of the pashalic
of Akhalzik, exceeds 900. Its area may be about 500,000
square miles. It is bounded on the north ny the Black Sea
and a part of the Russian territory; on the south by the
deserts of Arabia ; on the east by Persia and Russian Ar¬
menia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean Sea, the
Archipelago, the Dardanelles, the sea of Marmora, and the
channel of Constantinople. It consists naturally of fouiS ’
very distinct portions, namely, 1. the peninsula of Ana-uoi
or Asia Minor, situate between the Black Sea and tie
Levant part of the Mediterranean ; 2. the high tab e-lan
of Armenia and Kurdistan to the north-east; 3. the ow
countries of Assyria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia, traverse
by the Euphrates and the Tigris; and, 4. Syria and racs
tine, which together form the eastern shore of the Me t
ranean Sea, and extend between it and the Arabian deser*
Armenia and the northern part of Kurdistan form a
elevated table-land, or series of plains and valleys, som
of which are 5509 feet above the level of the sea, m ^
sected and overtopt by ranges of mountains. 118 “
however a fertile corn country, and abounds also m 1^
tures, though the climate is cold, and in winter the w o
gion is covered with deep snow. From Armenia two r
of mountains proceed westward. One of these, t e a
ent Taurus, runs parallel to the shore of the Mediterrag
Sea, and then dividing into a number of branches, ^
intersect the western part of the peninsula, forms as ^
fertile valleys watered by fine rivers, and term‘I]a
the shores or in the islands of the Archipelago. 5 tjoa
chain, Anti-Taurus, extends in a south-westerly
# ie«
turkey.
i£o the interior of the peninsula, where it is probably
419
.nnected, not only with the ranges of Taurus, but also
Uh the lofty mountains which under various names oc-
<py the country between the Kizil-Irmak and the Sea of
l irrnora. The central part of the peninsula, supported
o' all sides by these mountains, forms a series of elevated
tide-lands, nearly destitute of trees, but abounding with
jstorage. Some of its valleys are so completely surround-
t by mountains, as to have no outlet for their waters,
v ich not only overflow large tracts of country in the rainy
s^son, but also form a number of permanent lakes, some
o which are intensely salt, as those of Van and Koch-his-
s. 1 he climate of this upland region is so severe that
n plants are to be seen but such as are found in the
Ighlands of Scotland. The summer is of very short du-
r, on, and the low country along the coasts is so much af-
fted by the vicinity of these cold mountains, that neither
tl; aloe nor the cactus, nor any succulent plant, is to be
si n. Orange and lemon trees are with difficulty preserved
ii ;he sheltered valleys ; the olive seldom flourishes, even
h|i similar situation ; and they are all inferior in growth to
tlse of Sicily, Calabria, and Greece.
I he countries watered by the Euphrates and Tigris may
b listinguished, by their configuration, climate, and natural
p ductions, into three zones. I he first, or most northern,
o iprises the mountainous country traversed by the ranges
o laurus, where the winters are cold and the summers hot,
a where the productions are forest and fruit trees, olives,
we, corn, and pasturage. The second zone consists of
si ly or sandy plains, the fertile parts of winch produce
n berry tiees, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, and hardy
Late composite plants. J he climate is characterised by
g it dryness, combined with great variations of tempera¬
te; and the zone comprises Northern Syria, Mesopota-
m, and the low country to the east of the Upper Tigris,
i i third zone, which extends from Feluja to the Per-
si Gulf, consists of low, watery, alluvial plains, which pro-
(1 e date trees, rice, and pasturage, or saline plants, reeds,
siges, and rushes. The plain is intersected in every direc-
< by the remains of ancient canals, and is still capable of
extensive irrigation which made it in ancient times the
n est country in the world. But at present it is nearly a
!'f , ^,nd, cultivation is only found like a fringe along the
b ks of the rivers. For the description of the remaining
V s ° rp eniPire> see the articles Syria, Palestine,
b.'PT, Iripoli, and Barca.
he dominant race of people are the Osmanlee or Oth-
:j 0IA'1’1'}01 ?tt10r”1an Turks- They however spurn the name
J vi nt tn A ; ' •16y consider as a term of contempt equi-
n L barbanan’ wIliIe they glory in the name of Os-
1) rpr'o,aS f ss‘v 6 valour and polish. Their language
tr .l!!rd S° hTge an admixture of Arabic and Persic, as
i Is “Z^ tedon that account Mulemmaor the Piedmare.
la People themsdves ofa race less mixed than their
na nniTti".,a?es t le^ kave blended themselves with the
whom are brutalized by the bondage of the mass of the Statistics,
people, and tne latter are as proverbial for wiles as the '
Turks are for honesty. The character, however, of the
Turks is not^ uniform; those of Asia differ considerably
from those of Europe. Scattered over a wide extent of
country, theyr exhibit in different provinces different man¬
ners and customs, and some of them are certainly more bar¬
barous than others ; but instead of condemning them in the
mass, as some travellers do, we think it is rather to be won-
deied at that, subjected as they have been for centuries to
the most pernicious system of misrule, they still possess
any good qualities at all, than that they are not so thoroughly
humanized as more favoured nations. Their religion, bad
as it has been called, seems no more conducive to immo¬
rality than that of Spain or Italy; and the general condi¬
tion of the empire at the present day, and the manners of
its people, will bear a favourable comparison with those of
Spain oi Portugal, Naples or Sicily. 1 he total number of
the Osmanlee throughout the empire is exceedingly un¬
certain : but their actual number has always been small in
comparison with the population of the territories which
they have ruled. On the one side, they are mixed with a
more numerous population of Christians, whose seeming
submission is a veil to their hostile feelings; and on the
other, they hold in subjection an Arab population, who,
from fearing and respecting their masters, have now ac¬
quired a conviction of their own superiority. The Turkish
population, says the duke of Ragusa, of both sexes, and
including all ages, does not, at the very utmost, exceed three
millions and a half of persons, and is spread over an immense
surface ; only 700,000 of them are reckoned to be in Eu¬
rope. The most numerous portion, indeed, of the European
population consists of various Sclavonic tribes,- as Bosnians,
Seivians, Bulgarians, who chiefly inhabit the northern,
western, and central parts of Turkey. Next to them in
numbei are the Arnauts, who inhabit Albania, and are
scattered over other provinces; and to these must be add¬
ed Gieeks,^ Wailachians, Jews, Gipsies, Armenians, and
Franks. No census having ever been taken of the po¬
pulation, the numbers of these various races can only
be conjectured ; and accordingly, European statists differ
widely in their estimates. In the Weimar Almanac for
1840, we find the population of European Turkey classed
thus:
Osmanlee, of Turkish origin and speech  700,000
Greek.s 1,180,000
Albanians 1,600,000
Slavonians  6,000,000
Wallachians of the Greek Church  600,000
Armenians  100,000
Jews;  250,000
F,;anks  50,000
GlPsies   200,000
j. - , ” “to1-0 »juvc uiencieu t
rj is^w-u]1’ r16y l!?ve conclueretk They are in general a tall,
■^well-formed race, of rather harsh, a ~
Si nnmv  =11,yet often noble phy-
iral (rro . aHny complexion, dark-brown hair; and their
a , 10,680,000
Add the population of Moldavia and Wallachia... 1,500,000
111 reckonpr]ty °- j11011 18 ai(,cd b>’ long moustaches, which
tli r an md'spensable ornament. With resi
Total population of European Turkey.. 12,180,000
ffr charanJ.' ornament, witti respect to
Ropean tr,i ii lere ,1S tIle greatest discrepancy among
ft L vil efj and wnters> who, actuated by different
Proses ai- Interests> and writing for opposite party
 < ’■ e S>ven such accounts of the Turks as can
S(fcelv hp r ° , accounts or tne lurks as can
«^0rp,r ”i^.cnidered - »pt***'° “>
^ietirHrZr ut a ter a blb consideration of these
tl OsnianLo ements» we are inclined to be of opinion that
rler even t ^ scaJce*y> ^ at all, inferior in moral cha-
to Some of the proudest nations of Western Eu-
r<i-> whilp uaunus ui western L.U-
irs Pertainly ^ar superior to their eastern
n. ftbo
iur< tK n ”  to tneir eastern
me Russians and the Greeks; the former of
The population of Asiatic Turkey is still more various,
but we have never seen any estimate of the numbers of the
various races. I he Osmanlee are very numerous in Asia
Minor, which they seem to consider as their proper coun¬
try ; but even there they are mixed with a multitude of
Cireeks, Jews, Armenians, Yezidees, and other races, while
large tracts of the interior are abandoned to the wandering
tribes of Turcomans, Yurukhs, and Kurds, who pasture
their flocks and herds in the wide upland plains. The
Turcomans are also of the Toorkee family; but being pas¬
toral, like the Arabs, they traverse immense tracts to pro¬
cure subsistence for their camels, buffaloes, goats, and
a\
420
T U R K E Y.
Statistics, sheep, which constitute the principal part of their wealth.
—v—' They also breed horses, and sell them, with milk, butter,
and meat, to the towns and villages, taking in return arms,
clothes, and money. Their women spin wool and make
carpets. Each camp is under a chief, whose power is re¬
gulated by custom and dependent upon circumstances, and
the abuse of it is restrained by public opinion. They pay
for the liberty of pasture, at so much a tent, to the pashas.
The Turcomans are by far the most numerous and the
most civilized of the nomade tribes. They live in tents
during summer, but have generally fixed villages for their
winter quarters. Ihe Yurukhs live in tents all the year
round, but dwell almost exclusively in the mountains; and
when in the neighbourhood of large towns, generally act as
charcoal burners, and supply the towns-people with that
article. They, as well as the Turcomans, cultivate a little
ground. The Kurds differ much in manners and language
from both of these tribes. They are a more wealthy and
independent people, and live entirely in tents. i hey
dwell on the eastern flanks of Mount Arjish, and in the
great plain of the Haimaneh, towards Angora. I hey are
found also among the ridges of Taurus, in Northern Syria;
but their proper country is the mountainous region to the
north-east of the Tigris, which from them takes its name
of Kurdistan, and which is nominally divided between Per¬
sia and Turkey, without being really subject to either.
(See Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Armenia, Kurdistan.)
The total number of the population of Asiatic Turkey is
reckoned at 9,956,400 ; and the total population of both
European and Asiatic Turkey is thus classed, according
to their religions: Moslem, 13,552,000; Greek Church,
4,000,000; Armenians, 1,400,000; Catholics, 613,000;
Monophysites, 380,000 ; Nestorians, 300,000; Christians
of St John, 5000; Protestants, 3000; Jews, 620,000 ;
Yezidees, 100,000 ; Druses, 60,000; Nazaries, 40,000.
Total, 21,073,000.
Govern- The government is an absolute monarchy, or despotism
meat. vested in a padishah, or emperor, of the race of Othman. He
is also, in virtue of a compact made with the last descendant
of the Fatemite caliphs of Egypt, khalif or vicar of the pro¬
phet, and, as such, head of the Mahommedan religion. He
thus unites in himself the power of the hi tab and the hilitch
(the pen and the sword), and consequently claims the ex¬
ercise of an absolute authority, both spiritual and tempo¬
ral. There is no limit to his power but the dread of re¬
taliation and revenge. He cannot indeed infringe the right
of property, or inflict punishment in general, without a
formal condemnation ; but, on the other hand, the orlovf
or royal prerogative, allows him to put to death fourteen
persons every day, as the effect of immediate inspiration,
and in these cases confiscation is sure to follow; and it is
from this prerogative that he has obtained his ordinary
title of Unkiar, or Hunkiar, or Khunkiar (?'.<?. the man-
slayer), the one by which he is spoken of among his sub¬
jects. He also bears the title of sultan, but is best known
to Europeans by the Italian title of Grand Signior. The
most characteristic trait, however, of Turkish despotism is
exhibited in the relation which subsists between the hunkiar
and his officers. All who accept any post or place (and
what he offers none dare refuse), thereby place their lives
and properties at his disposal; he is the heir to all their
effects, and can at any time take their heads as a matter
of right. In such circumstances, it is natural that the
offices of government should either be in the hands of des¬
peradoes, or of men who hope to escape notice by a servile
adherence to established routine, and who sacrifice every
thing to their personal safety. The ulema alone are placed
beyond the reach of these odious prerogatives. There is
no hereditary nobility, and thus all the prejudices of the
people in favour of antiquity, nobility, and power, are con¬
centrated upon the family of Othman, the founder of the
empire and of the imperial dynasty. They stand alone in Stati
the eyes of the nation, and the care to preserve this illus. ^
trious line has never been more conspicuous than in the
midst of revolutions. It was however nearly extinguished
in 1808. At the very time when Mustapha IV. was put to
death, executioners despatched by him were in search of
his cousin Mahmoud, the sultan, who was discovered by
his deliverers lying concealed under some old tapestry.
Mahmoud was then the only surviving male of the family,
and the circumstance of his being so is believed to have
saved his life on several occasions during his turbulent
reign. T^e government has for a long period been sin-
gularly inefficient: and if we examine the system, from
the highest authority downwards, we shall not be surprised
at its total unfitness for its legitimate purpose. The pre¬
sumptive heirs to the throne, who bear the title of Shah-
zadeh (king’s sons, or princes), are shut up, each separate-
]y, in an isolated apartment within the palace, in the middle
of a large garden. These apartments are prisons called
hrfestes (iron cages). Surrounded by high walls, they con¬
tain only these unhappy princes, attended by eunuchs,
and by female slaves too old to become mothers. The
reigning sultan, seeing in them so many rivals, constantly
watches their conduct; lets no one approach them; pro¬
hibits, under pain of death, all correspondence with them;
and leaves them to vegetate in utter ignorance of every
thing passing in the empire. He appoints for their pre¬
ceptors persons in whom he has confidence, old men, who
teach them the rudiments of the Arabic and Persian lan¬
guages, and writing ; and for their amusement, he appoints
some of his eunuchs to be their pages, who instruct them
in some of the most common mechanical arts. Whether
they be his sons or his brothers, the treatment is the
same ; and such is the education of those who are destined
to govern so large and turbulent an empire.
In the early periods of the Ottoman history, all the male
relations of the sultan shared with him the dangers and
the glories of the battle-field; but among a people prone
to admire bold crimes, who had no fixed law ot succession
to the throne, and whose domestic manners were calcu¬
lated to weaken the ties of kindred, the prince often found
dangerous competitors in his sons and brothers. Selim I.
deposed and murdered his father. Suleiman the Great was
obliged to strangle his eldest son, who bad conspired against
his life ; and this circumstance induced him to ordain that
all the princes allied to the throne should be kept in close
confinement in the palace, secluded from the public eye
and from state affairs; nor could they leave their prison,
unless in the presence of the emperor, till called to ascend
the throne. This fatal law, dictated in the gloomy spirit
of eastern jealousy, soon marred the grandeur ot the race
of Othman. The succeeding sultans, reared in captivity
amidst women and eunuchs, were unfit to be the heads o
a warlike nation, and in almost every case relinquished
the command of the army, to riot in cruelty and sensuality.
From Othman, the founder of the dynasty, to Suleiman tie
Great, the sultans were all men of surpassing vigour an
abilities; but from that period their history exhibitshtte
but weakness and disgrace.
Thus passing his youth, or sometimes the greater par
of his life, till mature age, in complete idleness, depii'c
every kind of rational pleasure and amusement, the
of the empire no sooner quits his imprisonment to moan
the throne, than, surrounded by a swarm ot flatterers, J
handsome slaves and various objects of enjoyment, ^
blindly plunges into effeminacy and luxury; and aban 0 .
to the mercy of his eunuchs and his flatterers the attairs ^
empire, in which he has never been exercised* an
which therefore he is totally ignorant. Upon the eleva^
of a prince to the throne, the eunuch who atten e . ^
in the kafesse as first page, becomes his kizlar-agass*)
Y~
turkey.
superintendent of the girls; but generally bears the title
of Daru-s’saade agassi, or master of the palace of felicity.
As ignorant as Ins master of tne art of government, this
eunuch nevertheless enjoys great power, not only in the
palace, but throughout the empire. His person is consi¬
dered sacred; his rank is equal to that of the grand vizir ;
and his influence is usually so great, that he changes and
appoints the grand vizirs, the grand admirals, the ministers,
and the governors of provinces. In short, the most im¬
portant and delicate ailairs of government are often ma¬
naged by the influence of ignorant menials and intriguing
ivomen. Every Mahommedan is allowed to have four
wives by the mkiah, or civil contract, besides as many
daves as he chooses or can afford ; and the children of
die slaves are as legitimate as those of the wives. A dis¬
tinction is nevertheless made between the mothers; the
lusband can repudiate the nikiah wives, even thomdi
hey have borne him children ; if a slave has borne^a
'laid, she is entitled to her freedom before ber master
:an part with her; but if she be barren, he can sell her
it the bazaai. Sometimes also her master grants her
|he nikiah, which makes her free. The sultan, however,
s prohibited by law from marrying even slaves by nikiah’
o that he has no wives, but chooses from among his slaves
hose who please him most, and gives them the title of
adine, or lady. The title is conferred by the ceremony
f robing, the sultan investing her with a pelisse, which
an only be worn in the harem by a cadine. The num-
cr of cadines used to be four or five, but sometimes
lore, and tne late Sultan Mahmoud was the son of a se-
entli. Each cadine has her separate apartment, eunuchs,
ml female slaves. They never meet except on the occa-
1011 of an accouchement, when the mother receives a con-
ratulatory visit from the other cadines. The mistress of
lie harem, kehaya-cadine, conducts each night one of the
adines to the sultan’s chamber. When he is displeased
ith any of them, lie marries her to one of his subjects, and
ikes another in her place; but the cadine who has had
clu.d, whether it be dead or living, cannot be dismissed
•°m the palace. The sultan cannot take any of the ca-
mes left by his predecessor ; but, on his accession, lodges
u ni with their jewels and attendants in the eski-serai, or
kl P?Ia.c®» a .Ia’ge building in the centre of the city, sur-
punded by high walls, and destined for the perpetual abode
i those cadines who survive their master. Their children, if
la e, are shut up in the kafesse; but if female, they are kept
i the sultan s harem, under the inspection of the kehaya-
irnne, til they marry, when they take their mothers from
old palace to live with them. The same thing happens
11 reSart} tlle mother of a male child. As soon as her
)n m(,lln,ts the throne, she is taken from the old palace,
ceivestie title of valide-sultana, and is accommodated
‘th apartments in the imperial serai.
1 he sultan must personally inspect the efforts of the
,an . mmtary authorities to extinguish the fires which
‘k outm the city or suburbs, or on the shores of the
liorus. I the fire break out in the night, the silih-
m ormed of it, and he instantly acquaints the kizlar-
'ArJYnterS.jthe harem> S°cs straight to the sultan’s
]U-cl amber, and announces the event to the five maids
,, vvatch dunn£ the night. One of these puts on a
nruPn c!lters the sultan’s chamber, approaches the
: , am if he be asleep, gently chafes his feet till he awake.
ire vvW !!llnVCdia,tely Proceeds vvitil his retinue to the
is 6 L,.e.fire bas broken out, and where his minis-
*. meet him. Fires are extremely frequent and de-
ructivo „ . .i ■ , , . iiLijucuL anu ue-
iburhs * 'C “l6 inbabLtants of Constantinople and the
•oSi ;nne .iPr01hlbltedto bui]d their bouses of Stone; a
Ccnufinn " ’’l 1 IS Sa’d to bave been originally a sort of
ivino. • °n 1 le Part of the sultans against the janizaries
e> cases of revolt, any solid building to intrench
themselves in. Such was, or used to be, the padishah, and Statistics.
the principal members of his household. Let us now pro- ' .  
ceed to his public ministers. *
. tbe Pasbas of three tails, who are governors of pro¬
vinces, bear the title of vizir; but the governor of the
capital bears the title of supreme vizir, or viziri-aazam,
and various other exclusive titles, as veliki-mutlak, or ab¬
solute lieutenant; sahib-devlet, or possessor of the govern¬
ment; and salnb-muhove, or keeper of the imperial seal.
It is to him that the grand admiral and the governors of
provinces address their official reports ; and, after havino-
read them, lie writes with red ink, on the margin of each°
an abridgment of its contents, with his opinion, and sends
them to the sultan by an officer called telhitzy. All the
arrairs of the empire, both foreign and domestic, must come
under Ins notice. In time of war he commands the grand
m nn, and all the other commanders are under his orders.
ie is also the supreme judge in both criminal and civil
aitairs, and his arz-odassi, or court of justice, is without ap-
peal. Every W ednesday and Friday, assisted bv the two
kadi-askers of Roum-ili and Ana-doli, he hears appeals from
t ie Istambol-effendi, or master of the city police, and from
t.ic three mollas or judges of Galata, Eyoub, and Scutari,
three suburbs of Constantinople. On Tuesdays, Fridays,
and Saturdays, lie sits alone in judgment on criminal cases ;
and his sentence can be annulled only by his successor. He
is al'O the supreme chief of the police of the metropolis,
and frequently changes his dress and explores the streets,
attended by some of the officers of his court, and a train of
executioners. Woe then to the man who may be caught in
the act of offending, or who may in any way displease him.
I he grand vizirs have indeed a maxim worthy of them¬
selves. They say that “ the word government, in its pro¬
per sense, means punishment.” There have been times
when the grand vizirs were worthy of their high dignity,
put m general the case is very different. As their career
is almost always terminated by the loss of their heads, or
at least by banishment and confiscation of their property,
tne ministers of the Porte, and the silih-dar, avoid the dan¬
gerous post, and, if they have any influence, select one of
tne pashas of three tails, and by their intrigues facilitate his
promotion to the office of supreme vizir. Most of these
pashas are originally household officers, who, after having
sei ved grand vizirs, grand admirals, and governors of pro¬
vinces as their pages, and then as their lieutenants or their
treasurers, obtain, under the auspices of their masters, the
title of kapudzi-bashy, chamberlain, or selalicuhori-sbet-
wiyaii, master of the horse to the sultan, are afterwards
appointed governors of provinces of the second rank, and
at last governors of the first rank, or pashas of two tails,
and pashas of three tails. This office was abolished by the
late Suitan Mahmoud in 1838, but has been restored by his
successor.
Next to the grand vizir is the kethkudal-sadri-ali, or
lieutenant of the sublime post of the grand vizirat, whose
functions correspond to those of minister of the interior.
All the qualification that is required of him is a superficial
knowledge of the Araoian and the Persian languages, that
he may be able to read the reports of the governors of pro¬
vinces, and the petitions, which he afterwards presents to
the grand vizir. The applications from inhabitants of the
capital he merely looks over, and then refers them to the
official department to which they belong, according to their
subject. I lie next officer is the reis-effendi, or reis-ul-
kioutab, minister of foreign affairs, to which lie is too often
a stranger in every sense of the word, being ignorant alike
of history, geography, statistics, forms of government, di¬
plomacy, the interests and relations of foreign states, and
even of any of the languages of Europe. The minister of
finance bears the title of defterdari-chikki-evvel, or keeper
of the register of the first division of the exchequer. This
422
turkey.
Statistics, department is divided into various offices ; such as that of
v—confiscated property, and of the property of persons dying
without heirs ; that of debts to the state ; and that of the
piscopos, in which the berats or diplomas of the Greek pa¬
triarchs, archbishops, and bishops, are drawn out. ^ ^ in"
tendant of the great custom-house, and of those of (jalata,
of the snuff and tobacco custom-house, the receiver-gene¬
ral of the haradz, or capitation tax on infidel subjects, and
many others, are also under the minister of finance, rer-
sons are frequently appointed to this important office who
are ignorant of even the first four rules of arithmetic. 1
he be an easy man, the clerks and the chiefs of office, in
order to be sheltered by his credit and protection, give him
part of what they steal from the state. If, on the conti ary,
he is not a man to be duped, he plays with his subalterns the
part of the lion in the fable, and enriches himself at the
expense of the state, exhibiting at the end of the year an
enormous deficit, which is supplied by anticipating the re¬
venues of the next year, and so on, till his wealth again re¬
turn to the sultan by his death or confiscation. 1 hese de¬
ficiencies of the treasury have at times occasioned so much
embarrassment and distress, that, in order to provide for
the urgent expenses of the state, more than ordinary re¬
course has been had to confiscations, and the goveinment
has seized all the property of condemned persons, without
paying their creditors. The ministry of war is divided into
several intendancies. There is the tophane-naziry, or in-
tendant of the cannon foundry ; the barut-khane-naziry, or
in tendant of the powder-mills; the khoumbara-naziry, or
intendant of projectiles ; and the dzebe-khane-naziry, or in-
tendant of the ammunition. All these ministers make re¬
ports to the grand vizir, who presents them to the sultan.
Affairs of such great importance as these, and which re¬
quire precise and detailed knowledge, are, like every tiling
else, intrusted to ignorant people, whose reports are revis¬
ed by one more ignorant, and decided upon by the sultan,
who is usually the most ignorant of all. The tersane-em-
anety, or ministry of the marine, superintends the revenues
of the admiralty, the purchase and provision of all that is
necessary for the building and equipment of ships of war,
and the payment of the naval officers and seamen. It is
nevertheless almost always intrusted to persons who have
not the slightest idea of affairs so complicated as those of the
marine. The revenues are received by the clerks, the ter-
sane-capudani-emini or directing minister, and the derya
or grand admiral. This last-mentioned officer, who is usu¬
ally styled the capitan or capudan pasha, is of very high
rank and importance in the state; but, unfortunately for
the successful performance of his duties, he is usually a per¬
son utterly ignorant of seamanship and naval tactics. The
most favoured dignitaries of the palace have aspired to and
obtained this lucrative and brilliant post. The late sultan
Selim’s first page, Hussein Pasha, was raised to it. Ihe
admiral chosen to oppose Sir John Duckworth’s passage to
Constantinople in 1806, was the mirahovi-ewal, or master
of the horse, and he was succeeded by Hassan, the kassab-
bashy, or chief butcher. Several bostandji-bashy, or cap¬
tains of the palace guard, have also been appointed, it being
supposed, that as they steer the sultan’s caique on the
Bosphorus, they are thereby qualified to direct the opera¬
tions of fleets. Even men brought up in the interior of
Asia Minor and Syria, and who have never seen the sea,
have been promoted to this post, and have even been as¬
sisted up the ladder of the flag-ship, for fear they should
fall into the water. These admirals used to sail every year
from Constantinople with a part of the fleet, to visit the
islands of the Archipelago, which were under their special
government. In their progress they used to spread alarm
and desolation, plundering and annoying the inhabitants;
and, in order to show their master that they had put his Statist^
maritime possessions in order, they have decorated the rig.
ging of their ship, on returning to the capital, with the
hanging bodies of some unfortunate islanders. The offi¬
cers under him are, like himself, unfit for their duties, and
follow his example in committing all sorts of atrocities, de¬
riving their principal emoluments from extortion and rapine.
The grand admiral is obliged, when he is at Constantino¬
ple, to appear every Friday in state at the palace, and pay
homage to the grand vizir, whom he acknowledges as his
superior ; but the latter, in his turn, when the admiral ap¬
proaches making a profound bow, and advancing to kiss
the hem of his pelisse, draws back his robe with haste, and
salutes him in the same manner, with a bow to the ground.
Various changes, however, have been made by the late
Sultan Mahmoud and his successor, and our preceding ac¬
count will better apply to things as they were than to
things as they are; for Mahmoud thoroughly reformed
his household, abolished all sorts of useless offices, and
carried his retrenchments of expenditure to the most ra¬
dical limits. At the beginning of the present year, the
principal officers of government were, 1. the sheikh-ul-
islam, head of the clergy : 2. the grand vizir : 3. the two
kadi-askers of Roum-ili and Ana-doli: 4. the ministers of
the first class, namely, the minister of war and commander-
in-chief of all the regular troops; the seraskier, or com¬
mander-in-chief of the troops in Ana-doli; the capudan
pasha, or high admiral; the minister of commerce; the cap¬
tain of the guard ; the minister of finance; the minister of
foreign affairs (formerly reis-effendi) ; the chaousch-baschi,
executor of the judgments of the divan ; the chief physician;
and the president of the board of health : 5. ministers of the
second class, namely, the secretary of state; the treasurer
of the sultan’s income ; the beilikschi-effendi, assistant to
the reis-effendi in the executive department of his office;
the master of the ceremonies; the director of the wakufs,
or charitable institutions; the interpreter of the Porte; and
the director of the customs. The council of ministers is
called the divan, from the circumstance of their meeting in
a certain room of the palace, which has no other furniture
than a divan, or wooden bench, along the wall, about three
feet high, covered with cushions. It is here that laws are
made, suits decided, firmans issued, troops paid, and the re¬
presentatives of sovereigns prepared to be introduced to the
august presence of the sultan. The imperial court itself is
usually called by Europeans, in French phraseology, the Su¬
blime Porte, a name which it derives from the Bab-huma-
youn, the principal port or gate of the outer wall of the pa¬
lace, from which the imperial edicts are dated.
For administrative purposes the empire is divided into
provinces called eyalets ; the larger of which are governed
by pashas of three tails, with the official title of vizir; and
the smaller by pashas of two tails, with the title of miri-
miran. The eyalets are subdivided into districts, called
livas or sandjaks, each under the charge of a pasha of one
tail, with the title of miri-liva, or sandjak-bey; the cities
and towns are governed by mutselims. The provinces are
usually called pashalics by Europeans; pasha,1 however, is
not an official title, but is merely a personal honour, like
knighthood in Europe, conferred by the sultan. I here are
three ranks of pashas, the first or highest of which has t ie
privilege of bearing a standard with three horse-tails, t e
second, of two ; and the third, or lowest rank, of one. bn‘
der the old system, the pasha was invested with the n
powers of absolute government within his province,
power was united in his person ; he was the chief of 0
the military and the financial departments, of the po ^
and of criminal justice ; he had the power of life and ea ,
of making peace and war ; in short, of doing whatheple3
1 This word is spelled pacha in French, and is merely a new-fashioned form of the old and familiar word bashaw.
®. Il
TURKEY.
423
^eti- cd, so long as he could purchase and secure the favour of
the sultan and his ministers. The provinces were indeed
sold to the highest bidder, and the successful candidate was
sent to his province with full powers to make the people
disgorge as much of their money as force and cunning could
squeeze out of them. The Porte received the stipulated
sum from its nominee, without inquiring how it was pro¬
cured ; and to such a pitch was the tyranny of the pashas
carried, that many districts offered the sultan to pay direct¬
ly into his treasury more than three times the nominal sum
demanded of them as taxes, provided the money might be
collected by an officer totally distinct from the pasha. At
length Sultan Mahmoud, in the course of his reforms, or¬
dered that with each pasha should be associated an officer
charged with the collection of the imposts, independently
of the pasha; but whether from a difficulty of finding per¬
sons qualified for such an office, or from other causes, this
order had never been carried into effect up to July 1834,
when Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, was at Constan¬
tinople ; and the cupidity and injustice of the pashas and
mutselims, the marshal states, were never greater than
at that time. We learn also from the sultan’s hatti-sheriff,
issued in November 1839, that the venal concession of
offices then still subsisted ; that the civil and local admini¬
stration of each region was still, at that time, delivered up
to the arbitrary will of one man ; and that the people still
had no security for person or property. Yet we are told
by an anonymous writer in 1838, that this state of things
had already been very generally altered ; that the pasha
was then a salaried military and civil officer, without the
power of life and death, and personally uninterested in the
revenues of his province ; that a treasurer from the Porte
then received directly from the communes the amount of
their contributions. The result is stated to be highly gra¬
tifying, the people contributing a fixed and a higher sum
to the state than the former nominal one, but in reality
much less than what the pashas used to extort from them.
J he imperial treasury is stated to have greatly improved in
its receipts, the subjects paying less, while the government
receives more.1 So little are writers on Turkey to be trusted.
?'0'i / *ie Ostnanlee are all Mahommedans, and Islam is the re-
aW8, ligion of the state; but all other religions are freely tolerat¬
ed, and with their professors the Osmanlee live in the ut¬
most harmony. Both the law and the religion being found¬
ed on the same common basis, the Koran, the clergy and
the lawyers form but a single order, divided however into
two classes, the ministers of religion and the ministers of
justice; for the prayers and ablutions prescribed by the
Koran are so numerous and so frequent, that the ministers
ot religion could never find leisure to execute the office of
a judge; they form therefore a separate class, leaving the
administration of justice to the cadis. Every Osmanlee is
entitled to become a member of this body, but be must first
receive a suitable education. After a few years’ study, and
an examination of his capabilities, the candidate may be
jacmitted to the service of a mosque ; but having once en-
Uied upon the sacerdotal office, his career is closed, and no
urther promotion awaits him. Those who aspire to higher
honours continue their studies for a longer time, and, after
several examinations, obtain the rank of rnulazim, which en-
tit ls them to hold the office of deputy to a cadi or judge.
^ their ambition urges them still farther, and they wish to
ootam the degree of muderis or doctor, their noviciate must
>c continued seven years longer, and they undergo a finaf
examination in presence of the mufti. The title of mu-
i eu!, being once conferred, the first dignities of the magi-
ucy ie open to their hopes. The classification, how-
Vtl’ ot's not end here; the muderises of Constantinople
are divided into ten classes or degrees, from the first of Statistics.
w inch only are chosen the supreme magistrates of the state. ' 
This exact organization gives to the clerical body a firm
coherence, which makes it the most solid part of the Otto¬
man institutions. Its unity is secured bv the controlling
authority of its head, the grand mufti, or sheikh-ul-islam,
from whom depend all the appointments to its various ranks
and offices, while the members have all a common interest
in maintaining its privileges. Of all the offices in the state,
that of grand mufti, or sheikh-ul-islam (head of the faith),
is alone held for life. He is the oracle of the law, and the
representative of the khalif or sultan in his spiritual capaci¬
ty ; and as all new laws, and even the question of peace and
war, must await his sanction, he thus participates in the le¬
gislative power of the sovereign, and interferes with all the
movements of the government. The privileges common to
all the members are exemptions from taxes and arbitrary
imposts, arbitrary confiscation, and the punishment of
death. They are sufficiently enlightened to understand their
interests ; the prerogatives on which they depend are of the
most solid and important nature ; their chiefs are bound to
them by the strongest ties, or are proved by long novitiate
oi repeated trials; they unite the firmness of an aristocracy
to the spirit ot a profession ; in fine, their influence has na¬
turally such a good foundation, and is so artfully fortified,
that it would be extremely difficult to overturn it. But all the
advantages which result from their combination are exclu¬
sively their own ; they cannot resist the arbitrary violence
of tlm sultan, but they can impede the alterations of the
law. Their power is founded on the false principles which
would arrest the progress of civilization, and they are the
natural supporters of the present state of things. In the
Ottoman empire there is nothing of a solid construction,
except this bulwark against innovation. It is difficult to re¬
form law and religion, even when taken separately; but
when united, they offer an inert, or even an active resist¬
ance, sufficient to baffle the strongest efforts of the best-in-
tentioned despot. The whole body is termed the Ulema.
To Slve> however, a precise idea of this important body,
we should begin with the students, who are called sukhte
(vulgarly pronounced sokhta, or the scorched), because it is
supposed that they burn with a zeal for knowledge. There
are schools or colleges, named medreses, established in all
the imperial mosques in Constantinople, Adrianople, and
Brusa. The pupils first study grammar, and then Arabic
and Persian poetry, and rhetoric. When considerably ad¬
vanced in the Arabic language, they apply themselves to
the reading of the Koran, the commentaries upon it, and
the books which treat of the civil law. Finally, they study
logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, in old Arabic
works. Totally neglecting mathematics, they also study
judicial astrology, as the most sublime branch of human
knowledge. Sueh is the sum of information possessed by
the sukhtes. They are chiefly from Syria and Asia Minor,
very few being from European Turkey. They are the
most savage, the most fanatical, the most turbulent, and
the worst subjects, among the lurks. I heir number also
is so considerable, that Constantinople alone contains above
10,000 ot them. 1 hey perform, in their clerical quality,
the services of the mosques ; their daily sustenance is re¬
gularly furnished out of the revenues of these temples ;
and they are lodged in the numerous cells annexed to
them. But as most of them are poor and unprotected, it
is very seldom, and only when at an advanced age, that
any of them attain the chief clerical dignities. The student
who has neither patronage nor distinguished talent to carry
him through the ten degrees of muderis or doctorship, which
lead to the higher dignities of the law, aspires only to inferior
* British and Foreign Review, voi. vii. 12k
424
turkey.
Statistics, offices; and the greater number of them reach only the
'——'v'—-" rank of simple cadis or judges of Na'ib, or subdelegates of
the judges in the towns and villages. Riches, birth, and
patronage, the powerful instruments of worldly advance
ment, exercise their usual influence in this body. I he
first step of promotion is, when, after many previous trials,
the student is inscribed in the list of those who aspire to
legal offices, and as such, upon the mufti’s verbal intima¬
tion, called ishviet aliyah (the high wink), obtains a writ¬
ten document from the supreme judge, denominated mulct-
simet gayadi (the writing of reversion). Next, if the mula-
sim acquit himself well in the prescribed trials, he obtains
a medrese of the lowest income, and afterwards advances,
by regular gradation, to the highest rank of the medreses,
that of the suleimaniyeh, and then the eldest among them
are promoted to the rank of mahrejmolla, or superior judges.
These posts of mahrejmolla are eight in number, namely,
those of Galata and Eyoub, suburbs of Constantinople,
Scutari, Smyrna, Salonika, Larissa, Haleb, and Jerusalem.
Their function however lasts only a lunar year, when they
are succeeded by others. The next step of promotion by
seniority is to the four superior mollaships of Adrianople,
Brusa, Damascus, and Cairo ; the next to the two titular
mollaships of Mecca and Medina; and one is further
promoted to the rank of Istambol-effendi, or master of the
police of Constantinople. The next step from this rank
is to that of kadi-asker of Ana-doli, and then to that of kadi-
asker of Roum-ili or European Turkey, and finally to the
supreme rank of grand mufti. The grand mufti and the
two kadi-askers always reside at Constantinople. Another
of the members of the ulema is the nakib-ul-eshraf, or
chief of the emirs. There are also four whose function
is within the sultan’s palace.
Before a simple sukhte can arrive at the high dignities
of kazi-asker and grand mufti, a period of twenty-five years
must elapse; but the great ulema, vizir, and other officers,
abusing their power and influence, procure for their children
from their birth the honorary title of rnuderis, and after¬
wards of the other degrees of office, without their ever fill¬
ing them.
The law being, as we have said, but an extension of the
religion, the whole civil code of Turkey is founded on
the Koran, and the edifice is completed by dialectic sub-
tilty. Where sacred texts lire wanting, traditionary tales,
or constructions put upon the silence of the prophet,
supply their place, and the involuntary fraudulence of in¬
genious reasoning pervades the whole. Neither are the
inherent vices of the code corrected by the manner of its
administration.
Besides the chain of the ulema, there is yet another per¬
fectly distinct chain of clerical personages, that of the sheikhs.
This title is borne by the grand mufti, who is the sbeikh-
ul-islam, and under him by the superiors of monasteries,
and the wais, or preachers at the imperial mosques. The
sheikhs of monasteries, however, have no graduated course
of advancement; but the sheikhs of the imperial mosques
have, like the chain of the ulema, an actual course of ad¬
vancement according to the ranks of their respective
mosques. There are at present twenty mosques in Con¬
stantinople which bear the title of humayoun (imperial) ;
and of these, four were built by the late Sultan Mah¬
moud.
The whole system of internal administration in Turkey was
directed to the accumulation of money, and the avarice of
the sovereign was diffused through all his officers. Before
November 1839, every office was sold, with an understand¬
ing that the purchaser might use any means to reimburse
himself. Corruption pervades every department of the state,
civil, legal, and ecclesiastical ; and under its baneful influ¬
ence the provinces have been made deserts, and the em¬
pire brought to the verge of ruin. The late Sultan Mah¬
moud, indeed, made many vigorous efforts to reform abuses; Stsfe
and his successor Abd-ul-mesjid (servant of the mosque)
has issued a hatti-sheriff, published 3d November 1839
promising to seek, by new institutions, to procure for the
provinces of the empire the benefits of a good adminis¬
tration. These institutions relate principally to three ob¬
jects ; first, guarantees for the security of honour and
property ; second, a regular mode of fixing and levyincr
taxes ; third, a regular mode of levying soldiers, and fixing
the duration of their service. This edict has been pom¬
pously called the Magna Charta of Turkey ; but such deep-
seated corruption and abuses as we have described are not
to be cured by edicts.
The revenues of the state are raised by a variety of im-Finant
posts ; but as the government publishes no accounts, we
have no means of stating correctly the amount that reaches
the imperial treasury. The Christians and Jews are sub¬
jected to a haradz or poll-tax, and other vexatious imposts,
from which the Moslem population are exempt; but even of
the latter the burdens are sufficiently heavy. The agricul¬
turists, besides tithes, the merchant, besides enormous cus¬
tom-house duties, the artisans and workmen, besides what
they contribute to their respective corporations, are subject¬
ed to innumerable vexatious impositions. In the simple in¬
stitutions transmitted by the Arabs to the Turks, which
have formed the safeguard of the empire against internal
abuse and foreign encroachment, direct taxation was an
essential element. With the exception of the capitation
tax levied on the rayahs, or infidel subjects, in lieu of military
service, the whole regular revenue of the empire used to be
derived from the miri, a sort of property-tax (or rather the
land-rents of the country, of which the sultan is the sole
proprietor, the people having only the usufract), assessed
and levied, not by any acts of the central government, but
by each community within itself. A certain sum was fixed
as the contribution of every village or district, proportioned
to its means; and each member of that district paid bis
share according to a rate assessed by the municipal coun¬
cil. When however Mohammed II. introduced the sys¬
tem of farming the revenue, he subverted the functions of
these municipal councillors. They retained their office
and title of ayan, but had no longer any control over the
pashas, who had purchased their places, and thereby be¬
come owners or farmers of the revenue. Previously, says
D’Ohsson, they were members of the provincial divan, to
advise in the administration, and could interpose their in¬
fluence against oppression. These municipalities still exist,
and are acknowledged by the government, but their power
is more silent and limited ; yet it is principally to them
that Turkey is indebted for the preservation of its social
organization and order amidst so many misfortunes, and
under such a long continuance of misrule. Indirect taxes
have also been introduced, corresponding to our excise and
customs; and certain duties are now levied upon the ex¬
port and import, the transit, and the sale of merchandise.
The revenue, compared writh that of former periods, is
reduced by the loss of Greece, Moldavia, Wallachia, Ser-
via, Bosnia, Egypt, and Candia, all of which have be¬
come more or less independent; while Albania, Bagdad,
Erzroum, Kars, and Akhalzikh, paid little or nothing for
many years, owing to the complete disorganization of the
government in these provinces. On the other hand, the
regular expenditure for the army, the navy, and the other
branches of government, has been gradually increasing till
it has more than doubled ; yet there is ground for assert¬
ing, not only that the revenues fully meet that expendi¬
ture, but that there is actually a surplus. ,
The celebrated corps of janizaries was formed at first o
slaves and captives, but its ranks soon became filled wit
the bravest of the Osmanlee; and as a military brotherboo
affords some chance of protection from arbitrary power,
TURKEY.
11 crowded to the muster-roll of the janizaries. The mul¬
titudes, however, of which the order at last consisted, were
ot all subjected to military discipline, and only served to
11 the empire with turbulence and confusion, without in-
reasing its strength. The number of janizaries enrolled
t the close of last century was about 400,000; pay vvas
isued for 60,000, but not more than 25,000 men could at
ay time be mustered during the Russian wars. The corps
■as originally formed as a protection to the sultan against
is powerful subjects, military or feudatory chieftains; but
iey soon became corrupted, and the danger of a pam-
ered and licentious soldiery was speedily felt. Bajazet II.,
ithin a century and a half after they originated, formed a
an lor their destruction ; and Murad IV. destroyed great
tmbers of them, without however exterminating the corps,
elim III. forbade the recruiting of them, and this cost
m his life. The suppression of the janizaries became at
st essential to the security of the sovereign and the state;
id by one deadly blow, dealt by the late Sultan Mah-
oud, that haughty soldiery, to whose predecessors the em-
re owed the largest share of its extent and glory, was
tally extinguished in 1826.
A sense of their declining strength has induced the sul-
ns, since the beginning of last century, to aim at intro-
icing some military reforms, and to endeavour, by the
loption of European tactics, to retrieve the tarnished
ory of their arms; but with small success, till the reign of
e late energetic Sultan Mahmoud. After the destruc-
m of the janizaries, he determined that the nizam-jedid,
new military force, should adopt the European dress
d tactics. He however found his Moslem subjects so
pugnant to these innovations, that he was obliged to
rol only very young men, whose prejudices could not be
ry deeply rooted, and merely retained a small number of
1 soldiers to incorporate with the new levies, which were
sed by conscription, mostly in Ana-doli. The French
istem of tactics was the one selected for the infantry, and
ench officers were appointed to be their instructors; but
lugh the soldiers possess zeal, diligence, and habits of
; jat attention, when under instruction, their instructors
ve hitherto failed in forming them into an efficient army,
icir officers are selected and promoted in the same way
■ the officers of the civil and legal departments; and in-
1 mpetent persons are still appointed to the most responsible
i nations.
An important part of the army used to consist of the
i is furnished by the timariots, or great feudal proprie-
s of lands in Ana-doli, in time of war, to the amount of
■ out -0,000 good cavalry ; but Sultan Mahmoud destroyed
-‘se fiefs, and the cavalry soldiers are now levied, like the
antry, by conscription ; and the French system has been
■ opted for their instruction. The horses are strong and
: five, and, though not large, they have more bone° than
'ab horses, and are admirably calculated for light cavalry.
!e ^ rs are armed with swords and lances, and are gene-
) nei men than the infantry'. The artillery are how-
' -r t ie best soldiers in the army, and work their guns
! »reat dexterity. 1 he soldiers, Marshal Marmont states,
- ettei fed than any other troops in Europe ; their maga-
esaie hlled with stores, and the regiments have large
■ wh-6]’ i e*r i>aY *s twenty piastres a month, the whole
lie t ley receive; and, in short, every thing has been
" ttlat C(?uld promote the comfort of the soldier. Their
ruction is carried on in a mild and explanatory manner;
siness is indeed unnecessary, as the men are naturally
ir„ ^ ^ , disposed, and show great anxiety to ac-
<()br' novvj?d£e their duties. Owing to their habits
iall w °“ences against discipline are infrequent. For
use of,enCeS t^le s°ldiers are liable to be caned; and for
w apve nature they are subject to the same pu-
T0L lat vvould be inflicted on civilians. At the corn-
425
mencement of the present year (1840) the force of the Statistics.
army was estimated to consist of 94,000 infantry and artil- '   
lery; 25,000 regular, and 100,000 irregular, cavalry.
The Osmanlee have never been a maritime people, or vq.,v
pam any attention to the art of navigation. Their military ^ '
navy, after its triumphs in the fifteenth century, was lon«-
neglected; but at last, into this department, as into every
other, the Sultan Mahmoud infused his energy, and sue-
ceedeu in creating a very respectable fleet, which he left
to his successor. At the epoch of his death, however, the
capudan pasha carried off the fleet, then at sea, and deli¬
vered it up to the pasha of Egypt. At the commencement
of the present year, 1840, the number of ships, including,
we presume, those at Alexandria, was reckoned to be ten
sail of the line in serviceable order, and five unrigged; ten
fiigates on service, one in dock, and four unrigged; and
three steam-ships, besides several corvettes and other smaller
vessels. Before the Greek insurrection, the fleet was manned
by the Greeks of the Archipelago; and their pay was fur¬
nished by the Greek nation. The patriarch of Constanti¬
nople was empowered by an express order of government
to impose the requisite sum, called mellahiye, or the sailors’
pay, on the Greek inhabitants of the capital, and, through
their archbishops and bishops, upon those of the provinces.
But the fleet is now manned by landsmen trained in har¬
bour, and commanded by officers ignorant alike of seaman¬
ship and of naval tactics. It is only an expensive toy.
There is no nation more passionately attached to litera- Literature
ture than the Osmanlee ; and from the earliest periods of and science
their history they have devoted themselves to its cultiva¬
tion. Their dialect is the most polished of all the Turkish
idioms; rich, dignified, and melodious. In delicacy and nicety
of expression it is not perhaps surpassed by any language;
and in grandeur, beauty, and elegance, it is almost unequal¬
led. In the department of polite literature they do1 not
yield the palm of superiority to any nation. In poetry they
display great genius and taste; all classes are its ardent ad¬
mirers ; and to so great a degree has the love of poetic com¬
position been carried, that there is no class of society which
has not contributed towards it. The ladies, the sultan, his
ministers, doctors, soldiers, all have devoted themselves to
the cultivation of poetry; and the divans, or poetical col¬
lections of above six hundred authors, are existing evidences
of the taste of the Osmanlee for the productions of the
muse. In the kindred department of the drama, they are
however sadly deficient, for they have no theatres; nor
have they opportunities of cultivating oratory. In philoso¬
phy they have all the speculative knowledge of which
the Greeks and the Arabs were masters. In moral phi¬
losophy, and in the sciences of government and political
economy, they are said to excel; which is the more sur¬
prising, as our ideas of the Turks and their polity would
lead us to a very different conclusion. In history they pos¬
sess several good works, particularly those of the early periods
of the empire. There has been also a regular series of im¬
perial historiographers; but, generally speaking, of all the
branches of knowledge, history and geography are the most
neglected by the Osmanlee. From the earliest periods, they
possessed the best masters of astronomy; and they have a
multitude of astronomical works, many of which display
great science. In many of the mosques of Constantinople
are to be found solar quadrants, fitted for taking obser¬
vations ; and astrolabes, telescopes, and other instruments
ot their own manufacture, some of them extremely well con¬
structed, are in frequent use. Geometry, algebra, and
arithmetic, are considered among the necessary acquire¬
ments of a man of education ; and a course of these sciences
forms a portion of the studies of their schools. In the sci¬
ence of numbers their proficiency is very great, and the
facility with which their calculations are performed has been
frequently observed. On these subjects they possess many
3 a
426 T U R K E Y.
Statistics, excellent works. Their philosophical productions are very as is indicated by their title of dersi-aam, which means ge-
numerous, but their speculative and metaphysical writings neral instruction. 1 he lecturers are not khojas, but mudf.
are similar to those which issued from the schools of Europe ris (doctors or professors) ot a medrese or college. Lastly,
during the reign of the Aristotelian philosophy; and it in the colleges, the students receive instruction in the higher
must be admitted, the philosophy of Bacon and Newton and more difficult branches of knowledge. These colleges,
has not yet shed its light over the Ottoman empire; in usually founded beside mosques, libraries, monuments, and
every department of practical science, and of its application sometimes unconnectedly, aie presided ovei by a professor
to the arts, they still remain extremely ignorant. rl heir (muderis), which however may be better translated rector,
moral philosophy is, however, a science on which they seem master, or head of the college, because he superintends not
to have bestowed their best energies; it is the subject ot only the course of instruction, but likewise the conduct of
many excellent and valuable treatises. .Their mode of con- the students who dwell in the medrese, as scholars upon
veying the principles of morals, by means of imaginative the foundation. Out of about five hundred such medreses
discourses and apologues, adds great force and beauty to existing throughout the empire, Constantinople alone pos-
the sentiments; and strewing the path of knowledge with sesses three hundred. The most celebrated are those found-
flowers, renders the acquisition of it at once agreeable and ed by the conqueror Mohammed II. and by Suleiman the
impressive. The only foreign languages, however, wrhich Great, in connection wuth their respective mosques. As in
they study are the Persic and the Arabic, and many Turks Islam all instruction is founded upon religion, and jurists
are authors of Persian and Arabic works. Only two cen- are at once theologians and lawyers, it is natural that
turies ago the literature of Turkey surpassed that of Eu- mosques should always have been the central points round
rope; and it was from a Turk that D’Alembert took the which scientific institutions are grouped. Thus in the Con-
idea of the Encyclopedic; but unfortunately the want of the stantinopolitan mosques are found united the learned insti-
press has kept them stationary, while, by its aid, Europe has tutions, not only of general lectures and of the medreses,
been making rapid strides in both literature and science, but also of libraries ; and, finally, other three establishments
A Turkish printing press was for the first time established for education, unconnected with the medreses, and specifi-
at Constantinople in 1726 ; in the course of fourteen years eally founded. These are the school of medicine attached
it published three-and-twenty volumes, and then ceased, to the Suleimaniyeh mosque, and the lecture-rooms of the
After an interval of more than forty years, the experiment Koran and of tradition. Sultan Mahmoud has reformed
was repeated. During the reign of Selim III. printing be- the medical school, and founded a nursery of physicians and
came a part of the neworder of things, and the establishment a school of surgery, from which the military hospitals now
was fixed in the barracks of the new troops at Scutari; but established at Constantinople are to be supplied. He has
when the revolution of 1807 broke out, the whole was re- also enlarged the school of engineers founded by Sultan
duced to ashes, and few of those connected with it escaped Selim, and connected with it a school of architecture. He
the fury of the janizaries. During this second period of its also instituted a naval college; several other educational
existence, not more than forty volumes issued from the press, institutions were also established in his reign, both byhim-
It was, however, a third time restored by Sultan Mahmoud, self and by private persons ; but under the reign of his son,
and established at Constantinople itself, and has already they seem to be falling to decay, and the old system seems
issued a number of important works. It is, however, still to be again restored. In the mathematical sciences, and
a government undertaking, and no private individual or com- especially in those branches most immediately applicable to
pany seems ever to have thought of introducing this useful the art of war, more was done under Mahmoud’s reign than
art as a branch of trade. The government now issues a had been accomplished under all his predecessors; yet it
state gazette, with the title of Takwimet- Tewaru (Register cannot be affirmed that the present tendency of Ottoman
of Events), which is far richer in matter than the Moniteur literature is foreign or European. It can lose but little of
Ottoman, a French weekly paper, also published at Constan- its rigid stability, so long as the constitution of the ulema
tinople. It appears weekly, and gives the most important remains unaltered.
information touching the reforms in the organization of the At Constantinople there is a great number of public li-
state and of the army ; the changes in governments, official braries. D’Ohsson estimates them at thirty-five, others at
situations, and the army list; the ships clearing inwards and fourteen or eighteen ; but no works are arranged on the
outwards; and the current prices of goods; together with shelves, or included in the catalogues, but such as are writ-
extracts from European newspapers, concerning the inci- ten in the languages of Islam, namely, Turkish, Arabic,
dents in the policy of Europe. But in the art of bulletin and Persian. If any others exist, they are thrown asideas
rhetoric, and the puff style, the Register of Events, though lumber, and left to decay; and it is believed, that with due di-
edited by the imperial historiographer, surpasses all Euro- ligence much classical literature might still be rescued from
pean newspapers. the dusty chests of the serai. There is no good reason tor
Owing to the multitude of offices connected with the law supposing that the library of the Paleeologi was destroyed
and religion, which can be filled only by those who have by the Ottoman conquerors, Mohammed II. was an ac-
been qualified by a regular course of study, the number of complished prince, the patron of letters, and versed, it if
those w ho possess the requisite elementary acquirements is said, in the Greek language. On the conquest of Constan-
very great, and the means of education are most abundant, tinople, he immediately took possession of the imperial pa-
The schools divide themselves naturally into those for cbil- lace ; why, then, should he destroy the library ? Therei»
dren, or A, B, C, schools (mekteb) ; the general instruction not only no account of its destruction, but there is positm
given at the mosques (dersi-aam) ; and in the colleges (/we- evidence of the existence of an immense quantity of nianu-
drescs); all of which have subsisted in the empire from its scripts in the Greek, Latin, and other foreign language5)
beginning, founded first at Nicaea, then at Brusa and Adria- not indeed in the library, but in the store-rooms or t e
nople, and afterwards by the conqueror at Constantinople, serai, where they perhaps remain shut up in chests,
and having been regulated and increased to a considerable Turkey is not a manufacturing country, and the Pe0P.ejure
number under his successors, especially by Suleiman the have no pretensions to compete w ith the science and cap1 ^
Lawgiver. In the children’s schools, which abound in every tal of Britain ; but their fertile territory and happy chmae
corner of the city, the master (khoja) teaches spelling, read- enable them to supply many of the materials for fore1?11
ing, and the principles of grammar and religion. In the manufacture; and these and their other agricultural pf0
mosques, again, the pupils receive general, easily intelligi- ducts they are content to raise, and to receive whatever c ^
ble, and popular instruction, upon philology and religion, be supplied cheapest and best in return. There are ne'
T U R
Jt Ipcs .heless several places distinguished for the production of
'f/—excellent manufactured articles. The carpets of Anatolia
requently combine economy and comfort in use, with ele-
rance of pattern ; while in the beauty and durability of
he colour, they are only equalled by those of Persia, which
urpass them in delicacy and costliness. The Turks, how-
ver, have never attained the art of making woollen cloths,
xcept of the coarsest kind ; but other branches of manu-
xcture are shewn to be active in the country, from the
icreased importation of cotton twist. The coarser and
lore common articles of their manufacture, such as mus-
ns, ginghams, handkerchiefs, cannot compete with those
f England ; but the finer fabrics of silk and cotton still
laintain the competition, and are likely to do so, from
! | leir superior excellence, beauty, and durability. Silk
uffs are made at Constantinople and Salonika; the bra-
;ers and ironsmiths of Shumla have carried their art to
|B real perfection ; good steel is made at Bosna-Serai, Scu-
iri, Karatova, and Constantinople ; and fire-arms at Se-
lendria, Grabora, and other places. The grand com¬
mercial principle of Turkey is unlimited freedom of trade ;
C nd though the late Sultan Mahmoud, under evil influ-
nee, endeavoured to enforce prohibitions on the export
W r import of certain articles, yet these prohibitions and
11 1 monopolies have been again abolished, and the trade
‘S’ now only limited and restricted by the extent of the
ipply and the demand. The principal articles of ex-
m ort are, horses, beeves, and swine ; tanned and raw' hides ;
ool, wine, tobacco, cotton ; currants, almonds, figs, dates,
! ^d other fruits ; olive oil, wrax, honey, opium, raw and spun
Ik, camlet, carpets, morocco leather, gall-nuts, valonia,
madder, gum-dragon, sponge, copper, alum, &c. ; while, on
1 :: >e other hand, they receive corn, and every sort of manu-
: ictured and colonial produce.
There has long been a commercial relation between Eng-
nd and iurkey; and till a recent date there existed in
• ondon a Turkey company, possessing the exclusive privi-
ge of trading to the Levant; but the trade once carried
: .ft i by the company had dwindled away, and the origin of
' | ir present trade with Turkey is but of recent date. Be-
: ire the last war between Britain and Turkey in 1807, but
vo or three British vessels proceeded annually to Cor.stan-
nople with assorted cargoes. Of these, cotton goods
inned but a small proportion ; and very few also were sent
i> Smyrna. When Malta had become a depot for our trade
i the Mediterranean, the Greeks, imbued with an almost
ituitive talent for commerce, began there to make pur-
liases of British manufactures, and sent from thence every
rriety of goods likely to suit the market, chiefly to Smyrna,
om which the capital was supplied. An English merchant
stablished a house at Constantinople in 1812, and for se-
■ Years it had the whole command of the direct trade
iti England. From that period Constantinople became
rival mart with Smyrna, which it has at length completely
"hpsedin the supply of British manufactures. The trade
| as gone on continually increasing ; and no country affords
better field for commercial enterprise. Besides the Eng-
' sh houses, there are now upwards of seventy Greek houses
He i tiade with England from Constantinople, besides a
umber of Armenians and others, and most of the French,
uistnan, and Italian merchants. About one fourth of the
nut number probably exist at Smyrna, and there are se-
cia at Salonika, and in the principal towns of Syria. Be-
1 cs English^ merchants and manufacturers engaged in
usiness with lurkey, there are eight Greek houses in Lon-
uu, wit i two branches at Manchester ; four Armenian and
Jiun, and one Anglo-Levant; in all thirteen Levantine
ms, each enjoying respectable or first rate credit. The
portion of British produce and manufactures now sent
UTr(key is one twenty-fifth of the whole quantity export-
lt is one fifth of that sent to the United States of
KEY. 427
America, one half of that to Germany, four fifths of that Statistics,
to Holland, Italy, and Brazil respectively; it exceeds by v /
one thiid the exports to Portugal and France; and the
whole to Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Prussia, and Spain
together ; it equals the amount to Russia, and nearly that
of oui North American colonies; it falls short little more
than one third of our exports to the East and West Indies,
and is double the amount to China. I he trade is now prin¬
cipally carried on by native merchants and their commission-
houses or partners in England, and is shared with English
houses ; and, consisting only of real transactions, and afford¬
ing no scope for speculation, it has been more steady and
secure than that with any other country. Goods for Persia,
however, form of late years the most valuable part of the
shipments for Constantinople, which is not only in the direct
road, but likewise offers great advantages from being an
intermediate market. From Constantinople the goods for
Persia are sent to 1 rebizond, and thence overland through
Armenia.
Previously to the convention of 16th August 1838, the
only recognised duty on imports from Britain was three
per cent.; but other duties were subsequently levied at and
after the sale of the goods imported, in a manner as op¬
pressive as the duties themselves. By the convention of
1838, the duty on imports is fixed at the same rate of three
per cent.; and in lieu of all other and interior duties, one
fixed duty of two per cent, is established, on payment of
which all goods imported may be sold and resold, with¬
out further duty or restriction. With regard to exports,
the only recognised duty was also three per cent.; but
other duties, fluctuating in their nature, and enormous in
amount, were levied, at the caprice of the authorities, on all
articles of any value, and especially on valonia, silk, oils,
and opium. By the convention of 1838, the duty on ex-
poi ts to Britain is fixed at three per cent.; all monopolies
and prohibitions are abolished; and instead of all inland
duties on goods to be exported, one fixed duty of nine per
cent, is established.
According to the last published returns, the number
of vessels that entered the port of Constantinople in
the years 1837 and 1838 was 3671 and 5625. The num¬
ber of British vessels in 1837 w'as 432, with a tonnage of
86,253; and in 1838, vessels 419, tonnage 120,860. Of
Ionian vessels the numbers were, in 1836, vessels 263, ton¬
nage 41,852; in 1838, vessels 308, tonnage 45,793. Of
the vessels of other nations the following numbers are giv¬
en, without the tonnage, of which the British consuls have
no account. In 1837, American 3, Austrian 732, Belgian
4, Danish 2, Dutch 2, French 19, Greek 832, Neapolitan
15, Prussian 5, Russian 555, Sardinian 793, Swedish 9;
total 3671. In 1838, American 3, Austrian 811, Belgian
15, Dutch 7, French 48, Greek 2228, Neapolitan 84, Rus¬
sian 570, Sardinian 866, Swedish 4, Tuscan 36 ; total 5572.
Of lurkish vessels there was no account in either year;
and of the Greek the average tonnage is stated to be very
small compared with the number of vessels, among which are
included craft of all kinds and of every size. The number of
vessels that entered the port of Adrianople in 1837 was 7,
of which 3 were British, 1 French, and 3 Greek; the port
of Salonika in 1837,329, of which 5 were British, 3 Maltese,
4 Ionian, 6 French, 15 Austrian, 2 Russian, 13 Sardinian,
243 Greek, and 38 lurkish ; the port of Smyrna in 1837,
897, whereof British 110, Ionian 20, Maltese 4, American
13, Austrian 145, Dutch 6, French 61, Greek 498, Rus¬
sian 17, Sardinian 18, Swedish 5, Turkish not known. The
number of vessels that entered the port of Trebizond in
1837 was 131, of which 31 were British, 73 Turkish, 19
Austrian, 4 Russian, and 4 Greek; tonnage, 22,349; value
of cargoes, L.l,145,471, whereof L.623,372 were those of
the British vessels.
See Foreign Review, vols. i. ii. iii. 1828, articles on Turkey
428 T U R
Turki by a Constantinopolitan Greek ; Foreign Quarterly Re-
II. view, vol. ii. 1828, article Turkey; British and Foreign
^ urnmg. Revjew^ vols. ii. iii. v. vii. 1836, 7, 8, articles on Turkey
Authori- an(^ Russia; Esquisses des Moeurs Torques au xix. siecle,
ties. par Gregoire Palaiologue, ne a Constantinople, Paris, 1828 ;
on the Geography and Geology of European Turkey, by
Dr A. Boue, in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour¬
nal, vols. xxii. xxiii. xxiv.; Ainsworth’s Researches in
Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, &c. 1838; various articles in
the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, London; Re-
T U R
view of the Othoman Literature of the Nineteenth Century, Tam
by Ritter Joseph Von Hammer, published in the Athe-^y
njeum, 1835 ; the Present State of the Turkish Empire, by
Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, &c. London, 1839;
Correspondence relative to the Continuance of Monopolies
in the Dominions of Turkey, presented to the House of
Commons, 1840 ; Tables of the Revenue, Population, Com¬
merce, &c. of the United Kingdom, part viii., 1838, from
official returns, printed 1840; Weimar Almanach fur das
Jahr 1840 ; and many others. (c. h.)
TURKI, a town of Hindustan, in the province of North
Bahar, pleasantly situated on the Bogmutty river, and for¬
merly possessed of a fort. Long. 85. E. Lat. 26. 16. N.
TURKIN, a small town of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of the Caucasus, on the Caspian, 140 miles 8.
of Astracan.
TURN-AGAIN, a low, flat, and swampy island in
Torres Strait, about three miles in length. It is sur¬
rounded with reefs, and is overrun with mangroves. Long.
140. 55. E. Lat. 9. 34. S.
Turn-again, Cape, on the east coast of New Zealand,
discovered by Captain Cook in 1769. Long. 177. 55. \V.
Lat. 40. 34. S.
TURNHOUT, a city of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of South Brabant. It is the capital of an arrondisse-
ment, which extends over 518 square miles, is divided into
six cantons and 48 communes, with 76,800 inhabitants.
The city is in the district called the Campine, and is a
place of active manufacturing industry, especially in pro¬
ducing thread-lace and linen goods of the best kind. It
has, besides, several breweries, distilleries, bleacheries, and
snuff-mills. The inhabitants are about 11,000.
TURNING, the art of giving circular and other forms
to objects, by making them revolve in various manners in
a machine called a lathe, and applying cutting instruments
so as to produce the form required ; or by making the
cutting instrument revolve, when the object to be operated
upon is fixed.
This art is of great antiquity, and is of immense import¬
ance to the practical mechanic. It embraces many varieties,
requiring varied machinery for their proper performance,
from the simple throwing wheel of the potter to the com¬
plicated and nearly automatic slide-lathe, in which, almost
independent of manual dexterity, an indefinite number of
copies of an article can be produced with unerring ac¬
curacy.
There is probably, in the range of mechanical opera¬
tion, none susceptible of greater accuracy than the art
of turning, and there is none which has so much condu¬
ced to the improvement of our machinery. The extent
of the applications of this art may be learned by the four fol¬
lowing conditions, which comprise the most important of its
varieties. A knowledge of the manipulations no mere de¬
scription can convey; and as, in the limits here assigned us,
it would be impossible to describe all the varieties of the
art, and the machines made use of, we shall content our¬
selves with such a selection as may appear to us to possess
the greatest interest for the general reader.
1st. The article to be turned may be made to revolve
round its own axis, and the cutting tool applied to its sur¬
face, so as to produce the requisite form, as in simple turn¬
ing, performed in the ordinary lathe used by cabinet-turners ;
the more powerful lathe used for turning metal of large
diameter ; and the self-acting slide-lathe.
2d. The article may remain stationary, while the cutting
instrument either merely revolves, or, while revolving, haj
at the same time some ether motion given to it.
3d. The article may be made to move in some curve de¬
rived from circular motion, and the cutting tool applied as
before.
4th. The article may be made to revolve, and at the same
time to have a reciprocating motion in the direction of its
axis, the cutting instrument being only applied, however,
while the article is either in the course of its forward or
backward motion, but its application not continued through
both ; and all these motions may be more or Jess combined,
thus producing almost infinite variety.
The self-acting slide-lathe being the most perfect of the ma¬
chines of the first class, we have preferred giving a drawing ami
description of it; from these, the oilier lathes referred to will be
more easily understood than if we had described a less perfect
machine. The lathe, when of large size, is generally driven by
steam or other power; but when small it is driven by a treadle
put in motion by the foot of the workman. The treadle acts on
a cranked axle, on which is fixed a fly-wheel; and a band from
the fly-wheel passes over the pulley of the mandril or spindle, to
which the article to be turned is attached. This is generally the
arrangement of the common lathe, which differs from the slide-
lathe only in wanting the slide and its moving apparatus, which
we are about to describe, and has in place of it a simple rest to
work by hand.
The following figures represent the slide-lathe as constructed
by Messrs Whitworth & Company of Manchester, and exhibit
certain contrivances which have been patented by these gentle¬
men.
Fig. 1.
Fig. lisa front view ; fig. 2 a view of the left-hand emfi
and fig. 3 a section across the lathe. The same letters re
TURNING.
. he same parts in all the figures. A A is a strong framing, which
,1 ' upports the bed of the lathe I? B. At the left-hand extremity of
f ” he bed is fixed the head C C, and through steel bushes in the
plights, or puppets as they are termed, the spindle or mandril
) works; the projecting right hand end of the mandril is screwed,
a that chucks and other apparatus for holding the work to be
urned may be attached to it. One of these, the double driver, will
e found figured and described afterwards. In brackets projecting
ackwards from the uprights another spindle E works. One of the
rackets and the end of the spindle are seen in fig. 2. On the main
undle I) there is a conical pulley F, carrying a pinion on its smal-
rend; the pulley with its pinion turns on the sjnndle, but in-
ipendently of it. To the right of the pulley is a spur-wheel H,
wed on the spindle; to this spur-wheel the pulley can be
eked at pleasure, so as to be carried round along with it. On
e spindle E is a spur-wheel G and a pinion, which cannot he
en in the drawing. These are fitted respectively to gear with
e spur wheel and pulley-pinion of the main spindle. Different
aterials require to pass the cutting tool with different degrees
rapidity, in order to be efficiently operated upon. Cast iron
quires to revolve slowly, so that it may come in contact with
e cutting tool at the rate of about 100 feet per minute; wrought
m and steel about twice as quick ; and brass is better cut at a
11 higher velocity. Thus, it is required that provision be made
1 the lathe for altering the speed, independently of the velocity
the prime mover. It is obvious, too, that the same material
ist require a change in the speed of the lathe, according to its
ameter, that a uniform rate of speed may be maintained by its
i rface. This alteration in the velocity of the spindle or mandril
produced by the pulley and wheels we have just described, in
ip following manner-When the belt from the prime mover, act¬
ion the pulley F, causes it to revolve, if a slow motion be required,
1p pinion of the pulley is made to gear with the spur-wheel I
1 the spindle E; and the pinion fixed on the same spindle gear-
:g into the spur-wheel H of the main spindle D, causes it to
;olve with a motion slow as compared with the speed of the
-Hey. If a higher velocity be required, the wheel and pinion
• the spindle E are put out of gear with the pinion and wheel of
t ? main spindle by sliding the spindle E a little to the left hand,
. d then locking together the pulley and spur-wheel II, so as to
Gse the main spindle to turn directly by the pulley.
1 lie face of the spur-wheel II has drawn on it a great number of
• icentric circles. 1 he circumference of each circle is divided into
' lal parts, and such numbers are chosen for the division as are mul-
les of the greatest variety of measures ; at each division of the
1 cles there is pierced a hole, into which a point is pressed by
; PnnS- II,y means of this apparatus, an object in the lathe can
' If8 surface divided into any number of equal parts. On the
i 1 of the main spindle is fixed a pinion K, which, by the inter-
ntion of the stud-wheels and pinion L, drives the spur-wheel
, hxed on the end of a screw N, which extends along the whole
gth of the lathe, and is called the leading screw. The ends of
l' leading screws and main spindle are made accurately of the
t ie size, so that the wheels and pinions which have for differ-
• - purposes to be fixed on them may he exchangeable. On the
] 1,;, ?a” . side of tlle la.the ^ seen the shifting-head or puppet
• iV i 'i caPaHIe being shifted along to any part of the bed,
• tixed there, and which carries the centre pin." This is adjusted
re nicely to its work by means of a screw turned bv the
eel i, and it is fixed by the clamping screw Q. The slide-rest
Msts ot an upper and an under slide: the latter lies across the
sinif'1 nlove(i all)ng it lengthways by means of the leading
-v. the upper slide can move at right angles to the under
429
Fig'. 5.
! , and carries the cutting tools: the manner in which the
- aie moved by the leading screw is, in this lathe, very in-
g i ous. I rom the under slide there descends a short vertical
e’ carr.vmg. on its lower extremity a peculiarly-formed
1 ip!! tL i C • IS constantly in gear with the leading screw.
I pr J16 leading screw is in motion and the pinion fixed, the
a ),r r'l,lt °r female screw, and the slide is moved
r /hPt bed,of ^le latlle t0 lhe right or to the left as the screw
f >d a , tlle yi,Iier end of the vertical spindle there is
c ise, ti ' le[. 'V leel ^ into this a pinion c works, whose spindle
Fimrrp ^ i e’am llas a handle d fixed to it. On the slide
h lairie/if e.i °ne ?r other extremity of the bed of the lathe, it may
j s ^ 0 u-'ether by reversing the motion of the screw ; but
ion n d<1,fle I;y turning the handle d which turns the
Hie nn IK S?- !he S lde is carried aIong very rapidly.
Mnionpk. 1®18 ni°ve<l across the bed of the lathe as follows :
i ndle iofl . "<,)rks int0 ihe mitred wheel of the vertical
ftd the w)", °n a •/*’ 011 "hose other end is
<! ofalpnrr'6 g ’ 'b'8 gears into another wheel 7t, fixed on the
^ means nf1I g sclew’ w’hich crosses the main leading screw, and,
an apparatus similar to that above described, causes
Ihe upper slide to move at right angles to the under one. In Turning,
fig. 3 the under slide is represented as fixed in its position by V~L
means of a clamp, whose handle is seen at Ic in fig. 1, and the
main leading screw is, by means of the pinion a, the mitred
wheel b, and the pinion and wheels e, g, h, working the cross lead¬
ing screw of the upper slide, by which it is moved across the bed
of the lathe.
In plain cylindrical turning, the motion of the slide is so ad¬
justed in relation to the motion of the article operated upon, that
the cutter carried by the slide shall not move over a space treater
than the breadth of its point in the time that the article^makes
one revolution. In screw-turning, the cutter again is made to
travel over a space as much greater than the breadth of its point
during one revolution of the spindle, as the pitch of the screw re¬
quires. The requisite changes in the motion are effected by
changing the wheels on the ends of the main spindle and the lead¬
ing screw.
On the mandril nose Fig. 4.
there is represented, in fig.
1, what is called a double
driver, and we here give
the details of an excellent
apparatus of this kind, in¬
vented by Mr Joseph Cle¬
ment of London, by which
an article can be fixed per¬
fectly true between the
centres of the lathe. The
figures and description are
from the Transactions of the Society of Arts ofLondon, vol. xlvii.
“ Fig. 4 is a side or edge view of the chuck ; and fig. 5 is a face
or front view. The same letters refer to the same part in both
views.
“ a a is a circular plate or chuck, on the back of which is formed
a boss l: the boss b contains a female screw for screwing it on the
nose of the lathe-mandril. On the face of the chuck or plate a a,
and in the middle, is screwed a conical centre c, on which is sup¬
ported one end of the thing to be turned, as shewn at d in fig. 4.
e e is a parallel plate in the form of a cross, one side of which is
fitted to the face of the chuck a a ; in the middle of the horizon¬
tal arms of the plate e e are two oblong holes ff as represented
by the dotted lines in fig. 5 ; gg are two screws which pass through
the holes//, and screw into the face of the chuck a a ; the necks of
the screwsg-g-are made to fit the holes//in one direction, but the
plate e e is at liberty to slide to and fro beneath the heads of the
screws gg in the contrary direction : there are also thin washers
beneath the heads of the screws gg, which act as springs, and
tend to hold the plate ee in the situation wherever it may be slid
to; there is also an oblong hole in the middle of the plate ee,
through which projects the centre c : in the vertical arms of the
cross or plate e e are six screwed holes ; h and i are two studs or
drivers, which may be screwed into any of the holes marked j, so
as to accommodate the lengtii of the ends of the carrier k. There
is a face view of the carrier k, represented in its place (by dotted
lines on the face of the plate, e e, fig. S). The ends of the carrier
are acting against the studs h and i.
“ Supposing a piece of metal d, to be supported between the cen¬
tre c of the chuck a a and the centre of the puppet-head of the lathe,
and the carrier h to be fixed on one end of it, as shewn in fig. 4 ;
let the plate e e (see fig, 5) be slid on the face of the chuck a a, a
little towards the left hand; then the stud /i will cause the upper
end of the carrier /i to move or turn in the same direction upon the
centre c. But the stud i, and the lower end of the carrier k, will be
moved in contrary directions, and will be separated from each other
double the distance that the plate e c has slid on the face of the
chuck a a ; therefore, should the plate ce be in the above position,
and the lathe put in motion, so as to turn the plate a a round to¬
wards the left hand, the stud or driver h would he the first that would
come in contact with the carrier A:. But when the turning-tool is ap¬
plied to the thing to be turned, or any resistance which tends to
prevent it from turning round, the carrier k will cause the upper
stud h and the plate ee, together with the stud i, to be slid to¬
wards the left hand till the stud i comes in contact with tho lower
end of the carrier k; then the studs or drivers // and i will he act¬
ing with equal force against the ends of the carrier k, which will
remove the greatest part of the twist or strain from the cen¬
tre e of the chuck a a, by which means any slender cylinder, &c.
may be turned more perfectly than can be done by a single driver.
If another stud be screwed into one of the holes opposite the dri¬
vers h or i, it will prevent the thing to be turned from overrun¬
ning itself, or back-lashing, when it has got a heavy side. The dri¬
vers h and i may be made of different lengths, as may be found
most convenient ”
When it is required to replace in the lathe an article whose
Drilling
apparatus,
Rosette
turning.
turning.
centres have been lost, a simple apparatus, called a boring collar,
is made use of. It consists of a puppet, capable of being fixed
on the bed of the lathe, in the same manner as the puppet O, fig.
1, and as a substitute for it. On the right-hand side of this is
fixed, by a bolt through its centre, a disc of cast iron, which has
been turned perfectly flat, and which is of as large diameter as
the height of the puppet above the bed will admit. On this (list-a
circle is traced, the highest point of it being exactly level with the
centre of the mandril; and all round the circle are bored holes,
varyin" in their dimensions, to suit the different sizes of the
object^which require to be centred. The disc moving round on
the bolt bv which it is attached to the puppet, the hole suitable
for the article to be centred is turned uppermost, so as to be on a
line with the mandril, and the disc is then fixed in that posi¬
tion bv another bolt or pin, which is passed into a hole m the
punnet below the centre, through one of another inner series of
holes in the plate, which correspond to those above described.
The slide-lathe which we have described is one well adapted for
the machinist; but for particular uses, certain modifications are made
in the apparatus ; of these we shall immediately speak. In the
mean time we mav observe, that a very useful arrangement of the
slide-lathe has been made by Mr C. D. May of Edinburgh. In
his lathe the slide works, not on the top of the bed, but along its
face ; it thus can pass from end to end clear of the puppets, and
the lathe can at once be converted into an ordinary one to work
bv hand, by moving the slide to the right-hand extremity of the
lathe, clear of the shifting puppet, and applying the ordinary rest
to work by hand. This lathe is very neat, is simple in construc¬
tion, and occupies little space.
The modifications in the slide-rest are as follows: The upper
slide, in place of being able to move at right angles only to the
lower rest, may have other motions given to it. It may be made
to turn round on a centre, and, by an index and graduated arc,
may be set at any angle to the axis of the mandril. In this way
it is used for turning conical work. The rest may be made, too,
to receive cutting instruments, to which circular motion may be
given, while the article operated upon remains stationary, as
mentioned in the second division of the subject.
In this case a frame is added to the lathe, consisting of two
uprights, one at each end, carrying a series of pulleys put in
motion bv bells from the fly-wheel, and which again, by means of
a band, give motion to a pulley fixed on the end of a revolving
cutter, carried by the slide. It will at once be seen, that when an
article is held in a chuck on the end of the mandril, and turned
round, so as, by means of the divided circles on the spur-wheel
face, to present any number of sides to the action of the revolving
cutter, and when the cutter itself can, by means of the double
slides and turning motion, be set in almost any position relative to
the work, the variety of uses of which this arrangement is sus¬
ceptible is almost infinite. Holes may be bored with it radiating
from the axis of a cylinder, as for the spokes of a wheel: they may
be bored in a straight line, or in a helical line; continuous grooves
may be formed in any direction. By using proper cutters, any
of the geometrical solids may be formed in the lathe. A very
obvious application of this apparatus is to the cutting of the teeth
of wEeels, either direct or oblique. Suppose that it is required
to cut a wheel of ninety teeth ; a circle in the dividing plate on
the face of the spur-wheel, containing ninety holes, or any mul¬
tiple of that number, is selected, and the spring pointer being
fixed in the first hole, a proper cutter, fixed on a vertical spindle,
is made to act on the wheel, and to cut out the first tooth to the
proper depth : it is then withdrawn, and the mandril is turned
round until the pointer falls into the second hole of the dividing
plate; the cutter is again applied for the second tooth, and so on
successively for all of them. In what we have described we have
supposed the work to be fixed to the mandril of the lathe, and the
cutting instruments attached to the slide; but the case may be
reversed, and thence arises a new variety of applications. A cir¬
cular saw being fixed on the mandril, an article held in the slide-
rest may be presented to it, so as to be cut in any plane. Large
drills, too, may be carried by the mandril, and the work to be
bored fixed to the slide.
To the other varieties of the art the term of ornamental turning
or engine-turning is generally applied. Among these are rosette
turning, eccentric turning, elliptic turning, epicycloidal turning,
and spiral turning. The lathe for the first of these has this peculiari¬
ty. The head on the left, in place of being fixed firm on the bed,
stands between centres parallel to the spindle at the level of the bed.
It is kept in its proper position by the adjusted pressure of four
springs, one of which is fixed at each side of the front and back pup¬
pet. On the spindles are fixed the rosettes, from which the lathe
derives its peculiar motion. These rosettes consist of wheels, discs,
or portions of cylinders, having their surface indented in various
forms. Eixed parallel to the spindle, but at a lower level, is the bar
on which the rubbing apparatus is fixed ; the rubber, being placed T
in contact with one of the rosettes, and incapable of yielding to the
inequalities of its surface, forces the spindle on which the rosettes
are placed, and consequently the article operated on, to move in
various regular curves, as the indentations on the rosette guide
them. The rosette may be applied to elliptical turning by
using a proper chuck, as described under that head. For ver.
tical waved lines, a pinion is fixed on the head of the spindle
working a rack attached to a vertical slide fixed in the front
>V Wl IV il J ** ■* MV.M.       - —    
puppet; to counterbalance the slide, a cord is attached to its
top, passed over a pulley above, and attached to a weight at its
other extremity ; thus the pinion is relieved from unnecessary
friction.
In eccentric turning, an eccentric chuck is used. This consistsECC(
of a solid circular plate, which is fixed to the mandril of the lathe.tum
On the face of the plate are fixed two guides, so as to form a
dovetailed slide for another plate, which is moved by a screw sunk
in a slot in the under plate. On the upper plate is a circular
toothed plate, which is capable of being turned round its centre,
and is retained in any position by a catch, which falls between its
teeth, and is held by a spring. On the centre of this wheel is
fixed a screw similar to that on the nose of the mandril, and to this
is chucked the work to be turned. The first plate moves, of
course, concentric with the spindle of the lathe; but the slide, with
its circular plate, can be moved so that the work revolves with
any degree of eccentricity required.
Epicycloidal turning is another beautiful variety of the art. Epii
Like eccentric turning, this is performed by a chuck peculiarly dalt ^
formed, but so complicated as to be totally unintelligible with¬
out the aid of numerous figures; we are under the necessity,
therefore, of referring the reader to the works quoted at the end
of the article for a full explanation of it. In Bergeron’s work, he
will find beautiful engravings of the apparatus for this and the
other varieties of ornamental turning, with minute descriptions.
Elliptic turning will be found described under that title.
The lathe for spiral turning is constructed as follows. On a shaft Spii
lying above the bed are three drums, or large wheels, with broadtiin
rims, that on the extreme left being smaller than the other two. To
the circumference of the lat ter is attached a cord, which is stretched
tight to the end of a strong elastic beam or spring fixed at the
roof. On the bed, beneath this drum, is the fixed head, which con-
sists of two puppets fixed at about two and a half feet asunder. In
the top of each puppet is fixed a brass bush, in which the spindle,
which is perfectly cylindrical, moves as directed by the leading
screw, consisting of a cylinder of wood, firmly fixed on the spin-
die between the two puppets, on which is grooved out a screw
of the same pitch as that required to be made. This is effected
by placing beneath, and close to the cylinder, a wheel having
a thin, round, or pointed edge, and turning on centres in a tork-
ed frame, after the manner of a framed pulley. The frame of
this wheel is fixed on a stiff centre, so as to be capable ot
being set to any angle. If the spindle be then caused to re-
volve, it will also move in a longitudinal direction, in exact pro-
portion to the divergence from a right angle, at which the wheel
is set, and there will be traced on the cy Under a screw, which,ien
cut to fit the edge of the wheel, is a leading screw. These leading
screws may be multiplied indefinitely, by shifting the wheel to
different angles, to mark any number of cylinders or leading screws
that may be required. On the spindle at the front of the leaihn»
screw is a wooden pulley, round which passes the cor w ic
comes down from the large drum on the left; it then passes do
and is fixed to the left" corner of the treadle, the other en
which is raised by a cord passing straight from its extremi y
the large drum on the other end ot the shaft. By pressing i
the treadle, the cord, which, as before remarked, passesr0UI?1..
pulley on the spindle, causes it to revolve; it also, by unwin
from the drums, causes them and their shaft to revo ve,
smaller drum, as it revolves, warps round it the co. a , .
to the spring in the roof, thereby bending it. It is evldent , ’
whenever the pressure of the toot on the treadle is rfITI?. . Lu
elasticity of the spring will cause it to pull off th0 cord w ^
it down, and cause the small drum round which ie. . -
wound, and the other drums, and the spindle,t0 r®v0 vel.i
posite direction to that caused by the descent of the treaa • ^
The shifting head consists of two puppets a”,.a s'’ „ \.ai
same as that just described for the fixed head. Solid ° „ ,
same as mat ]usi uescnoeu ior me njveu . . cxe(|(
of each spindle is a socket or hollow cylinder, in whlL" ‘ one
by means of a side-screw or otherwise, a strong taper sc •
tie-screw or otherwise, a sirung tQ ^
of these screws is inserted into each end of the piece o jn
turned. The rest has a groove, through which the too 1 jt
order to prevent the longitudinal^motion ^fromj '^P aj^ pro(juced
uruer lu picvtriit me    * Kp nrodUCeu
is evident that no more length of twisted work L'a , .Ln„the
at once than the length of the leading screw; but y etor
rest, and taking care that the cuts join accurately,
Id
ay
T U R
jron ;crew may be continued to any desired length. By means of this
athe, every variety of twisted work can be produced.
The reciprocating motion of the spindle may be varied by the
rtle ntroduction of other apparatus for its introduction than the screw
u,,], se have described. By means of elliptical or other rubbers placed
j t the extremity of the spindle, singular compound motions are
"reduced; and when with these are combined rubbers to cause
iteral motion, as in the rosette lathe, an immense variety of
eautiful and fanciful figures is the result.
For full information on lathes and turning, the reader may con-
ilt the 'I ransactions of the various societies, and the following
orbs: L’Art de Tourner, par Charles Plumier, Lyons, 1701 :
’Art de Tourner, par Paulin Desormeux, Paris, 1H24 ; Manuel
1 Tourneur, par Bergeron, Paris, 1816; Ibbetson’s Specimens
Eccentric Circular Turning.
TURON Bay, a fine bay of Cochin-China, on which is
:uated Faifo, the capital and principal seat of commerce
the country. The adjacent district is remarkably fer-
e and beautiful. The channel into this bay is round the
irth-east end of the Hansan peninsula, having an island
the north. All the coast is safe to approach, the water
maling gradually from twenty to seven fathoms. Cape
jiiron, in long. 108° 15' east, and lat. 16° 5' north, forms its
, stern extremity, in which Turon Island, situated six miles
the north, makes an excellent harbour, where vessels are
teltered from all winds. At the southern extremity of this
i rbour is the mouth of the river which leads to the city of
iron. It is about 200 yards wide, with about two fathoms
tpth. The town of Turon stands about a mile above the
nuth of the river, and, as well as the peninsula, harbour,
sd river, is named by the natives Hansan. The houses
' >ich it contains are low, and mostly built of bamboos. The
1 .ns of some better houses are still visible. The port was an-
^ntly the chief mart for the trade of Cochin-China with
13 Chinese empire and Japan ; but prior to 1793, when
i ivas visited by Lord Macartney, the city of Turon had
f fered greatly by civil wars, and was surrounded by ex-
t isive masses of ruins. The vessels that resort thither
a|! either junks from different parts of China, or craft be-
1 sging to the Portuguese of Macao.
1 URPENTINE, a transparent viscous substance, flow-
1 either naturally or bv incision from several resinous
tt es.
• ’.a sma^ thriving and industrious town
1 Aberdeenshire. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle
: ent on the right bank of a branch of the river Deveron,
t ity-four and a half miles from Aberdeen. It was erected
1 o a free borough of barony in the year 1511, by James
J. Hus town possesses manufactures of linen yarn, thread,
< brown linen ; and there is also a large bleachfield. In
: htion to the fine old parish church, which is not now
1 'd, there is a new and handsome one. There is also an
(scopal chapel; and the earl of Errol has endowed a free
s ool. The population amounted in 1821 to 750, and in
J11 to 1136.
a consi^crafile city of Persia, in the pro-
Yce ot Khorassan, situated on the verge of the Salt De-
j • here is an old city, Sultanabad, which is small;
a new one has been added, in which the governor and
n ^"on'nnn °^CerS res'^e ’ anc^ ^le tvvo cities contain
I T y ^U’UilO inhabitants, among whom are 100 Hindu
Hies, Ihe chief imports are indigo and other drugs
tn tlie west, and wool, cloth, and rice from Herat. The
e^P°lrt 1S iron- The small quantity of European
s are Usec^ i® brought from Mazanderan. Tur-
ez is 160 miles west-north-west of Herat. The inter-
T U S 431
TURUCHANSK, or Mangasea, a town of Asiatic Turu-
Itussia, on the Yenisei, the smallest and most northerly of chansk
all the Siberian towns which bear the name of a city It H
derives its name Mangasea from a magazine having been Tuscany-
originally built, in 1601, for the collection of the furs paid    
in tribute to Russia. It wasremoved from the river Taz, where
it was first placed, to the mouth of the Turuchan, and re¬
ceived the name of that river. The houses do not amount
to more than 100, and are built in the most scattered man-
ner. I he principal part of the town consists in a little fort
built of wood, and defended by four small pieces of artil-
lery. The tiade consists entirely in furs, which are ex¬
changed for all sorts of merchandise. Most of the inhabi¬
tants are Cossacs, whose services are required to overawe
the wild inhabitants of the neighbouring regions. The
ground is barren, but the water-fowl in summer are innu¬
merable. Long. 88. 44. E. Lat. 65. 40. N. The river
Turuchan, on which the above town is situated, rises in
the district of Turuchansk, and after a course of 200 miles,
falls into the Yenisei near Turuchansk.
1USCAN Order, in Architecture. See Architec¬
ture.
. TUSCANY, a grand duchy in Italy, said to have de¬
rived the name from a King I uscus, who in remote ages
ruled Etruria. It extends in north latitude from 42° 5' 20"
to 44° 3P 10", and in east longitude from 9° 32' 25" to
11° 4' 35'/. It is bounded on the north-west by Lucca and
Modena; on the north-east, east, and south-east, by the
states of the church; and on the south-west and west by
the Mediterranean Sea. Besides what is contained within
these boundaries, its territory includes, on the north, the
vicariate of Pietra Santa, surrounded by the dominions of
Modena, Parma, Genoa, and Lucca. It also possesses
the islands of Elba, Pianosa, Palmajola, Gorgona, Giglio,
Montechristo, Melora, Formiche, and Gianuti. It compre¬
hends 8494 square miles, or about 5,500,000 acres. It is
divided into five departments:
Departments. Cities. Towns. Villages. Inhabitants
Florence  12   55   958   596,258’
Pisa  5   19   537   295,649
Sienna  6   22   212   128,095
Aretino  10   32   596   201,292
Groseto  3   6   187   53,736
36
134
2517 1,275,030
By a later enumeration, in 1833, the whole number of
inhabitants was found to be 1,320,500. They all adhere to
the Roman Catholic church, with the exception of 9300
Jews, mostly in Leghorn, who are fully tolerated, and a
few German, English, and other Protestants, in the com¬
mercial places. The ecclesiastical establishment is numer¬
ous and expensive, there being three archbishops, 16
bishops, and 10,000 secular clergy, with 96 monasteries
and 67 nunneries, whose members'are 6750. The whole
revenue of the church, including the regular and the secu¬
lar, is estimated to amount to a very large sum.
The cities of Tuscany, of more than 10,000 inhabitants,
are the following:
Cities. Population.
Pisa  20,000
Patro  10,000
18 wild* mountainous, and uncultivated.
R 1 RiL Isi^ANTT. fl email iclnv-t/-] i^ T? —    C
1 ^‘AND’ a small island in the Eastern Seas.
"gj3~ Pat’ 6* 35. S. Of the same name, there
1 je.r srna island in the South Pacific Ocean, sur-
15o!s Tireef-of coral rocks: Long-177‘ 37- W- Lat-
c ) 1' f ,frTe *s a caPe °f t^'s name on the south coast
•'* liland J^va. Long. 109. 58. E. Lat. 7. 42. S.
Cities. Population.
Florence  78,900
Leghorn  50,550
Sienna  24,500
Ihe Apennine Mountains cover about one third of theF f ,
duchy, entering it at the north-west part, and extending country,
into the papal dominions, throwing out various branches.
Ihe loftiest points of the range are the Boscolengo, 4178
feet in height; the top of Vernina, 3914 feet; the top of
Sasso-Eismore, 3798 feet; and Monte Raticosa del Pietra-
mala, 2719 feet. The Yale of Arno, which comprehends
one sixth of the duchy, is a basin formed by the mountains;
432
T U S
TUT
Tuscany.
Apricul-
tui'o.
Fisheries.
Manufac¬
tures and
trade.
and of this vale Florence is nearly in the centre. W hile t ie
upper part is narrow, its breadth extends as it approaches the
sea, where it forms a wide and level plain, highly unf'avoui ab e
to the health of the inhabitants. This district, however,
called the Maremma, is very fruitful in grass,_ and feeds
abundance of cattle. The river Arno, the chief stream,
which receives most of the others, is navigable for boats to
Florence ; but its chief utility is of a very different kind,
and it is diverted into hundreds of channels, for the pur¬
pose of watering the fields and gardens. The climate
is as different as the face of the country. The Vale of
Arno, which includes most of the department of Florence,
though only one fourth of the extent, contains half the inha¬
bitants of tiie duchy, and is generally healthy, and the wea¬
ther mild. On the mountains the snow lies many weeks,
and the cold is severe. In the marshy districts, which
comprehend nearly one half of the extent, the fevers are
constant, and it is only in winter that the herdsmen are in¬
duced to resort to them.
In the Vale of Arno the land is admirably cultivated. It
is commonly divided into small tenements, from four to ten
acres each; eight or ten of which combine to keep a team
of oxen among them, and each has commonly a small
liorsc and some cows, besides a few calves. They are
on the Metaver system, paying rent by a portion (com¬
monly one half) of the produce. The corn chiefly consists
of wheat, but barley and oats are extensively grown on the
Apennines ; in some parts a large quantity of maize, and in
others of rice; and besides these, pease and beans of vaiious
kinds. Chestnuts are used as a substitute for bread by the
greater part of the rural inhabitants. From 800,000 to
] ,000,000 bushels of this food are computed to be annually
obtained and consumed. In years of average productiveness,
the corn raised is about equal to the consumption ; but in
deficient seasons, wheat is required, which Leghorn can
commonly supply by importations from the Black Sea and
the Sea of Azoph. The unhealthy marshes feed about
400,000 sheep, 30,000 horses, and a multitude of cows and
goats. Fruits are abundant, and citrons, pomegranates,
figs, and almonds are articles of export. An ample supply
of culinary vegetables is always raised. Large quantities
of both red and white wine are made ; and though not much
esteemed by foreigners, some of the best of the former is
exported, mostly in flasks. Olive oil is an extensive object
of industry. Much of it is converted into soap or consumed
at home; but that of the best quality is exported to distant
countries, it is said to the amount of more than 700,000
gallons. The whole of the silk produced does not exceed
200,000 pounds weight, and it is all consumed at home in
manufactures. Some flax is raised ; but that used for mak¬
ing the finest linen is imported from foreign countries.
The breed of sheep has been of late years increased by
crosses with Merinos, and now the wool is of moderate fine¬
ness. The greater part is used at home, but some portion
is exported.
The fisheries are carried on extensively on the shores of
the continent, as well as from the islands. T he tunny
fishery has establishments in and near Leghorn and in Elba;
while that for anchovies is conducted chiefly from the
islands, particularly from Gorgona, the celebrity of whose
curing is known in all parts of the world.
There is a variety of manufactures, but they are chiefly
carried on at Florence or Leghorn. One which employs many
hands, that of straw-plait for hats, is indeed dispersed in all
the villages. Cloth of linen and woollen, silks of different
kinds, hosiery, hats, and carpets, and some ironmongery,
are made for home use. The chief manufacture for foreign
trade is paper, which employs 80 mills. There are skilful
makers of soap, perfumery, essences, porcelain, coral ar¬
ticles, lamps, glass, alum, vitriol, Florentine wax, marble
and alabaster figures, and carriages. These, with the pro¬
ducts of agriculture, form the trade of Leghorn, and enable Title
the duchy to procure from foreign countries the several^
articles which they need.
The revenues of the duchy arise partly from a land-tax, RevJ
partly from taxes on exports, from stamps, from a lottery,an*«
from farming tobacco, from the mines and salt-works, and the dlt“r'
public domains. They amount to 16,000,000 francs. Theex-
penditure, which is 100,000 francs less, defrays the communal
and departmental expense of the poor, of hospitals, bridges,
and roads, as well as of the military, civil, and judicial de¬
partments. The national debt is in a gradual course of
extinction, having, since the peace, been reduced from
L.5,000,000 to L. 1,500,000 sterling. The army consists
of 5500 men, besides a militia, which can be called out
when it is wanted. The naval force is three corvettes and
two gun-boats.
The government is an hereditary unmixed monarchy, in Gov
a junior branch of the imperial house of Austria; and after*
the death of Maria Louisa, the widow of Bonaparte, the
duchy of Lucca will be united with Tuscany.
After the fall of the western Roman empire, in 476, the His
Ostrogoths obtained dominion over Tuscany. They were
succeeded by the Greeks for a short time, and afterwards by
the Lombards. It then assumed its present name, having be¬
fore been generally called Etruria; and was constituted a
feudal dukedom under the supreme government of the kings
of Lombardy. When Charlemagne established his empire,
Tuscany was ruled as one of its provinces. Under Louis the
Pious, it was divided into several districts, under the au¬
thority of nobles appointed by him. Some of these called
themselves margraves and some dukes, but all of them
managed to render the dignity hereditary in their seve¬
ral families. In 1160 the emperor Frederick the First ob¬
tained the whole of Tuscany by purchase from the Guelphs,
who were then dukes of Bavaria. The cities on this occa¬
sion strove to obtain independence- Florence, the capital,
which assumed the lead, combined with several other cities
against the authority of the empire ; but Pisa, with a few
other cities, adhered to that authority, and in 1197 formed
a league to maintain it. These opposite leagues gave rise
to civil wars between the two parties called the Guelphs
and Gibbelines,by which Tuscany was wasted duringnearly
300 years. Sienna had become an independent and
flourishing state from the middle of the thirteenth cenain,
but the theatre of contests between the nobles and the
citizens. Similar contests arose in Florence, where the
family of the Medici, who had gained vast wealth by trade
chiefly with the eastern countries, obtained the supreme
authority in 1434, and maintained it during three cen¬
turies. Florence subdued Pisa in 1509, and Sienna m
1557. This was the period when Florence established it¬
self as the nurse of literature and of the fine arts, and co -
lected within its territory the greatest men of the age.
Tuscany continued under the power of the family o tie
Medici till 1737, with the name of a dukedom. Giovanni
Gasto de’ Medici then dying without heirs, was, in c°nse'
quence of a settlement by Cosmo de’ Medici in 156 , sue
ceeded by Francis duke of Lorraine, who afterwards becam
emperor of Germany. Tuscany was then governed y
house of Austria, till, in the revolutionary war of franc ,
it was seized by that power, and received from .
the rank of a kingdom, with its ancient name Etruria,
settlement was but temporary, to favour a delusive a^
ment with the king of Spain, whose daughter was proin
the sovereignty; and at length, when Bonaparte e P
restored to the family of Austria, who continue to ru
Tuscany has been celebrated for the illustrious
it has produced, particularly, besides the Medici, >
Petrarca, Galileo, Macchiavelli, Leonardo da Vine,
Michel Angelo. . oast
TUTICORIN, a town of Hindustan, on the sea-c
'i* tor
T W E
f the province Tinnevelly, where is a pearl fishery, though
ie pearls sire not. so valuable as those found on the sea-
sast of Ceylon, in the bay of Condatchy, being stained
ith a Woe or greenish tinge. Here the Dutch formerly
. .ad a factory. It was taken from them during the last
ar, and was restored in 1818. Long. 78. 23. E. Lat.
!, 54. N.
TUTOR, in Law, is one chosen to look to the persons
id estates of children left by their fathers and mothers in
eir minority.
TUZLA,atown of Caramania, in Asiatic Turkey, situated
an elevated plain in the interior, at the western extre-
ity of a chain of salt-lakes, twenty-eight miles north of
onieh.
TWEED, the fourth river in Scotland for size, and the
mndary between England and Scotland, from Carham burn,
its south side, six miles above Coldstream, till it falls
to the German Ocean at Berwick. It takes its rise in the
■per part of the parish of Tweedsmuir, in the county of
;ebles, at the foot of a hill called Tweed Well, and flows
ij a north-easterly direction, having its waters augmented
I the numerous small streams which descend from this hilly
ntrict. Three miles above Peebles it is joined by the
' ne, which issues from the confines of Edinburghshire;
id here it takes an easterly bend, which it maintains dur-
i' the rest of its course. Two miles farther down it
reives the Manor, and at Peebles the Eddlestone. By
tjse accessions it is now a considerable stream; and al-
augh only thirty miles from its source, it has in that dis-
ice fallen 1000 feet, being two thirds of its descent in a
urse from eighty-five to ninety miles. In its progress
vards Selkirkshire, it receives additional strength from
e Yairand the Leithen. It is next joined on the right
the united waters of the Yarrow and the Ettrick ; and,
er passing Abbotsford, it receives the Gala on the left,
d enters Roxburghshire. During its progress to Kelso,
passes the celebrated ruins of Melrose Abbey, as well
those of Dryburgh, in which are deposited the remains
Sir Walter Scott. The Leader falls into it below Dry-
ange, and is the only stream which it receives till it is
ited to that of the Teviot. From the volume of water
ded by the Teviot, the Tweed is almost doubled in size ;
d as it flows majestically down Berwickshire, it receives
its way the waters of the Eden, four miles on the left
>m Kelso ; the Leet at Coldstream ; and the sluggish Till
an the English side, three miles below Coldstream,
om these accessions its increase is again perceptible,
tor passing the ruins of Norham Castle, it flows for se¬
rai miles through a rich and highly-cultivated district,
ceiving the large stream of Whitadder on the left; and
ssing the ancient town of Berwick on the same side,
discharges itself into the German Ocean. The distance
mi Peebles to Berwick is nearly sixty miles, yet its de-
; -'nt in that distance is only 500 feet. It is computed to
idn in its course 1870 square miles. This river is of no
I ''sequence in a commercial view. It is principally famed
the rural scenery through which it flows, for the im-
rtance in which it was formerly held as being in part the
"ndary between the two kingdoms, and for the associa-
ns vv'*d' which it is connected in Scotish song. From
source to where it enters the ocean, the whole run is
nominated the Vale of the Tweed.
EEDDALE, or Pekbles, a countv in the south of
tu™ ' t- ^ee Peeblesshire.
I ENfY-FOU R Pergunnahs, a small district in the
'"nee of Bengal, situated chiefly to the south of Cal-
on the east side of the Hooghly. This was the first
rtory f anY extent possessed by the British in Bengal,
"is ceded to them by the nabob jaffier Alv Khan, imme-
e > a ter the revolution of 1757, to which was afterwords
vol 0U ^hve’s Jaghier. It comprehends about 882
TWO
433
miles of superficial extent, and constitutes one of the Bengal Twenty-
collectors!]ips. Since it was occupied by the British, it has ^our
progressively improved in population, cultivation, and corn-™ ^
merce. A great quantity of waste land has been brought
into cultivation, and a number of temples and other build- -
ings has been constructed. Within its boundaries, 190
seminaries, maintained from the produce of certain charity
lands,and from voluntary contributions, have been instituted.
The inhabitants may be estimated at 1,625,000, and the
Hindus are in the proportion of three to one. Adding the
population of Calcutta, 600,000, the total will amount to
2,225,000.
1 wenty-four Rajahs, a large district of Northern
Hindustan, situated between the 28th and 30th degrees of
N. lat., and divided into twenty-four petty principalities, the
whole of which are tributary to the government of Ne-
paul. Respecting these states little is known except their
names.
I WEN FY-TWO Rajahs, a district in Northern Hin¬
dustan, tributary to the Nepaulese, and divided into twenty-
two petty principalities.
TWELF 1 H-DAY, the festival of the Epiphany, or the
manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles; so called, as being
the twelfth day, exclusive, from the festival of Christmas.
TWER, a city of Russia, in the province of Moscow,
the capital of a stadtholderate of the same name, which is
26,010 miles in extent, and contains a population of 1,270,000
persons. The city is on the right bank of the Wolga, where
the waters of the Twerza and the Tmaka fall into it.
Twer has no fortifications, but is surrounded with palisades.
There is a citadel, in which is a palace with elegant gar¬
dens, belonging to the emperor. The city is laid out in
regular streets, but the high street alone consists solely of
stone houses, and most of the others are of wood. There
are a cathedral and other twenty-eight churches, with two
monasteries. The quays along the banks of the Wolga are
very fine, and the whole is extensive; but many parts of
the city are still unoccupied by buildings. It is a place
of considerable trade. The inhabitants make nails and other
ironmongery, much linen both of flax and hemp, a great
quantity of stockings, cables, ropes, and twine, besides
making oil and leather, and melting tallow for exportation
The Wolga is the great pathway of its productions. The
city contains 24,800 inhabitants. It is 376 miles distant
from St Petersburg, in longitude 35. 52. 16. E. and latitude
56.51.44. N.
TWICKENHAM, a parish of the hundred of Isleworth
and county of Middlesex, ten miles from London. It lies
on the river Thames, opposite to Richmond, with which it
is connected by an elegant bridge. It is remarkable as the
residence of Pope, who was buried in the parish church,
and for Strawberry Hill, the elegant dwelling of Horace
Walpole. There are many other distinguished private
houses within the parish. The population amounted in
1821 to 4206, and in 1831 to 4571.
TWILIGHT, that light, whether in the morning before
sunrise, or in the evening after sunset, supposed to begin
and end when the least stars that can be seen by the naked
eye cease or begin to appear.
TWINS, two small islands in the Eastern Seas, near the
north coast of the island of Flores. Long. 122. 33. E. Lat.
8. 2. S.
TWO Brothers, two small islands in the Eastern
Seas, near the west coast of Borneo. Long. 109. 13. E.
Lat. 1. 32. S. Other two islands, twenty-seven miles from
the east point of the island of Madura. Long. 114. 43. E.
Lat. 6. 50. S. Other two near the west coast of the island
of Celebes. Long. 119. 22. E. Lat. 4. 40. S.
TWO-HEADED Point, a cape on the south-west
coast of the island of Kodiak. Long. 207. 5. E. Lat. 56.
54. N.
3 i
431 T Y N T Y P
Two Hills TWO Hills, a small island among the New Hebrides, and, with the assistance of a pious lady named Van Em- T„
II in the South Pacihc Ocean. Long. 160. 38. E. Lat. 17. merson, printed it in the year 1530. He afterwards trans- moi
Tyndale. ^ lated the book of Jonah. The circulation of the Scriptures I!
v ' TWO Sisters, two small islands in the Eastern Seas, in the vulgar tongue excited the utmost alarm in England, TJI
covered with wood, and surrounded by a reef of coral rocks, where many copies of his version of the New Testament^
Long. 106. 12. E. Lat. 5. S. were committed to the flames. The king, the cardinal, and '
TYGERS’ Islands, a cluster of small islands and the chancellor, made some ineffectual attempts to induce
shoals in the Eastern Seas, thirty miles east from the island him to return home. He afterwards fixed his residence at
of Sal ever. A small island in the Chinese Seas, near the Antwerp; and there one of their emissaries, a miscreant
coast of Chiampa. Long. 107. 45. E. Lat. 40. 47. N. named Henry Phillips, circumvented the worthy and un-
Another small island in the Chinese Seas, near the coast of suspecting man ; and having procured a warrant at Brussels,
Cochin-China. Long. 106. 13. E. Lat. 16. 51. N. betrayed his confidence with signal baseness, and delivered
TYNDALE, William, a learned and pious martyr, was him into the hands of the officers. He was committed to
born during the latter part of the fifteenth century. He is prison at Vilvoord, a village between Brussel sand Malines. !
said, but apparently without foundation, to have been the By virtue of a decree made at Augsburg, against what was
grandson of Hugh, Lord Tyndale; who having been en- termed heresy, he was condemned to suffer death ; andafter
gaged in the civil wars between the houses of York and having been in custody about a year and a half, he was, in
Lancaster, lost his honours, together with his estate in September 1536, conducted to a rising ground near lii*
Northumberland, and, under the borrowed name of Hut- prison, was first strangled, and his body was then con.
chins, sought a place of refuge in Gloucestershire, where sumed by fire. Tyndale, who was a man of learning as
he retrieved his fortune by marrying the daughter and sole well as talents, appears to have translated the Scriptures
heiress of Hunt of Hunt’s Court. William Tyndale having from the original tongues; and his pious labours gave a
been early and well initiated in learning, wms sent to Ox- great impulse to the progress of reformation. Of the
ford, where he was entered of Magdalen Hall. He not English language, as written at that period, his own works
only acquired a knowledge of the Latin, but even of the afford an excellent specimen. In his controversy with Sir
Greek language, which at that period was but little under- Thomas More, he had many advantages over his antagonist,
stood in England. He read the Greek Testament to the His Works, together with those of Fryth and Barnes, were
students of Magdalen College as well as Magdalen Hall, collected into a large volume. Lend. 1572, fol.- Dr Ged-
After having taken his degree in arts, he is said to have des has remarked, that although his translation is far from
passed some time in the university of Cambridge. On the perfect, “yet few first translations will be found preferable to
11th of March 1502, deacon’s orders were conferred upon it. It is astonishing how little obsolete the language of it is,
him by a suffragan of Warham bishop of London, in the even at this day; and in point of perspicuity and noble
church belonging to the priory of St Bartholomew in Smith- simplicity, propriety of idiom, and purity of style, no English
field. He w'as ordained priest to the nunnery of Lambley, version has yet surpassed it.”
in the diocese of Carlisle; and in 1508 he became a friar TYNEMOUTH, a town of the ward of Castle, in the
in the monastery of the Minorites at Greenwich. Even at county of Northumberland, 286 miles from London. The
this period of his life, he appears to have been impressed name describes the situation. The town has considerable
with the great importance of presenting to the people the salt and glass wmrks, and vast quantities of coal are shipped
sacred Scriptures in their mother tongue; and he had from the port. It has lately been visited by company for sea-
commenced his version of the New Testament so early as bathing. Tynemouth was created a borough by the act of
the year 1502. He was afterwards engaged as a tutor and 1832, and now sends one member to the House of Com-
chaplain in the family of Sir John Welch, a knight of mons. The population amounted in 1801 to 3856, in Ibll
Gloucestershire, who kept a hospitable table, and was fre- to 5834, in 1821 to 9454, and in 1831 to 10,182.
quently visited by the neighbouring prelates and other TYPE (tvkos), an impression, image, or representation
clergy. The careful and anxious study of the New Testa- of some model, which is termed the u?ttiti/pe. In this sense
ment had prepared Tyndale for receiving the doctrines of the word frequently occurs in the writings of divines, who
the reformation. As he found it unsafe to prosecute his employ it to denote that prefiguration of the great events
pious labours in his own country, he sailed for Hamburg in of man’s redemption, which they trace in the principal
1523, and from that port proceeded to Wittemberg, at that transactions recorded in the Old Testament,
time the residence of Luther. There he completed his Type, the stamps used in printing, for the purpose of
version of the New Testament. John Fryth and William impressing the characters upon paper. They usually con-
Roy, who both suffered martyrdom, lent their aid as his sist of a right-angled shaft, with the character in relief upon
amanuenses. “ One edition,” says Mr Offor, “ probably of the upper end; but in the general term are included tbe
three thousand, was prepared for general circulation : this spaces, quadrats, &c. which are shafts merely without any
was quickly followed by a more elegant edition in quarto, characters, and which, being of less height than the rest,
with glosses, commenced at Cologne in 1526, and finished at receive no ink and make no impression upon the paper.
Worms or Wittemberg. The type, cuts, and ornaments of TYPE-FOUNDING. In the article Printing the
both these books are those used by the German printers on reader will find that the invention of the art of type-
the Rhine.” This version has recently been reprinted un- founding was a very early consequence of the discovery
der the superintendence ot Mr Offor, who has prefixed a of the rude art of taking impressions from laboriously ex*
memoir of his life and writings. Lond. 1836, 8vo. He cised letters of wood and metal; and that after an iuvos*
likewise undertook a translation of the Old lestament, and tigation of the statements of various authors, the honour
having completed his version of the first books in 1529, he of the invention has been given to the illustrious partner
began to publish them in separate tracts, ornamented with ship of Gutenberg, Fust, and Schceffer, the larger share
wood-cuts, and accompanied with notes, w’hich gave no being allowed to the latter, as having had practice in t £
small offence to the bigoted clergy. Having completed the design and proportioning of letters in his original empoy
last book of the Pentateuch, he sailed for Hamburg with ment of an illuminator; that the place of the invention was
the view of printing it; but being wrecked on the coast of the city of Mentz, and that the time was about the year
Holland, he lost his money, his books, and manuscript. 1457. Nor, upon examination, will it appear that any
He however continued his journey, and being joined by other can dispute the honour with these worthies, iu*18
Coverdale, they again translated the book of Deuteronomy, much as they indisputably used cast metal types bei°re
TYPE-FOUNDING.
ie secession of Gutenberg from his associates, and conse-
lentlv before the dispersion of their workmen by the capture
■’Mentz in the year 1462 ; nor will the claims of Koster of
'aarlem in any case interfere with these, the most sanguine
’ his supporters carrying his pretensions no farther than
ic art of taking impressions from excised characters of
ood, of lead, and lastly of tin. The necessity of some
iprovement upon the original method of forming types,
'en on the very limited scale upon which the first efforts
’ typography were conducted, must be obvious, and it
>pears to have advanced in a natural and rapid course,
he first step seems to have been the striking of a letter
approved cut, answering in some degree to the modern
inch, into soft clay or plaster, and the infusion of metal into
e mould thus formed ; the shaft or body, which by so rude
d uncertain a method must necessarily have been rough
d untrue, being dressed into correctness by manual la-
mr. The art of casting and working metals, however,
■ing at that time by no means defective, and Fust being
' profession a worker in gold and silver, it is probable
'at a process not unlike the modern was soon invented;
it of this we have no certain evidence, the whole art of
inting being carefully kept a “ mystery” by the initiated
til about half a century after the probable date of the
mention.1 This evidence is afforded us by the device of
idius Ascensius, an eminent printer of Paris and Lyon in
e beginning of the sixteenth century, and also by that
an English printer, Anthony Scoloker of Ippeswych,
10 modified and adopted the device of Ascensius, as indeed
1 many other printers of various countries. This curious
sign exhibits in one apartment the various processes of
inting, the foreground presenting a press in full work,
e background on the left the cases and the compositor,
d on the right the foundery; the matrix and other ap-
ances bearing a precise resemblance to those at present
use. Ihis introduces to observation the fact that the
rlier printers generally combined all the various processes
their profession in their own offices, although it would
pear, that as the art spread over Europe, and secrecy be¬
ne less and less necessary, the most enterprising speedily
gan to furnish their distant brethren with types from their
spective founderies. Thus it would appear that the first
pes of the English architypographer Caxton were sup-
ed by Ulric Zell, and that it was not until the establish-
gnt of his printing-house at Westminster that he began
cut letter in imitation of his own hand-writing, and more
reeable to the fashion of writing at that time in use in
igland. Lettou and Machlinia are supposed to have
rchased their types from foreign founderies, perhaps from
,on or Milan. But Wynkyn de Worde discarded that
ilousy which had hitherto obstructed the progress of the
- in England, and having cut many founts of considera-
- beauty, supplied his contemporary typographers. His
ick letter in especial was so much esteemed as to have
en in use to a very late period, and it is said that rem-
nts of his founts are to be found in some of the most
uent printing establishments; nay, it is even possible
it some of his original punches or matrices might yet by
n ‘gent antiquary be discovered—a valuable and interest-
? addition to our many curious relics of the art.
ie first record of the separation of the art of type-
“n ing from that of printing, would appear to be a decree
‘e star-chamber in the reign of Charles I., dated 11th
U b.L. I his was probably one of the attempts to sup-
ess tie printing of seditious works by the rising puritans,
1U’ a ter establishing secret printing-offices in various
435
parts of the kingdom, found it necessary for secrecy to cut Type-
their founts themselves. The decree seems to have been Founding,
in some degree a revival of one of the same nature, 28
Elizabeth, limiting the number of printers to twenty. Bv
the first-mentioned decree it was ordered,
That there shall be four founders of letters for printing,
and no more.
That the archbishop of Canterbury, or the bishop of
London, with six other high commissioners, shall
supply the places of those four as they shall become
void.
That no master founder shall keep above two appren¬
tices at one time.
That all journeymen founders be employed by the mas¬
ters of the trade, and that idle journeymen be com¬
pelled to work upon pain of imprisonment, and such
other punishment as the court shall think fit.
That no master founder of letters shall employ any other
person in any work belonging to the casting and
founding of letters than freemen or apprentices to the
trade, save only in pulling off the knots of metal hang¬
ing at the end of the letters when they are first cast,
in which work every master founder may employ one
boy only not bound to the trade.
The four founders appointed by this decree to serve the
whole kingdom were John Grismand, Thomas Wright,
Arthur Nicholas, and Alexander Fifield.
This decree was Revived 14th Charles II., renewed 16th
Charles II., and again for seven years 1st James II., at
which term it expired, and was never renewed.
The founts in use in English printing-offices may be di¬
vided into two kind's; those used for book, and those for
job printing, that is, hand and posting bills, &c. Of book
types there are twelve regular bodies, viz. Great Primer,
English, Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier,
Minion, Nonpareil, Ruby, Pearl, and Diamond. Besides
these, Minion-Nonpareil is a good deal used; and some
founders have introduced intermediate founts, as Emerald.
It is much to be regretted that no uniform standard has
been adopted by letter-founders for their founts of the same-
named letter; they vary not only from those of other found¬
ers, but even from their own, owing to which it seldom hap¬
pens that any two founts stand together. This is the cause
of much inconvenience, as in the instance of capitals and
small capitals, accented letters, signs, and other sorts intro¬
duced into common matter; the printer being obliged to
purchase a small quantity of each with every fount, whereas,
were there any uniformity, he might have a considerable
quantity to be used with any fount as occasion required.
Great Primer (Fr. Gros Remain ; Ger. Tertia) is the
largest type in use in book printing, being chiefly for large
Bibles, on which account it is sometimes called Bible Text;
but it is very seldom employed. There are about 51£ ms
to a foot: it is double the body of Bourgeois.
English (Fr. Saint Augustin ; Ger. Mittel) is much used
for church Bibles, and for works in folio and quarto. The
French name is probably derived from its being first used
to print the works of St Augustin; the German from its
being the middle of seven standard founts used by the early
German printers. There are about 64 ms to a foot: its
body is equal to two Minions.
Pica (Fr. and Ger. Cicero, from its having been first used
for Cicero’s Epistles) is the fount which is used as the
general standard of measurement in casting leads, quota¬
tions, cutting rule, and regulating the price of press-work,
&c. It is in very extensive use for works of a standard
.ttr Sj.peru!'im ’tumana Salvationis, in the library of the late duke of Marlborough, presents probably the earliest specimen of
cut that tl,„ c n'6 ° lts eav':,s bein” lmnted ,'ro,n s<'6d wooden blocks, or perhaps from wooden blocks on which the designs have been
■“u me scrolls, cut ii non ntboi- :    i„i*. .1   ...i.ti. • . .. .. .
cu‘ that the sf. , " prnueu irom solid wooden oiocks, or pernaps irom wooden blocks on which the designs have been
-lerud in the hJ- ^ut yPon other blocks, were inserted in spaces left for them ; while, in thirty-eight leaves, the scrolls are in cast type.
v ““signs in lieu of the engraved scrolls.
436
TYPE-FOUNDING.
Type- character, history, art, and other library works: it is suffi-
Fouading. cjentiy iarge for weaic eyes? anc] not too great for moderate-
* ~*~ ly sized 8vo pages, being in fact the just medium. I here
are 71 ms to a foot, and it is equal to two Nonpareils.
Small Pica (Fr. Philosophic; Ger. Brevier) is perhaps the
most extensively used of all the founts, being a very useful
and well-proportioned letter. Novels are almost always
printed in this body- 83 ms to a foot; equal to two Rubies.
Long Primer (Fr. Petit Romain; Ger. Corpus) is like¬
wise much used, being very well adapted for works in 12mo,
dictionaries, and other works in which much matter is to
be got into a small space: it is the type of the Wavertey
Novels and of this Encyclopaedia. 89 ms to a foot: two
Pearls.
Bourgeois (Fr. Gaillarde ; the Germans have none to cor¬
respond) is much used for the same purposes as Long Pri¬
mer, and in solid matter is difficult to distinguish by the
eye from that body. 102 ms to a foot: two Diamonds.
Brevier (Fr. Petite Texts; Ger. Petit or Jungfer) is so
called from its having been much used for printing breviaries.
It is much employed for small works, and for notes. 1121
ms = 1 foot.
Minion (Fr. Mignonne; Ger. Colonel) is chiefly in use
for newspaper advertisements; it is a very pretty fount, and
well adapted for pocket editions, Prayer-books, and Bibles :
it is perhaps the smallest of readable sizes. 128 ms — 1
foot: half English.
Nonpareil (Fr. and Ger. Nompareille), used for the same
purposes as Minion. 143 ms = 1 foot: half Pica.
Ruby (no body to correspond in France or Germany),
used for pocket dictionaries, prayer-books, &c.; but it is too
small for any but the strongest sight. 183 ms r= 1 loot:
half Small Pica.
Pearl (Fr. Parisienne ; Ger. Perl), used for the same pur¬
poses. 178 ms rr 1 foot: half Long Primer.
Diamond (Fr. and Ger. Diamond) is the smallest body
cut; it is distressingly small, and is used mostly for notes
to works in Nonpareil and the descending bodies. The
French have succeeded in cutting the face so small as to
be illegible, and an annual lately sold in London in this
letter is accompanied with a magnifying glass. 205 ms
= 1 foot: half Bourgeois.
The principal apparatus in the casting of type are the
punch, the matrix, and the mould. The punch (or puncheon)
is apiece of steel bearing upon one end a single letter, which
is formed by hammering, filing, and other processes, and
differs in no other respect from ordinary punches than the
unusual care and accuracy with which it is worked. It
must be remembered, that as each letter is but one of a
large number with which it is to harmonize, the height
must be obtained with the greatest precision, the breadth
both of the heavy and the tine strokes must be carefully
proportioned, the turns graceful. This general harmony is
not very difficult to attain in the coarser fancy type, there
being in this, as in other arts, little merit in imitating the
vulgar or the grotesque; but the elegant and symmetrical
face of book type is as difficult to attain as the exquisite
grace of the higher productions of the arts; and yet, to
such perfection have modern artists attained, that the prac¬
tised eye has little difficulty in assigning an individual letter
to its proper fount, and even, if the printer has turned his
attention to the particulars of his art, to the thundery and
the artist, the punch-cutter of a foundery of character having
a professional reputation, like a painter or engraver. Mr
Moxon, a mechanician of great ingenuity, in his Mechanical
Exercises, has the credit of first assigning rules for the shap¬
ing of letters, laying down geometrical rules for the angles of
inclination, the curves, and for adjusting the base from which
the shoulders of the letter should rise to obtain the greatest
strength. From this the modern artists have varied, obtaining
great sharpness of appearance combined with strength and
durability. Although beyond a doubt Mr Moxon’s formal* Tr
have been of great advantage to subsequent punch-cutters
he w'as by no means a successful artist himself; his type, cu| ^
upon the most philosophical principles, being uglier than
that of his contemporaries. The matrix is a small piece of
copper into which the punch is struck. Much care is also
requisite in doing this, although, provided it be struck suf¬
ficiently deep, the surface of the copper may be filed
down so as to leave the impress of the exact depth. It has
been explained in the article Printing, that to obtain equa¬
lity of impression the face of the composed type must be
in an exact plane, from which it will be easily understood
that the just depth of the impression in the matrix is a mat¬
ter of much importance. The copper must now be care¬
fully dressed at the ends and sides, in order that when ad¬
justed in the mould, the character, when cast, may be so
placed upon its body that it shall stand exactly even with
its brother characters: the nicety required in this is sur¬
prising.
The mould is a very simple but very ingenious appara¬
tus, consisting of two parts, so contrived that, being pro¬
perly placed together (viz. n 2m a\, b \ in 62, <• 2 on
c I, and d \ on d 2), they form, in the centre e, a space,
which is geometrically described as a parallelepiped, being,
in fact, the mould in which the type is formed; the ma¬
trix f is placed at the bottom ; the metal is poured in at
the orifice formed by the closing of the upper parts. It
will be seen that the twro parts which form the mould slide
upon each other, and that the extent to which they close i»
regulated by the width of the matrix; and that therefore
all types of one fount, whether the broad 4-m quadrat or
the narrow i or 1, may be cast in the same mould. Re
spring at the bottom of figure 2 retains the matrix in its
place, and without removing it the row letter cannot be
disengaged ; the hooks at the top are used to remove t ie
letter from the mould, f is an enlarged drawing ol tbs
matrix.
The caster, with this apparatus, stations himself by t ^
side of a furnace containing the melting pot and the nui
metal, of which he takes a portion with a very small lac e,
and having poured in a sufficient quantity, jerks the mou
into the air with Ins left hand (a very singular movement),
which has the effect of expelling the air and forcing
the metal into the finest strokes of the matrix. He t itn
wdth one finger releases the spring, separates the mou ,
and hooks out the letter with one of the pieces of bent"
represented at the top of the mould; and so proceeds "1
considerable rapidity, casting about 500 letters in the our,
of ordinary sized type, although the smaller and the large
T Y R
T Y R 437
¥'f»nt sizes require much more time, the first on account of the
, k care requisite, and the latter to allow of the setting of the
1,1 n metal.
q'he types are now removed from the caster’s table by a
joy, who strikes off the knob at the bottom, caused by the
mperfluous metal at the orifice of the mould. A workman
icxt rubs the sides of each letter upon a slab
if very gritty stone (his fingers being guarded
>y a piece of leather), which removes any small
mobs or globules attached to the sides or edges.
This is done with great rapidity, from 1500 to
1000 letters being rubbed in an hour. The
etters are then set up in a long stick, and again
iressed, and the bottom grooved, by which exact
eight is insured; and the fount being then pro-
ortioned, is tied up, and is ready for the printer.
The matrix for very large type is differently prepared,
he nicety of the punch-cutter’s art not being required.
?he letter having been accurately shaped out by rule and
oinpass upon a piece of copper or brass, the part so mark-
d out is cut away, care being taken to cut the back some-
hat wider than the front, the sloping edge forming the
boulder of the future type. The piece of brass now very
1 mch resembles the plates used for stencilling the large
I eadings of legal forms: it is next riveted upon a smooth
i urface of brass, which forms the face of the letter.
There is a peculiarity in script type which is deserving
i f mention. Script being an imitation of hand-writing,
i is necessary that the fine strokes at the beginning and
nd of each letter should be in close contact with those of
I ie preceding and succeeding letters. This M. Didot en-
eavoured to achieve by a very curious shape in the type,
: y which each should so lock in with the other that the
i squired contact should not fail; but he carried his inven-
I on beyond the powrer of practice, for having resolved the
i haracters into their component parts, he cast a series of
i igns exactly resembling the “ pothooks and hangers” of a
choolboy’s copy-book, so that not only was every word to
e composed, but every letter;
? i ? ? t v & it m w
The English founders soon improved upon this idea, cast-
ig each letter complete. This however requires several
itters to be cast in several forms, the initial, medial, and
nal letters not being always quite alike. The following
dll give an idea of how script is cast and composed:
</n tfe cn/an-ey o/ /Ae azd of ’ &rc-?itony.
ff /// W/i/f //
Most of the English type-founders, aware of the practical
c ectsof this method, have, by a careful adjustment of the
ne strokes at the beginning and end of each letter, cut
Junts uP°n the ordinary square body, which answer every
urpose. from the nature of the metal, however, and its
a i ity to wear and become battered, script is an expen-
ivefount. 1
,pyj*OGRAPHY’ the art of printing. See Pki NTING.
i It AN 1, among the ancients, denoted simply a king
( monarch; but the ill use which several persons invested
j1 ■ that character made of it, has altered the import of
/."0J ’ ,ancl tyrant now conveys the idea of an unjust
tniel prince, who rules in a more despotic manner than
“e laws allow.
<)r Sot'R, a seaP°rt of Syria, anciently a city of
■dliA''6 commerce and great riches, but which has now
11 mto a state of insignificance and poverty. It was
formerly called the Queen of the Sea, and ancient writers Tjre.
dilate with wonder on its magnificence and extent. The
more ancient city7 of I \7re was founded by a colony of the
Sidonians, on the shore of the continent: it was taken and
destroyed by the king of Babylon, when a new city was built
on an island about one third of a mile from the shore. Con¬
cerning continental Tyre we have no information except
that which is contained in the Bible; from which we learn
that it was a large, wealthy, and splendid city. Its existence
is acknowledged by the Greek writers, but all trace of its
history was lost, as it was destroyed before their time. It
was never rebuilt, and not the least trace of it remains, nor
could its site be determined. It was not known to have been
built on the coast, opposite to the island. When Babylon
was conquered by the Persians, the Tyrians were restored
to comparative independence; and it was then that Tyre
was rebuilt on the island, and attained greater splen¬
dour than before; and such was the power of this insular
city, from the resources supplied by commerce, from its
strength, and the advantages of its position, that it arrested
the progress of Alexander’s conquests longer than any
place under the Persian dominions. That celebrated
conqueror spent eight months before Tyre, and only suc¬
ceeded at last by constructing an embankment or cause¬
way between the mainland and the island, giving his troops
and engines free access to the latter. The Tyrians how¬
ever made such a valiant defence, and occasioned so great
a loss to the conqueror, that he vented his rage on the con¬
quered city, ordering 2000 of the inhabitants to be nailed to
crosses, and 30,000 to be sold for slaves. In the storm
of the city 8000 had been previously slain. He set fire
to the town itself; yet it quickly recovered from the devas¬
tation of war, and, only nineteen years after, sustained a
seige of fifteen months from the fleets and armies of Anti-
gonus, when it was again taken. After this second capture,
it was subjected, with all the surrounding country, to fre¬
quent changes of masters, from the continual contests which
took place among Alexander’s successors, the kings of
Egypt and Syria, until it was finally absorbed, with all the
rest of the world, in the growing empire of Rome. But
by this time it had greatly declined in importance. The
rise of Alexandria in Egypt was perhaps more injurious to
the prosperity of Tyre than its capture by Alexander, as
it gradually rose to be a great emporium of traffic, which it
thus diverted from Tyre, and dried up the source from
which ■ its prosperity had flowed for about a thousand
years. Through the skill and industry of its inhabitants, it
still remained a considerable town, so long as the Roman
dominion continued. Tyre declined with the rest of the
Roman empire, under the devastations of barbarian con¬
quest. It was subdued with the rest of Syria by the
Arabs; in 1124 it was taken from them by the crusaders;
Saladin made an ineffectual attempt to recover it in
1187; and it was finally taken in 1291, by Khalit, the sul¬
tan of Egypt, who razed it to the ground, that it might
never again afford a stronghold to the Christians. It was
taken by the Turks in 1516, when it was finally ruined;
and it now presents to the traveller the aspect of a miser¬
able and ruined village. It has been visited by many mo¬
dern travellers, who all concur in giving the same account
of this desolate place. It is called by Sandys a “ heape
of mines.” Volney describes it as a miserable village of
fishermen, containing only fifty or sixty poor families, living
but indifferently on the produce of their grounds and of a
trifling fishery. The houses are wretched huts, ready to
crumble into pieces. And thus we see the fulfilment of the
prophecy, that Tyre should “ be a place for the spread¬
ing of nets in the midst of the sea;” conveying a lively
image of desolation, a convenient place for the drying of
nets being generally a naked rock or beach. According
to the most recent accounts, Tyre wTas beginning somewhat
A
438
T Y R
Tyrol.
Tyrhoot to revive, a number of peasantry having come down from
the neighbouring mountains to carry on the trade for which
. its harbour affords an opportunity. It is said by Turner to
contain 200 inhabited houses or huts, two thirds of which
are occupied by the tribe called Mutualis, while the rest of
the inhabitants are chiefly Greek Catholics. There are
also twelve Maronite families. The chief staple is tobacco,
wnich is exported to Cairo and Damietta. To the same places
are also sent charcoal, a number of dried figs, and large fag¬
gots of wood. There are a large pottery and a fishery. The
walls of the town, about a mile in circuit, very old, falling to
pieces, and patched up, may still be traced. In many places
they are mended with large columns of red and gray granite,
with two or three old cannon mounted upon them. On the
west they are almost overwhelmed by sand ; but on the
south and east sides they are thirty feet high. On the
south-west and south-east corners are the remains of ancient
niches. The only gate is one of wood, on the eastern side ;
while on the north, part of the wall is broken down in order
to allow a passage. The harbour stretches fifty feet along the
shore, and 150 along banks that run into the sea. Near the
walls are the ruins of two square Arab towers, one thirty-
five and the other forty feet high ; supposed by PoCocke
to have served as reservoirs of water, to be distributed from
the aoueduct over the city. Without the walls are the ruins
of a very large church, built, in the Syrian style, of hewn
stone ; also some very perfect remains of several buildings to
the north, which are supposed to have belonged to the archi-
episcopal palace. Long. 35. 20. E. Lat. 33. 10. N. (f.)
TYRHOOT, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Rahar, principally situated between the 27th and 28th degrees
of N. lat. On the north it is bounded by the districts of Moc-
wanpoor and Muchwany, which are subject to Nepaul; on the
south it has Hajypoor and Boghpoor; to the east, the Ben¬
gal district of Purneah ; and on the west, Bettiah and Hajy¬
poor. It is estimated to contain 5033 square miles. The sur¬
face, though not hilly, is more elevated, the soil drier, and the
climate generally healthier, than those more to the south ;
although during summer it is liable to intense heats. It is
well adapted for the breed of horses ; and many of these
valuable animals have accordingly been reared in this and
the adjoining district of Hajypoor, to purchase which nu¬
merous horse-dealers from upper Hindustan have resorted
to the fairs. The district is well cultivated, and produces
grain, sugar, and indigo. Towards the northern frontier
are extensive forests; but the timber cannot be floated down,
owing to the want of water. The names of the rivers are,
the Little Gunduck, the Bhagmati,and the Gogary. Along
with the rest of the province, it devolved to the British, and
was permanently attached in 1794, since which period it has
improved greatly in population, cultivation, and commerce,
large tracts of jungle havingbeen brought into cultivation by
the zemindars. In 1801. according to a census ordered by
Marquis Wellesley, the inhabitants amounted to 2,000,000,
in the proportion of one Mahommedan to four Hindus.
TYRNAU. a city of the Austrian kingdom of Hungary,
the capital of a circle of the same name in the province of
Hither Danube. It is the seat of the provincial courts of
law, and contains nine churches, 060 houses, with 5700 in¬
habitants, chiefly employed in making linen and woollen
cloths. It is a place of verv active commerce. Long. 17.
29. 42. E. Lat. 48. 22. 53. N.
TYROL or Tirol, a province of Austria, one of those
most early acquired by the imperial family. It takes its
name from an ancient castle on a mountain, near the river
Meran, which came under the house of Austria through a
female, Margaretta Maultasche. in the year 1363. It extends
in north latitude from 45° 39' 30" to 47° 4P 15", and in
east longitude from 9° 28' 5'' to 12° 32' 23", and contains
11,180 square miles. rlhe province is divided into seven
circles, comprehending twenty-two cities, thirty-six market-
T Y R
towns, and 3150 villages. The inhabitants were, in 1817
717,524; but by the census of 1832, they appear to have
increased to 805,750. They all adhere to the Roman
Catholic Church, there being no Protestants or Greeks, and
only eight or ten Jewish families. The whole of the pro-
vince is a continuation of the Alps, and the face of the
country resembles Switzerland, with some lofty mountains
capped with snow, having between them similar profound
precipices, thundering cascades, and extensive glaciers
This portion of the Alps, known to the ancients as the
Rhetian, contains some of the loftiest mountains of the
range. The Orteler exceeds 14,000 feet in height, the
Tschernowand is 11,600, and a great number above 8000
feet. This mountainous district abounds in most beautiful
lakes, which are the sources of several rivers, the Etsch, the
Brenta, the Drave, and the Gail, which run to the Adri.
atic; and of the Isar, the Lech, the Iller, and the Inn,
which finally empty themselves into the Danube. The air
is pure and cold, but the too frequent sirocco in the sum-
mer has often a most injurious effect on the health of the
inhabitants.
From the nature of the country, the far greater part is in¬
accessible to agriculture. The woods are estimated to be
about three times the extent of the pasture and arable land
together; and of about 1,800,000 acres, not more than
170,000 are capable of being ploughed; whilst the pasture
land, in which are included those parts of the Alps which
afford in the summer only food for cattle, are estimated at
600,000 acres. In the valleys, and lower sides of the hills,
about 20,000 acres are appropriated to vineyards and gar¬
dens. The district is every year deficient in corn, and
receives supplies from its neighbourhood, although the cul¬
tivation of potatoes, of maize, and of buckwheat, is exten¬
sive, and supplies substitutes for wheat, rye, and barley.
The chief agricultural products which exceed the demands
of the population are butter, hemp, tobacco, flax, and on
the southern border, towards Italy, some silk.
The country is rich in minerals, but that branch of indus¬
try is languishingly pursued. The mines yield gold about
200 ounces, silver 16,000 ounces, and some iron, lead,
calamine, and much rock-salt. Some iron and sheet wares
are exported, as well as wine, tar, pitch, horses, cheese,
and butter, chiefly to Italy. From the poverty of the coun¬
try, the emigration is very great; and in every part of
Europe the natives of it are to be seen, who, after success¬
ful wanderings, return to enjoy the proceeds of their industry
and parsimony in their native land. The Tyrol has some
privileges beyond the other portions of the Austrian states.
The deputies form an assembly of four orders, the clergy,
the nobles, the burghers, and the peasantry, being the only
part where the latter class have representatives. The
power of the states is however very inconsiderable, being
limited to the distribution of the taxes imposed on the pro¬
vince among the several subdivisions of it, and to the
privilege of petitioning and remonstrating.
T YRONE, an inland county of the province of Ulster,
in Ireland, is bounded on the north by the counties ol Do¬
negal and Londonderry, on the east by Lough Neagh and
the county of Armagh, on the south by the counties of
Monaghan and Fermanagh, and on the west by those of
Fermanagh and Donegal. It lies between 54° 20' anu
54° 59' north latitude, and 6° 15' and 7° 57’west longi¬
tude ; measuring forty-six miles in its greatest length from
north to south, and sixty-three in its greatest breadth from
east to west, and containing an area of 1269 square mnesi
or 866,296 acres, of which 714,500 are land, and o
these, 544,000 acres are cultivated, and 170,000 bog or
uncultivated mountain-land; and 31,796 are covered wit>
water, part of which is a section of Lough Neagh. R is
the ninth county as to its total extent of surface, and 1
eighth as to its quantity of cultivated land.
T Y R
According to some authorities, the Erdini, and to others,
•he Scotu were the earliest known inhabitants of this dis-
-ict. It was afterwards distinguished by the name of
lineal-Evgain, or Tyr-Owen, and was the territory of the
)’Neills, descendants of Neal of the Nine Hostages, king
f Ireland, and virtually sovereigns of the greatest part of
ie north of Ireland for several centuries after the Eng-
sh settlement under Henry II. In a writ of Henry III.,
ie head of the sept is styled king of Kenilum or Tiroen.
he chief seat of the family was at Dungannon, which,
lough several times taken and sacked by the English
rces in their attempts to reduce the country to obedience
i the royal authority, continued to be so until the close of
ie reign of Elizabeth, when it was burned by Hugh
’Neill, earl of Tyrone, to prevent its falling into the
inds of Lord Mountjoy, who then commanded the queen’s
rces in Ireland. The insurrection of 1641 may be said
i have had its commencement in this county, by the cap-
re of Charlemont Fort and Dungannon by Sir Phelim
'Neill; and in 1646 the parliamentary forces under Ge-
>ral Munroe received a signal defeat from Hugh Roe
’Neill at Benburb. During the greater part of the war
Aween King William and King James, this county was
the possession of the forces of the latter, and suffered
uch from the partisan warfare carried on there, chiefly by
e townsmen of Enniskillen. It was also here that the
>lunteer convention of Dungannon assembled in 1782,
id passed a series @f resolutions expressive of their opi-
on of the right of the Irish parliament to make laws in-
ipendently of that of Great Britain.
The surface is much varied, mostly hilly, with but little
vel ground. In the north it rises into the mountain
nge ot Sperin, forming the boundary between the county
id that of Londonderry. Its greatest elevations are Mul-
ghcarne, 1890 feet; Straw Mountain, 2085; Muinard,
364; and Sawell, 2236. South of these is the lower
dge of Slievekirk, Slievemore, and Munterlony, whose
gliest point is 1432 feet. Muliaghcarne, north of Omagh,
1778 feet high ; Slieve-Gallion, in the north-east, 1730 ;
roagh, west, 1260 ; the mountains south of Clogher,
Inch form its boundary tow-ards Monaghan, 1265 feet,
wo mountains, detached from the main group, and si-
late on each side of the Mourne river, are distinguished
^ the popular names of Bessy Bell and Mary Gray,
he former name has been supposed to owe its origin
1 the pagan rites celebrated on its summit to the god
el or Beal; for the latter no conjecture has been ha-
irded. Ihe eastern districts are chiefly flat, declining
wards Lough Neagh. The valleys, several of which
e very romantic, serve as the channels to the minor
reams, whose confluence forms the river Foyle. The
incipal are, the Mourne, Munterlony, Owenreagh, Owen-
dloe, Derg, from Lough Derg in Donegal, and the
'ennet. Ihe Foyle forms a small portion of the west-
n boundary, the Blackwater a considerable part of the
•uthern, and the Ballinderry of the north-eastern. There
e but few lakes, and those very small. Lough Fae,
the foot of Slieve-Gallion, and Lough Creevv, are the
rgest.
. ^ le substratum of the northern mountainous district is
ica slate, interspersed with primary limestone in small de-
c ied portions. To the north-west is yellow sandstone
!t i conglomerate, which shows itself also in the central
irt near Omagh, and again in the south-wyest, where it
utiges into Fermanagh. A bed of granite, enclosed in
ystalline greenstone trap, extends from Slieve Gallion
^ The formation across the county from
()iigi Erne to Lough Neagh is the old red sandstone and
ii'c stone conglomerate. In the south and south-east the
k omferous or mountain limestone appears ; and near the
r ers of Lough Neagh are lyas, green sand, and chalk,
ONE.
439
vvith new red sandstone. In the sandstone formation in Tyrone,
this pait, fossil fish have been found, with the characteristic v—*-
features of their various species strongly marked. Near
Cookstown a great number of organic remains has been
discovered. Coal is raised in large quantities in the east¬
ern part, between Dungannon and Lough Neagh, in a dis¬
trict formed of a collection of low hills, not more than a
hundred feet in perpendicular elevation, with steep sides
and flattened summits. There are two principal fields;
Coal Island, measuring about eight miles by three, and
comprehending an area of 1200 acres; and Annahone,
about a mile each way, and containing 500 acres. The
coal, which is of the bituminous or blazing kind, like that
of the west of Scotland, burning rapidly, and with a bright
abundant flame, rests upon beds of fire-clay, sandstone, or
blue clunch. The shale has impressions of vegetable sub¬
stances, among which are reeds of very large dimensions.
The quantity of coal raised is abundant in proportion to the
extent of the field ; but it is difficult to be worked, from the
greatness of the angle formed by the layers of coal in many
places, which increases the difficulty of drainage, and also
from the soft nature of the bottom or flooring, which re¬
quires many precautions to prevent the passages from clos¬
ing. Indications of coal have been perceived at Drunquin,
to the north-west of Omagh, but no practical advantage lias
yet been taken of the discovery. Iron ore and potters
clay are found in the coal districts. A range of escars ex¬
tends across the southern part of the county, from near
Dungannon to Five-mile-town ; and the ridges are in
some places as regularly arranged as if formed by the
hand of man. There are many small bogs dispersed through
the county.
The soil in the parts adjacent to Lough Neagh is alluvial,
of considerable depth, and based upon limestone. The low
lands along the Blackwater are extremely fertile, well tim¬
bered, and afford many prospects of great beauty. The
valley of the Foyle, which belongs to this county, is also
very fertile. The mountainous tracts to the north have a
shallow soil, resting either on a tenacious clay, or on bog,
which impedes the passage of the water, and renders the
land moist, cold, and unproductive. Much of the central
parts present tracts of unprofitable bog and heath. The
southern districts are well wooded.
The progress of population during the last hundred years
is as follows, according to the authorities stated :
Year. Authority. Number.
1760 De Burgo    76,278
1792 Beaufort 159,000
1812 Parliamentary census 250,746
1821 Ditto 261,865
1831 Ditto 302,943
The proportion of population to the entire surface of the
county is, according to the latest of these statements, as l
to 2-12, and to the entire of the cultivated land as 1 to P83.
There is therefore one individual to somewhat more than
every two acres of land in general, and to every l|ths of
an acre of productive land. According to the returns of
the Commissioners of Public Instruction in 1834, which,
being taken by dioceses instead of counties, afford but an
approximation to strict accuracy, the total population was
312,500, of which 69,320 w ere members of the established
church, 69,620 Protestant Dissenters, and the remaining
173,560 Roman Catholics. The proportions of the differ¬
ent persuasions, the total population being taken as unity,
are therefore 0*222, 0*223, and 0*555 nearly; whence it
appears that the Roman Catholic population is more than
equal to that of the Protestant, which also is almost equally
divided between the established church and the Dissen¬
ters. The number of children receiving instruction in pub¬
lic schools, according to the population returns of 1821,
440
TYRONE.
Tyrone, and the Reports of the Commissioners of National Educa-
—"'v'"-'' tion in 1824-6 and in 1837, was as follows:
Year. Males. Females. Stained. T°ta1’
1821 8,484 4,078  —  12,562
1824-6 10,783 7,598  447 18,828
1837 4.383 2,581  —  6,964
Of the numbers stated in the return of 1824-6, there
were, of the established church, 4824; Protestant Dissen¬
ters, 6404; Roman Catholics, 7480; besides 120 whose
religious persuasion was not ascertained. And according
to the same return, the number of schools was 435, of which
eighty-nine, with 4861 pupils, were supported by grants
of public money ; eighty, with 5250 pupils, by private sub¬
scriptions; and the remaining 226, with 8717 pupils, wholly
by the pupils’ fees.
After the flight and attainder of the earl of Tyrone in
1607, the county was parcelled out by King James among
English and Scotish settlers, or, as they were then styled,
“ planters,” among whom the native Irish were distributed
as tenants, except the swordsmen, who were dispersed
throughout the waste districts of Munster and Connaught.
Before that period, it was divided into two districts,
called North and South Tyrone ; but the northern part
was about that time transferred to Londonderry, and the
remainder divided into the five precincts of Clogher, Dun¬
gannon, Mountjoy, Omy, and Strabane. It now consists of
the four baronies of Clogher, Dungannon, Omagh, and
Strabane, which are subdivided into thirty-five parishes, of
which twenty are in the diocese of Armagh, eleven in that
of Derry, and four in Clogher; the cathedral and bishop’s seat
of the last named being in (he county. Tyrone was repre¬
sented in the Irish parliament by ten members, two for
the county, and two for each of the boroughs of Augher,
Clogher, Dungannon, and Strabane. By the act of union
the number bas been reduced to three, two for the county
and one for the borough of Dungannon. The numbers of
electors at different periods were as follows :
Year.
1831.
1832.
L.50.
.265.
.166.
L 20.
.316..
.240..
L.10.
,.701.
.745.
Total.
,.1282
,.1151
Total. Total. Total.
1833  1151 1836 1250 1838 1250
1834  1320 1837 1250 1839 3430
1835  2057
The local government is vested in a lord lieutenant,
twenty-two deputy lieutenants, and eighty-two other ma¬
gistrates, besides a stipendiary appointed and paid by the
crown, under whom there is a constabulary force of one
county inspector, five sub-inspectors, six head constables,
and loO constables and sub-constables. The assizes are
held at Omagh, where also are the county court-house and
prison. There are bridew!ells at Clogher, Dungannon, and
Strabane. General sessions of the peace are held at Stra¬
bane, Omagh, Dungannon, and Clogher ; and there are
eighteen stations for holding petty sessions. The num¬
ber of committals for 1839 was 558, disposed of as fol¬
lows : Discharged in consequence of want of prosecution,
sixty; no bill being found, 100; acquitted by jury, 151;
bailed and not tried, twenty ; total, 331 ; convicted, 227, of
whom there were discharged on securities, twenty-nine ;
fined, thirty ; imprisoned for six months or under, 127; for
one year, ten; for two years, three ; transported for periods
under seven years, ten ; for seven years, fourteen ; for four¬
teen yeais, four ; for life, none; sentenced to death, none ;
to which general total are to be added seventy-three cases of
summary convictions at petty sessions, and 190 for drunk¬
enness. The public establishments for medical purposes T
are in different places. The county infirmary is at Omagh
the fever hospital at Strabane, and the accommodation for
lunatics in the district-asylum at Londonderry. There are
twenty dispensaries distributed through the county. Work-
houses for unions under the new poor-law are in course of
erection at C’astlederg, Cookstown, Dungannon, Gorlin
Omagh, and Strabane.
The modes of agriculture differ according to the charac¬
ter of the soil. In the alluvial lands in the east, tillage is
pursued universally, and according to the most approved
systems, both as to the treatment of the land and the con¬
struction of the implements. It is also extending into the
mountainous district, wherever the nature of the soil or the
declivity of the land admits of it. The spade, as an instru¬
ment of general husbandry, is less used every year, and the
plough is substituted for it. Farms are generally small, not
often extending beyond fifty acres. The land is much sub¬
divided, except in the mountain districts, where farms are
often held by a number of tenants, each of whom tills a
quantity of the land proportionate to the amount of his rent,
and enjoys the benefit of the remainder as pasture-land for
his cattle, in common w ith the rest of the holders. In the
more highly cultivated parts the fences are of white thorn;
in the hilly country either of stone carelessly piled together,
or, where stone is scarce, of sods topped with furze, here called
whins. Land is now seldom allowed to lie fallow, as formerly,
but is kept in a productive state by a judicious rotation of
crops. Though it is not a pasturage country, and possesses
but few extensive dairies, much butter is made, chiefly for
the Scotish market. Cheese is also made in small quantities.
The native cow s are small, but good milkers. Great num¬
bers of young cattle are fed on the mountains, and altera
short time driven down to the lowlands lor sale, where they
are slaughtered, and sold under the name of horse-beef, be¬
cause carried to the markets on horseback. The horses
are hardy and excellent for field purposes, but are ill shaped.
The breed of sheep is little attended to, whether for wool
or carcass ; nor are sw ine reared in the numbers usual in
most other parts of Ireland, the vicinity of Strabane being
the only part in which they form an important part of the
farming stock.
'The linen manufacture was long the staple trade; and
though it lately declined here, as in other parts, lor some
years, yet it was never wholly relinquished : it is reviving to
such a degree that it may now be considered to be in a
flourishing and improving state. Bleach-greens were very
numerous, but most of them have been applied to other uses,
the linens wrought in the country being sold in a green state
in all the principal towns. Wool is manufactured for do¬
mestic use into coarse cloths, blankets, and druggets; which
last are still worn by the women, though their use is much di¬
minished by the demand for cheap cottons. The favourite
colour for broad cloths is a light blue. In spinning the
wool, the oleaginous juice of the fern-root pounded is used
instead of butter. Agricultural implements of every kind
are manufactured at Coal Island; as are fire-bricks, con¬
sidered to be equal to those of Stourbridge clay, and also cru¬
cibles. 'There are potteries in several places. Flour, tobacco,
soap, and candles are manufactured to a considerable extent.
There are several tanneries, distilleries, and breweries. l‘ie
northern mail-road to Londonderry, through Strabane, tra¬
verses the county. The Ulster Canal passes along thesout -
ern border from Lough Neagh to Caledon, near which it
enters Monaghan in its progress towards Lough Ei-06*
The Foyle is navigable for small craft to St Johnstown,
a village on the confines of the county, but on the bo-
negal bank of the river, and thence by an artificial cut to
Strabane. The Blackwater is navigable for boats to Moy,
and communicates w ith the collieries by a short canal, fncre
is also a communication between the river and the collier^
T Y R
hpo. y a railroad. The line of railroad proposed by the com-
•oissioners of railways to proceed from Armagh to Cole-
jine is intended to pass through Tyrone, near the western
oast of Lough Neagh, by Coal Island and Coagh. There
re nine banking establishments; three of which are
ranches of the Belfast, three of the Provincial, and three
f the Agricultural and Commercial Banks. There are also
ght registered loan-societies.
As every settler placed here by James I. was bound by
ie conditions of his grant, if he held upwards of 1000 acres,
i erect a castle with a bawn or fortified enclosure, numer-
js large buildings were raised, of a mixed character be-
veen the feudal fortress and the modern mansion, several
’ which are still the residences of the representatives or
iccessors of the original grantees. Besides these there are
any elegant modern mansions and villas of the landed
intry. The houses of the more substantial farmers are of
one, generally well built and slated ; the habitations of the
■asantry very poor, owing partly to the want of timber,
irtly to the poverty of the inmates. Turf is the general
lei, except in the immediate vicinity of the collieries. The
lod of the poorer classes is potatoes and oatmeal, with milk
id salt fish occasionally; flesh-meat is used only on festal
i easions. In their dress, customs, and dispositions, they
ry little from those of similar station throughout the pro-
nce. Irish is scarcely spoken except in the retired moun-
in-districts.
A singular mode of medical treatment is practised in
me parts. A kind of rude cell is scooped out of the side
a hill or bank, and closed in the front with wicker-work
clay, leaving only a small opening for the entrance,
he interior being heated with charred turf, the patient is
,d down in it, and the door being closed up so as to pre-
nt the admission of air, he is suffered to remain there un-
the action of the heat is supposed to have produced the
■sired effect, i his system is used in all complaints, but
liedy in rheumatic affections, which are very prevalent,
he poorer classes are much addicted to superstitious prac-
.es: they stand in great awe of fairies, or, as they call
cm, “ the wee people;” and still adhere to the custom of
iving their cattle round fires lighted at midsummer. An
itique bell, found among the ruins of a church, and
iown by the name of the Clogh of Termon, is used as a
;'tto swear upon ; and the donach, a box or casket contain-
g some relics, is employed for the same purpose.
1 here are many remains of raths and Danish forts, several
a state of good preservation; but their number is yearly di-
mshing, by their being dug up and carried away for farm-
; uses. Several fine monuments described as Druidical
t0 ‘)e seen* A very large cromlech rests on a hill near
town-Stewart; another is near Coagh. Some remains
a round tower were visible at Errigal-keroge in the be-
uimg of the present century, but no trace of it now ex-
Is’ . ear Dungannon is an ancient relic, consisting of
1 0. circes marked by upright stones, and connected to-
jlier in the shape of the figure 8. Several brazen trum-
s 0 Slngular construction were discovered about a
ntiiry ago near the same town. The remains of monas-
m dings and of ancient castles are numerous. Among
niost remarkable of the latter is that at Benburb, near
“p, 'vas one of the ancient residences of the O’Neills.
ie population is chiefly rural. 1 he largest town does not
u ai*i ) (0 inhabitants, and there are but nine containing
popuation which exceeds 1000. The county town is
'us, i, neaily in its centre, on the Drumragh water or
011 V a )lanc'h of the Foyle. This town was twice de-
. y >e;the first time in 1689, by the garrison
.i 111 ^ oy James, in order to render it useless
o enenly when they evacuated it; afterwards in 1743,
>, ^ecidental fire, which left but two houses standing.
mobt other places that have suffered by such a eala-
*0L. XXI. J
T Y R
441
rmty, it rose much improved from its ashes, and is now re- Tyrcseus.
mai kable foi its general neatness, and the elegance of some s ■**• v——
of its buildings, particularly the court-house, the other pub¬
lic buildings are, the parish-church, with a lofty tower and
spire, the Homan Catholic chapel, four dissenting chapels,
the county-prison and infirmary, and a barrack. Omagh has
some trade, and is one of the markets for brown linens.
J ne population is Strabane, on the IVIourne, near
its confluence with the Finn, is the largest and most im¬
proving town in the county. Its situation is very pictu¬
resque ; the natural beauties of its site being heightened by
the numerous orchards and fruit-gardens in which it is em¬
bosomed. Its public buildings are, the parochial church,
a Roman Catholic chapel, and four dissenting places of
worship. It is a chartered borough, but the corporation
is little regarded since it lost by the union its right of re¬
presentation. Its only corporate property are the town tolls
and customs. It carries on a brisk trade in grain and pro¬
visions, which is greatly promoted by a canal, three miles
long, to Leek, on the Foyle, and navigable for barges of
forty tons. The linen manufacture, after having been
carried on here to a large extent, gave way to that of cot¬
ton, which has also declined. The present thriving state of
the place is owing to its general trade, and its position as
a mart for receiving the agricultural produce of the inte-
lior and transmitting it to Londonderry: it also enjoys the
advantage of a profitable fishery. The population is 5457.
Dungannon, three miles west of the south-west extremity
of Lough Neagh, was the principal residence of O’Neill, the
head of the family, who here erected a large castle, which
he afterwards burned, together with the town, when driven
from it by Lord Mountjoy. The castle was rebuilt after the
restoration, and the town much improved. Its public
buildings are, the parish church, a Roman Catholic chapel,
several dissenting places of worship, and one of the royal
schools endowed by James I. The linen manufacture is
still carried on with great spirit; and there are several bleach-
greens in the neighbourhood. It has also manufactories of
earthenware, fire-bricks, iron, and flour. It returns a mem¬
ber to the imperial parliament, for which purpose a new and
more limited boundary has been laid down, comprehending
but 224 acres out of 836, which is its extent for other mu¬
nicipal purposes. I he population is 3515. Cookstown, on
the road from Dungannon to Coleraine, has also a respect¬
able share of the linen manufacture, chiefly for the supply
of the English market. Its population is 2883. The other
towns whose population exceeds 1000 souls each are, Auch-
naeloy, 1742; Newtown-Stewart, 1737; Fintona, 1714;
Caledon, lu79; and Stewartstown, 1010. Clogher, where
stood the cathedral of the diocese of the same name, a build¬
ing of small dimensions and fewT architectural pretensions,
though dignified with the title of city, from the circumstance
of its being the seat of a bishop, is but a village, with a
population of 523 inhabitants, who chiefly derive their
subsistence from the expenditure of the family and de¬
pendents of the bishop, whose palace and demesne are in its
vicinity. ^ (c. p.)
TYRTJEUS, a renowned poet, was an Athenian by
birth, and flourished about 682 years before the com¬
mencement of the Christian era. He followed the occu¬
pation of a schoolmaster, was lame in one foot, and was
considered as scarcely sound in mind. By the foolish,
genius is sometimes mistaken for fatuity. The causes
which led to his being placed in a more conspicuous situa¬
tion were very peculiar. During their second war with the
Messenians, the Lacedaemonians having consulted the oracle
of Delphi, were directed to request the services of an Athe¬
nian general. The Athenians were unwilling to disregard
the injunctions of the oracle, but they were also unwilling
to assist a rival state in extending its dangerous power in
the Peloponnesus; and with the view of at once complying
3 K
f
442 T Y R
Tyrwhitt. with the form, and evading the spirit of the response, they
sent the lame and eccentric poet to Sparta. By the force
of his genius, he speedily effaced the first impressions oc¬
casioned by the meanness of his personal appearance ; but
his victories were achieved by the lyre and not by the
sword. He composed various poems in praise of valour
and patriotism, and breathed a new spirit into the rude sol¬
diers of Sparta. When they had been thrice repulsed,^ and
their leaders were on the point of ordering a retreat, I yr-
taeus, by loudly reciting his noble verses, roused the droop¬
ing courage of the army to such a height, that every warrior
prepared to conquer or die. In the anticipation that they
might all perish on that bloody field, they each fastened on
the right arm a ticket, containing his own name and that
of his father, lest, in the general mass of carnage, it might
be impossible to recognise their mangled bodies. 1 he
Messenians fought with great valour and determination, but
the Lacedaemonians at length obtained the victory. When
civil discords afterwards arose at Sparta, they were dispelled
by the potent song of Tyrtaeus. As a reward of his eminent
services, he was admitted to the rights and privileges of a
citizen. According to the statement of Lycurgus, they
passed a law, enjoining as a preparation for battle, that the
soldiers were to assemble at the king’s tent, in order to lis¬
ten to the recitation of this poet’s verses, so well calculated
to inspire them with a contempt of danger and death.1 Of
the literary history of Greece, very few portions are so sin¬
gular as that which we have now detailed ; nor must it be
forgotten that the people among whom poetry effected such
wonders, were never distinguished by the cultivation of
literature.
Of the fragments of Tyrtaeus, the earliest edition is sup¬
posed to be that which M. Aurogallus published along with
the Hymns of Callimachus, Basil. 1532, 4to. They were
afterwards inserted in various collections, those of Turne-
bus, Winterton, Brunck, Gaisford, and others. A separate
edition was published by Dr Moor, Glasg. 1759, 4to. Two
editions, much more elaborate, were published by Klotz,
Bremae, 1764, 8vo, Altemb. 1767, 8vo. This second im¬
pression contains various additions and improvements. But
the most valuable edition that has yet appeared is included
in a volume bearing the title of “ Jo. Valentini Franckii,
Philos. D. Callinus; sive, Quaestionis de Origine Carminis
Elegiac! Tractatio critica. Accedunt Tyrtrei Reliquiae,
cum procemio et critica annotatione.” Altonae et Lipsiae,
1816, 8vo. The fragments of Tyrtaeus, almost entirely in
elegiac verse, are eleven in number, but only two of them
extend to any considerable length. One of them consists
of a single verse. The fragment beginning Ms^ig rsD
xurdxaG&s; which is frequently printed among those of
Tyrtaeus, is by the best critics assigned to Callinus.
TYRWHITT, Thomas, a distinguished scholar, was
born in London on the 29th of March 1730. His father
Dr Robert Tyrwhitt, descended from an ancient baronet’s
family in Lincolnshire, was at that time rector of St James’s,
Westminster; but this benefice he resigned in 1732, on
being appointed a canon residentiary of St Paul’s. With
this preferment, he held the prebend of Kentishtown, and
the archdeaconry of London. In 1740 he became a canon
of Windsor; and, if his life had been prolonged, he might
perhaps have attained to a higher station in the church ; but
he died on the 15th of June 1742, at the early age of forty-
four. By his wife, the eldest daughter of Bishop Gibson,
he left a numerous family, with only a moderate provision.
His eldest son Thomas was sent to a school at Kensington,
after he had completed the sixth year of his age. In Janu¬
ary 1741 he was removed to Eton, where he first displayed
that ardent love of literature for which he continued through
T Y R
life to be eminently distinguished. It was said of Tyrwhitt Tvr^
that he never was a boy, his calm and contemplative dis-^-v
position always leading him to manly and scholar-like pur¬
suits. After residing at Eton for six years, he was in 1747
entered ot Queen’s College, Oxford. He took the degree
of A. B. in 1750 ; and having been elected to a fellowship of
Merton in August 1755, he took that of A. M. in the ensu¬
ing year.
He had previously hired chambers in the Temple, and
applied himself to the study of the law ; but in December
1756 he was appointed under secretary at war, the principal
secretary being his friend and patron Lord Barrington.
In August 1762 he obtained the more lucrative office of
clerk of the House of Commons, and he then resigned his
fellowship. “ If the fatigues of the clerkship,” says one
biographer, “ had not proved too much for his constitution,
it is thought that some of the higher offices of the state
were within his reach.” He resigned his office in January
1768, and passed the remainder of his life in learned retire¬
ment. In 1784 he was elected a curator of the British
Museum, and was zealous in discharging the duties con¬
nected with this honourable appointment. To the Museum
he bequeathed a portion of his valuable library, compre¬
hending such books as it did not already possess. Bis
constitution had never been robust; and having been at¬
tacked by two violent disorders, he expired on the 15th of
August 1786, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. He died
at his house in Welbedk-street, Cavendish-square, and was
interred, as his father had also been, in St George’s Chapel,
Windsor. He left behind him the character of a learned
and amiable man. “ In private life,” we are informed, “he
was a man of great liberality, of which some striking in¬
stances are given. In one year it is said he gave away
L.2000, and for such generous exertions he had the ability
as well as the inclination, for he had no luxuries, no follies,
and no vices to maintain. Of such a man it is unnecessary
to add, that he died lamented by all who knew the worth of
his friendship, or enjoyed the honour of his acquaintance.”
Tyrwhitt was a man of solid as well as extensive erudition;
well acquainted with the modern, and eminently skilled in
the ancient languages. He was an able Grecian; and his
name is held in much respect by the scholars of the con¬
tinent. He distinguished himself by his sound judgment
and critical sagacity ; nor was he less distinguished by the
modesty and candour which he carried into all his inquiries.
He bore no resemblance to those verbal critics who seem
to have dipped their pens in gall whenever they enter upon
the discussion of a controverted point, however minute.
His earliest publication was “ An Epistle to Florio at
Oxford.” Lond. 1749, 4to. This was followed by “ Trans¬
lations in Verse.” 1752, 4to. Here Pope’s Messiah
and Philips’s Splendid Shilling appear in Latin, and the
eighth Isthmian ode of Pindar in English. His next work,
which is but of small extent, is entitled “ Observations an
Conjectures on some Passages of Shakspeare.” Oxford,
1766, 8vo. On the same poet he afterwards communi¬
cated various annotations to Steevens and Reed, for their
editions of 1778 and 1785. His edition of another Enghs
poet brought him a considerable increase of reputation.
“ The Canterbury Tales of Chaucer. To which are ad e ,
an essay on his language and versification; an introduc¬
tory discourse ; and notes.” Lond. 1775-8, 5 vols. 'j0-
Oxf. 1798, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1830, 5 vols. 8vo. He
afterwards lent his aid to the publication of “ Poems, sop
posed to have been written at Bristol, by Thomas How ey
and others, in the fifteenth century ; the greatest part now
first published from the most authentic copies, with an en
graved specimen of one of the MSS. To which are a c
1 Oratoresi Attici, tom. iv. p. 451. edit. Dobson.
\ '•
bitf
T Y R
preface, an introductory account of the several pieces, and
—' glossaryLond. 1777, 8vo. This volume was twice re-
■inted in 1778, with the addition of an appendix, tending
prove that the poems were all written by Chatterton.
yrwhitt’s opinion, which is now sufficiently confirmed, was
I Jiposed by several writers, one of whom was Mr Bryant,
i ?d another Dr Milles, dean of Exeter. The former pub-
hed an elaborate volume of nearly six hundred pages,
e returned an able and temperate answer, under the title
( “ A Vindication of the Appendix to the Poems called
' jmley’s, in reply to the Answers of the Dean of Exeter,
. * cob Bryant, Esquire, and a third anonymous writer ; with
sne further Observations upon those Poems, and an Exa-
r nation of the Evidence which has been produced in sup-
jrt of their Authenticity.” Lond. 1782, 8vo. The word
<, thmticity, it may be remarked, is here improperly used
i lead of genuineness. On this controversy, several other
tcts were produced. Tyrwhitt’s opinion was adopted by
1 irton, and was opposed by Mathias.
These were the principal works of literature which he
ptalished in English. He was however the editor of other
t!) works which deserve to be mentioned. “ Proceedings
a l Debates in the House of Commons in 1620 and 1621;
frn the original MS. in the library of Queen’s College,
|0 ford: with an appendix.” Oxf. 17'66, 2 vols. 8vo. “ The
Unner of Holding Parliaments in England. By Henry
E ynge, Cler. Par. Corrected and enlarged from the author’s
o final MS.” Lond. 1768, 8vo. He likewise superin-
tided the posthumous publication of his learned friend
1 Musgrave: “ Two Dissertations. I. On the Grecian
Ethology. II. An Examination of Sir Isaac Newton’s Ob-
j( ions to the Chronology of the Olympiads.” Lond. 1782,
8 . Tor this work a very liberal subscription had been
rf ed, entirely by the exertions of Mr Tyrwhitt, who had
pwiously relinquished to the author’s widow a bond for se-
v il hundred pounds, which he had lent to her husband.
lis classical labours, though not very extensive, have
Btiured him a high reputation as a scholar. In 1773 he
p lished from a Harleian manuscript “ Fragmenta duo
PUarchiand after an interval of three years appeared
h “ Dissertatio de Babrio, Fabularum iEsopearum Scrip-
t( ■. Inseruntur Tabula? qusedam iEsopeae nunquam an¬
ti ic editac, ex cod. MS. Bodleiano. Accedunt Babrii
Tgmcnta.” Lond. 1776, 8vo. Of Babrius, otherwise
e ed Babrias or Gabrias, the personal history is altogether
oihure. Tyrwhitt supposes him to have flourished during
t^age of Augustus, or somewhat earlier. Avianus states
fi he compressed two volumes of fables into Greek iam¬
bi1 : “ quas Graecis iambis Babrius repetens, in duo volu-
ii a coartavit.” Suidas informs us that he changed ten
)' ks of Tlsopean fables into choliambic verse. His scazons
®P-atr. to have been afterwards reduced to prose; and
j whltt considers it probable that all the prose fables now
)«'mg the name of fiEsop have been fabricated from Ba-
m s. “ Mihi sane haec cogitanti verisimile videtur, collec-
tij es omnes, quas hodie tenemus, fabularum fiEsopearum
a Pere Fabriano originem suam duxisse, differentias autem
f*ltn scr'Pt°rum multitudini imputandas esse, qui diversis
poribus, et locis, et ingeniis, et studiis, metrorum ele-
gfassimorum partes varias, pro libitu suo quisque, in
p am traducendas sumpserunt.” In the Bodleian Library
ound a MS, which, being inaccurately described, had
i fL f16 modce of Dr Hudson, although he was keeper
iat library when, in 1718, he published his edition of
• P'. Various fragments of Babrius are yet to be found
j)'fir ^iginal state ; and the learning and sagacity of
^ CY> lyrwhitt,and other critics, have frequently enabled
n to restore his verses from their transposed form. The
tj 1S 0 ^ os dissertation are duly acknowledged by Knoch,
at rni°SareCen*:.ec^t;or Eabrius. A sequel to it wTas soon
n'ar s published. “ De Lapidibus poema, Orpheo a
T Y T
quibusdam adscriptum, Gr. et Lat. ex editione J. M.Gesneri.
Kecensuit notasque adjecit Thomas Tyrwhitt. Simul pro-
dst Auctarium Dissertationis de Babrio.” Lond. 1781, 8vo.
Loth the dissertation and the (tuctcivium were reprinted
under the superintendence of Hades, Erlangre, 1785, 8vo.
Tyrwhitt had contributed various notes on Euripides,
which appeared in Musgrave’s edition, published at Oxford
in 1778 in 4 vols. 4to. He afterwards produced his'-“ Conjec¬
ture in Strabonem.” Lond. 1783, 8vo. Erlang. 1788, 8vo.
The last work which he lived to publish rvas an edition of the
oration of Iseus “ De Meneclis Hereditate.” Lond. 1785,
8yo. He had bestowed no small labour in the preparation
of another work, which was conducted through the press
by Dr Burgess, afterwards bishop of Salisbury: “ Aristotelis
de Poetica liber Greece et Latine. Lectionem constituit,
versionem refinxit, animadversionibus illustravit Thomas
Tyrwhitt. Oxonii, 1794, fol. 4to & 8vo. These animad¬
versions, which may be regarded as his principal work, are
very able and elaborate. Another posthumous publication
appeared after a considerable interval: “ Thomre Tyrwhitti
Conjecturas in J3schylum, Euripidem, et Aristophanem.
Accedunt Epistolae diversorum ad Tyrwhittum.” Oxon.
1822, 8vo. * (x )
11 ILER, William, one of the most strenuous defen¬
ders of the immaculate purity of Queen Mary, was born
at Edinburgh on the 12th of October 171L He was the
son of Mr Alexander Tytler, a writer or attorney in Edin¬
burgh, by Jane the daughter of Mr William Leslie, merchant
in Aberdeen, and granddaughter of Sir Patrick Leslie of
Iden, provost of that city. He received his education at the
High School and the university of his native city, and distin¬
guished himself by an early proficiency in those classical
studies which, to the latest period of his life, were the oc¬
cupation of his leisure hours, and a principal source of his
mental enjoyments. At the age of thirty-one he was ad¬
mitted into the society of writers to the signet, and till the
time of his death he continued the practice of his profes¬
sion with very good success, and with equal respect from his
cheats and the public. In September 1745, he married
Anre Craig, daughter of Mr James Craig of Dalnair, writer
to the signet, by whom he left two sons and a daughter.
In 1759 he published his “Inquiry, Historical and Critical,
into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots, and an
Examination of the Histories of Dr Robertson and Mr
Hume, with respect to that Evidence.” Here he warmly
espoused’the cause of that unfortunate princess, and attacked
with severity the conduct of her enemies. On this subject,
most of his opinions have already become obsolete. On its
first appearance, the book was much read in Britain, and
w'as translated into French. He afterwards published the
“ Poetical Remains of James the First, King of Scotland.”
Edinb. 1783, 8vo. This volume includes a dissertation
on the life and wwitings of the royal author, and a “ Disserta¬
tion on the Scottish Music.” He contributed several papers
to the first volume of the ’Transactions of the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland. In the Lounger he wwote a
single paper, No. 16. Mr Tytler died on the 12th of Sep¬
tember 1792. In domestic life his character was particu¬
larly amiable ; and he is said to have been one of the kind¬
est of husbands, and most affectionate of fathers.
Tytler, Alexander Fraser, the eldest son of Wil¬
liam Tytler, noticed in the preceding article, was born at
Edinburgh on the 15th of October 1747. In his eighth
year, he w-as sent to the High School, where he became
dux of the rector’s class. In 1763, he was placed under
the care of Mr Elphinston, who then kept an academy at
Kensington. Here he enlarged his stock of classical
knowledge, and cultivated his talent for Latin versification.
One of his poems was communicated to Dr Jortin, an ex¬
cellent judge, who encouraged the youthful writer by his
commendation, and presented him with a copy of his own
443
Tvtler.
444
T Y T
T Z U
T vtle.r.
Latin poems. After a residence of two years he quitted
Kensington, and in 1765 entered the university ot Edin¬
burgh, where he had the advantage of prosecuting his studies
under Dr Ferguson and Dr Blair. His range ot enquiry was
sufficiently ample, but his chief efforts were directed to litera¬
ture and jurisprudence. He continued to increase his fami¬
liarity with the Greek and Latin writers, nor did he neglect
the study of modern languages. Music and drawing were add¬
ed to his other accomplishments. Natural history became,
and long continued to be, one of his favourite recreations.
He was called to the bar in 1770 ; and in the spring of
the ensuing year, he accompanied his relation Mr Kerr ol
Blackshiels on a tour to Paris, from which they returned
by Flanders and Holland. At the age of twenty-four he
published “ Piscatory Eclogues, with other Poetical Mis¬
cellanies, by Phineas Fletcher: illustrated with notes, cri¬
tical and explanatory.’’ Edinb. 1771, Bvo. In 1776 he
married Anne, the eldest daughter of William Fraser, Esq.
of Balnain. When the Works of John Gregory, M.D. were
published in 1778, he contributed the preliminary account
of the author’s life and writings. During the same year,
he published a folio volume, supplementary to Lord Karnes’s
Dictionary of Decisions. Although he never rose to high
practice at the bar, he did not neglect the learning of his
profession ; but soon after this period he sought and ob¬
tained an academical office. In 1780 he was appointed
conjunct professor with Mr Pringle, and in 1788 he became
sole professor of civil history. From his first appointment
till the year 1800, he devoted his attention almost exclu¬
sively to the duties of his professorship; and ten years of
assiduous study were employed in the composition and im¬
provement of the course of lectures which he annually read
in the university. His lectures were considered as valu¬
able, and they continued to attract a very respectable
auditory. For the use of his students, he printed a “ Plan
and Outlines of a Course of Lectures on Universal History,
Ancient and Modern.” Edinb. 1782, 8vo. This compen¬
dium was afterwards enlarged, and published under the
title of “ Elements of General History, Ancient and Mo¬
dern.” Edinb. 1801, 2 vols. 8vo. In 1822 a supplemen¬
tary volume was added by Dr Nares, professor of modern
history at Oxford. Mr Tytler’s next, and, according to our
judgment, his best work, bears the title of an “ Essay on
the Principles of Translation.” Lond. 1791, Bvo. The third
edition, with large additions, appeared at Edinburgh in 1813.
This essay, originally published without the author’s name,
experienced a very favourable reception, and still continues
to be regarded as a judicious and learned work.
In 1790 he was appointed judge-advocate of Scotland.
On the death of his father in 1792, he succeeded to the
estate of Woodhouselee near Edinburgh ; and on the death
of his father-in-law, he had previously succeeded to that of
Balnain in the county of Inverness. In 1795 he was seized
with a dangerous fever, which was of long continuance, and
was accompanied with delirium. When he was sufficiently
recovered, he resumed his favourite pursuits, and occupied
himself with preparing an edition of Dr Derham’s Physico-
Theology, including an account of the life and writings of
the author, and a short dissertation on final causes, together
with notes. This edition was printed in 1799. During the
same year he wrote a pamphlet, which was published at
Dublin under the title of “ Ireland profiting by Example;
or the Question considered, whether Scotland has gained
or lost by the Union.” Of this well-timed tract, three
thousand copies were sold on the day of its publication.
His next production was “ An Essay on Military Law, and
the Practice of Courts Martial.” Edinb. 1800, 8vo. A
second edition was printed at London in 1800. He con¬
tributed the critical remarks, inserted without his name in
an edition of the Poems of Allan Ramsay. Lond. 1800, 2
vols. Svo. The biographical account of the poet was con- Tit
tributedby a writer greatly inferior to Mr Tytler. w
The literary, professional, and, we may add, political
merits, of the learned professor, were too conspicuous to be
overlooked. On the second of February 1802 he took his
seat in the Court of Session, with the title of Lord Wood,
houselee. To the duties of his new station he devoted
himself with scrupulous assiduity; but the long vacations
left him abundant leisure for bis literary pursuits. He de¬
vised several projects which he did not live to execute. One
of these was a life of George Buchanan ; “ in which,” as we
are informed, “ he proposed to do ample justice to his ge-
nius as a poet, and his merits as a historian, but to examine,
with firmness and accuracy, his conduct as a man and as a
politician.” It is easy to conjecture that Buchanan’s po-
litics could not be very highly approved by Lord W7ood-
houselee. He however found another subject for his bio-
graphical labours, and published a very copious work, under
the title of “ Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the
Hon. Henry Home of Kames.” Edinb. 1807, 2 vols. 4to.
This work, which was reprinted in octavo, contains an am¬
ple store of historical and literary information, and in va¬
rious respects is very creditable to the author. Like all
other works, however, it is not without its defects. The
author’s manner of writing is too diffuse; his muster-roll of
great men is much too great; and not a few subjects and
characters seem to be viewed through the dim and nar¬
row expanse of political prejudice. In this modern judge,
the conduct of Sir George Mackenzie found a zealous de¬
fender. His lordship, we are inclined to think, was more
laudably employed in preparing for the press “ An Histo¬
rical and Critical Essay on the Life and Character of Pe¬
trarch : with a Translation of a few of his Sonnets.” Edinb.
1810, Svo. The greater part of this work had appeared in
two separate publications; the one a small pamphlet, print¬
ed with a similar title twenty-five years before; the other
a dissertation or an historical hypothesis of the Abbe de
Sade, printed in the fourth volume of the Transactions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In the year 1811, he
was appointed a judge of the Court of Justiciary, fhis
new preferment he did not long enjoy. I or some time
he laboured under a disease which he himself contemplated
as fatal, but the termination of his earthly career was very
sudden. He died at his house in Prince’s-street, on the
5th of January 1813, in the sixty-sixth year of his age.1
Lord Woodhouselee appears to have been an amiable as
well as an accomplished man. He was gentle and polished
in his manners. At every period of his life, he was distin¬
guished by his love of elegant literature. He had cultivated
classical learning with perseverance and success; and even
during his advanced years he continued to seek a change
of tasteful recreation in the composition of Latin verses.
Some specimens have been printed. In the Mirror and tie
Lounger he wrote various papers, and he was likewise n
contributor to the Transactions of the Royal Society, je
left a widow, with four sons and two daughters. i‘ie
eldest son succeeded to the estate of Balnain, and the se
cond to that of Woodhouselee. Another son, Alexaneer,
published a work entitled “ Considerations on the Pre^n
Political State of India.” Lond. 1815, 2 vols. 8vo.
youngest son is the author of the History of Scotian , an
other performances w ell known to the public. ,
TZULIM, or Tchulimm, a river of Asiatic Kussia," w
runs through the province of Kolivan, and lulls int0 1
Yenisei, its course is through a poor and desolate counj)
with scarcely a house or an inhabitant, but only tall P1^
rising like pyramids, and spreading their branches80
as to render the woods almost impassable. I lie onlD^ar.
bitants are Tartars, who are sunk in the lowest state o
barism.  __
1 Transactions of the Hoyal Society of Edinburgh, voi. viii. p. 515.
445
u.
U B R U G O
I TT or u, the twentietli letter and fifth vowel of our al-
I ^ 9 phabet, is formed in the voice by a round configu-
que‘ ation of the lips, and a greater extrusion of the under one
"ban in forming the letter o. The sound is short in curst,
mst, tun, tub; but is lengthened by a final e, as in tune,
the, &c. In some words it is rather acute than long ; as
i brute, Jlute, lute, &c. It is mostly long in polysyllables ;
, in union, curious, &c.; but in some words it is obscure,
s in nature, venture, &c.
UBEDA, a city of Spain, in the province of Andalusia,
i the division called the kingdom of Jaen. It is situated in
fertile district, on a gentle elevation, but is well protected
,om the cold north winds by the loftier elevations of the
•ierra Nevada. The vegetable products are, corn, grapes,
lives, and especially figs; but from the want of even
assable roads, and of access to any of the great cities,
iere is little inducement to cultivate beyond the demands
’ the immediate vicinity. The breed of horses is highly
lined, as the only article sold beyond the limits of the dis-
ict. Being a frontier town between the Moors and the
hristians so long as the former maintained themselves in
ranada, it was the scene of numerous and sanguinary
inflicts. Like the other cities in this part of Spain, it has,
• perhaps had, a very great number of churches, convents,
id nunneries. The inhabitants are stated to be about
3,000, a few of whom are occupied in making coarse
oollen stuffs for domestic use. Ubeda is thirty miles from
ie city of Jacn, and fifty-four miles from Granada. Long.
. 18. W. Lat. 38. 3. N.
UBIQUITARIANS, a word formed from ubique, every-
here, denotes a sect of Lutherans which arose and spread
self in Germany, and whose distinguishing doctrine was,
iat the body of Jesus Christ is everywhere, or in every
ace. Brentius, one of the earliest reformers, is said to
ive first broached this error in 1580. Luther himself, in
is controversy with Zuinglius, had used some unguarded
Repressions, which seemed to imply a belief of the omnipre-
Mice of the body of Christ; but he afterwards became sensi-
le that this opinion was attended with great difficulties, and
articularly that it ought not to be made use of as a proof
I Christ’s corporal presence in the eucharist. After the
oath of Luther, this absurd hypothesis was exhibited in a
lecious and plausible form by Brentius, Chemnitius, and
■ndreas, who maintained the communication of the pro-
orties of Christ’s divinity to his human nature. It is in-
eed obvious, that every Lutheran who believes the doc-
! me of consubstantiation, whatever he may pretend, must
| can Ubiquitarian. See Supper of the Lord.
UBIQUI TY, Omnipresence, an attribute of the Deity,
1 'hereby he is always intimately present to all things.
UBRIQUE, a city of Spain, of the province of Anda-
isia, in the western part of the government of Granada,
etween the Sierra of the Alpuraxis and that of Antequera,
1 a most picturesque country. It is nestled in the bot-
|:)tn of a deep valley, hemmed in by singularly rugged
'ountains. The valley is pierced by two streams, which
re conducted to the town, and form the river Majaceite,
•iid fertilize a belt of ground around the city, of most luxuriant
egetation. 1 he streets are wide, clean, and well paved,
he houses lofty and good, but with scarcely any furniture.
1 he population is estimated at 8000 souls. They have some
anneries,. and manufacture some hats and coarse cloth.
111 the neighbourhood are some mines of copper, which
were formerly worked, but have for many years been aban- Uckfieid
doned. ||
UCKFIELD, a town in the hundred of Loxfield-Dorset hJgocsa.
and rape of Pevensey, in the county of Sussex. It is si- '—'"'y''—
tuated on the great road to Lewes and Eastbourne, forty-
one miles from London. It is well built, clean, and flou¬
rishing, chiefly depending on the travelling through it. It
is a part of the parish of Buxted. The population amount¬
ed in 1821 to 1099, and in 1831 to 1261.
UDINE, a city of Austrian Lombardy, the capital of the
delegation of Friuli, in the government of Venice. It is sur¬
rounded with wralls, and stands on the river Roja di Palma,
in a hilly country, 350 feet above the level of the sea. It
is a well-built city, and kept in good order, but, from the
narrowness and crookedness of the streets, has a gloomy
appearance. There is however a fine plaza or market¬
place, ornamented with a column and statue to commemo¬
rate the peace of Campoformio, which was signed in a vil¬
lage near this city in 1797. It is the seat of an archbishop,
has a cathedral, twelve churches, and several oratories or
chapels. The episcopal palace is a fine building, and so is
the opera-house ; and some others are worthy of notice,
though almost hidden by the meaner buildings that sur¬
round them. There are public institutions for charitable
and educational purposes, but they are for the most part
on a contracted scale. The population in 1830 amounted
to 17,560 persons, whose chief occupation arises from the
breeding of silk-worms, and from the labour of winding and
spinning. There are also some manufactures of linen
goods, considerable tanneries, and a few paper-mills. The
gloomy appearance of the city is somewhat relieved by se¬
veral fine promenades in the contiguous suburbs. Long. 13.
8. 57. E. Lat. 46. 3. 14. N.
UDIPU, a town of the south of India, province of Ca-
nara, about three miles from the sea, on a small river. It
contains 300 houses and three Hindu temples, the roofs of
which are covered with copper. Long. 74. 48. E. Lat. 14.
10. N.-
UETCULME, or Uffcolumb, a market-town and pa¬
rish in the hundred of Bampton and county of Devon,
160 miles from London. It has a good market on Wed¬
nesday, and some fairs. The trade in serges has become
extinct. The population amounted in 1821 to 1979, and
in 1831 to 2082.
UGLITSCH, a circle of the Russian government of
Jaroslaw. It extends in north latitude from 57° l?7 to 58°
11', and in east longitude from 38° 17' to 39° 8'. It com¬
prehends one city and 374 towns and villages, with 68,840
inhabitants. The land is of moderate fertility, watered by
the Wolga, the Jugol, and the Uleima; and it yields toler¬
able crops of corn, while the meadows afford good pasture
for horned cattle. The capital is the city of the same
name, situate on the river Wolga. It contains twenty-five
churches, 1100 houses, in narrow and crooked streets, and
7300 inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in the manufac¬
ture of coarse paper, linen and woollen fabrics, soap, and
leather. It is 445 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 38.
19. E. Lat. 57. 27. N.
UGOCSA, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Hun¬
gary, in the province of the Hither Theiss. It extends
over 480 square miles, one half of which is covered with
woods. It comprehends three market-towns and sixty-
three villages, with 5390 houses, and 36,900 inhabitants,
446
U J V
U L M
Uist mostly Catholics, with 2000 Protestants and 1500 Jews.
Jj(}ek ^he chief town is Nagyszollos, with 2160 inhabitants,
^ VU' whose chief trade is in wine. Long. 22. 4)1. 34?. E. Lat.
^ 48. 7. 10. N.
UIST, South and North, two of the Hebrides Islands.
South Uist is situate in 57° 7' and 57° 25' N. lat., and 7°
12' and 7° 28' W. long. Its extent is twenty-one miles,
its greatest breadth about eight miles and a half, and its su¬
perficial extent is calculated at 127 square miles. The po¬
pulation in 1831, including small islands attached to it,
amounted to 6890. North Uist is separated from South
Uist by the island of Benbecula. It is situate between 57°
40' and 57° 48' N. lat., and 7° P and 7° 30' W. long. It
is of an irregular triangular shape, and has a length of
nearly seventeen miles, a breadth of about twelve miles,
and contains a superficial extent of 118 square miles. The
population in 1831, including the island of Boreray, amount¬
ed to 4603. The rocks of both islands are gneiss, and both
present nearly the same physical appearance, being broken
up by innumerable branches of the sea, and having their
surface covered by a multiplicity of fresh-water lakes,
a few feet in depth, so as to render it difficult to deter¬
mine whether water or land prevails. They are also
completely destitute of wood, and the land may be said to
be rather extensive series of peat-bogs and sand-levels, than
of soil. In South Uist there are three distinct groups of
hills, which exclusively occupy the eastern side, the high¬
est of which is Heckla, rising to an elevation of 2940 feet;
while the western division is a level tract of peat, which
terminates, at the extreme west, in sand. Barley, oats,
rye, and potatoes, are cultivated here, by the use of sea¬
weed and the ordinary manure. Portions also of the mid¬
dle tract are cultivated, where the ground is firm, and natu¬
rally drained by means of the lakes. North Uist also rises
on its eastern side, towards the north, into a low ridge of
hills, which gradually increase toward the south, till they
rise to an elevation of 2000 feet. Westward from this there
is a large brown, peaty, and boggy flat tract, comprising
nearly half the area of the island, and producing scanty
and wretched herbage. The south-west part however
terminates in an uneven tract of good land, the soil of which
contains clay ; and this being aided by peat and drift sea¬
weed, and mixed with sand, forms an excellent open
mould, applicable to the cultivation of barley and potatoes,
i his forms the principal part of the arable land in North
Uist. In both islands, however, the peat is undergoing a
gradual amelioration toward mould, by the diffusion of the
sand, formed for the most part of various comminuted shells,
which is blown by the wind over the surface. The rearing
and exporting of cattle, the fisheries, and the manufacture
of kelp, which is now in a very depressed state, are the
means by which the inhabitants earn their subsistence,
there are various remains of military works and barrows
found in North Uist. The population of the two islands
being 11,493, and their superficial extent 243 square miles,
the number of inhabitants for each square mile is forty-
seven ; while in the rest of Scotland the proportion is eighty-
six to each square mile. Even this small number is too
great for the unproductive state of the soil. The growing
. scarcity of fish, and the fearful over-population, have re-
duced the greater part of the inhabitants to a state of
wretchedness. Education is in a very backward condition.
In 1831 the number of well-educated persons was thirty-
three, and the number of those above six years of age un¬
able to read was 7400. In 1838 the number of schools
w as 15, and of scholars 590.
UJ-VIDEK, a city of the Austrian kingdom of Hun¬
gary, in the province of Hither Danube and the circle of
Bacs. It is the capital of a district called by the Germans
Neusatz, and by the Hungarians Also-Jaras. It stands on
iue river Danube, is the seat of a GreeL bishop, and has
five churches belonging to that sect, and one to the Catho Uv
lies; and to each there are attached establishments for edu- 7'
cation. It contains 2367 houses, and 13,390 inhabitants'
who are mostly of the Armenian race, and carry on exten-s"V
sive trade with the Turkish empire. Long. 19 59 ok p"
Lat. 45. 16. N. ‘ K
UKENSKOI, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the govern¬
ment of Tobolsk, at the confluence of the Irtysch and tliP
Obi, 196 miles north of Tobolsk.
UKIKITSCHA, a small river of Irkoutsk, in Asiatic
Russia, which falls into the Olenek.
UKINSKOI, a cape of Asiatic Russia, on the eastern
coast of Kamtschatka, sixty miles north-east of Oudinskoi
UKIPEN, a small island in the North Pacific Ocean'
so called by the Russians, probably the same with that
called Sledge Island by Captain Cook. Long. 214 E Lit
64. 22. N. ‘
UKRAINE, a large country of Europe, lying on the
borders of Turkey in Europe, Poland, Russia, and Little
Tartary. Its name properly signifies a frontier. By a
treaty between Russia and Poland in 1693, the latter re¬
mained in possession of all that part of the Ukraine lying
on the west side of the river Dnieper, which is but indif¬
ferently cultivated ; while the country on the east side, in¬
habited by the Cossacks, is in much better condition. The
Russian part is comprised in the government of Kiof; and
the empress of Russia having obtained the Polish palati¬
nate of Kiof by the treaty of partition in 1793, the whole
of the Ukraine, on both sides of the Dnieper, now belongs
to that ambitious and formidable power. The principal
town is Kiof. See Russia.
ULEABORG, the most extensive circle of the Russian
province of Finland. It is bounded on the north by
Norway, on the east by Archangel, on the south-east
by Kupio, on the south by Wasa, on the south-west by
the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the north-west by Sweden.
It extends over 46,266 square miles, comprehending
three towns, 1302 hamlets or farms, with 80,800 inhabi¬
tants. The capital is the city of the same name, si¬
tuated at the mouth of the river Ulea. It has 360 houses,
mostly of wood, and 3500 inhabitants, who build ships, and
are employed in the export trade, which consists of tar,
pitch, butter, tallow, wax, deals, and cured fish. The har¬
bour is bad, being filled with sand, so that ships must load
and discharge their cargoes four miles below" the city. Long.
25. 24. 53. E. Lat. 64. 53. 30. N.
ULEY, a town of the hundred of Berkeley, in the county
of Gloucester, two miles from Dursley and 105 from Lon¬
don. Near to it, on the side of a hill, are the remains of a
Roman encampment. The chief occupation is making
broad cloths for the East India market, which are after¬
wards dyed and finished in London. The population amount¬
ed in 1821 to 2655, and in 1831 to 2641.
ULIETEA, one of the Society Islands, in the South
Pacific Ocean, wTiolly surrounded by reefs, and interspersed
with small islands, forming several harbours. (For further
details, see Society Islands.) The southern extremity
is in long. 181. 20. W. and lat. 16. 55. S.
ULLAPOOL, a fishing village situate on the north
shore of Loch Broom, in Ross-shire. It possesses an ex¬
cellent harbour and quay ; but the buildings, and, it must
be added, the population, are quite disproportionate to the
present state of its trade and fisheries. In the article
Ross-shire, the quantity of fish caught and cured here
since 1830 is stated. The population amounts to oOO
or 600.
ULM, a city of the kingdom of Wurtemburg, the capital
of a circle of the same name in the province of the Pa-
nube. It stands on the river Danube, at the point where
the Iller and the Blau discharge their waters into that
river, and the Danube thus becomes navigable, ft11
-
U L U
■ the western side are some lofty hills, which were once
crowned with fortifications, but when attacked, were found
• nsufficient means of defence, and whose capture in 1805 led
^;o the disgraceful surrender of an Austrian army of 80,000
lien, under General Mack, to the French, commanded by
donaparte. The town is divided by the rivers, over
vhich are eight bridges. It is an ancient city, contains
hree Lutheran and two Catholic churches, 1620 houses,
nd 12,049 inhabitants. Some of the public buildings are
emarkable, especially the cathedral, whose interior is very
riking, being 417 feet in length and 160 in breadth. It is
rnamented with a tower 340 feet in height. The propor-
ons and construction are objects of great admiration/ It
furnished with an organ of extraordinary power, having
■352 pipes. Some of the ancient paintings in it are fine
jecimens of the skill of the Germans in that art at a
-ry early period. The stadthouse, with its mechanical
ock and its paintings, is curious and interesting. The
ide of Ulm has much declined from its former state when
was one of the Hanse Towns. There is some trade down
|e Danube, and some barges are built here for that pur-
hse. There are some linen manufactories and some tanne-
)s; but the chief trade is in flour, which is ground at se-
i ral mills on the three streams that run through and unite
the city. Horticulture is a favourite pursuit of the inha¬
lants, and furnishes the best of fruits and of culinary ve-
tables. Long. 9. 53. 1. E. Lat. 48. 23. 45. N.
ULSTER, one of the four provinces into which Ireland
i divided, it consists of the northern portion of the island,
id embraces the following counties: Antrim, Armagh,
'van, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Mo-
fghan, and Tyrone. This province had anciently petty
■ igsof its own. It was subjected to the English in the
ngn of Henry II. by John de Courcy, the first who bore
I; title of earl of Ulster : but it afterwards threw off the
and was never entirely reduced till the reign of James
j when great numbers of Scots, by hik encouragement,
' n*: iin(^ settled in it; arid from them the greater part of
(? present inhabitants of the province are descended.
ULTERIOR, in Geography, is applied to some part of
8 ountry or province which, with regard to the rest of that
1 lntry> is situated on the farther side of the river, moun-
* rTT°L<?/ler boundary which separates the two countries.
U ^TRAMARINE, a beautiful blue colour used by the
U M M
finters, prepared from the lapis lazuli by calcination.
, ULTRAMONTANE, something beyond the mountains.
e term is principally applied in relation to France and
1 y, which are separated by the Alps.
' i-joq 5’HEIGH’ a Iearnecl Tartarian prince, was born
\ 'j ,•. H's real name was Mohammed Taragai; Ulugh-
j f 1 einS only a descriptive appellation, signifying great
«' 1 or prince. His father was the sultan Shah Rok, the
„ ° t le celebrated Timur, who, after the death of that
0 queror ruled many years in Iran and Turan, that is,
jj Sla /nd 1 artary. In 1407, while his father was yet
’^entered upon the administration of the govern-
s | ’ aiH notwithstanding his youth, acquitted himself in
‘ ] ™fnner as to acquire general esteem. Fie was a
arkab e person for the age in which he lived, and was
^ cu ai y distinguished by his skill in astronomy. The
ii /!/bte was unhappy. His eldest son hav-
(1-l. e e( against him, defeated him in a bloody battle
M yIc neai bamarcand. To this unworthy son he after-
c in<riVentUred t0 Present himself, in the hope of re-
tl "S fenS? ,°^ duty 5 hut such a hope was delusive, and
c i; °r(.vre. !'m t0 Pl’t to death. This event, ac-
a to D Herbelot, took place in the year 1450. Of his
. somp ^ Greaves publish-
Nassir Eddini, altera
ail I nfm° *JU1,U. lu‘*o, ^to. inese tables, in Arabic
> "ere reprinted in Dr Hudson’s Geographise Ve-
teris Scnptores Graeci minores, tom. iii. Greaves likewise
published, in the same language, “ Epoch® celebriores,
astronomis, histoncis, chronologis, Chataiorum, Syro-Gr®-
corum, Arabum, Persarum, Chorasmiorum usitat®: ex tra-
ditione Ulugh-Beigi.” Lond. 1650, 4to. From a colla¬
tion of three Persic manuscripts, Dr Hyde edited “ Tabu-
1® Longitudinis et Latitudinis Stellarum Fixarum, ex ob-
servatione Vlughbeighi.” Oxon. 1665, 4to.
ULVERSTONE, a market-town in the hundred of Lons¬
dale, and county of Lancaster, 273 miles from London. It
is pleasantly situate, and consists principally of four spacious
and well-built streets. Its trade is considerable, is on the
increase, and consists of ore, pig, and bar iron, copper ore,
cotton, hats, and other fabrics. The trade has been greatly
facilitated by the canal which communicates with the river
Leven. There is a yard for ship-building. Besides the
parochial church, there are places of worship for various
bodies of dissenters. There is a good weekly market, and
two fairs are held yearly. The population amounted in
1821 to 4315, and in 1831 to 4876.
ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the son of Laertes and fa¬
ther of I elemachus, and one of those heroes who contri¬
buted most to the taking of Troy. After the destruction
of that city, he wandered for ten years, and at last returned
to Ithaca, where, with the assistance of Telemachus, he
killed Antinous and other princes who intended to marry
his wife Penelope and seize his dominions. He at length
resigned the government of the kingdom to his son Telema¬
chus, and was killed by Telegonus, his son by Circe, who did
not know him. This hero is the subject of the Odyssey.
UMAN, a circle of the Russian government of Kiew, ex¬
tending in north latitude from 48° 25' to 49° 9', and in
east longitude from 29° 40' to 30° 41'. It is separated
from Cherson by the river Seniuska. It has little wood,
but extensive steppes, producing, when cultivated, good
crops of corn. 1 he capital is of the same name, situated
on the river Umanka. It is surrounded with walls, which
furnish good promenades, contains a magnificent palace be¬
longing to Count Potocksi, one Catholic and three Greek
churches, 440 houses, and 3300 inhabitants. It is 1020 miles
from St Petersburg. Long. 29. 51. E. Lat. 48. 43. N.
UMBELLIFEROUS Plants are such as have their
tops branched and spread out like an umbrella.
UMBRELLA, a moveable canopy, made of silk or other
cloth spread out upon ribs of whalebone, and supported by
a staff, to protect a person from rain, or the scorching beams
of the sun.
UMMERAPOOR, a large city, and the present capital
of the Birman empire. It stands on the banks of a roman¬
tic lake, seven miles long by one and a half broad, and
at a short distance from the Irrawaddy river. When the
lake is filled during the periodical rains, it leaves, with the
river on the other side, a peninsula, on which the city is
built. It is a place of great resort, and of extensive
trade ? and the lake during the highest floods, when it is
covered with numerous boats of every description, presents,
with the lofty hills in the neighbourhood, an extraordinary
spectable to a stranger. The town is regularly fortified,
and is laid out in an exact square. The streets are wide,’
and intersect each other at right angles. There are four
Principal gates, one on each side of the square, and a smaller
gate on each side of the great gate. At each angle of the
fort there is a large quadrangular bastion, which projects
considerably; and there are also eleven smaller bastions
on each side, including those over the gateway. Between
each of these bastions is a curtain, extending 200 yards in
length. ^ I he ditch of the fort is wide, and faced with
brick. The rampart, faced by a wall of brick, is about
twenty feet high exclusively of the parapet, which has em¬
brasures for cannon and apertures for musketry. Small
demi-bastions project at regular intervals; and the gates
448
U N C
U N I
Umnabad
11
Unction.
are massive, and guarded by cannon. The southern face
of the fort is washed during the rainy season by the waters
of the lake; and the houses of the city and suburbs ex¬
tend along the bank as far as the extreme point of the
land. The town is but meanly built. There are few
houses of brick and mortar, and these belong to the mem¬
bers of the royal family. The houses of the chief persons
are surrounded by a wooden enclosure; and all houses
whatever are covered with tiles, and have on the ridge oi
the roof earthen pots filled with water, as a precaution
against fires, which are here very frequent. When a fire takes
place, they are immediately broken. In the centre ot the
town stands the royal palace, which consists of a number
of wooden buildings of various forms, the domes of which,
being covered with gilt copper, make a splendid appearance.
The whole is surrounded with an enclosure of teak plants,
having four gates, and may be half a mile in circumference.
The splendour of the religious buildings is very striking,
owing to their being entirely covered with gilding, the in¬
side of the roofs as well as the outside. Ihe gold leaf that
is used, being exceedingly pure, bears exposure to the air
for a long time without suffering injury. The royal library
is situated at the north-west angle of the fort, in the centre
of a court paved with broad flags. The books are kept in
wrooden chests curiously ornamented. The chests are about
] 00 in number, and well filled. The contents of each chest
are inscribed in gold letters on the lid. The city is divided
into four distinct quarters, each of which is governed by
its own officer; and no town in Europe can boast of a bet¬
ter police. Ummerapoor was founded by the Birman mo¬
narch Minderajee Praw, so recently as 1783, about four
miles east from old Ava, the ancient capital. Buildings in
this part of India being mostly composed of wood, and the
river presenting a convenient water-carriage, the present
capital rose most rapidly, and became in a short time one
of the most flourishing and well-built cities in the east.
The population was estimated by Captain Cox at 175,000
persons, and the number of houses from 20,000 to 25,000.
Long. 96. 7. E. Lat. 21. 55. N.
UMNABAD, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bejapoor, thirty miles north-east from Poonah. Long. 74.
27. E. Lat. 18. 51. N.
UMRUT, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Au-
rungabad, forty miles south by east from Surat. Long. 73.
18. E. Lat. 20. 40. N.
UNBIAK, one of the Fox Islands, in the North Pacific
Ocean, about seventy-two miles in circumference.
UNCI A, a Latin term, denoting the twelfth part of any
thing, particularly the twelfth part of a pound, called in Eng¬
lish an ounce., or the twelfth part of a foot, called an inch.
UNCTION, the act of anointing or rubbing with oil or
other fatty matter.
Unction, in matters of religion, is used for the charac¬
ter conferred on sacred things by anointing them with oil.
Unctions are very frequent among the Hebrews. They
anointed both their kings and high priests at the ceremony
of their inauguration. They also anointed the sacred ves¬
sels of the tabernacle and temple, to sanctify and consecrate
them to the service of God. The unction of kings is sup¬
posed to be a ceremony introduced very late among the
Christian princes. It is said that none of the emperors
was ever anointed before Justinian or Justin. The em¬
perors of Germany borrowed the practice from those of the
eastern empire. King Pepin of France was the first who
received the unction. In the ancient Christian church,
unction always accompanied the ceremonies of baptism and
confirmation. Extreme unction, or the anointing persons
in the article of death, was also practised by the ancient
Christians, in compliance with the precept of St James, v.
14, 15; and this extreme unction the Romish church has
advanced to the dignity of a sacrament. It is administered
to none but such as are affected with some mortal disease, Unde,
ou in a decrepit age. It is refused to impenitent persons, as ||
also to criminals. The parts to be anointed are the eyes, ^n'01
the ears, the nostrils, the mouth, the hands, the feet, and the
reins. The laity are anointed in the palms of the hands, but
priests on the back of them ; because the palms of their hands
have been already consecrated by ordination. The oil with
which the sick person is anointed represents the grace of God,
which is poured down into the soul, and the prayer used at
the time of anointing expresses the remission of sins thereby
granted to the sick person ; for the prayer is this: “ By this
holy unction, and his own most pious mercy, may the Al¬
mighty God forgive thee whatever sins thou hast committed
by the sight” when the eyes are anointed ; by the hearing,
when the ears are anointed; and so of the other senses.
UNDECAGON is a regular polygon of eleven sides.
UNDECEMVIR, a magistrate among the ancient Athe¬
nians, who had ten colleagues or associates joined with
him in the same commission. The functions of the un¬
decemviri at Athens were much the same with those of
the late prevots de marechaussee in France. They took
care of the apprehending of criminals; secured them in
the hands of justice ; and when they were condemned,
took them again into custody, that the sentence might be
executed on them. They were chosen by the tribes, each
tribe naming its own ; and as the number of the tribes after
Callisthenes was but ten, which made ten members, a scribe
or notary was added, which made the number eleven.
U NDES, an extensive district of Northern Hindustan,
bordering on Little Tibet, intersected by the river Sut-
telege. The mountains of the country are composed of
granite, and are said to be rich in gold. It is subject to
the lama of Tibet.
UNDULATION, in Physics, a kind of tremulous mo¬
tion or vibration observable in a liquid, by which it alter¬
nately rises and falls like the waves of the sea.
UNICORN, an animal famous among the ancients, and
thought to be the same with the rhinoceros. Sparmann
informs us that the figure of the unicorn described by the
ancients has been found delineated by the Snese Hotten¬
tots on the plain surface of a rock in Caffraria, and there¬
fore conjectures that such an animal either does exist at
present in the interior parts of Africa, or at least once did
so. Father Lobo affirms that he has seen it. Sir John Bar-
row, in his Travels in Southern Africa, affords additional
reason to believe in the existence of this curious animal.
UNI EH, a seaport of Asia Minor, on the coast of the
Black Sea, situated on a bay, with a range of finely wood¬
ed mountains behind. It is mostly built of wood, and, like
all eastern towns, is extremely filthy; forming a striking con¬
trast with the beauty of the environs. The inhabitants
consist of Turks, Greeks, and Armenians, who carry on a con¬
siderable trade with Constantinople and the Crimea. Its ex¬
ports are cotton stuffs from Tocat and Diarbekir, fruits, an
wine; the imports corn and oil from the Crimea, coffee, sugar,
and European manufactures from Constantinople. A nutn
her of vessels belongs to the port, though none of them ex
ceeds 200 tons burden. Unieh is forty miles east of Samsoon.
UNION, a junction, coalition, or assemblage of two or
more different things in one.
Union, or The Union, by way of eminence, is morepar
ticularly used to express the act by which the two sePara
kingdoms of Scotland and England were incorporate m
one, under the title of the kingdom of Great Britain,
union, in vain attempted by James I., was at lengt j6 e
ed in the year 1707, 6 Ann. when twenty-five artldes ort
agreed to by the parliaments of both nations; the purp
of the most considerable being as follows: ,
1. That on the first of May 1707, and tor ever a e >
kingdoms of England and Scotland shall be united 10 ^
kingdom, by the name of Great Britain. 2. Hie su
-
U N I
U N I
piP. on to the monarchy of Great Britain shall be the same as
,,s before settled with regard to that of England. 3. '1’he
i itcd kingdom shall be represented by one parliament.
I i Ihere shall be a communication of all rights and privi-
Iges between the subjects of both kingdoms, except where
i s otherwise agreed. 9. When England raises L.2,000,000
{ a land-tax, Scotland sliall raise L.-18,000. 16. 17. The
s ndards of the coin, of weights, and of measures, shall be
rluced to those of England throughout the united king-
c ns. 18.'Jhe laws relating to trade, customs, and the
q -ise, shall be the same in Scotland as in England. All
t' other laws of Scotland shall remain in force, but al-
table by the parliament of Great Britain ; yet with this
cition, that laws relating to public policy are alterable at
t discretion of the parliament; laws relating to private
fit are not to be altered but for the evident utility of the
pople of Scotland. 22. Sixteen peers are to be chosen to
niresent the peerage of Scotland in parliament, and forty-
fi ■ members to sit in the House of Commons. 23. '! he six¬
ty! peers of Scotland shall have all privileges of parliament;
a| all peers of Scotland shall be peers of Great Britain, and
rak next after those of the same degree at the time of the
®i uon, and shall have all privileges of peers, except sifting in
tl House of Lords, and voting on the trial of a peer.
These are the principal of the twenty-five articles of
uon, which are ratified and confirmed by statute 5 Ann.
csj. 8, in w hich statute there are also two acts of parlia-
ir:it recited ; the one of Scotland, whereby the church of
Sltland, and also the four universities of that kingdom,
ar, established for ever, and all succeeding sovereigns are
2 an oatn inviolably to maintain the same; the other
oivngland, 5 Ann. c. 6, whereby the acts of uniformity of
1 Lliz. and 13 Car. II. (except as the same had been alter-
eday parliament at that time), and all other acts then in
h e for the preservation of the church of England, are de¬
cked perpetual; and it is stipulated, that every subse-
tj nt king and queen shall take an oath inviolably to
tnintain the same within England, Ireland, Wales, and the
h:n of Berwick-upon-Tweed. And it is enacted, that
tl e two acts “ shall for ever be observed as fundamental
ai; essential conditions for the union.”
Ipon these articles and act of union, it is to be observed,
b hat the two kingdoms are so inseparably united, that
it' ling can ever disunite them, except the mutual consent
0: <)r successful resistance of either, upon appre-
liuding an infringement of those points which, when they
w'e separate and independent nations, it was mutually stf-
p'uted should be “ fundamental.and essential conditions of
fi union.” 2. That whatever else may he deemed fun-
• diiiuital and essential conditions,” the preservation of the
tv1 churches of England and 8 cot land, in the same state
t they were In at the time of the union, and the main-
fijmee of the acts of uniformity which established the
I are expressly declared so to be. 3. '[ hat the mu-
II pal laws of Scotland are ordained to be still observed in
* part of the island, unless altered by parliament; and
10 I)arhament has not yet thought proper, except in a
ai ^instances, to alter them, they still, with regard to the
P* leulars unaltered, continue in full force.
or an account of the union of Ireland with Great Bri-
0 > thus forming the united kingdom of Great Britain and
ti ukI, see Bhitaix.
<M PARIANS, a name given to those who confine the
f- A and attribute of divinity to the One only great and
"'NlTr aml father of our Lord Jesus Christ.
. FI) Bkkthren, or tjnilas Fratruni, a society of
| tlans, ufi°se cliief residence is at Herrnhut, in Saxony.
) aie commonly called Moravians, from their original
diFieri nhuters, from their chief place of resi-
y1. Some account of this society has already bt'en
i uiMer Herunhct; but as that account may not be
xxi. J
449
f i
deemed sufficiently full, we shall here add a summary of United
Uietr institutions, derived from a communication by one of Brethren,
their own clergy. ‘
, { Fough the church of the United Brethren is episcopal,
their bishops possess no elevation of rank or pre-eminent
authority, their church being governed by synods or con¬
sistories from all the congregations, and* by subordinate
bodies called conferences. The synods are generally held
once in seven years. In the first sitting a president is
chosen ; and the elders appointed by the former synod to
superintend the unity lay down their office, though they
still form a part of the assembly, as well as the bishops, the
Liy elders, and those ministers who have tine inspection of
seveial congregations in one province. Questions of im-
poitance, or of w hich the consequences cannot he foreseen,
are decided by lot, though this is never used till after ma¬
ture deliberation and fervent pmayer. In the synods, the
state of the unity, and tne concerns of the- congregations
and missions, are taken into consideration, lowards the
conclusion of every synod, a kind of executive board is ap¬
pointed, called the elders’ conference of the unity, consist¬
ing of thirteen elders, and divided into four committees or
departments, one for superintending missions into heathen
countries, a second for watching over the conduct of congre¬
gations, a third for managing the economical concerns of the
unity, and a fourth ter maintaining the discipline of the society.
I hese conferences are however amenable to a higher com¬
mittee, called the elders’ conference, the powers of w hich are
very extensive. It appoints and removes every servant in
ti.e unity, authorizes the bishops to ordain presbyters or dea¬
cons, and to consecrate other bishops, and, in short, possesses
the supreme executive pow er over the whole society.
A bishop of the United Brethren can discharge no office
but by the appointment of the synod or of the elders’ con¬
ference. Indeed their deacons can perform every office of
the bishops except ordination, and appear to confirm youn<*
persons when they first become candidates for the com”
munion. Deaconesses are employed for the purpose of
privately admonishing their own sex, and visiting them in
cases of sickness. I here are also lay elders, whose bu¬
siness it is to watch over the constitution and discipline of
the unity, to enforce the observance of the laws of the
country in which missions are established, and to guard
the privileges conferred on the brethren by the govern¬
ment under which they live.
On Sunday, besides the public prayers, one or two ser¬
mons are preached in every church ; and after the morn¬
ing service, an exhortation is given to the children. Pre¬
viously to the holy communion, w hich is administered on
some Sunday once a month, and on Maunday Thursday,
each person, before he communicates, must converse on the
state of his soul with one of the elders. Love-feasts are
frequent; and on Maunday Ihursday the society have a
solemn foot washing.
Our limits will not permit us to give a systematic view
of the doctrinal tenets of the Brethren. Though they ac¬
knowledge no other standard of truth than the sacred Scrip¬
tures, they adhere to the Augsburg Confession, and speak
respectfully of the thirty-nine articles of the church of
England. I hey profess to believe that the kingdom of
Christ is not confined to any particular party, community, or
church ; and they consider themselves as spiritually joined
in the bond of Christian love to all who are taught ot God,
and belong to the universal church of Christ, however much
they may differ in forms, which they deem non-essentials.
For a fuller account of this societv, see Crantz’s Ancient and
Modern History of the Protestant Church of the United
Brethren, London, 17hU; and An Exposition of Christian
Doctrine, as taught in the Protestant Lhutch of the United
Brethren, London, 1784.
United Provinces. See Holland and Netherlands.
B L
450
UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA.
United No single event in modern history has been of so much
States, importance to mankind as the discovery of America. I hat
—  ' great continent, which had been hid from the eyes of civi¬
lized nations for so many ages, comprises nearly one third
of the habitable globe. In soil and climate it rivals the
best parts of the old continent. It is not, like Asia and
Africa, infested by the larger and more dangerous species
of wild animals, nor deformed by vast deserts, which pre¬
sent insuperable obstacles to civilization. But its great
and peculiar advantage lies in the unrivalled magnitude and
number of its navigable rivers, which enable its most remote
inland parts to hold commercial intercourse with each other,
and with foreign states, with unparalleled ease and rapidity.
The position of these great rivers, whose estuaries all open
to the east, points out the western side of the old continent
as the region with which it is destined by nature to be
most closely connected. Two great classes of colonists,
widely dissimilar in character and in circumstances, came
from Europe to occupy this new world. The Spaniards, who
were first in the order of time, took possession of the most
populous and fertile regions ; but their natural advantages
were rendered abortive by political and moral evils, a rapa¬
cious spirit, a corrupt religion, and a vicious system of go¬
vernment. The English, the other great class of colonists,
owed their better fortunes in some measure to their appa¬
rent disadvantages. Having neither gold mines to work,
nor wealthy Indians to rob, they cultivated with greater
diligence the natural riches of the soil, and laid the founda¬
tion of future prosperity in habits of order and industry.
Neglected by the government as a band of destitute re¬
fugees, they enjoyed what was then an unusual degree of
civil and religious liberty. Their industry flourished, be¬
cause it was unfettered and unburdened. They were well
governed, because they were left to govern themselves.
And if they wanted the aid of the mother country when
that aid might sometimes have been useful, they were, on
the other hand, exempted from those incessant exactions
and vexations to which the Spanish colonists were exposed,
from the ignorant, meddling, grasping, bigoted spirit of their
European rulers. The troubles which they experienced
from the hostility of the Indians diminished as their own
numbers increased, and, except at first, were never extreme¬
ly detrimental. Their common dangers served in some
measure as a bond of union among themselves, and per¬
haps favoured their social improvement, by acting as a
slightly compressing force to prevent the indefinite diffu¬
sion of the population over a large surface. To their free
spirit, virtuous habits, intelligence, and industry, the Eng¬
lish colonists certainly owed much of their early success ;
but we must not forget that a series of fortunate changes,
not directly the consequence of their own exertions, has
greatly contributed to place them in the enviable situation
which they now occupy. Had the Dutch, French, Danish,
and Swedish colonies planted in North America spread as
fast and as far as those of England, and continued separate
and independent, we should have seen, in the space between
the Mississippi and the Atlantic, the same medley of na¬
tions and languages, with the same diversity of manners,
religion, institutions, and clashing interests, which foster
everlasting feuds and jealousies in Europe, engender deso¬
lating wars, load the people with oppressive taxes and mili¬
tary tyrannies, and present a formidable barrier to the cir¬
culation of knowledge and the progress of society. The
conquests of England, which blended all these colonies
into one nation, have secured to the United States an ex¬
emption from half the evils which afflict civil society in Eu¬
rope, and have prepared for them a career of peaceful gran- p;
deur and growing prosperity, which divided Europe cannot Sta;
hope to enjoy, and which has had no parallel in the history ^
of mankind. The people of the United States find them-
selves in a condition to devote their whole energies to the
cultivation of their vast natural resources, undistracted by
wars, unburdened by oppressive taxes, unfettered by old
prejudices and corruptions. Enjoying the united advan¬
tages of an infant and a mature society, they are able to
apply the highly refined science and art of Europe to the
improvement of the virgin soil and unoccupied natural
riches of America. They start unencumbered by a thou¬
sand evils, political and moral, which weigh down the ener¬
gies of the Old World. The volume of our history lies be¬
fore them : they may adopt, our improvements, avoid our
errors, take warning from our sufferings, and, with the com¬
bined lights of our experience and their own, build up a
more perfect form of society. Even already they have
given some momentous and some salutary truths to the
world. It is their rapid growth which has first developed
the astonishing results of the productive powers of popula¬
tion. We can now calculate, with considerable certainty,
that America, which yet presents to the eye, generally
the aspect of an untrodden forest, will, in the short space
of one century, surpass Europe in the number of its inha¬
bitants. We even hazard little in predicting, that, before
the tide of civilization has rolled back to its original seats,
Assyria, Persia, and Palestine, an intelligent population of
two or three hundred millions wall have overspread the
New World, and extended the empire of knowledge and the
arts from Cape Horn to Alayska. Among this vast mass
of civilized men there will be but two languages spoken.
The effect of this single circumstance in accelerating the
progress of society can scarcely be calculated. What a
field will then be opened to the man of science, the artist,
the popular writer, who addresses a hundred millions of
educated persons ? what a stimulus given to mental energy
and social improvement, when every new idea, and every
useful discovery, will be communicated instantaneously to
so great a mass of intelligent beings, by the electric agency
of the post and the press? With the united intellect and
resources of a society framed on such a gigantic scale,
what mighty designs will then be practicable? Imagination
is lost in attempting to estimate the effects of such accu¬
mulated means and powers. One result may however be
anticipated. America must then become the centre of
knowledge, civilization, and power ; and the present lead¬
ing states of Europe (Russia perhaps excepted), placed on
the arena amidst such colossal associates as the Amencan
republics, will sink to a subordinate rank, and cease to
exert any greater influence on the fate of the world than
the Swiss cantons do at the present day. jj
The territory of the United States is situated between Ext
the 25th and 49th degrees of north latitude, and between '“•*
the 67th and 124th degrees of west longitude fro™ ofl
don. Its extreme length east and west is 2780 niile=, 1 s
greatest breadth north and south 1230 miles, and its ait'1.,
according to Mr Mellish, 2,076,410 square English nn&
It is bounded on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on ^
north by the British possessions, on the west by the aci
Ocean, and on the south by Mexico and the wIcXlC ,
Gulf. The Mississippi divides it into two parts near y ^
in extent. In the north-east angle of this territory, ^
is a space of more than 100 miles square, of very a ^
ground, interposed between New Brunswick an ^
Canada, the possession of which has long been the so j
-
UNITED STATES.
:
• nefrociation between the British and American govern-
ents. On the west coast the Americans have an unques-
,ne(i claim to the country, between the 42d and 47th
rallels; but Russia disputes the right of possession with
cm to the tract of country between the 49th and 60th
rallels. As the admitted boundaries are in general very
ihtinctly marked on the common maps, we shall not de-
iribe them in detail.
Two chains of mountains separate this extensive terri¬
fy into three great natural divisions. 1. The Atlantic
igion, or the country lying east of the Alleghany Moun-
t ns. 2. The valley of the Mississippi, or the country
ottered by the Mississippi, Missouri, and their numerous
i inches. 3. The Pacific region, or the country lying
list of the Rocky Mountains.
The Alleghany Mountains commence in Lower Canada,
l low Quebec ; and passing along the northern boundary of
Line, and through New Hampshire, Vermont, New York,
i nnsylvania, Virginia, and the two Carolinas, they termi-
rl e in the upper parts of Georgia and Alabama, preserving
douth-west direction throughout. They consist of three,
fijr, five, or more distinct ridges, with wide and fertile
vleys interposed. Their entire length is 1100 miles, their
b adth varies from 110 to 150. In the northern half their
light is greatest, but most unequal; detached peaks are
nmerous, and the ridges indistinctly marked. In the
s th, the ridges are lower, but better defined, and their
s units are often distinguished by a very uniform continu-
o. level. They attain their greatest height in New Hamp-
s/jre, where Mount Washington has an elevation of 6600
fit. Their greatest height in New York is 3800, in Penn-
s'vania 2500, in Virginia 3900, in South Carolina 4000.
'lie mean height is said by Mr Mellish to be from 1000
t 1800 feet, but his average is undoubtedly formed on
v >ng principles. That of the highest chain cannot be
h; than from 2000 to 2500 feet.1
Ihe Rocky Mountains, known but imperfectly, are a
c itinuation of the Mexican Cordilleras, and extend to the
f ar Ocean. They pass through the territory of the
1 bed States, at the distance of 500 miles from the Paci-
f Ocean, and consist of several elevated chains, occupying
ffireadth of 300 miles, with deep valleys between them,
'^ey rise abruptly from their base, and are supposed to
r ch the elevation of 12,000 feet in their highest summits,
Klny of which are covered with perpetual snow. There
£ , however, several passes through them, which, with a
1 le improvement, might be traversed by loaded waggons.2
I he Atlantic Region was the first settled, and is the
r st populous and improved portion of the United States,
1. not the most favoured as to soil and climate. It may
l! considered as the eastern slope of the Alleghanies. In-
i ding all the countries watered by rivers flowing into the
Lantic and the Gulf of Mexico, east of the Mississippi, it
ijabout UOt) miles in length, with an average breadth of
G, and embraces an area of 400,000 square miles. It
■I hides three well-marked varieties of soil and surface.
1 he alluvial district, consisting of sand, gravel, and clay,
t| uprising a stripe of level land, extending along the coast
1 in New \ ork southward, with a breadth varying from
11’nty miles to 100. The surface is level or slightly un-
( ating, and it embraces large tracts of marsh near the
t ^t. ^ The soil is poor and sandy, producing almost no-
i nS out pines, except in the alluvial tracts which skirt
rivers. About one half of the surface of New Jersey,
■iviare, and Maryland, one fifth of Virginia, one third of
451
the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama, fall under United
this description. 2. The upland country, extending from States.
the alluvial tract to the foot of the mountains, with a' 
breadth varying from twenty to 200 miles. Here the soil
is chiefly formed from the detritus of the primitive rocks,
and is generally fertile, and well adapted for tillage. 3.
Ihe ridges of the Alleghanies, and the valleys between
them, which bear a strong growth of natural wood, have
generally a rich soil, capable of tillage, wherever the sur¬
face is not rocky or too steep; and are almost free from
marshes. In part of Pennsylvania, New York, and in the
six New England States,3 where the Alleghanies spread
out into an irregular broken surface, the soil possesses a
mixed character. The northern parts of New England are
mountainous, the southern hilly or uneven. The soil, com¬
paratively speaking, is rocky, has little depth, and is better
adapted for pasture than tillage, and improves generally as
we advance inwards from the coast. The south-east sec¬
tion of New York corresponds in character with New Eng¬
land. But, of all the old states, Pennsylvania contains the
largest portion of good soil on the easl side of the moun¬
tains. The woods originally covered all this Atlantic re¬
gion, except some tracts called the American prairies, on
which, from causes not well explained, no natural growth
of timber exists. These are not meadows or wet grounds,
as the French term might be supposed to indicate ; but
lands bare of wood, whether wet or dry, level or uneven.
As the population thickens, the forests disappear; but even
in the most densely peopled parts, the woodlands occupy
so large a proportion of the surface, that the country gene¬
rally presents, to the eye of a European, the aspect of a
natural wilderness, broken by patches of cultivation, which
are numerous round the great cities, but grow less fre¬
quent as we recede from the shore, till they terminate in the
boundless forests of the Alleghanies.
The basin or Valley of the Mississippi, w hich extends Valley of
from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains, is not so Mississippi
large by one third as the basin of the Amazon, but being
situated in the best part of the temperate zone, it may be
pronounced the finest valley in the world. Its breadth east
and west is 1400 miles ; its length in the opposite direction
1200, and its area 1,400,000 square miles. It comprehends
a great diversity of soil, surface, and climate. 1. The basin
of the Ohio, including the Cumberland, 700 miles long and
300 broad, is a rich and beauti iil country, the garden of
the United States. The low'er parts of the surface are
from 500 to 800 feet above the level of the sea, and
are finely diversified with round-topped arable hills, rising
400 or 500 feet above their base. The rivers generally run
in deep hollows, sometimes mere ravines, but often spread¬
ing out into valleys, which include lands of exuberant ferti¬
lity. This district includes Kentucky, Tennessee, with part
of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohi ;, Indiana, and Illinois. 2, The
territory extending from the basin of the Ohio north-west-
ward to Lake Superior, including the country between the
Missouri and Upper Mississippi. The surface is sometimes
undulating, sometimes so level that the waters stagnate on
it, till carried off by evaporation; nor is it broken by any
notable elevations, except one long ridge extending between
the Missouri and Mississippi, and two low eminences called
the Ocooch and Smoky Mountains. The soil is naturally
rich, and covered with luxuriant herbage ; but the climate
is severe, and the woods so thin that the bare ground or
prairies occupy three fourths of the surface on the east side
of the Mississippi, and nineteen twentieths on the west.
t ’n!;'!|SstS 5',eo«raPhical Description of United States, Philadelphia, 1822, p. 20. Warden’s Statistical, Political, and Historical Account
M'lli teS’ Introduction.
|i y, [he' •I!tIPes,s Account of an Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains in 1819, 1820. vol. iii. p. 238. Warden, iii. If].
» eaitefn^metT^ ^ew England occurs often in American books, it may be proper to mention, that the appellation is applied to the six
0 11 ^ Hudson,—Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.
452
UNITED STATES.
United The absolute elevation of the northern parts is probably
States. not uncler 1500 feet, for Cassina lake, thirty miles below
’ Y the sources of the Mississippi, is 1330 feet above the sea.
(Mellish, p. 32. James’s Expedition, iii. 204.) 3. The last
and largest division of this great valley, extending from the
Mississippi and Missouri to the Rocky Mountains, consists
of two very different qualities of soil, which graduate into
each other, but, on the great scale, may be conceived to
form two parallel tracts of nearly equal extent, parted by
the 98th meridian. In the middle of the eastern section, and,
as it were, in the very bottom of the great basin of the
Mississippi, lie the Ozark Mountains; a chain, like the Alle-
ghanies, of great length and breadth, and small height, ris¬
ing only from 1000 to 2000 feet above the sea. (James’s
Expedition, iii. p. 313.) Mr Mellish erroneously calls the
height 3500 feet. Their breadth is from 100 to 150 miles:
their sides, which slope with gentle declivities, are deeply
furrowed with streams, and partly covered with small timber.
The Arkansas and Red River are the only streams which
cut their way through this chain. On the east side of the
Ozark chain is the Great Swamp, 200 miles long and
twenty broad, which is converted into a lake by the annual
overflow of the Mississippi, but is dry during the heats of
summer, and rendered impenetrable at all times by a thick
grow th of cypress. The country round it is rich bottom or
meadow land, clothed with excellent timber. The country
for one or two hundred miles west of the Ozarks is also
good, but less wooded ; and in the eastern section, taken al¬
together, the open ground occupies nineteen twentieths of
the surface. The western section, extending from the
meridian of 98° to the Rocky Mountains, is comparatively
dry and sterile, and much of it an absolute desert, destitute
of herbage, and unfit for human habitation. As we approach
the mountains, the ground, which is at first hilly, subsides
into, smaller undulations, and these terminate in table-lands,
nearly fiat on the top, with steep, and sometimes precipi¬
tous sides, and rising 600 or 800 feet above the common
level. These table-lands, consisting of alternate beds of
sandstone and breccia, increase in number and diminish in
extent as w7e approach the base of the mountains, which is
believed to have an elevation of 3000 feet above the sea.
The desert aspect of the country, however, is not the
effect of its elevation, but more probably of its aridity ; for
valleys among the mountains, which are still higher, are
fertile. The rivers in this frightful solitude often spread
out to a breadth of one or two miles, and dry up in the
warm weather. Salt springs are numerous, and salt incrus¬
tations cover many square miles. Trees are only to be
seen at some spots along the rivers, and are rather more
abundant in the south than in the north; but throughout
the whole section, the wood does not cover the thousandth
part of the surface. Of the basin of the Mississippi alto¬
gether, it may be observed, that the western side is a barren
desert; the middle contains much good lands, but abounds
in swamps; the east side, comprehending the basin of the
Ohio, is the richest, and mo>t eligible for human habitation.
The woods, in their natural state, increase continually as
we advance from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic; a
proof, perhaps, that the summer heat, and the quantity of
atmospheric moisture, follow' a similar law.1
Pacific 1 l1e Pacific Region extends from the Rocky Mountains
region. to the ocean, and (exclusive of disputed ground) from lati¬
tude 42° to 49°, embracing an area of 300,000 square miles.
It consists almost entirely of the basin of the Columbia
The dis- fiver. This country naturally divides itself into three parts,
tnct ol the first of which commences at the coast of the Pacific,
Oregan. and extends inland to a range of mountains running pa¬
rallel with the coast, south-east and north-west, through
which the Columbia river passes, and enters the sea in k r
46° 19' N. and in long. i24° W. These mountains lift StI
their bold summits several thousand fleet from their bases
but from their mid distance upwards their barren sides pre¬
sent the naked deformity of rocks, lava, and cinders. T|lejr
elevated summits appear to be the craters of extinguished
volcanoes. Some of the high snowy peaks of this.ranee
are seen far at sea on the Pacific Ocean. The extent of
this tract from west to east is about 130 miles, and south,
ward to the limits of California, and probably very fai north.
The climate is remarkabl y moist, almost uninterrupted rain
falling from October to April. In winter the weather is
clear and the cold moderate. The temperature is mild
and equable, resembling that of France and Spain much
more than that of the Atlantic coast. Snow' is seldom seen
at the mouth of the Columbia river, so that ploughing could
be carried on through most winters. This region contains
a great proportion of barren inaccessible land; but the
water-courses, which are numerous, afford valleys that are
as fertile as can be found in the United States. The im¬
mediate sea-board is the worst part. For farming pur¬
poses, the level country may he upon the whole reckoned
equal to any part of the state of New York. One half is of
excellent quality, the other half inaccessible mountains.
The second division extends from the mountains, embra¬
cing the lower course of the Columbia, including its great
falls, and eastward to the Blue Mountains, a higher range,
about 168 miles. The temperature differs little from that
of New England; the snows are light, and do not last long,
seldom so long as to obstruct the feeding of animals. Little
rain falls in summer in this division; about the middle of Oc¬
tober there are usually rains, but not heavy. In this division
of country the river-bottoms are neither so frequent nor so ex¬
tensive as in the first, but at the foot of the mountains bound¬
ing each side of the valley, there are large tracts very fertile.
The third division extends from the Blue Mountains on
the w est to the Rocky Mountains eastward, a distance of
about 286 miles, and presents wide sandy deserts, almost
destitute of water. The deposits of vegetable matter are
few, and there is very little moisture except near the rivers;
and thousands of acres are white with Epsom and Glauber
salts. In’ this valley is the great salt lake, on the bottom of
which, when low’, the salt is deposited as in a salt-pan. Hie
climate is remarkable for dryness, and for the difference
between the temperature during the night and the day.
Not a cloud will be seen in the sky for six weeks, and no
rain falls except for a few days in the spring, nor is there
much snow in winter. A traveller mentions, that on the
Ibth August 1832 the thermometer at sunrise was as low
as 18°, a depression which it seldom reaches in Great Bri¬
tain, and on the same day was at 92°. A difference ot 40°
between sunrise and noon is not uncommon. On the Co¬
lumbia river, about eighty miles from its mouth, the two
great companies of Canadian traders, who in 1821 were
formed into the North-West Company, established a settle¬
ment and the fort of Vancouver, which has since become
the centre of the fur trade. It has been gradually improved,
and the cultivators, clerks, factors, and traders who reside
here amount to about 2000 souls. In 1835, they produced
8000 bushels of wheat, 5500 bushels of barley, 6000 o
oats, 9000 of pease, 14,000 of potatoes, besides large
quantities of vegetables. There is also a thriving orcbart,
in which are produced abundantly, apples, quinces, pea|si
and grapes. A large ship annually arrives from London
with goods, and a trade is also carried on with the San
wich and other of the South Sea Islands. There are ot ier
stations occupied by the North-West Company’s servants)
namely, at Wallavvallah, 250 miles above Vancouver, an a
count
This account of the basin of the Mississippi is entirely taken from Major Long’s Memoir, published in the third volume of Jwiueb> ^
it of the Expedition to the Rocky Mountains.
UNITED STATES.
453
(Iville, (500 miles liigher. There are several other posts
a n„ the upper course of the river. These are generally
Viketed enclosures, occupied by from fifteen to twenty
s vants of the North-West Company, for the purpose of
t din" with the Indians for furs. They have at Vancouver
aarge thrashing machine, a saw-mill, a distillery, a grit-
n 1, and, in short, all the necessary rudiments of a civilized
cnmunity.1
n 1835 a settlement was made on the river Wallamete,
bla missionary of the name of Lee, which succeeded well.
Lring the first year, a good crop was raised of green pease
a 1 other vegetables. A school was established, at which
mive children were instructed in reading and in all mecha-
rral arts. The state of this country was brought under
tl: consideration of the Congress by a petition from dif-
fr?nt settlers, who were intending to emigrate to it, and
tlire to establish a colony. They requested the counte-
mice of the government, and the aid of a military force
vh which to maintain law and order; and an estimate was
nlJe of the expense of a battalion of troops, and the ne-
cjsary stores for that purpose.2 This colony, the germ of
aiew state, has in this manner been established; the so-
vleignty of the country, obtained by the United States, will
b duly maintained; and the seeds of population, planted
ii he congenial soil, will increase and multiply; and thus
tl desert will rejoice in a new and flourishing off-set from
tl: great trunk of the American population.
The active population of the United States is rapidly
sheading over the desert that lies to the westward of the
c tivated portion of the United States, and the annual
p chases of land bring a valuable addition to the revenue,
fJ e following is an account of the annual quantity of land
t it has been sold since the year 1820.
Years Quantity of Public Quantity of Public Amount paid by
(Land offered for Sale. Pand Sold. Purrhasers.
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838>
Total.
Acres and lOOtbs.
8,338,675 94
10,919,480-42
9,602,931 37
11,414,598-70
7.294,186-48
3.419.604-55
2,880,703-56
3,314,816-71
3,268,493 96
6,148,962-26
6,750,798-77
11,005,561-42
4,205,805-26
6,614,596 93
13.056,865 37
13,767.268 05
509,034 50
133,224-00
12,251,966-Oaf
134,897,574-25
Acres and lOOths.
303,494-09
761,213 32
801,226 18
653,319-52
749,323 04
893,461 69
848.082-26
926,727 76
965,6 DO-36
1,244,860 01
1.929.733- 79
2,777,856 88
2,462,342 16
3,856,22? 56
4,658,218 71
12,564,478 85
20.074,870-92
5,601,103-12
1.388.733- 48
63,480,783-70
Dollars.
424,962-26
1,169,224 98
1,023,267 83
850,136-26
953,79903
1,205,068 37
1.128,617 27
1,318,105 36
1,221,357 99
1,572,863 54
2,433,432 94
3,557,023 76
3.115,376 09
4,972,284-84
6.099.981 04
15,999.804 11
25,167,833-06
7,007,523 04
1,749,401-96
80,970,063-73
’ ^ jOth Sept. f This quantity (12,251,966) includes all ofiered for sale in 1838.
ie main flood of the American population is now rapid I
,'l.n» ‘ts way across the extended plains to the west of th
f'.M-'sippi: numbers of adventurous emigrants are alread
ned in these western regions; the desert is rapidly as
‘'nig the aspect of cultivation, villages and towns siq
lit mg the primeval forest; and in a few years the wil
"“l' antj die savage will alike disappear before the rapi
'giess of civilized man. The interminable woods of th
1^’ aiK' die inundations and marshes of the south, yiel
e d'e resistless sway of persevering energy ; the gre.
mass moves onward with increasing force, under the impulse United
of causes which no longer brook control, and which will no States.
less bear down, it is to be feared, moral right than physical" v—
obstacles in its progress to the barrier of the ocean. Since
the adventurous journey of Lewis and Clarke to the mouth
of the Columbia river, the settlements have advanced far¬
ther to the west, and new- and easier roads have been found
across the wilderness and the Rocky Mountains, and down
the great river of the Pacific. This country, the abode of
wdld animals, has been for more than twenty years a noted
resort of the fur traders, and especially those in the service
of the North-West Company.
rJ he United States, whose territories almost touch the Climate,
tropic on the one side, and reach to districts where frost
lasts five or six months on the other, embrace greater va¬
rieties of climate than any other single state in the world.
Generally speaking, the climate of the United States is dis¬
tinguished from that of Europe by three peculiarities. 1.
It is absolutely colder for the corresponding degrees of lati¬
tude, the mean temperature of the year, according to Hum¬
boldt, being nine degrees of Fahrenheit lower on the east
coast of America than on the west coast of Europe at the
latitude of 40°, and 12^° lower at the latitude of 50°. 2.
The thermometer has a greater range, as the heat of sum¬
mer and the cold of winter reach greater extremes. 3. The
climate changes more rapidly as we proceed from south to
north, or a greater variety of climates is comprised within
the same range of latitude. The mean temperature of
Quebec, at one extremity, is 42°, and of Cape Sable, at rhe
other, 72-7°. Between the parallels of 38 and 50, a degree
of latitude which makes a change of 1-13° (Fahrenheit) in
Europe, makes a change of 1-570 in the United States; and
the same annual temperature which is found at a given de¬
gree of latitude in the United States, is found seven degrees
farther north in Europe. The seasons are also differently
distributed. Philadelphia, for instance, has the summers
of Rome and the winters of Vienna. In Florida, at New
Orleans, and at St Mary’s in Georgia, snow is never seen ;
but in Pennsylvania snow lasts three months, in Massa¬
chusetts four, and in Maine five.3 In the two latter states,
the ice bears loaded waggons, and the sea is sometimes
frozen to a considerable distance from the coast. In all the
low country, from Florida to the St Lawrence, the extreme
summer heat is nearly the same, from 90° to 98°, and the
varieties of climate are chiefly marked by the intensity and
duration'of the winter’s cold. The climate in the basin of
the Ohio, compared with that of the Atlantic coast, pos¬
sesses no very striking peculiarities, but seems, on the whole,
to have its mean annual heat a little higher, to be rather
more steady and equable, to be less frequently visited by
the frigorific north-w'est winds, and to have fits of cold
weather almost equally severe, but more transitory. The
great lakes appear to mitigate the winter cold in the coun¬
try immediately around them, and probably in the basin of
the Ohio too; for on the west and north-west of this dis¬
trict the climate is much more rigorous. At Council
Bluffs, on the Missouri, in latitude 41^°, the thermometer
descends to —22° in winter, and rises to 105° in summer.
At St Peter’s Fort, on the Mississippi, in latitude 45°, it
ranges from 92° to—30°, and the mean temperature of Ja¬
nuary is about zero. The absolute height of the fort, which
cannot exceed 1000 feet, does not account for this exces¬
sive cold. We have already mentioned the equable tem¬
perature of the basin of the Columbia; and, from the- obser¬
vations made on the Missouri and Upper Mississippi, we
have reason to believe that the mildest and the most rigor¬
ous winters known in any similar latitude are to be found
at once on the opposite sides of the great rampart of the
St-e Report on the Territory of Oregan, presented to Congress February 16, 1836.
8 See Letter of the Secretary of War, jan. 4, 1839. Report from Committee on Foreign Affairs, App. K.
3 Humboldt, Prolegomena ue Distrib. Geog. Plant. 1817, p. 68—71. Warden, vol. i. p. 287, 3o3 ; vol. ii. p. 60.
454
UNITED STATES.
United
States.
Rain and
winds.
Geology.
Rocky Mountains. (On the subject of Climate, see Hel¬
lish, p. 59-77.)
So many local circumstances affect the annual depth of
rain, that little reliance can be placed on general estimates.
We find that it was forty-two inches at Charlestown, on an
average of some years, forty at Natchez, thirty at Phila¬
delphia, thirty-six at Cincinnati. The mean fall of rain for
the inhabited part of the United States (latitude 41°) should
be about thirty-four inches. The frequent failure of the
streams, and the scarcity of verdure in the country near the
Rocky Mountains, indicate a deficiency of atmospheric mois¬
ture in that region. Snow falls to the greatest depth on the
borders of the great lakes. On the sea-coast it is rarely
seen farther south than Northfolk, latitude 37° ; but in the
interior it is found four or five degrees farther south.
Compared with the middle countries of Europe, the United
States occupying a more southern position, have rains more
regular and heavy, and greater in absolute quantity, but a
smaller number of wet days. Of the winds, the most re¬
markable are, 1. A moist and warm south or south-west
wind, which is supposed to be a branch of the trade-wind,
and is felt all over the Atlantic States as far as the Potow-
mac, and occasionally in New England. 2. Another wind,
possessing the same qualities, and believed also to be a
branch of the trade-wind: it blows from the Mexican Gulf,
up the course of the Mississippi, and seems to send off sub¬
ordinate branches, which ascend the courses of the Ohio and
Missouri. In Louisiana and Arkansas, it is a south wind ;
at Council Bluffs, on the Missouri, it is a south-east; and
in Ohio and Kentucky, a south-west wind. It is the pre¬
vailing wind in all these districts. 3. The north-west blows
occasionally on the west side of the Alleghanies, but more
frequently on the east side, and is most prevalent in New
England. It everywhere produces intense cold, depressing
the thermometer to—7° or —8° in Ohio, and sometimes to
—20° in Massachusetts. 4. The north-east is a cold wind,
which, transporting the fogs of the Newffoundland bank,
occasions showers of snow. Various facts observed in the
United States seem to show, what some meteorologists have
doubted, that clearing and cultivation improve the climate,
at least so far as regards the growth of the cerealia.1
If we draw a line from New York to the east end of Lake
Ontario, the peninsula lying north-eastward between the
St Lawrence and the sea consists of primitive rocks, inter¬
spersed with some patches of secondary. From this line
southward the country has a different geological character.
A belt of alluvial soil, beginning at Long Island, extends
along the si sore of all the southern states to Natchez on the
Mississippi, having an average breadth of a hundred miles,
and probably including all Florida, except some high
ground in the interior. It is everywhere penetrated by the
tide-water in the rivers. On the west side of this is a re¬
gion of primitive rocks, from 100 to 200 miles broad, in
which gneiss predominates. It embraces the eastern ridges
ol the Alleghanies, with the rolling country at their foot.
On the west side of this, again, is a long narrow zone of
transition rocks, including the western ridges of the Alie-
ghanies, and extending Irom Lake Champlain to the north¬
west angle of Georgia. From this transition formation,
which constitutes, as it were, the eastern edge of the basin of
the Mississippi, immense beds of secondary limestone, sand¬
stone, and shale, cover the country to the Rocky Mountains,
interrupted only by the alluvial formations on' the banks of
the rivers, and by the Ozark Mountains. Like the Alle¬
ghanies, these mountains present the same formations, dis¬
posed in the same order. The Rocky Mountains, so far as
they have been explored, consist of primitive rocks, granite ft,
gneiss, quartz rock, &c., covered on the east side*5bv an S
extensive formation of old red sandstone.2 ‘
That important mineral, coal, is found on both sides ofM
the Alleghanies. The two principal formations on the east
side are, 1. On the river Apomatox, above Richmond in
Virginia, where a seam of excellent coal, which occupies a
basin twenty miles long and ten broad, has been lon»
worked, and employs 5000 persons: 2. At various spots
along a narrow tract of country, from the sources of the
Juniata and western Susquehannah to Providence Bay. At
Lehigh, and other places within this district, the coal is
worked. On the western side of the Alleghanies, an im-
mense formation of coal, probably the largest in the world
extends from the head waters of the Ohio southward to
those of the Tombigbee, and westward, with some inter-
ruptions, beyond the Mississippi. A similar bed appears on
the west side of the Ozarks, which is also traced tar up the
course of the Missouri; and there is a third bed of unknown
extent on the east side of the Rocky Mountains.3
Salt, another mineral of primary importance, is distributed
in considerable abundance over tbe United States territory
especially those parts that are remote from the sea. A
great formation of rock-salt (and gypsum), indicated by
numerous salt springs, is believed to accompany the coal
formation over a great part of the basin of tbe Mississippi.
Salt springs are numerous at tbe foot of tbe Rocky Moun¬
tains, and extensive plains occur covered with salt, one of
which, the Grand Saline, is thirty miles in circumference,
and in hot weather is covered with a crust of clear white
salt from two to six inches deep, and superior in quality to
manufactured salt. On the east side of the Alleghanies,
salt is generally obtained from the ocean, or imported.
Iron is found in nearly all the states, and is worked to
such an extent that, of 50,000 tons consumed, according to
computation, in the country, only 10,000 are imported.
(Morse, i. 236.) A bed of magnetic iron ore, from eight
to twelve feet thick, in gneiss, and another from two to
twenty feet, extend, with some interruptions, from the
White Mountains on the one side, and from Lake Cham¬
plain on the other, to the northern limits of New Jersey.
Iron ore, of various kinds, is also found in Maryland and
Virginia. On the west side of the Alleghanies it is abun¬
dant, and is extensively worked at Pittsburg, and in Ken¬
tucky and Tennessee. 1 he whole number of furnaces,
forges, and bloomeries, in 1810, was 530. Ores of copper
are smelted in New Jersey, and are found in various other
parts of the Union. Native copper is said to exist in great
quantities near the river St Croix, in the North-West Terri¬
tory ; but at present the United States are chiefly supplied
with this metal from Mexico. Lead is found in Massa¬
chusetts and Pennsylvania, but it exists most abundantly
in Missouri, at the north-east angle of the Ozark Mountains,
where forty-five mines are worked, which yield three mil¬
lions of pounds annually. (Mellish, 366.) Gold is found
in considerable abundance in Virginia, between the tide
river, and the blue ridge in the Alleghany Mountains. A
map has been published exhibiting a condensed view of
this interesting region, which has been surveyed and ex¬
plored ; and the gold annually obtained is estimated, “it is
stated, in millions of dollars,” and it is rapidly increasing,
though, comparatively speaking, only the surface of the
ground has been disturbed in obtaining this precious metal.
Some of the Virginian ores were pounded in a mortar, and
the sand being washed away, a large proportion of metallic
gold appeared in numerous and beautiful grains, though no
1 ™ar?en’, v°1; *• P- 2S9’ 355- , Birkbeclc’s Letters from Illinois, p. 37.
; a'‘ ure ^ tdoservations on the G.ology of the United States, passim. Major Long’s Memoir; and Engraved Sections in Jainf»s 1 'i-
3 James s Expedition, vol. iii. p. 90. 298, and Engraved Sections. Maelure, p. 35. Warden, Introduction, p. 32.
-
UNITED STATES.
tes,
rolil was visible on the outside. Those who have explored
his country are of opinion that it is decidedly rich in rai-
"erals; and, from the situation of the mines in a populous
istrict, with a complete command of machinery of every
escription, there will be great advantages for working them,
’he gold mines on the Rappahannock are not above half a
bzen miles from the city of Washington. The rich gold
■ins are said to be finely developed ; to be composed of
lartz, commonly called white dint, from one to five feet
thickness, generally perpendicular in the earth, like a wall,
tpported on both sides by soft talcose slate; and to extend
am the surface to an unknown depth. Gold has not un-
aially been found in the broken veins of the fragments at
e surface; and it has also been found at the depth of 160
et, increasingly rich.1 Mercury and tin have not been
and. Cobalt, antimony, manganese, and ores of zinc, occur
some few spots. Nitre is obtained in vast quantities from
e limestone caves in Kentucky. On a general view, it
iy be said that the United States have a supply of coal,
U, iron, lead, and probably copper, adequate to their own
jnsumption.
The United States have no considerable lake entirely within
eir territory, except Michigan. But a series of fresh-water
■cos, by far the largest in the world (for the Caspian Sea is
ilt), and connected with one another by the St Lawrence,
tends along the northern frontier. The following is their
■ tent, and their elevation above the level of the sea.
455
Likes.
Superior...
Huron. ...
Michigan.
St Clair..
Erie 
Ontario...
Length I Breadth.
350
220
310
•30
230
170
150
150
70
so
55
50
Area.
35,000
17,000
18,000
900
10,300
7,200
88,400
Height
in Feet.
642
589
570
560
110
Reckoning from Quebec to the western extremity of Sa¬
por, these lakes afford a line of 1550 miles of inland na-
’ ation, which will be increased to 4500 miles if we include
t' whole extent of their shores. But Quebec is far from
■ L open sea, and the shortest and best route to the Atlan-
' from Lake Erie and the waters above will be by the
n ' 0l'k Lanai. Lake Erie is about twenty fathoms in
* rage depth, Ontario eighty, and Lakes Huron, Michigan,
< Superior are said to be still deeper. All these inland
1 tens can be navigated with advantage ; and will be
1 Wlth vessels at some future period, when an active
1 mlation covers the North-West Territory. The principal
jerruptions at present are, 1st, at the’rapids between
3 ,ntre®‘ and Kingston, where it is proposed to cut a canal;
4 at the rapids and the great fail of Niagara, where a canal
J :l so Projecte(l ; 3d, in the stream of the river between
ws Huron and Erie, where there are also rapids, and in
sf M ^ W,lich is ful1 of shallows; 4th, at the falls
( ■ t Mary, between Huron and Superior, amounting to
nty-three feet in half a mile. All these obstructions, it
icveu, can be surmounted by art. These various lakes
s y occupy the bottom of a raised plateau, the outer
■ es o which are not very distant; and hence they receive
y ew rners of any magnitude. Their shores are beset
Y !ceJ,or two’ three, or four months in the year.
^ -a e George, thirty-six miles long and seven broad, pours
ii I .a)teis,In^0 kake Champlain, which is 160 miles long and
j i een road, and communicates by the river Sorelle with
1 awrence. A canal, twenty two miles long, now
Uni ted
States.
Rivers.
nearly finished, connects Lake Champlain with the Hudson.
We pass over the other lakes of smaller size.
The rivers of the United States belong to four different
systems: 1st, those which water the Atlantic region; 2d,
the Mississippi and its branches, which water the great
central valley of North America; 3d, those which flow
into the St Lawrence; and, 4th, the Columbia and its tri¬
butaries, which flow into the Pacific Ocean.
^ The rivers which fall into the Atlantic and the Gulf of Eastern
Mexico, ii’om Maine to the eastern boundary of Louisiana, rivers,
all rise in the Alleghanies, except the Susq’uehannah and
the Hudson, which pass entirely through the principal
chains. Their length varies from 200 to 450 miles, increas-
ing gradually with the breadth of the level country, as we
advance southward. The tide-water ascends in all these
rivers to the outer boundary of tire primitive formations,
where falls regularly occur, except on the Hudson. In this
river the tide reaches to Albany, 160 miles from its mouth,
to which point there is an uninterrupted navigation for
sloops of eighty tons. This peculiar advantage has made
the Hudson the scene of a more active inland trade than
any river, perhaps, in the world, of the same magnitude.
1 ide navigation reaches a very short way up the great rivers
in the northern states generally; but in those south of the
Susquehannah, it reaches generally from 100 to 130 miles.
Boats ply on these rivers much farther up, but the navigation
is seldom uninterrupted. The following are the principal rivers
on the Atlantic side, with their computed lengths.
Miles. Miles.
Connecticut  290 Roanoke  230
Pedee  290
Santee  300
Savannah  280
Catahouche  400
Alabama.,  440
T he rivers that fall into the St Lawrence and its lakes Northern
are comparatively small, and probably do not carry off onerivers-
tenth part of the water that falls on the east side of the
Mississippi. The most considerable are the Fox River,
which falls into Lake Michigan, the Miamie of Lake Erie,
the Genessee, and Seneca of Lake Ontario, and the Sorelle
or Richlieu, which joins the St Lawrence below Montreal.
The majestic Mississippi drains a greater surface than any Missis-
river in the world except the Amazon, and in the magni-^PP1*
tude of its stream is only surpassed by the Amazon and the
Plata. It has been computed to convey to the Mexican Gulf
yg-th of all the water which the ocean receives from the dry
land. The extreme length of the Mississippi proper, includ¬
ing all its sinuosities, is generally computed to be 2500 miles,
but reckoning to the head of the Missouri, which is the largest
branch, it is nearly 4000. It has three bars at its mouth, the
deepest of which affords only seventeen feet of water. (War¬
den, i. 114.) Sloops of this draught can navigate to Natchez,
350 miles from its mouth. There is depth sufficient at all
times for sloops drawing six feet to the Ohio, and for vessels
drawing three feet to the junction with the Missouri. (James’s
Expedition, iii. 258.) But during the floods in May, June,
and July, the waters rise fifty feet, and are then navigable
by vessels of any size. The Mississippi, from its junction
with the Ohio to the sea, is about 1000 yards, or two thirds
of a mile, in width, and below Red River'it is about 120 feet
deep. From the junction of the Arkansas, its banks form
an elevated ridge or platform, which support the stream at
the height of ten or twenty feet above the level of the adja¬
cent lands. In its floods, it sometimes bursts the barriers
which confine it, and inundates the flat country below. Or
the two great branches, the Missouri, and Mississippi proper,
the former stream is the larger and more rapid, and also
more turbid, from the quantity of travelled soil it transports ;
Hudson  300
Delaware  270
Susquehannah  350
Potomac  260
James River  200
1 See American Railroad Journal, p. 437.
456 UNITED
United but its waters, generally occupying a wider channel, are more
States, loaded with bars and sand-banks, and the navigation is more
s v'-—' intricate. (James’s Expedition, iii.259.) 1 he Platte, Kansas,
and some other tributaries of the Missouri, often extend
to a breadth of one or two miles, and during the warm sea¬
son dry up entirely. But these, and all the branches o! both
rivers, generally admit of boat navigation for nine tenths of
their course, during a longer or shorter period every year.
In the Ohio, the boating season is from 20th February to
the middle of June. Before this period the waters are ice¬
bound ; after it they are too shallow except for very small
craft. The length of the Mississippi, from its mouth to the
junction of the Ohio, is about 1200 miles, and to its junction
with the Missouri, 1300. The length of the Missouri, above
the junction to its remotest branch, is, by Lewis and Clarke’s
measurement, 2575 miles. The length of the Ohio, above
the point of confluence, is 1188 miles. The other large
branches of the Mississippi are the Red River and Arkansas,
in the lower part of its course. The chief tributaries of
the Missouri are the Osage, Platte, Kansas, and Yellow¬
stone; of the Ohio, the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Wa¬
bash. The whole extent of the navigable waters above the
confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi has been esti¬
mated at 23,000 miles, to which, if we acid 12,000 for the
Ohio, Arkansas, Red River, &c., and their branches, we
shall have 35,000 miles of boat navigation in the basin of
the Mississippi. To this we may add 10.000 miles more
for the eastern section of the states, with 5000 for the kikes
and their tributary streams, and 2000 for the river Colum¬
bia, making altogether 51,000 miles of river navigation,
which is probably three times greater than all the rivers of
Europe afford. Except in New England, Pennsylvania,
and New York, the rivers of the United States flow^ over a
surface which has rather a small declivity. Of the two
sides of the great central valley, the western is the steepest.
The base of the Rocky Mountains is computed to have an
elevation of 3000 feet. That of the beds of the rivers,
where they begin to be navigable, may be about 2000 ; and
estimating their average length of course to the sea to be
about 2500 miles, the mean fall will be about nine or ten
inches per mile. The Mississippi proper, at 2500 miles
from the sea, has a height of 1330 feet, or a mean fall of six
or seven inches per mile. The Ohio, at Pittsburg, 2200
miles from the sea, has a height of 600 feet, or a mean fall
of four inches. In the Amazon and the Ganges, from the
point where they leave the mountains, and in the Wolga
from its source, the average rate of descent is from four to
five inches per mile. In the middle and south of Europe
generally, the fall of the rivers is probably twice as great.1
Cultivated The variety of cultivated plants in North America cor-
pliuits,. responds to the diversity of its climates. At one extremity,
the sugar-cane of the tropical regions thrives; and at the
other, oats and barley, the staple crops of the arctic regions,
are leading articles of cultivation. The high summer heat,
however, in all parts of the United States, makes some
plants which cannot be raised in England succeed in the
coldest districts of the north. Of this description is maize,
or Indian corn, an indigenous American plant, which is cul¬
tivated from Maine to Louisiana. It is a vegetable in uni¬
versal use in the United States, yields generally double the
produce of wheat, and is adapted to a variety of situations.
The maple tree, which grows in all the states, yields a juice
from which sugar is made. Nearly ten millions of pounds
of maple sugar were made in 1810. Wheat is raised from
one extremity of the Union to the other, but succeeds best
in the middle and western states, and in the uplands of the
southern. The cultivation of tobacco begins in Maryland,
about the parallel of 39° or 40°, and continues through all
STATES.
the southern states, and through those in the w^est, south of [i
the Ohio. The climate favourable for cotton is not found i
farther north than about the latitude of 37°, though it can''* i
be raised as far north as 39° on both sides of the mountains,
The best grows in South Carolina and Georgia, in drvsitu.
ations, upon the sea-coast. The rice crops, which requires
marshy soil and a great heat, commence about the same
parallel with cotton, and have nearly the same geographical
range. The sugar-cane grows in low and warm situations,
as high as the latitude of 33°, but the climate favourable for
its cultivation does not extend beyond 31^°. Oats,barley,
hemp, and flax, succeed well, except in the low grounds of
the southern states. The vine can be advantageously
raised as far north as Pennsylvania. The olive, orange,
lemon, and fig, are injured by the frost in South Carolina; but
it is believed that these trees, as well as the banana, will sue.
ceed in Florida.2 The forest trees of the United States com¬
prise almost all the valuable and useful species of wood.
The United States contain about one fourth of the known ;
species of quadrupeds. Some are common to both conti¬
nents, others are peculiar to the western. Comparing indi¬
viduals of the same species, some are perfectly similar;
between others there is some difference in size, colour, or
other circumstances. In a few instances, the animal of the
eastern continent is larger than the American ; in most, the
reverse is the case. The following is a catalogue of the
quadrupeds of the United States: Mammoth (an extinct
species), bison or buffalo, moose-deer, caribou, red deer,
fallow deer, roe, bear, wolverene, wolf, fox, catamount, spot¬
ted tiger, sallow cougar, gray cougar, mountain cat, lynx,
kincagou, weasel, ermine, marten, mink, otter, fisher, skunk,
opossum, wood-chuck, urchin, hare, racoon, fox squirrel,
gray squirrel, red squirrel, flying squirrel, field-mouse, field-
bat, ground mouse, wood eat, American rat, shrew mouse,
purple mole, black mole, water rat, beaver, musquash, morse,
seal, manati, sapajou, sagoin.
Nine tenths of these animals yield a fur, which is used
for dress or in manufactures. The bison, or wild ox (im¬
properly called the buffalo), is, according to some American
naturalists, of the same species with the common neat cattle
of the United States, the difference being the effect of the
domestication of the latter. Buffon, however, thinks other¬
wise. The bison is larger than the domestic ox, has a fleshy
or grisly substance extending along his shoulders and back,
and has on his neck and shoulders a woolly hair, which ad¬
mits of being spun or wrought into hats. The moose-deer,
now rare, is a gigantic animal, one variety sometimes reach¬
ing the height of twelve feet. The caribou is probably the
rein deer of Scandinavia. The bear is of two species. Ihe
short-legged lives chiefly on vegetable food, and is probably
not carnivorous. He dozes away the winter in a torpid
state, sucking his paws, and expending the fat he had pre¬
viously acquired. The ranging bear is larger, but more
lean. He destroys calves, sheep, pigs, and sometimes chil¬
dren, and in winter migrates southward. The wolf, like
the bear, is found in all the states. It is a voracious animal,
stealing into sheep-folds at night, attacking deer, hons, and
small cattle, and sometimes hunting in packs. Ihe cata¬
mount is of the size of a large dog, and extremely ferocious,
but it is rarely seen. The spotted tiger is scarcely seen,
except near Louisiana. It is from five to six feet long*
The cougar or American panther is about the same
but more common. It destroys sheep, calves, and hog-,
and when hungry will attack large cattle. Hie urcun
differs in several respects from the European hedgehog*
The lion, leopard, striped or true tiger, hyena, elephan>
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, camelopard, are unknown in t'ie
New World. The horse, the ass, the sheep, the goat,tie
1 Warden, i. 115. Mellish, 32. Major Long’s Memoir, in James’s Expedition, with the Sectional Map;
2 Warden’s Introduction, 27 ; ii. 392 j iii. x22. Humboldt, proleg. 156.
UNITED STATES.
tion
jg( and the camel, did not originally exist there, but have
•en naturalized. The latter, however, are not numerous,
'id have never been introduced into the United States,
f the birds and reptiles our limits will not allow us to
,eak in detail. The eagle, pheasant, grouse, partridge,
van, Canadian goose, ptarmigan, are less or more numer-
is. In general, the small birds of America surpass those
' Europe in the beauty of their plumage, but are much
ferior to them in the melody of their notes. Among the
ptiles, the most remarkable is the alligator or American
ocodile, from twelve to twenty-three feet long, very strong
id active. Of serpents, the rattlesnake, from four to six
et long, is the most formidable.1
i. Perhaps no single circumstance connected with the
nited States has attracted so much attention as the rapid
owth of their population. Philosophers had shown, from
e laws which govern propagation, that the human species
gilt double its numbers in a short period. But this was
( ]y known as a speculative truth, applicable, it was sup-
ised, to small tribes under extraordinary circumstances,
it not to a great nation of many millions. The Spanish
/lonies, planted a hundred years earlier than the United
fates, should have made this principle familiar to the world
1 ig ago ; but ignorance and misgovernment, intercepting
12 bounty of nature, inflicted all the vices and evils of old
s pieties upon these colonies, and a jealous policy threw a
' il of secrecy over their condition.
The first European emigrants settled in the United States
i 1607. From that period, colonists continued to flock to
13 country in small parties or large bodies. The last new
settlement on a considerable scale was in 1733, when, by
means of a grant of L. 10,000 from parliament, and various
sums raised by private contributions, 618 persons were sent
out from England to Georgia.2 The growth of the colo¬
nies was rapid and obvious; but much more w^as pro¬
bably attributed to the influx of settlers from the mother
country than was consistent with the truth. No accurate
enumeration of the inhabitants was made till the first census
was taken in 1790. That for the year 1753, in Marshall’s
Life of Washington, is undoubtedly erroneous. The ratio
of increase being ascertained by the four separate enume¬
rations, and having continued remarkably uniform for forty
years, w7e can now, by calculating backwards, obtain results
more deserving of confidence than the rude guesses made
from uncertain data. The period of doubling at present is
24^ years; but, taking it at 25 years, and reckoning back¬
wards from 1790, we find the population at the under-men¬
tioned periods would be,
1790 3,929,000 1715   490,000
(by census) 1690   245,000
1765 1,960,000 1665   122,000
1740  980,000 1640   61,000
Beyond the last-mentioned period we cannot, for obvious
reasons, carry our calculation. If we suppose 1000 settlers
to have come from Europe annually for the first thirty-three
years, these, by natural multiplication, v'ould amount to
about 60,000 at the time alluded to, that is, in 1640. The
following table, constructed from authentic documents, gives
an interesting view of the progressive advances of popula¬
tion in the different states.
Maine 
Vew Hampshire...
/ermont 
Massachusetts 
thode Island 
Connecticut 
'few York 
Sew Jersey 
’ennsylvania 
lelaware 
Maryland 
Virginia 
Worth Carolina....
South Carolina 
Georgia 
Mississippi ...
-ouisiana 
I’ennessee  
ventucky 
I >hio 
| ndiana 
I llinois 
Missouri  
Michigan 
1 Arkansas 
96,540
141,899
85,416
378,717
69,110
288,141
340,120
184,139
434,373
59,098
319,728
748,308
393,751
249,073
82,548
35,791
73,077
Territories.
florida 
'V isconsin..
''orth-West Territory.
Missouri Territory 
-olumbia Territory 
hstrict of Columbia 
Totals 
151,719
183,762
154,465
423,245
69,122
251,002
586,756
211,949
602,365
64,273
341,548
880,200
478,103
345,591
162,101
8,850
105,602
220,955
45,365
4,875
14,093
3,929,827 5,305 925
228,705
214,360
217,713
472,040
77,031
262,042
959,949
249,555
810,091
72,674
380,546
974,622
555,500
415,115
252,433
20,845
40,352
76,556
261,727
406,511
230,760
24,520
12,282
20,845
4,762
24,023
1830.
298,335
244,161
235,764
523,287
83,059
275,202
1,372,812
277,575
1,049,458
72,749
- 407,350
1,065,379
638,829
502,741
340,987
127,901
75,448
153,407
422,813
564,317
581,434
147,178
55,211
66,586
8,896
14,273
33,039
399,955
269,328
280,652
610,408
97,199
297,665
1,918,608
320.823
1,348,233
76,748
447,040
1,211,405
737,987
581,185
516.823
309,527
136,621
215,739
681,904
687,917
937,903
343,031
157,455
140,445
31,639
30,388
34,730
39,834
Square
Miles.
Popula¬
tion in
each
Square
32,000
9,280
10,200
7,800
1,360
4,670
46.200
6,900
43,950
2,060
10,800
64,000
43.800
30,080
58.200
50.800
45,350
48,000
41.300
39,000
38,500
36,250
59,000
60.300
33,750
121,000
57,750
144,000
930,000
288.000
100
7,239,814 | 9,638,131 ! 12,866,920 2,364,400
m
29
27|
794
714
41
464
30
374
41|
19
161
19
8f
6
3
164
17i
244
9.3
2S
2|
0g
04
0|
8
5
5
12
2
6
40
6
28
1
8
21
13
9
9
5
2
3
13
13
19
7
3
2
1
1
Delegates,
1
1
1
'"I
52 245
j 1 Morse, vol. i. p. 263, &e. Warden, chap- vi. Buffon’s Quadrupeds, vol. ii. London, edit. 1775.
1 oran account of this and the earlier settlements, the reader may consult the History of the British Empire in America. Lond. 1741, 2 vols. 8ro.
VOL. XXI. 3 M
457
United
States.
458
UNITED STATES.
United
States.
The following is a later census of several states and ter¬
ritories :
Illinois  1835,
Michigan  1837,
Florida  1838,
Wisconsin  1838,
Iowa  1838,
272,427
174,109
48,223
18,149
21,796
Maine  1837, 485,451
Massachusetts. 1837, 791,331
New York  1835, 2,174,517
Georgia  1838, 661,702
Mississippi.... 1837, 308,744
Arkansas  1838, 09,710
According to the census which is now in progress, and
is nearly completed, the population, it is estimated, will
nearly amount to 17,000,000.
It will be observed from the first table, that the rate of
increase is very unequal for the different sections of the
Union. The older states of Connecticut and Massachusetts
have only added one fifth to their population, in the same
period in which the new states of Kentucky and Ohio have
quadrupled theirs; and, according to the more recent census
of 1830, the increase of population has been in like man¬
ner far more rapid in the newly-settled states of Indiana,
Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, and Michigan, where it has
more than doubled within ten years, than in any of the
northern and first-settled states, in which the increase has
only been from five to forty, fifty, and sixty-one per cent.
Even in Kentucky and Ohio, where the population increased
so rapidly the first thirty years after they were settled, it
has now been checked by those causes which never fail to
operate in all countries with the increase of inhabitants and
the occupation of the land; which have been long felt in
the crowded communities of Europe, as they are now in
all the older states of America. There is still another rea¬
son for the comparatively rapid increase of the newly-settled
states of the west, namely, that the more densely-peopled
parts of the Union, and in particular New England, serve
as a nursery to the new states, to which they are continually
sending out large draughts of emigrants. Thus there is a
constant stream of population pouring across the Alle-
ghanies, from the east side to the west, to occupy the vast
plain of the Mississippi; and by this gradual generation of
a mighty people from a central stock, a uniformity of lan¬
guage, manners, and institutions, is diffused over the whole,
which will cement their union, in spite of local diversities
of interest, and which promises to make the countless mil¬
lions who will by and by cover North America from sea r
to sea, more truly one people than the inhabitants of Aus- Sw
tria, Prussia, France, Spain, or Britain, are at this day. N'-
If we calculate prospectively from the present rate of
increase, assuming that it will continue permanent for some
time, the population at the under-mentioned periods will be
1845   20,000,000 1895  80,000000
1870   40,000,000 1920  160,000,000
Before this last result is realized, some retardation will
probably take place in the rate of increase. But even if
the vast population alluded to were in existence, the average
density for the whole territory would not be greater than it
is at this day in Massachusetts, and only half as great as in
Italy, France, and the British Isles.
The rapid growth of the population in America becomes
much more striking when wre contrast it with the scarcely
perceptible progress of communities in the Old World.
France, which, according to Marshal Yauban, had 19,094,000
inhabitants in 1700, had 26,363,000 in 1791. Now, accord¬
ing to the rate of increase which this indicates, that country
would have doubled its population in 195 years; but the po¬
pulation of the United States in the same period would have
increased to 220 times its first amount. The following
table, calculated from the best data to be obtained, shows
the comparative rate of increase in different countries.
Annual In¬
crease on
each 10,000
Persons
United States (according to
census of 1810 and 1820),
France, from 1700 to 1791,
Ditto  1791 to 1821,
England 1801 to 1821,
Europe for the last 30 years,
291
34
48
137
76
Period of
Doubling.
244 years
195
144
51
90
From 1820 to 1830, the increase on each 10,000 of the
American inhabitants amounts to about 3000.
The following table contains a census of the slave popu- 51,
lation, according to five enumerations.
Maine 
New Hampshire 
Vermont  
Massachusetts 
Rhode Island 
Connecticut..... 
New York 
New Jersey 
Pennsylvania  
Delaware 
Maryland 
Virginia 
North Carolina 
South Carolina 
Georgia 
Alabama  
Mississippi 
Louisiana 
Tennessee 
Kentucky 
Ohio 
Indiana 
Illinois 
Missouri 
District of Columbia.
Florida Territory 
Michigan Territory..
Arkansas Territory...
Total  697,897
1790.
0
158
17
0
952
2,759
21,324
11,423
3,737
8,887
103,036
293,427
100,572
107,094
29,264
3,417
11,830
1800.
0
8
0
0
381
951
20,343
12,422
1,706
6,153
105,635
345,796
133,296
146,151
59,404
3,489
13,584
4,034
135
3,244
1810.
0
0
0
0
103
310
15,017
10,851
795
4,177
111,502
392,518
168,824
196,365
105,218
17,088
34,660
44,535
80,561
237
168
3,011
5,395
24
893,041 | 1,191,364
1820,
48
97
10,088
7,657
211
4,509
107,398
425,153
205,017
258,475
149,656
41,879
32,814
69,064
80,107
126,732
190
917
10,222
6,377
1,617
17
25
73
2,254
403
3,292
102,294
469,757
245,601
315,401
217,531
117,549
65,059
109,538
141,003
165,213
0
747*
25,081
6,119
15,501
52
4,576‘
1,538,064 2,009,031
* Not slaves, but “ indented colored servants."
>
ied
UNITED STATES.
The existence of slavery is the standing reproach of
America. In the structure of society, it is a flaw which
•as corrupted the manners of the people and the policy of
ie state. In the northern provinces, the people are sen-
ble of its evils, and of its peculiar reproach in a land
f freedom; and they have not failed to convey these
jntiments to the proprietors of slaves. Slavery has ac-
mlingly been abolished, and is nearly extinguished, in all
ie New England states and in New York, and is hasten-
g to its extinction in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Dela-
are, and Maryland. By the laws of Pennsylvania, all
:rsons born within that state since 1780 are free, the
lildren of a slave being subject to a limited servitude to
;r owner. .In New Jersey, every child born after July
101 is declared free, and all traffic in slaves was prohibited
1798. The revised laws of New Y’ork declare, that every
rson born in that state is free; that all persons brought
to the state, except for a limited period, become free ; and
at no person can be sold within the limits of the state. The
idinance for the territory north-west of the river Ohio,
issed in 1787, prohibits for ever the introduction of sla-
ry into that tract of country in which the four states of
diana, Illinois, Missouri, and Michigan, have already been
rmed. The introduction of slaves from abroad was pro-
bited by Virginia in 1798, and by Congress into the
ississippi territory in the same year; and in 1808, by the
ime authority, into any part of the United States. But
; ough declining, slavery still prevails in the southern states,
i mely, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, the Carolinas, Geor-
|k, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and even in the dis-
t ct of Columbia, and is the fruitful source of complicated
fils. Louisiana and several other states prohibited the intro-
* ction of slaves from any other state except by an immigrant
pprietor; but an active internal trade among the south-
• i states is carried on in slaves, who are exported in great
i mbers from the worn-out districts towards the north and
f it, to be employed in the cultivation of new and fresh
( don lands in the south. Like the lower animals, slaves
t: encouraged to breed and to multiply, by those who have
rested their capital in the trade.
But slavery, it it be the reproach of America, the far-
fined land of liberality and freedom, is also her misfortune ;
; i the slave-holders would receive, as they would merit,
ffi sympathy and aid of Europe, if they would endeavour
t improve the condition of the slaves, and gradually
I'pare them for emancipation, the only consummation
i which it is so devoutly to be wished that slavery,
6 unhappily begun, should happily end. In a commu-
j y divided, as in all slave-holding states, between two
’tile races,—the oppressor and the oppressed,—there
1 J;wo alternatives, either by kindness and humanity
j mingle the two into one, or to maintain by rigour the
idage and degradation of the inferior cast. In the one
<j e, the slaves are retained in chains and darkness, without
1 >e, and the system, will only stand so long as power re-
*j ins on the side of the oppressor. But so surely as love
s ings from kindness, resentment, curses not loud but deep,
the fruits of oppression; and thus, in a long course
< abused power, a standing feud is established between
13 great sections of the community, an arrear of ven-
bnce accumulates, which, if occasion offers, will be duly
■ 'aid by the oppressed class, in a measureless retribution,
ages of violent wrong; and how precarious therefore
1 ^t be the condition of society, where one class lives in
‘ 'tmual dread of the other, the sentinel ever at his
' ’ an<^ where the slumbering vengeance of thousands
V at any moment awaken into activity, and convert
" mle country into one scene of anarchy and blood.
, ''as rom this just apprehension, and from a desire to
I >e °ut ^le uioral stain of slavery, that Great Britain,
459
a generous policy, emancipated the slaves in her West
la col°uies; and though the propo
proportion of blacks to
whites was much greater, being ten, and sometimes twenty,
to one, than in North America, where they seldom amount
to above a third of tue population, yet their emancipation
would be a great reform, which would conduce not less to
the improvement of morals than to the peace of society.
But this great change must be the work of time. The way
must be prepared by the diffusion of intelligence and of
purer morals; and great was the error of those over-zea¬
lous missionaries wdm went about preaching to the Ame¬
rican slaves the dangerous doctrine of natural right; thus
agitating society by the fear of some dreadful crisis, which
might involve the land in devastation and blood, or, if autho¬
rity were maintained, which would rivet, and render more
cruel, the yoke of slavery. And such, in point of fact, has
been its effect. The incendiary doctrines of these apostles of
fieedom really alarmed the slave-holders for their lives and
propei ties; and they now regarded them as the enemies of
good order, to be repressed and punished, and treated some
of them so roughly that they narrowly escaped with their
lives. It is clear that slavery wall never be abolished, either
in America or elsewhere, except by the aid of the slave¬
holders themselves. In the West India islands they were
gained over by a bribe of 20 millions sterling; and it is
only, we fear, by some such powerful argument that the
master will ever consent to the emancipation of the slave.
There is no authority in America that could effect the abo¬
lition of slavery. An act of Congress for this purpose
could scarcely be obtained; and it is even doubtful how
far the wealthy planters of the south would submit to a
law passed, as they would reason, by fanatical zealots, and
endangering both their property and their lives. Such dis¬
cussions are now considered to be dangerous and inexpe¬
dient. Hence they are forborne in the Congress, and still
more all attempts to legislate on the subject, as putting in
jeopardy the supreme authority and unity of the empire.
I he alarm excited in the southern states, by the mis¬
sionaries of freedom, has rather been unfavourable to
the slaves. Fear has, as usual, been the parent of cruelty.
It has added to the rigour of their bondage, and has given
rise to laws without a parallel for barbarity in any civilized
country, which are intended for ever to debar the slave
from the blessings either of knowledge or of religion. In all
the slave-states, namely, the Carolinas, Virginia, Georgia,
Louisiana, &c., not only are those cruel laws enforced
against slaves, but, in the wantonness of abused power,
they are extended to free men of colour, who are exposed
to every species of injury and insult. They are not allowed
to pass from one state into another. Mr Stuart, who cannot
be accused of prejudice against American manners or in¬
stitutions, relates of an individual in South Carolina, who
was accustomed, during the unhealthy season, to go from
Charleston to New York, that, by a law recently passed,
he was prohibited from crossing the boundary, under the
pain of not being allowed to return; and thus, having
his wife and children in the state, he was confined a pri*
soner within its limits; while a person of colour coining
into the same state, or brought in by a vessel, is apprehend¬
ed and confined in jail until the vessel is ready to sail. It
is contrary to law that this class of nominal freemen, but
real slaves, shall be educated; they are not competent wit¬
nesses where the rights of the other class are concerned,
though their testimony is received against each other, as
is even the evidence of slaves; and they are tried for any
offence with which they may be charged, by a justice
of the peace and freeholders, without the benefit of a
jury. From those laws passed against the offspring of
slaves having the original taint of slavery, we may in¬
fer the treatment of the slaves themselves. Several bar¬
barous enactments have lately been passed. In 1830 the
state legislature of Louisiana ordained, that “ whosoever
shall write, print, publish, or distribute any thing having
a tendency to create discontent among the free coloured
United
States.
460
UNITED STATES.
United population of this state, or insubordination among the slaves,
States, ghaii^ at the discretion of the court, sujfer death, or imprison-
merit at hard labour for life^ The same language used in
any public discourse from the bar, the bench, the stage, the
pulpit, or in any place, or in private conversation, or the
bringing into the state any paper, pamphlet, or book, hav¬
ing any such tendency, shall subject the offender to not less
than three years and not more than twenty years hard la¬
bour, or death. The teaching of a slave, or permitting or
causing to be taught, any slave, to read or write, is de¬
clared punishable with imprisonment for not less than
one and not more than twelve months. Another act pro¬
vides for the expulsion from the state of all free people of
colour who came into it subsequent to the year 1807; it
prohibits any of this class from entering the state, and sen¬
tences to imprisonment or hard labour for life such as dis¬
obey the order for their departure. These laws present a
revolting picture of degradation and suffering on the one
hand, and of disquiet and terror on the other. The ruling
class live in daily terror of vengeance from their wretched
slaves, and hence these cruel precautions. Their cruelty
brings its punishment along with it; it is the measure of
their misery; and therefore in relaxing the bonds of sla¬
very, the happiness of all parties would be promoted.
In Europe, many cruel and unjust laws have been passed,
which have fallen into disuse with the progress of society.
But in the slave-holding states of America, congenial man¬
ners give force to tyrannical laws. With some exceptions,
the general treatment of slaves is harsh and cruel; a fact to
which all travellers in the southern states of the Union bear
ample testimony. Mr Stuart, already mentioned, and the
duke of Saxe-Weimar, in describing the treatment of Ame¬
rican slaves, give the particulars of the grossest cruelty, by
individuals who are in the habit of beating and ill-using
their slaves on the slightest offence, or sending them to
gaol, where the slave, on the payment of a fee to the
gaoler, is, without further inquiry, fastened to a machine
and lashed without mercy. “ Nothing is more common,”
says Mr Stuart, “ than for the masters and mistresses of
slaves, either male or female, when they wish them to be
punished, to send them to a prison, with a note to the
gaoler, specifying the number of lashes to be inflicted. If
the master so orders it, the slave receives his whipping
laid flat upon his face upon the earth, with his hands and
feet bound to posts. In passing the prison in the morning,
the cries of the poor creatures are dreadful.”1 At the pub¬
lic sales of slaves, where the ties of nature are rudely torn
asunder, scenes occur which are revolting to humanity, and
wThich, without the aid of laws, would be utterly repudiated
by the improved manners of Europe. Where these maxims
prevail, they forbid all hope of alleviating the lot of the slave ;
and the great point would therefore be, to impress on the
slave-holders themselves, not only the cruelty, but the error of
their measures. They are no doubt obstinate and prejudiced;
but in time the voice of reason may prevail so far as to lead
to a mitigation of the present harsh code, and pave the way
lor the abolition of slavery throughout the country.
In the southern states of the Union, namely, the Caro-
Slaves.
From 1810 to 1820 122...
  1820 to 1830 119...
W hites.
...116
... llo
South Carolina.
From 1790 to 1800 136.
  1800 to 1810 134.
  1810 to 1820 132.
  1820 to 1830 122.
.138
.120
.121
.115
Virginia.
From 1790 to 1800 118 118
  1800 to 1810 114 110
  1810 to 1820 108 109
  1820 to 1830 105 114,
Georgia.
From 1790 to 1800 203.
  1800 to 1810 144.
 1810 to 1820 142.
  1820 to 1830 146.
.197
.155
.135
.151
Kentucky.
From 1810 to 1820 157 134
  1820 to 1830 131 122
Alabama.
From 1820 to 1830 285 244
Mississippi.
From 1820 to 1830 203 181
Tennessee.
From 1790 to 1800 433.
  1800 to 1810 337.
  1810 to 1820 181.
  1820 to 1830 176.
.300
.248
.161
.161
linas, Virginia, Georgia, Kentucky, Alabama, Mississippi,
Tennessee, Arkansas, slavery appears to have fixed its per¬
manent abode; and, according to the following table,
which exhibits the progressive increase of the two different
races for the last forty years, there has not been so rapid an
increase in the white as in the black population.
Increase on each 100 of the Whites and the Blacks in North
Carolina.
Slaves. Whites.
From 1790 to 1800 133 121
  1800 to 1810 126 116
In France and England, and probably in Europe at large, jj
the females exceed the males by two or three per cent.; but fei
in the United States generally, the males exceed the fe¬
males by nearly four per cent. In the newest states, the
excess is as high as nineteen per cent. (Seybert,p.42.) Tne
difference is still more striking in what relates to ages. In
the United States, children form a much greater, and aged
persons a much smaller, proportion of the population than
in Europe. In Sweden, according to Wargentin’s Tables,
the persons under the age of sixteen form thirty-six per cent,
of the population ; in Britain, according to the last census,
forty ; and in the United States fifty per cent. The persons
aged above forty-five form twenty-two per cent, of the whole
population in Sweden, eighteen per cent, in Britain, and
twelve per cent, in the United States. This peculiarity
arises from the rapidly progressive state of the population.
Since the inhabitants of the United States quadruple their
numbers in fifty years, a person born half a century ago
belongs by his birth to a society of two millions and a ha t
of persons, but now lives in a society of ten millions, whic i
will furnish four times as many old men to a future am
equidistant period. The annua! amount of immigration (to ^
borrow an American word) is very variable, and its ettec
have been greatly overrated. The whole number or pa5
sengers who arrived in 1817, at the ten principal ports, "aj
22,240, including citizens, and persons on business who a
not mean to remain in the country. In 1816, it was e
mated at 20,000; in 1818 and 1819, at 28,000 each, nor
more than one half of whom, very probably, were strang
Stuart’s Three Years in America, vol. ii. p. 206.
UNITED STATES.
461
j,. 1 ,ome to settle. In 1820, the true number of immigrants,
cc0rding to the National Calendar, was 7001, of whom
.^2 were males, consisting of 997 agricultural persons,
461 commercial, 1407 manufacturers, artisans, &c. Dr
,evbert thinks the average number of foreigners wiio come
) settle in the United States does not exceed 6000 per
nnum; but assuming it to be 8000 or 9000, this is only
•om jo to j-j of the whole annual increment, which must
mount to 290,000 persons to make the population double
i 241 years.1
i a]jty, This rapid increase does not greatly affect the rate of the
inual mortality, which is proportionally rather greater
mong the persons under twenty-five than among those of
1 ages. In the absence of proper data for ascertaining the
inual mortality of the whole country, or of any particular
ate, we can only refer to a single fact. The average
umber of deaths in Philadelphia, for eight years (1807 to
814), was found to be about ^ of the contemporaneous
upulation. (Seybert, p. 50.) In Birmingham, in the ten
jars ending 1811, it was about in London and in
1 England, including the army and navy, about ^ or -fa.
mine’s Annuities, p. 456.) This single fact, therefore, as
r as it goes, bears testimony to the salubrity of the climate,
id to the comfortable condition of the inhabitants, of the
nited States.
s. The active population in the United States is propor-
onally greater, and the idle population less, than in any
Per country. They have few public functionaries,
teachers, or annuitants, and a very small army and navy,
ccording to a table which will afterwards be inserted, the
jtive population amounts to twenty-seven per cent, of
le whole, or tw'o per cent, more than the number of males
)ove the age of sixteen. The proportions employed in
giculture, manufactures, and commerce, according to the
jnsus of 1820, were,
Agriculture 83*7 per cent.
Manufactures  13'5
Commerce  2’8
100-0
But the number assigned to commerce evidently does
>t include mariners, or includes only those who resided
i shore at the time the census was taken. For the sake
comparison, we give the general result of the British re-
rns for 1811, remarking however that the two classifi-
itions are not constructed on the same plan, the second
i iad in our arrangement corresponding to the second and
iird in the American.
Agriculture (by families) ,.35j per cent.
Irade, manufactures, and handicraft
(ditto) 441
Other persons (the unproductive class,
military, placemen, clergy, &c.) 20^
8 aiu] fpv • ,
risin. 1 l,e S'tuation of the labouring classes in the United
ates is confessedly far superior to that of the same de-
l iption of persons in any other part of the world. Wages
c so high, compared with the price of provisions, that an
mencan labourer, who should live exactly as labourers
1/6 ,ln other countries, might always save the half of his
inungs. Ihe average wages of a labourer were estimat-
1 at seventy-five cents a day by Mr Blodget, and more
u ntly at eighty cents by Mr Niles, wheat being one and
la ^bar per bushel. (Warden, Introduction.) In such
icumstances, a very moderate degree of industry suffices
to place a man above want, and pauperism can only be the United
lot of those who are debilitated by old age or disease. Ac- States.
cordingly, it is a proud distinction for North America, that   '
this moral deformity, except so far as it is the consequence
of natural and unavoidable misfortunes, is almost unknown
within her borders. It is not there as in the old countries
of Europe, where a person who is able to provide comfort¬
ably for his own wants, has still his feelings, exposed to
daily laceration from the sight of multitudes of miserable
beings, who exhibit human nature in its most loathsome
and degraded state, and whose wretchedness it is beyond
his power to relieve. It is Rochefoucault, we think, who
remarks that he had seen only one beggar in the United
States. Mendicity does exist; but except in the large
cities, where foreigners are often found in a state of desti¬
tution, it rarely obtrudes itself on the eye, and may be said
generally to be as rare in that country as it is abundant
everywhere else. In Europe, the paupers have been sup¬
posed, on a rough calculation, to amount to one-twentieth
part of the population. In the United States, they were es¬
timated by Mr Niles, some years ago, at one person in 250
on the Atlantic coast, and one in 350 in the interior. But
in times of great public calamity, the proportion is much
higher. In the New England states, and in some of the
others, though not the whole, each parish is obliged to pro¬
vide for the support of its own poor, according to the hu¬
mane spirit of the English laws. (Morse, vol. i. p. 293.
Warden, passim.)
The North American Union comprehends at present States,
twenty-six distinct states, each governed by its own con¬
stitution ; three territories, in which civil governments are
established without constitutions, namely, Florida, Wiscon¬
sin, and Iowa, the two latter having been erected into terri¬
torial governments in 1836 and 1838 ;2 and other three terri¬
tories, which are yet unoccupied by a civilized population.
To these we must add the district of Columbia, comprising
a space of ten miles square round Washington, and placed
under the exclusive authority of the federal government.
The thirteen original states which concurred in, the de¬
claration of independence on the 4th July 1776, were New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir¬
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. Vermont
was then an appendage to New York, and Maine to Massa¬
chusetts. The extent of the several states is very unequal.
Rhode-Island and Delaware are specks in the map, rather
smaller than Devonshire or Perthshire. New York, Penn¬
sylvania, and the new states generally, are each larger than
Ireland or Scotland; while Virginia, Georgia, Missouri,
and Illinois, severally exceed England in extent. The
density of the population diminishes pretty regularly in
every direction as we recede from Massachusetts; and in
that state, where it is greatest, it rather exceeds that of
Spain or Poland, or Europe taken altogether. The mean
density for all the states east of the Mississippi, including
the district of Columbia, and also the state of Louisiana, is
nearly forty-one persons to the square mile.
Some writers, who derive their political ideas from the State go-
old institutions of Europe, strongly disapprove of the divi- venunenU.
sion into states, with distinct local governments. But this
arrangement, though originally the effect of accident, is ad¬
mirably adapted to the circumstances of the country, and
deserves to rank as an improvement in the science of legis¬
lation. It is the only system by which the great advan¬
tages of union could be combined, in such a gigantic em¬
pire, with a due attention to the separate interests of all
the parts. The federal compact, by preserving peace and
, ,e'J5erh P- -8. Carey’s Essay on Political Economy, 1822, p. 4,')3, 467. Niles’s Register.
rev f[ntor-v becomes a state when its inhabitants, amounting to not less than 60,000 persons, have met and formed a constitution,
‘ously to this, they are placed under the civil authority of a governor appointed by the president and Congress-
462
UNITED STATES.
United
States.
of the United States. The experiment is by far the most V
interesting that has ever been made in the science of'legis- St
lation; and the steadiness and success with which it ]las >-
hitherto proceeded opens up the most encouraging pros.
pects as to the future destiny of mankind.
The federal government, of which we shall afterwards
speak, possesses merely those specific powers which are
vested in it by the constitution. All other powers and
rights remain with the state governments, in which the so.
vereignty essentially resides. The territory of each state
friendship among states that would otherwise be rivals and
enemies, exempts them from the scourge of frequent wars,
gives unbounded freedom to their internal trade, and,
while it enables them to dispense with that sort of strong
government which is scarcely compatible with liberty, it
gives them an aggregate strength, which secures them
against external attacks. On the other hand, each sepa¬
rate district, acting by its own legislature, is invested with the
entire regulation of its local concerns, which can never be
intrusted to others without the certainty of mismanage-  
ment. No single legislative body, even were its sessions is not the territory of the Union, but of that particular
perpetual, could properly conduct the local business of state. The people and militia are the people and militia
such an empire as that now forming in North America, of the several states, not of the Union. Lands are held
In our own parliament, it is notorious, that, from the rnul- under the laws of the states; descents, contracts, and all
tiplicity of business transacted, the general style of legisla- the concerns of private property, the administration of jus.
tion is most slovenly, and bills of all kinds, but especially tice, and the whole criminal code, except in the case of
local bills, are often grossly mismanaged. How great an breaches of the laws of the federal body, are regulated by
impediment is it felt to be to the redress of grievances, or state laws.1 All the twenty-six states have written consti-Stal
the promotion of improvements, in the remote parts of tutions, formed subsequently to the Revolution, exceptstiti
Scotland and Ireland, that witnesses, parties, and agents, Rhode Island, which is still governed by the charter grant-
must be carried six or seven hundred miles, at a vast ex- ed by Charles II. in 1663. These constitutions are purely
pense, and that, when they reach the seat of legislation, republican, though the right of suffrage (for the term
every thing must depend on the votes of persons who either franchise is inapplicable and odious where voting is a
understand their business imperfectly or not at all, and general right, not a special privilege) is restricted in one
who are only prevailed upon, by solicitation, to bestow a
slight attention upon it. The division into states supplies
the only remedy to this great evil. It encourages local
improvements, by uniting those whose situation gives them
a community of interest as to certain objects. It lessens
corruption in the general government, by subdividing pa¬
tronage. In times of public phrensy, it multiplies the se¬
curities against the persecution of individuals, because such
persons will always find protectors in some one of the state
governments. It has indeed one disadvantage ; the state
legislatures may become the strongholds of faction, as was
exemplified in Massachusetts during the last war. But as
the number of states increases, the weight of each in the
confederacy, and its power to disturb the union, are diminish¬
ed. Even out of this danger a security arises against an¬
other. The existence of the separate state governments
forms a strong barrier against despotism, because it creates
so many distinct centres of power, from which resistance
might be made, if a military tyrant should master the ge¬
neral government, as Cromwell mastered that of Britain,
and Bonaparte that of France. Some inconvenience, no
doubt, arises from the unavoidable diversity of laws in such
or two states, and unequally divided in one or two others.
In every one of the states, the legislature consists of two
chambers, both chosen by direct popular election, except
in Maryland, where the senators are chosen by delegates.
In eighteen states out of the twenty-six, the representa¬
tives (or members of the lower house, according to our
phraseology) are elected annually, and in Tennessee and
Louisiana biennially, and in three triennially, viz. in South
Carolina, Illinois, and Missouri. The period of service in
the senates (or upper houses) varies from one to four
years, except in Maryland, where it is five: in some cases
one third or one fourth, in others one half, of the members
are renewed every year; in others, one half every two
years. In some of the states the right of suffrage was for¬
merly limited to freeholders or corporations, but by amend-
ments in most of the old constitutions these restrictions
have been abolished ; and the right of suffrage, though va¬
riously defined in the different states, is substantially uni¬
versal in them all, except in New Jersey and Virginia. In
these two states, the possession of a small amount of pro¬
perty still constitutes the citizen’s title to vote. In many
of the states, there are certain qualifications prescribed for
the persons elected. A senator must, in general, be a
freeholder, and not under thirty years of age; a represen¬
tative not under twenty-five. The governors act in some
cases with, in others without a council, and hold their of¬
fices, some for one year, some for twro, some for three, but
none for more than four years. In all the constitutions
recently framed, an express provision is introduced for
adopting amendments. The rule generally is, that if any
alteration is judged necessary and approved of by two suc-
an aggregation of republics; but the evil is not much felt
or complained of practically, and it is the necessary con¬
comitant of a union producing boundless advantages. An
iron despotism may subject all its slaves to the same laws,
without regard to the distinctions of climate, character, or
situation ; but freemen will not associate voluntarily on
such a principle. Liberty consists not in being governed
by the laws that are absolutely best, but by those which
are deemed best by the people who obey them. No w ise
and liberal statesman will hold it necessary that the fisher- cessive legislatures, it may then be submitted to the people:
men of Massachusetts, the husbandmen of Pennsylvania, who appoint a special convention to decide upon it. 1°
and the sugar-planters of Louisiana, should live under one some cases it is provided that a convention shall meetpe"
perfectly uniform system of jurisprudence. Such a uni- riodically to revise the constitution. The existing legisla-
lormity could not be enforced without rending asunder the ture is always considered as exercising a trust, in the terms
union. And let it be recollected, that the diversity of of which it has no power to make the smallest change, by
laws, such as it exists, is much less than it would be if the this principle, legislation is founded on a clear and rationa
federal compact were dissolved, and the several states en- basis. It gives stability to institutions that might other-
tirely independent. In short, if it is possible by any de- wise be the foot-ball of domineering factions; it check*
vice to reconcile freedom with extensive empire ; to unite the growth of sinister interests, and, wTile it affords a safe
all the parts of a vast continent together in the bonds of and easy remedy for grievances, it is so far from being an
peace and commercial intercourse ; and yet not to trench inlet to rash innovations, that it is the best guarantee
materially on the natural rights of each part, or the free against them, as the history of the United States demon-
use of its natural powers and advantages ; it must be by a strates. To suffer those who exercise the supreme
federative system similar in its essential characters to that a country to change at pleasure the conditions by "hie
* Tiewa oi the President of the United States on the subject of Internal Improvements, laid before Congress 4th May 1622.
lifted
UNITED STATES.
hey hold it, is as absurd as to suffer the judge to make of the winter’s frost, renders the cultivation less advan-
he laws which he administers, or the steward to fix the tageous than in the West Indies. In 1817 however it was
W of the engagement which invests him with the ma- calculated that 20,000,000 of pounds of sugar were made'
ageraent of an estate. Under such a system, the steward in Louisiana alone; a quantity estimated to be about two
navoidably becomes a peculator, the judge a tyrant, and the sevenths of the whole annual consumption of the United
gislature a junto of conspirators against the public weal. States. (Warden, ii. p. 483,541. Morse, i p 668 ) The
The agriculture of the United States varies according culture of sugar has since been greatly extended-and in
the climate, soil, and situation, of the ^several divisions 1838 the quantity exported amounted to 408,802*pounds.
and the value to 30,487 dollars;1 besides 2,610,649 pounds
of refined sugar, value 249,671 dollars.
I he rural population of the United States presents an
extraordinary contrast in its constituent parts to that of
every country in Europe. The class of extensive proprie¬
tors living on their rents, and the class of peasants living
merely by their labour, are almost equally unknown. The
great bulk of the inhabitants consists of farmers, who are the
owners of the lands they occupy, and the greater propor¬
tion of whom work with their own hands. “ The number
of those who are mere labourers,” says Dwight, “ is almost
nothing, except in a few populous towns, and almost all
these are collected from the shiftless, the idle, and the vi¬
cious. . A great part of them are foreigners. Every young
man hired to work upon a farm aims steadily to acquire a
faim for himself, and hardly once fails of the acquisition.”
(Dwight’s travels, vol. iv. p. 335.) Except in some few
spots near large towns, there is scarcely any land rented,
ihe piice is generally so low, that a small addition to the
sum necessary for stocking a farm suffices to purchase it;
and even where the value is higher, an individual who has
money enough to stock a large farm will prefer buying one
of half the size. Of the state of New York, only one fifth,
and of the whole inhabited country east of the Mississippi
(excluding Michigan and Florida), only about one tenth
part is yet cleared and cultivated. Of course the best
soils are first used, and, till population thickens and pro¬
duce rises, soils of the second and third quality will not re¬
pay the expense of culture ; and as a necessary consequence,
those of the first quality yield no rent. The farms occu¬
pied by the owners are seldom large, because, where wages
are high, agriculture cannot be advantageously conducted
on an extensive scale ; and the large property in land oc¬
casionally acquired by an individual is soon broken up by
division among his children. Thus situated, the rural po¬
pulation certainly enjoy a greater share of happiness in the
United States than in any other country in the world.
They are exempted from the fluctuations incident to the
commercial and manufacturing classes; they feel none of
the evils of dependence, and are far above want; without
possessing that wealth which engenders idleness and va¬
nity, and often becomes a snare to its possessor. They
have the means of settling their families well, without mak¬
ing great sacrifices ; they live in the enjoyment of all the
substantial comforts of life, and can look forward to old
age with less anxiety and apprehension than any class of
men in any other country.
I he system of agriculture is necessarily less perfect in
the United States than in Britain. Where prime soils can
be had for almost nothing, where the price of labour is
high, and that of produce low, the elaborate and costly
modes of cultivation adopted in Britain cannot be advan¬
tageously applied. Some English farmers, who have gone
out to America with an impression that large gains might
be made by introducing our improved system of husbandry,
have found themselves disappointed. Something the Ame¬
ricans may learn from us ; but, till the country is more
f enla j '"‘7 u‘ JJ- uuuais. rui densely peopled, it will be more profitable to cultivate a
j ,aif . I 111 canes yields about 1000 or 1200 pounds of large surface rudely than a small one laboriously. In the
' anew' 1 ^ (luant'ty ot molasses. The necessity middle and eastern states, however, where produce brings
wing the canes annually by planting, in consequence a considerable price, farming is carried on with care and
! fUporu'oMyir 6 ^etretar7 t^le Treasury to Congress, with the Annual Statement of Commerce and Navigation, No. o, p. 230, 231.
463
the country; but, taken altogether, it differs materially
om that of Britain, in the nature of the productions cul-
yated, in the condition of those who are engaged in it,
id in the general principles by which it is conducted,
esides our staple productions, wheat, barley, oats, pease,
:ans, turnips., and potatoes, the soil of the United States
elds rice, Indian corn, indigo, cotton, sugar, tobacco, the
ne; and Florida will probably add to these the olive and
e banana, which scarcely succeed in the other states,
he staple produce of New England is Indian corn ; that
the middle states wheat and tobacco ; that of the south-
ii, cotton, rice, and, to a limited extent, sugar. Dr Morse
dicatesthe proportional quantity of each species of produce
ised, by naming them in the following order, the greatest
ing first. In New England, Indian corn, grass, rye, oats,
i.x, wheat, buck-wheat, barley, and hemp; in the middle
ites, wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, grass, oats, buck-wheat,
: x, barley, potatoes, spelts, rye; in the southern states,
i tton, wheat, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, indigo (formerly),
rley, and hemp. The western states, along the Ohio,
• respond in their productions to the middle states on the
Jantic. Good soils, carefully cultivated, in the United
i ites, yield 100 bushels of Indian corn or 50 of w'heat
fr acre. But the average produce of the cultivated land
i Ohio and Kentucky, districts not inferior in soil to any
i the Union, is estimated as follows: Maize 40 bushels
] r acre, wheat 22, rye 26, oats 35, barley 30, tobacco 12
1 15 cwt., cotton 5 to 7 cwt. in the seed, or from 150 to
I 0 pounds cleaned. (James, vol. iii. p. 199.) This great
dple of the United States consists of two sorts, the°sea-
i md or long staple, and the upland or short staple. The
I mer, of a superior quality, is grown along the sea-coast
i South Carolina and Georgia. Cotton was first sown in the
lited States in 1787, and was exported in small packages,
J led packets, in 1790. In 1800 the produce amounted to
: >1*00,000 lbs., which has gradually increased to 480,000,000
1 1836> of which there were exported 386,000,000 lbs.
ie value of the crop was estimated to amount to 80,000,000
«lars, and that of the exports to 63,000,000 dollars. A
} 'at fall has since taken place in the price ; but even at
l s lower rate the value of the cotton exported in the
) ir ending September 1838 was 61,556,811 dollars, and
t! quantity of cotton 595,952,297 lbs. Tobacco, an in-
Cenous American plant, has been the staple of Mary-
1 d and Virginia from their first settlement; and it is also
J .ensively cultivated in Kentucky, Ohio, Missouri, and
ler statcs. The quantity of tobacco exported in 1838
j ounted to 100,593 hhds., in value 7,392,029 dollars;
sides 75,083 lbs. snulf, and 5,008,147 lbs. of manufac-
ed tobacco, amounting in value to 577,420 dollars. An
n sown in rice yields from 1200 to 1500 pounds on
' at are called tide-lands, and from 600 to 1200 on inland
1 Rations. 11 ice was first cultivated in South Carolina in
5 and its culture has been so successful that, in addi-
" t0 tlle llome consumption, it was exported in 1838 to
i amount of 71,048 tierces, of the value of 1,721,819
ais. In 1835 the quantity exported amounted to
I ’ .1 f'crces, of the value of 2,210,331 dollars. An
United
States.
464
United
States.
UNITED STATES.
skill In Pennsylvania, which holds the first rank as an per head on the population. Colquhoun’s estimate for the f!
agricultural state, in New York, Massachusetts, Connecti- British Isles m 1812 was 430 millions, or L.24 per head on St
cut, and Jersey, agricultural societies exist, and much at- the population. (Colquhoun, p. o5, bo.) These calcula-'-
tention is paid to the cultivation of the indigenous grasses tions are founded on the returns taken as they stand. It
and to the use of manures. Grazing is well understood in is probable, however, that the second census would be
New England, where it is considered the most profitable more accurately taken than the first, and that the growth
snecies of farmin". Much care has been bestowed on the ot the national capital is not quite so great as it appears,
breeding of sheep* and Merinos are now spread over all the The large profits which farming yields, the high price ofMai
northern, middle, and western states. labour, and the comparative scarcity ofcapital, are discourage. turf
Hutchins reckoned that Uths of the land east of the Mis- ments to manufacturing industry in the United States; andm«
, . i ^  tlwav natnrallv rplv for a siinnlv of ... arts
sisted of land too poor or too steep for  . , - , - , .... ^ .i • .
Mr Blodget estimated the land under “actual improve- of ready-made goods; and it is more for the interest of an ad-
menj.» t0'i)e 40 950 000 acres, or 5|-th acres for each-inha- vancingand imperfectly cultivated country, such as America,
bitant a proportion which is found to be near the truth, to purchase with its rude produce the manufacturesof Britain,
In 1798 when a census was taken for the imposition of a than to divert her scanty capital (scanty, when compared
tax the’quantity of land valued and taxed in sixteen states with the boundless outlet which lies before it in the improve-
was one hundred and sixty-three millions of acres out of ment of the interior wilderness) from the important bush
three hundred and eight millions, the estimated value of ness of cultivation. By this exchange, America is supplied
./hich was four hundred and seventy-nine millions of dol¬
lars. The value per acre varied widely. In Connecticut
it was fifteen dollars per acre, in Pennsylvania six, in
Georgia three fourths ; but the average for the whole was
about three dollars. The value of the houses was esti¬
mated at a hundred and forty millions of dollars, or two
sevenths of that of the land. When new' returns were pro¬
cured in 1814, the value of lands and houses conjointly had
risen from six hundred and twenty to one thousand six hun¬
dred and thirty millions of dollars. From these two docu¬
ments, which afford a curious view of the state and growth
on the easiest terms with manufactures, while Great Britain,
rich in capital, and still more in art and industry, finds a
vent in the increasing demands of the American people for
her surplus produce, and receives in return cotton and the
other raw materials of her industry. Domestic manufac¬
tures will no doubt be gradually improved in America with
the progress of wealth and population. But at present they
have not made nearly the same progress as in Great Britain.
Yet there is no art or trade necessary for comfort or con¬
venience which is not pursued in America; only the great
manufactures of cotton, linen, woollen, iron, glass, &c., are
of property in the republic, we find that, in the sixteen not on the same great scale, or in such perfection, as in
states organized in 1798, rather more than one half of the Britain; they are however all established, and are rapidly
surface was the property of individuals. In the old states, advancing. There are manufactures of soap, candles; of
such as Massachusetts and Connecticut, the appropriated leather in all its branches; of household furniture, coaches,
land embraced nearly the whole surface ; in New York it and other carriages ; of snuff and tobacco ; of paper and sta-
embraced about four sevenths, in Georgia one third. The tionery; of printing presses and types; and printing and en-
number of acres appropriated for each individual of the po- graving are carried on in all their branches. There are also
pulation was about thirty, of which five and one half or manufactures in all the metals ; of combs and brushes,
six acres were cleared or “ improved.” The estimated umbrellas, &c. Pianofortes are respectably made. The
value of the houses and lands was at the rate of 125 dol- saw gin for cleaning cotton from the husks, and the nail-
Jars for each individual of the contemporaneous population making machine, are American inventions. The woollenma-
in 1798, but had risen to 200 dollars in 1814. Supposing nufacture is almost entirely domestic, being carried on in the
every other species of property to have grown as rapidly, houses of the farmers ; but the cotton manufacture is partly
the rate of increase would be about 6|4h per cent, per an- conducted in large works. This last, as well as several other
num, and the capital of the country must double itself in
1 l^th years, or it increases twice as rapidly as the popula¬
tion. With a stationary population, the rate of increase
would be 5-4 per cent., and the period of doubling IB^th
years. We have no similar data for other countries to
found a comparison on, but we are certain that such a ve¬
locity of accumulation is unknown anywhere else.
The value of houses, lands, and slaves, in 1814, was, ac¬
cording to the returns, 1902 millions of dollars. If we add
manufactures, received a great stimulus during the last war
with Britain; but they have declined since the peace, though
a few of the works then established are still carried on with
advantage. It was computed by a committee of Congress,
that the cotton manufactures, which consumed only 10,000
bales of the raw material in 1810, consumed 90,000 in 1815,
employed 100,000 hands (10,000 men, 66,000 women and
girls, 24,000 boys), and produced 81,000,000 yards of cloth,
alued at 24 millions of dollars. In 1835 the number o
one eighth for omissions and under estimates, and for Loui- looms w'as estimated at 48,000, from eighty-nve on' ,
siana, which was not included, with fifty millions for state millions of pounds were consumed, and the value o
lands, and two thirds additional for all other species of pro- manufactures was computed at 50,000,000 dollars,
perty (this being nearly the proportion in Colquhoun’s esti- value of the woollen manufacture was estimated at ni^^Q
mate for Britain), namely, agricultural stock, manufactured millions of dollars, and was supposed to ei1|1P*C)y
goods on hand or in progress, ships, harbours, canals, roads, hands constantly, and as many more occasionally. ( tT .
c., the whole will be 3550 millions of of 13th February and 6th March 1816.) Ihe total vau
the woollen manufactures has since been computed at e
tween sixty-five and seventy millions of dollars. Broad c o
are manufactured; as are also cassimeres, satinets, “anne 1
blankets, carpeting, &c. Hemp and flax are manufac ur
public buildings, &c.
dollars, equal to 780 millions sterling, or about L.95 for
each individual of the contemporaneous population. Col¬
quhoun’s estimate for Britain was 2700 millions sterling, or
L. 150 for each inhabitant. This gross amount, increasing at —     Tinge<
the rate of 6 per cent., would become 1400 millions sterling in considerable quantities, but chiefly in families. er^n?n(r
in 1824; and the annual increment, or the value added to the nious machinery has however been applied t0.tiet!j,1va]ue
national capital, every year, should be about eighty millions of cables and cordage, which are manufactured to ^
sterling. The whole annual produce of the national in- of five millions of dollars. Some sailcloth is also m
dustry, which affords a saving of eighty millions, cannot be Iron being abundantly distributed throughout e ■ ,
less than four times as much, or 320 millions, that is, L.32 try, is manufactured to a considerable extent. 1 e ‘l
UNITED STATES.
, bar iron made in 1810 was estimated at 27,000 tons; in
ft, 3d it, had increased to 112,000 tons. Of pig iron 191,536
were also produced, amounting in value to 13,329,760
( lars. The iron manufactures, which in 1810 amounted
i:value to 14,364,526 dollars, are now estimated at little
s rt of 50,000,000 dollars. The manufacture of machinery
iiwhich iron is required, is carried to great perfection.
S am-engines of all dimensions, and every description of
nchinery, chain-cables, agricultural and mechanical tools
c all kinds, fire-arms, nails, fire-grates, and stoves, have
Ic j been made in different parts of the United States.
'1 :>re is no country in which the application of the steam-
ei ine to the purposes of navigation has been of greater
piutical value than in America; and the number of steamers
anunted in 1838 to 800,1 the number of steam-engines
to 860, which may give an idea of the extent of this ma¬
in icture. The manufacture of spirits is carried on to a
la c extent throughout the United States. The materials
usl are grain, molasses, and fruits, chiefly the two former,
frh which it was estimated that the spirits distilled amount-
ec o 25,000,000 gallons in 1810. It is stated that in 1835
4( 0 distilleries had been stopt through the influence of
te perance societies, but the truth of this statement is
dusted. Tobacco is manufactured to the annual value of
2,10,000 of dollars, and glass and paper to the respective
vn es of 3,000,000 and 5,000,000 or 6,000,000 of dollars.
Ire were in 1831 thirty chemical establishments in the
U ted States, of which the produce was estimated at
M'0,000 dollars a year. Cabinet-ware is made to the
va'eof about 1 (*,000,000 dollars; and horn, wood, ivory, and
sir combs to the value of 800,000, and buttons to an equal
aniiint. According to the returns made in the census of
18), the whole annual value of the manufactures of the
U :ed States was 127,694,602 dollars. Hut Mr Tenche
Cc.te calculated, that, making allowance for articles omitted
or-nder-estimuted, the true value would not he less than
17700,000 dollars (L.37,500,000). Mr Pitkin, in his
el orate work on the Statistics of the United States, esfi-
iiKi’s the aggregate value of manufactures in 1835 to be
fnr 325,000,000 to 350,000,000 dollars; and he adds, that
tli (mount of foreign articles consumed in the country, ex-
eli jve of tea, wine, coffee, and spices, does not exceed one
tlq! of that sum. Nearly one fourth of the manufactures is
465
in
) mnsy
Ivania ; Massachusetts ranks next, then New York,
Virginia, Maryland, Connecticut, North Carolina, New United
* lelHeJ.’ ^ e! 511011 h Kentucky. It may be remarked, that States,
tne efiect of the high price of labour in discouraging manu-
actures is counteracted by three circumstances. 1. The
United States being far distant from Europe, the expense of
height, and stili more that of inland carriage, makes a material
addition to the prime cost of all bulky or heavy articles. 2. As
tne iiae of macninery comes to he substituted more and more
foi manual laoour, the disadvantage of high wages gradually
vanishes ; and the Americans, who possess great mechanical
genius, have the means of procuring steam and water power
to an unlimited extent. 3. The American w'omen prefer
working in factories to domestic service, which they consider
degtading; and hence female labourers are not scarce, and
may be procured at moderate wages.-
I he commerce of the United States has gradually ex-Commerce,
panded to a vast extent, and has made much greater pro-
8*ess dian manufactures. 1 he Americans are not surpassed
in activity and enterprise by any other nation; and the
surplus produce, which in every country is the means of
its foreign trade, naturally increases with the progress of
cultivation. The wars and convulsions of Europe conse¬
quent on the french Revolution threw a great proportion
°f tlle general carrying trade into their hands; and in the
interval from 1790 to 1807, their exports increased from
' mihions to 108 millions or dollars. But in the course
Oi the wai, Great Britain and France differed concerning the
icspective rights of the neutral and the belligerent; and this
dispute ended in their defiance of all those maxims of pub¬
lic law which formerly restrained the rage of war. They
refused any longer to recognise the rights of the neutral
tr.idei ; ids merchandise was considered to be lawful prey,
f ranee issued the Berlin decrees for the seizure and con¬
fiscation or all British goods on the land, which were ordered
to be consumed in tne flames ; and Great Britain issued her
orders in council for the proscription of all trade with France
oy sea, and for the detention of all vessels bound to a French
port. Lawless violence thus reigned, and the unprecedent¬
ed outrages which followed gave a sudden check to the
growing trade o! the United States, from which it did not
recover and attain its former extent till the year 1835.
I he progressive increase of the American trade will be
seen from the following table of the exports and imports of
the country from the year 1791 to 1838 inclusive.
Exports, in Dollars.
Domestic.
Foreign.
Imports, in
Dollars.
42,205,9(11
41.4(17,477
42,307.0 no
41,253.727
48,699.592
9,433,54(1
31.405.700
42,3(16,679
45.294,041
3".032.109
25.006 152
6,782,272
13,591,072
36,231,597
53.179.019
(10,283.236
59.(143.558
12.997-414
20,797,531
24.391,295
16,022,790
8.495,127
2,847,845
145,169
19,012,041
24,753,098
26,109,572
33,026,233
47,989,472
67,064,097
56,840,206
(51,527,097
71,665,522
70,971,780
94,1 15,925
72,483,160
55,800,033
77,699,074
95,566,021
101,536.963
108,343,150
2#,430,960
52,203,231
66.757,974
61,31(1,831
38,527,236
27,855,99?
6,927,441
52,200,000
31,500,000
31,100,000
34,600,000
69,756,268
81,436,164
75,379,406
68,551,700
79,068,148
91,252,768
111,363,511
76,333,333
64,666,666
85,000,000
12.4,000,000
129,000,000
1311,540,040
56,990,000
59,400.000
85,400,000
53,400,000
77,030,000
22,005,000
12,965,000
1815
181 0
1817
1818
1819
1 820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
' Exports, in Dollars.
Total.
Domestic.
Foreign.
Imports, in
Dollars.
45,974,403
64,781,896
68..S 13,500
73,854,437
54,976,838
51.683,640
43.671,894
49,874,079
47.155,408
50,649,500
00,944,745
53 055J10
58,921,691
59,609,069
55,700.193
59,462,029
61,277,057
63,137,470
70,3 17,698
81,024,162
101.189,082
106.916,680
95,504,414
96,033,821
6,583,350
17,138,556
19,358,069
19,426,696
19.165,683
18,008,029
21.302,488
22,280,202
27.543.022
25,337-157
32,590,643
24,539,612
23,403,136
21,595,017
16.658.478
14.387.479
20,038,526
24,0.39,473
19,822,735
23,312.811
20,604.495
21,746,360
21,854,962
12,452,795
52,557,753
81,920,452
87,671,569
93,281,133
70,142.521
69,691,669
64,974,382
72,160,28)
74,099.030
75,986,657
99,585,388
77,595,322
82,324,827
72,264,686
72,858,671
73,849,508
81,310,583
87,176-943
90,140,433
104,336 973
121,693,577
128,663,040
117,419-376
108,4.86,616
113,041,274
147,103,000
99,250.000
121,750,000
87,125,000
74,450,000
62,585,724
83,241.541
77-579.267
80,549.007
96,340,075
84,974,477
79,434.068
88,509,824
74,492,527
70,876,920
103,191,134
101-029,266
108-118,311
126.521,332
149,895.742
189,980,035
140.989,217
113,717,404
Vol" XXI.
See he port of the Select Committee to ( onerexs, on the subject ot Steam-Engines, December 13, 1833.
‘-uybert, G, 8. MellLsb, 90. Warden, iii. 202. Ftaron, 339, &c.
3 N
466
United
States.
UNITED STATES.
The two following tables contain an account of the ex- from which other articles are brought in exchange. These 1
ports from the United States, and of the merchandise im- tables are official documents laid before Congress, and they S
' ported in return. A third table is added of the different afford an ample view of the value and progress of thev
countries to which the produce of America is exported, and American trade.
Summary Statement of the Value of the Exports of the Growth, Produce, and Manufacture of the United States, during
the Year ending on the Stith day of September 1838. .
- 2,340,850
Dollars.
Agriculture.
Products of Animals— Beef,
tallow, hides, horned cat¬
tle, 528,231 ; butter and
cheese, 148,191 ; pork
(pickled), bacon, lard, live
hogs, 1,312,346; horses
and mules,331,620; sheep,
20,462 
Vegetable Food — AVheat,'
8125 ; flour, 3,603,299 ;
Indian corn, 141,992 ;
Indian meal, 722,399; rye
meal, 110,792; rye, oats, |
and other small grain, r
94,533 ; biscuit, or ship
bread, 263,686; potatoes,
56,898; apples, 41,121;
rice, 1,721,819 ,
Tobacco    7,392,029
Cotton  61.556,811
All other agricultural pro- 4
ducts—Flaxseed, 55,954 ;
hops, 53,602 ; brown su¬
gar, 30,487 ; indigo, 50...
6,764,664
Iron—Pig, bar, and nails, 4
~V5i;(,
of,
140,093
Manufactures.
Soap and tallow candles  513,721
Leather, boots, and shoes  132,476
Household furniture  281,683
Coaches and other carriages... 42,207
Hats  102,652
Saddlery  38,909
Wax    67,181
Spirits from grain, beer, ale,
and porter  165,316
Snuff and tobacco  577,420
Lead  21,747
Linseed oil and spirits of tur¬
pentine  94,295
Cordage  21,547
102,523; castings, 33
all manufactures
573,434 
Spirits, from molasses 
Sugar,   
Chocolate 
Gunpowder   
Copper and brass 
Medicinal drugs   
Cotton, piece-goods—Print-)
ed and coloured, 252,044 ; 1
white, 3,250,130; nan-|
keens, 6017; twist, yarn, [
and thread, 168,021 ;
all other manufactures of, |
82,543... J
Flax and Hemp—Cloth and 4
thread, 1244; bags, antf r
all manufactures of, 2146 )
Wearing apparel 
Combs and buttons 
Brushes, billiard-tables, and f
apparatus )
Umbrellas and parasols,.........
Leather and morocco skins, 1
not per lb  t
Printing presses and types 
Fire-engines and apparatus....
Musical instruments 
Books and maps 
Paper, and other stationery...
Paints and varnish 
Vinegar 
Earthen and stone ware 
Manufactures of glass,
37,881; tin, 10,179; pew¬
ter and lead, 6461 ; mar¬
ble and stone, 5199 ; gold
and silver, and gold leaf, J
5519 J
709,408
99,473
249,671
3,315
162,234
81,363
112,601
3,758,755
3,390
259,194
47,629
6,939
12,967
28,071
34,681
2,784
8,604
50,913
94,535
22,410
5,241
12,019
65,239
Gold and silver coin 
Artificial flowers and jewellery
Molasses 
Trunks 
Bricks and lime 
Domestic salt.
Articles not enumerated—1
Manufactured, 392,
other articles, 587,
e rated— 1
192,217 5 >
7,761 )
The Forest.
Skins and furs, 633,945 ; 1
ginseng, 36,622 j
Products of Wood—Staves,)
shingles, boards, &c., j
2,102,053; other lumber,
267,134; masts and spars,
36,150 ; oak bark, and
other dye, 161,694; all
manufactures of wood,
549,165 
Naval Stores—Tar, pitch,
rosin, and turpentine,
703,394; ashes, pot and
pearl, 710,342 
Dollars,
472,941
11,756
6,620
2,385
31,322
67,707
979,978
670,567
3,116,196
V 1,413,736
The Sea.
Fisheries—Dried fish, or end
fisheries, 626,245 ; pick-
led fish, or river fisheries
(herring, shad, salmon,
mackerel), 192,758; whale
and other fish oil,'
1,556,775; spermaceti oil,
137,809; whalebone,
321,458; spermaceti can¬
dles, 340,531 
Total.
3,175,576
96,033,821
Value of Merchandise Imported into the United States during the Year ending 30th September 1838.
Species of Merchandise.
Free of Duty.
Articles for the United States
Philosophical apparatus, &c....
Books, maps, and charts 
Statuary, busts, casts, &c 
Paintings, drawings, etch-)
ings, and engravings f
Specimens of botany 
Antimony, regulus of. 
Lapis calaminaris, tute-)
negue, spelter, or zinc.... j
Buhrstones, unwrought 
Brimstone and sulphur 
Bark of the cork tree 
Clay, unwrought 
Rags of any kind of cloth 
Undressed furs of all kinds,...
Hides and skins, raw 
Plaster of Paris 
Barilla 
Wood—Dye, 283,156; un- j
manufactured mahogany,
392,959 )
Animals 
Old pewter 
Tin 
Value in
Dollars.
30,316
11,629
21,394
3,086
5,768
7,239
3,346
78,481
27,999
42,214
3,467
4,421
465,448
314,038
2,036,629
131.876
82,196
676,115
176,596
923
1,239,609
Species of Merchandise.
Brass   
Copper 
Bullion—Gold, 230,694 ; )
silver, 392,843  f
Specie—Gold, 11,444,189 ; i
silver, 5,679,390  )
Teas, from India, China, &e...
Coffee  
Cocoa 
Fruits—Almonds, 50,360 ;)
currants, 22,577 ; prunes, |
8748 ; figs, 34,285 ; rai- I
' -r- 1
sins, 394,999; all other,
85,858  
Spices—Mace, 7832 ; nut¬
megs, 52,143; cinnamon,
66,340; cloves, 30,765;
black pepper, 167,321 ; -
pimento, 74,135 ; cassia,
36,657 ; ginger, 3865;
camphor, 3000 J
Silks   
Manufactures of silk and 1
worsted 
Camlets of goats’ or camels’
hair 
Value, in
Dollars.
40,874
1,481,582
623,537
17,123,579
3,495,151
7,640,217
188,729
596,827
441,258
8,277,705
1,522,272
95,252
Value in
Dollars.
3,933,455
3,526,001
362,725
325,345
26,972
445,478
115,534
83,726
142,389
5,033,607
60,860,005
Merchandise paying Duties a»
VALOREM.
Manufactures of Wool
Cloths and cassimeres,
5,195,965; merino shawls,
152,963 ; blankets,, 067,530
946,546; hosiery, gloves,
&c., 356,965; other manu
factures of wool, 315,005;
woollen yarn, 86 
Species of Merchandise.
Worsted stuff goods 
Linens, bleached and un-)
bleached I
Ticklenburgs, Osnaburgs, |
and burlaps ••••• I
Sheeting, brown and white 
Bolting cloth  
Wool, not exceeding 8 cwts.)
per lb t
Quicksilver 
Opium 
Crude saltpetre 
All other articles 
Total..
UNITED STATES.
Statement of the Value of the Exports of the United States—continued.
Species of Merchandise.
'orsted yarn 
anufactures of cotton 
Iks—From India, China, )
&c., piece-goods  )
wing silk from India, J
&c. 34,237; ditto from v
other places, 323,941 j
ice, thread, and cotton 
axen goods  
enipen goods 
ats and llonnets—Leg-1
horn, chip, straw, or grass >-
flats, &c J
ir, wool, and leather 
i ass ware 
; ares—China and porce-'j
lain, 152,000; earthen and |
stone, 1,233,536; plated, (
jaot specified, 114,890; \
gilt, 46,395 ; japanned, |
27,392   J
inufacturesof iron and steel.
Anufactures of copper,'
57,166; brass, 242,031 ;
tin, 30,081 ; pewter,
24,485; lead, 1728: wood,
:abinet-ware, 75,655 ;
ither articles, 123,859
eather, 594,648; marble,
13,036; gold and silver,
Drecious stones, 161,406;
watches, and parts of,
186,341 
; hllery—Common, tinned,
spanned, 62,224; plated
brass, polished steel
130,204 
• ach and harness furniture...
»rriages, and parts ofl 
I tesofall kinds 
1 ills, prepared 
ick-lead pencils 
per-hangings 
dr-cloth and hair-seating...
ushes of all kinds 
1 pper bottoms 
I ver, or plated wire 
w silk 
'»ol, unmanufactured, ex- {
ceding Scents per lb.... i
< ticles not enumerated, at
' per cent. 29,375; 10 do.
»68; 12 do. 1717; 124 do.
54,978; 15 <lo. 777,675 •
l0_do. 8446; 25 do!
105,301 ; 30 do. 41,309 ;
115 do. 901; 40 do. 87 •
•0 do. 225,732 ]
Value in
Dollars.
136,603
6,599,330
1,176,455
358,178
576.868
446,097
730,362
398,729
16,132
310,726
1,574,213
3,069,507
1,810,436
192,424
4,063
8,296
38,968
10,407
4,602
39,988
57,314
27,039
5,401
3.486
29.938
363,406
87,493
2,046,489
Total,
27,090,480
Merchandise paying Specific
, Duties.
nnels 
petings—Brussels. Tur-1
:e.v, Wilton, and treble
ngrained, 194,301 ; other
a,,(l Venetian,
21,052; floor-cloth, pa-
s'h j)nnte<1 or Painted,
A516; oil-cloth, other
nan patent floor-cloth,
73,325.. C°tt0n bagging’
68,011
534,675
Species of Merchandise.
Value in
Dollars.
Dockings and Baizes 
Wines—Madeira, in casks')
and bottles, 372,635 ;
Sherry, do. 126,888; Sici¬
ly, do. 119,880; red, of
France, in casks, 270,474 ;
other of France, in casks,
114,885; of France in
bottles and cases, 549,482; i
red, of Spain and Austria,
in casks, 52,580; other of
Spam, Austria, Germany',
and the Mediterranean,
in casks, 300,963; of other
countries, in casks,
352,673; do. in bottles,
57,816 
Spirits from grain 
Ditto from other materials 
Molasses 
Vinegar.. 
Beer, ale, and porter, in casks..
Ditto in bottles..
Oil—Spermaceti, 2; whale
and other fish, 299; olive,
in casks, 56,461 ; castor,
39; linseed, 229,383 ;
rapeseed, 289; hempseed,
663  
Teas, from other places than i
India and China j
Chocolate 
Sugar—Brown, 6,466,199;
white.claved,or powdered,
1,120,161; loaf, 242; can-
dy, 27; other refined,
196 ; sirup of sugar-cane, 6
Cayenne pepper 
Candles—Wax and sperma ■)
ceti, 253; tallow, 13,627.. f
Cheese 
Soap 
Tallow 
Lard 
Beef and pork 
Bacon 
Butter 
Saltpetre 
Vitriol, oil of. 
Salts—Epsom, Glauber.
Tobacco—Snuff, 5234; ci¬
gars, 841,043; other
snuff and cigars, 660
Cotton    
Gunpowder 
Bristles 
Glue 
Ochre—Dry, 18,246; in oil, >
161 j-
Bed and white lead 
M biting and Paris white 
Litharge 
Sugar of lead 
Lead—Pig, bar, and sheet,')
6573 ; shot, 58 ; leaden j
pipes, 438 ; old and scrap, f
1697. J
Cordage—Cables and tarred, j
75,142 ; untarred and V
yarn, 9917 )
Twine, packthread, seines, &c.
Corks. 
Copper—Bods and holts, 4
567; nails and spikes, V
810   
234 ; ci-4
her than
660 )
61,968
2,318,282
432.583
1,044,335
3,865,285
10,083
6,828
118,472
287,136
2,005
748
7,586,831
14
13,830
14,692
31,981
91,349
9
26,570
20,959
1,688
27
5
15
846,937
160,990
7,539
30,413
121
18,407
38,683
846
185
17,674
8,766
84,059
88,338
27,303
1,377
:}
Species of Merchandise.
Fire arms—llifles, 1722
muskets, 21,114 
Wire, cap or bonnet 
Iron and steel wire, not 4
above No. 14, 7363; do. V
above No. 14, 12,133 j
Tacks, brads, and sprigs 
Iron—Nails, 70,159 ; spikes, j
18,556; cables and chains,
or parts thereof, 88,597 ;
mill saws, 5572; anchors,
11,741 ; anvils, 34,158;
blacksmiths’hammers and
sledges, 3283; castings,
vessels of, 20,316; cast¬
ings, all other, 49,382 ;
round iron, as braziers’
rods of 3-16 to 8-16 dia¬
meter, 10,648; nail or
spike rods, or nail-plates,
slit, rolled, or hammered,
94; band iron, scroll iron,
or casement-rods, slit or
hammered, 2712; sheet
and hoop, 208,192; pig,
319,099; old and scrap,
7567; bar, manufactured
by rolling, 1,825,121; bar,
manufactured otherwise,
1,166,196 J
Steel 
Hemp 
Alum 
Copperas 
Wheat flour 
Salt 
Coal 
Wheat 
Oats 
Potatoes 
Paper  
Books—Printed previous to j
1775, 2065 ; in other lan¬
guages than English, La¬
tin, and Greek, 72,706;
in Greek and Latin, [.
bound, 1291; do. un¬
bound, 1951 ; all other,
bound, 20,147 ; do. un¬
bound, 74,024 
Apothecaries’ phials  
Demijohns  
Glass bottles    
Window glass 
Fish—Dried or smoked, j
14,111 ; salmon, 58,791 ; !
mackerel, 1595; all other, f
21,775 j
Shoes and Slippers—Silk,')
3070; prunello, nankeen, j
&c., 801 ; leather, kid, t
morocco, &c., 23,401 ; |
children’s, 1308 J
Boots and bootees ,,
Playing cards.. 
Felts, or hat bodies, wholly 4
or partly of wool j
Value in
Dollars.
22,836
1,019
19,496
773
3,841,393
487,334
512,506
2,282
281
44,272
1,028,418
308,591
896,560
2.492
20,511
124,191
172,184
1,757
14,911
148,379
55,227
96,272
28,580
33,425
818
512
Total value of Merchandise
paying specific duties  25,766,919
Do. do. ad valorem.. 27,090,480
Do do. free of duty 60,804,005
Total value  113,717,404
467
United
States.
468
UNITED STATES.
United Tabic exhibiting the Value of Imports from, and Exports to each Foreign Country, during the Year ending on the'.
States. September 1838.
1
2
3
4
5
C
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
Countries.
llussia 
Prussia 
Sweden 
Swedish West Indies 
Denmark 
Danish West Indies 
Netherlands 
Dutch East Indies 
Dutch West Indies 
Dutch Guiana 
Belgium 
England 
Scotland 
Ireland 
Gibraltar 
Malta   
British East Indies 
Cape of Good Hope 
Aus tralia 
British West Indies 
British American Colonies 
British Honduras 
British Guiana 
Hanse Towns 
France, on the Atlantic 
France, on the Mediterranean  
French West Indies 
French Guiana 
Spain, on the Atlantic.. 
Spain, on the Mediterranean 
Teneriffe and other Canaries 
Manilla and Philippine Islands 
Cuba  ....
Other Spanish West Indies 
Portugal 
Madeira 
Fayal and other Azores 
Cape de Vex'd Islands 
Ital3r 
Sicily 
Sai'dinia 
Trieste 
Turkey  ..
Greece 
Morocco and Barbary States 
Hayti 
Texas 
M exico 
Central America 
Colombia 
Brazil..-.   
Argentine Republic 
Cisplatine Republic 
Chili 
Peru 
South America generally 
China 
Europe generally 
Asia genei'ally  
Africa generally 
West Indies generally^ 
South Seas and Sandwich Islands.
Uncertain places 
Value of Imports.
Total.
Dollars.
1,898,396
6,629
854,771
46,019
27.118
1,617,747
1,180,897
576,396
382,591
54,354
239,928
44,191,851
594,665
75.162
25,624
16,866
675,531
12,084
30,538
1,635,848
1,555,570
201,448
36,043
2,847,358
16,823,112
948,685
310,050
5,302
234,200
868,336
151,366
386,528
11,694,812
2,636,152
296,884
368,274
32,746
29,174
944,238
345,362
851
372,378
296,533
1 oil 74
1,275,762
165,718
3,500,709
155.614
1,615.249
3,191,238
1,010,908
18,631
942,095
633,437
4,764,536
212,091
541,931
217
55,561
97,186
Value of Uxports.
Domestic Produce. Foreign Produce.
Dollars.
359,047
65,681
210,745
74,140
98,081
949,769
2.555,979
166,214
204,234
6 .775
1,340,900
48.899,888
1,685,203
38,535
609,818
81,955
320.505
22,718
33.546
2,080,634
2,484,987
89,898
1 45,532
2,625,802
13,089.649
1,433.705
433,008
137,405
336,904
34,619
93,214
4,721,433
692,568
67,970
36,422
7,556
96,941
318,536
25,532
643,223
142,448
7,440
814.421
1,028,818
1,040 906
111,910
406,564
2,094.957
180.832
35,762
1,047,572
163,868
1,875
655,581
31,759
105,672
390,354
334,638
60,684
113,717,404
Dollars.
689,242
19.283
66,686
4,281
24,750
227,417
398,269
329,747
46,915
2,073
274,051
1,045,188
10,776
152,371
4,07*8
258,492
816
120,218
238,504
19,300
522
665,843
976,967
283,135
38,889
12,470
2,595
18,686
149,303
1,454,325
30 484
8,093
4,535
1 681
8 933
141,357
21,813
125.740
115,461
1,590
95,834
219,062
1,123,191
131,139
318,175
562,237
56.283
24,567
322,692
39,531
861,021
70,159
101,548
4,414
22,153
Total.
Dollars.
1,048,209
84,944
277,431
78,421
122,831
1,177,096
2,954,248
495,961
251,149
70,848
1,614,951
50,445,076
1,695,979
38,555
762,189
86,033
578,907
22,718
34,362
2,200,852
2,723,491
109,196
146,054
3,291,645
14,066,616
1,716,900
468,897
149i875
339,499
53,305
242,517
6,175,758
723,052
76,063
400,957
9,237
105,874
459,8:.3
47,345
768 963
257,909
910,255
1,247,880
2,164,097
243,040
724,739
2,657,194
236,665
60,329
1,370,264
203,399
1,875
1,516,602
31,739
181.831
491,902
339,052
82,837
96,033,821 j 12,452,795 j 108,486,616
From these tables it will be seen, that foreign produce or
manufactures constitute about one ninth of the exports.
The leading articles chiefly consist of the produce of the
land. Cotton forms about 60 per cent, of the domestic
exports; wheat, Indian corn, and other bread-stuffs, 10
per cent.; tobacco 12 per cent.; lumber, bark, &c. 3^ per
cent.; horses, beef, &c. per cent. The leading imports
are the fine products of the loom in wool, cotton, silk,
and linen, or articles not raised in the country, such **
tea, coffee, sugar, and wine. In hemp, iron, and leat er,
the imports are small. Nearly one half of the whole
ports come from Britain, and only about one seventh r'"n
France. o* * ha
The internal and coasting trade of the United States
increased more rapidly than their foreign commerce, a
undoubtedly fur greater than that of any other state wi
UNITED STATES.
<>69
H c ial population. The enrolled and licensed tonnage,
A y jc[, was only 184,000 tons in 1795, had risen to 588,000
,»j and in 1838 to 1,133,999. It now exceeds the
r istered tonnage, of which it formed only one third in
] )5. The Hudson is the great channel of inland trade
f< districts containing nearly two millions of inhabitants,
a 1 is rapidly advancing, both in its commerce and navi-
gion. The Delaware, Susquehannah, Potomac, and other
j, re rivers farther south, all exhibit an active and growing
tl fie. The vessels on the majestic Mississippi, though
tl v do not yet equal those on the Hudson, are fast increas-
I j, 'with the progress of cultivation and commerce.
T .* aggregate amount of the tonnage of ^ 1 ons and 9r,ths'
ie United States amounted on the C 1,995,63d 60
Oth September 1638 to . • )   
Vlereof,
ernianent registered tonnage, . 694,944 80
'einporary registered tonnage, . 127,647 06
Total registered tonnage,
I ernianent enrolled and li-)
; censed tonnage, . f
'emporary enrolled and 11-^
censed tonnage, . )
'otal enrolled and licensed tonnage,
dcensed vessels under 20 tons, )
employed in the coasting trade, f
Jcensed vessels under 20 tons, ^
employed in the cod fishery, j
Total licensed tonnage under 20 t
. 822,591 86
1,128,824 02
5,174 94
1,133,999 01
32,958 70
6,090 18
ans, . . 39,018 88
Total, . . 1,995,639 80
C'the enrolled and licensed ton-a
age, there were employed in the £ 1,008,146 43
tasting trade, . . ,)
Do. do. cod fishery, . 63,973 77
Do. do. mackerel fishery, 56,949 16
Do. do. whale fishery, . 5,229 55
1,133,999 01
Ve subjoin a farther account of the American tonnage
fi n the year 1815 to 1838 inclusive.1
The application of steam to the propelling of vessels
forms a great era in the history of navigation. It. is per¬
haps one of the greatest practical discoveries of which mo¬
dern times can boast. It even effects a greater improve¬
ment in the intercourse by sea, than the railroad in that
by land ; and perhaps no other country, owing to na¬
tural advantages, has derived such incalculable benefits
from it as America. From the rapidity of the vast rivers
by which the country is intersected, the navigation against
the stream by means of wind and sails was seldom practi¬
cable ; and as the voyage downward was speedy and cer¬
tain, the upward voyage was in proportion tedious. Ac¬
cordingly, the boats that brought down the produce of the
interior from the Ohio and other streams to New Orleans,
were generally broken up and used for fire-wood, and the
crew were thus compelled to retrace their course by land.
But the power of steam, unlike the cfickle gale, is equable
and constant. It can at all times be relied on ; and, sur¬
passing in force the raging torrent, it propels the vessel
with the same certainty through the adverse waters as in the
downward voyage. Some such agency was required to
facilitate the navigation of rivers, and to turn to full ac¬
count the advantages which they afford for internal inter¬
course. A voyage from New Orleans to Pittsburg against
the current of the Mississippi, running from four to' six
miles an hour, generally occupied six weeks; it now does
not occupy as many days. What a boundless field is here
opened for steam-navigation, which accordingly is univer¬
sally extended through the whole country. Experiments
were made at an early period, both in America and else¬
where, for propelling vessels by steam. The idea was
broached in England in 1736, in France in 1782, and va¬
rious trials were made in America from 1783 to 1787. A
steam-vessel was actually constructed by Mr Miller of Dal-
swinton, and was seen sailing on the Clyde about this pe¬
riod ; but the discovery was not followed out. It was how¬
ever from his model that Mr Fulton constructed in 1807,
ovi the Hudson river, in the state of New York, his first
steam-vessel, which, with an engine of only eighteen horse¬
power, made the passage between Albany and New York,
a distance of 160 miles, in thirty-three hours. The whole
number of steam-vessels in the United States was estimated,
from the information collected by the select committee on
steam-engines, and laid before Congress, at 800 in Decem¬
ber 1838. Of these, nearly 400 are now computed to be run¬
ning on fhe western and south-western waters, comprising
chiefly the Mississippi and its tributary streams, where
none was used till 1811, and where in 1834 the number
was computed to be only 234. On the Ohio, the number
of passages by steam-vessels through the Louisville Canal,
which in J831 was 406, had increased in 1837 to 1501,
or nearly fourfold in six years. About seventy steam-
vessels were running in 1838 on the north-western lakes,
where in 1825 there were only twenty-five. Of the whole
number, nearly 800, sailing in 1838 chiefly on the Ameri¬
can rivers, 140 belong to the state of New York. Of these,
very few are sea-going vessels. The government of the
United States never owned more than two steam-vessels
of war, one of which is now lost; though about thirteen
other steam-vessels are employed by the war department
on the public works, and in the transportation of troops
and stores. The steam-boats in the United States are
computed at 60,000 tons. The largest of those that run
between New York and Mississippi is supposed to be 860
tons, and nearly 300 horse-power. There are two on
Lake Erie of 755 and 700 tons. 'Hie chief places for the
construction of steam-vessel^ and their engines are, Pitts¬
burg, Cincinnati, and Louisville, on the western waters;
and New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, on the Atlan-
Uivitefl
States.
Steam-
vesseh.
jj ,-^pon from the Secretary of the Treasury, wit
the Annual Statement of Commerce and Navigation, ending on the 30th Septem-
470
UNITED STATES.
United tic 1 Owing to the numerous and fatal accidents that have
v befallen steam-vessels in the United States, the subject was
early investigated, under the directions of Congress, when
ample information was obtained from every part of the
Union respecting the causes and consequences of these
casualties. A stringent enactment had been previously
passed by this active and energetic government, ordaining,
under heavy penalties, increased caution in the manage¬
ment of this craft; frequent examinations, by qualified
persons, of the nature and strength of the machinery ; and
prosecutions against the officers and owners for injuries to
life and property; thus evincing that vigilance and laudable
anxiety for the public safety which so well merits the con¬
fidence of the people. Another law', it is expected, will
follow, providing for the employment of careful and skilful
engineers.
Those accidents that have occurred to steam-vessels are
computed to have amounted to 260 ; ninety-nine occasion¬
ed by explosions of the boilers, or the bursting of some part
of the engines, or by collapses; twenty-five by shipwreck
from collision, gales, &-c.; twenty-eight by fire ; fifty-two
by snags or sawyers, which are trees that, having been swept
away by floods, have, in their course down the river, stuck
in the bottom, and there remain, moving up and down, and
have, from the resemblance of their motion to sawyers,
received that name. They are extremely dangerous to
vessels that run against them. Different and unknown
causes have occasioned the loss of twenty-four steam-ves¬
sels. “ The general impression,” says the secretary at war
in his letter, “ is, that a great part of the boats destroyed
by explosions, as well as many lost by fire and other acci¬
dents,, would have been saved by proper experience, science,
and attention, on the part of the engineers and comman¬
ders.” Such accidents are in all cases occasioned by ig-
nofance or carelessness; and it is highly necessary that the
agency of steam, as it is so powerful and useful, should be
also rendered comfortable and safe. This has not been
the case in America; and the frequent explosions which
have occurred with loss of life, give an impression of reck¬
lessness and mismanagement, highly disgraceful to those in
the immediate charge. In this country such evils could
not have continued so long. They would have been put
down by the scandal which they would have excited, even by
the force of public opinion, without the aid of laws.2 The
number of lives lost in these various accidents is differently
stated. The lowest amount is stated at 2000 ; though, ac¬
cording to other accounts, it is double or triple. The se¬
cretary to tfie treasury states that he had been able to as¬
certain 1676 killed and 44:3 wounded in steam-boats. By
the sinking of a vessel on the Mississippi in 1837, 300
lives were lost, which is the greatest number by any one
accident. By the explosion of a vessel on the same river in
1838, 130 lives were lost, and 120 by that of another on the
Ohio. By the burning of a vessel on the Mississippi in
1837, 130 persons perished; and 100 by shipwreck in the
same year on the North Carolina shore. The loss of pro¬
perty from the same cause is estimated at between five and
six millions of dollars.
Canals and The internal intercourse of the United States has been
railroads, wonderfully improved by the construction of canals, which
rill up the blanks left by nature in the water communica-
tions of the country, and more recently by railroads, which
now intersect the American territory in all directio -
Plans of improvement, which, when they were proposed
were regarded as visionary, have been actually executed’ x
and have far outstript the most sanguine hopes of their pr '
jectors. Capital to a prodigious amount has been laid out on
these improvements, which have already produced, andar'
destined to produce still more, mighty changes in the in
ternal intercourse and general aspect of the world. Jn
few years they will connect the St Lawrence with the
Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic with the Mississippi
Nor need we wonder if we yet see the railroad car speediL
its course, on wings of fire, from New York, along the peat
table-land of New Spain, to Mexico. The following ac¬
count of the canal navigation of the United States is abrida-
ed from Mitchell’s Compendium of the internal Improve¬
ments of the country.
Maine—'The only canal of any importance in this state is
Cumberland and Oxford Canal, which extends from Portland
to Sebago Pond. By means of a lock constructed in Songo
river, it is connected with Brandy and Long Ponds, and
comprehends a water communication, natural and artificial,
of about fifty miles in extent. It was completed in 1821)'
at an expense of 250,000 dollars.
New Hampshire.—The internal improvements in this
state consist of a series of short canals, constructed on
the Merrimack river, for the improvement of its naviga¬
tion, by means of which, and the Middlesex Canal, Boston
is connected with the interior of New Hampshire.
Vermont.—There are several short canals constructed
in this state on the western bank of the Connecticut river, in¬
tended principally for improving the navigation of that river.
Massachusetts.—The Middlesex Canal, in connection with
those in New' Flampshire, opens a water-communication be¬
tween Boston and the interior parts of that state. It con¬
nects the Merrimack river wfith Boston harbour, and extends
f rom Charlestown, opposite Boston, to Chelmsford, twenty-
seven miles. It was completed in 1808, at an expense of
528,000 dollars. The Blackstone Canal commences at Wor¬
cester, Massachusetts, and extends to Providence, Rhode
Island. It w as completed in 1828, at an expense of 600,000
dollars. The Hampshire and Hampden Canal, uniting with
the Farmington Canal at Southwick, and extending thence
to Northampton, twrenty miles, connects the Connecticutriver
with New Haven harbour. The entire distance is seventy-
eight miles. It was commenced in 1825, and finished at
an expense of 600,000 dollars. 'There are other two canals,
constructed for passing two falls in the Connecticut river.
Connecticut.—The Farmington Canal, in Connecticut,
commences at New Haven, and passes through the state
fifty-eight miles, to its northern boundary, where it is con¬
nected with the Hampshire and Hampden Canal in Mas¬
sachusetts.
New York.—'The Erie Canal is by far the most important
work of the kind in the United States, or indeed in the world.
It was commenced in 1817, and completed in 1825. It unites
the Hudson with Lake Erie, extending from Albany, on
that river, to Buffalo on Lake Erie, a distance of 3ti3
miles, with a width at the bottom of twenty-eight feet, at
the surface of forty feet, and a depth of water of four feet.
1 he number of locks is eighty-four, and the rise and fall 6f8
feet. This great work was begun without any sanguine
hopes of success, and was generally pronounced to be vain
2 It amiears that a nrpi .U i 16 • re®su^ to t1le Speaker of the House of Representatives, December 12, 1838, p. 11. n
one of the m-nnript Ju Ice a arisen in favour of copper boilers, which, as copper is inferior to iron in tenacity, were not so safe- ^
boil >r oftlhs inet-l01' OI mfna^e[j 0 st®ain-boats said it was impossible to disabuse the people of this error; and that unless they use a
reckles^ levitv ’ "Tu T ^ ,bUllt- and pr°vided with a coPPer boiler, and run against them. So, this person adds, in a toneof
and have m-H > in, anno. >e °° stT'16 y reprobated, “ we have concluded, therefore, to give them a copper boiler, the strongest of its c ass’
Wm r Redtl7nUr T V,! they !“ave f riSht be scalded by copper boilers if they insist on it.” “ I lament to add,’ s*?
i j i ,»' , ’ ,!e " mer of tl,e exeellent letter to the secretary to the treasury, in which this anecdote is given. “ that the exercise of th)'
nght to the use of copper was attended, within a few years, with a fearful destruction of life, as had been foretold.”
UNITED
ul chimerical; and four years after its commencement,
ie revenues derived from the tolls were estimated at the
•wrate of 150,000 dollars a year, whereas they amount-
1 for the first ten years after its completion to ten millions
'dollars; and the tonnage brought down by the canal,
hich was estimated, with a fear of its being deemed ex-
avagant, at 250,000 tons, actually exceeded, in 1836,
300,000 tons. The whole debt incurred in the construc-
)n of this canal is now paid off, and it yields, over all ex-
•nses, a considerable surplus, which is expended on other
iblic works. This however is one of the most successful
idertakings in the United States. There are others of
lich the revenue hardly pays the expense of repairs,
it the influence of this great work on the general pros-
■ rity of the country has been still more remarkable. It
s given a wonderful impulse to the agriculture of the in-
! -ior; it has converted deserts into fruitful fields. Flourish-
r towns have been seen to spring up in its track. Albany,
ica, Rochester, and Buffalo, have, from the facilities of
i mmunication which it has afforded, the two first doubled
ijjir respective populations within ten years, and that of the
i'o latter has increased, Rochester from 5271 in 1825, to
,404 in 1835, and Utica from 2600 to 15,661. Champlain
mal extends farther from Whitehall, on Lake Champ-
! n, to Albany, a distance of sixty-three miles. Oswego
nal, a branch of the Erie, connects Lake Ontario with
L Erie Canal. It is thirty-eight miles in length. Cayu-
: and Seneca Canal extends from Geneva, on Seneca
1 :e, to Montezuma, on Erie Canal, a distance of twenty
: les. Chemung Canal extends eighteen miles from the
ad waters of Seneca lake to the Chemung or Tioga river,
icnango Canal extends from the Erie Canal, near Utica,
i Oneida county, to Binghampton in Broome county,
i Susquehannah river, in length 93J miles. Black River
nal extends thirty-six miles, from Rome to the high falls
I the Black River. The net revenue received from the
ie and Champlain Canals was, for the year ending Sep-
nber 1834, 1,035,644 dollars. The other canals have
t been profitable. The following is a statement of the
i lerent canals already constructed by the state, and of the
i pense of their construction.
Length. Dollars.
Erie Canal 372 miles 7,143,789
Champlain 79 1,257,604
Oswego 38  565,437
Cayuga and Seneca.. 23  236,804
Chemung 39  331,693
Crooked Lake 8  156,776
Chenango 97 2,270,605
11,962,711
'll these may be considered as constituting one work,
; niain object of which is to connect the valley of the
idson with that of Lake Champlain on the north, and
1 ‘ great central basin of the Canadian lakes on the west;
■le, by the various lateral canals, the produce of the
| ighbouring countries is brought into the main track, and
1' Pr°duce of foreign countries transported into the inmost
1 x-’sses of the state.1 The Delaware and Hudson Canal,
1 dertaken by a joint-stock company, extends from the
ulson river, ninety miles above New York, in a south-
J’t direction, to Port Jervis on the Delaware, fifty-nine
t s, where it unites with the Lackaw'axen Canal, proceeds
the left bank of the Delawrare to Lackawaxen Creek,
'ice to Honesdale, the termination of the canal, 108
es. It was completed in 1828. There are several other
onsiderable canals within this state.
STATES.
New Jersey—The Morris Canal, in this state, extends
from Jersey city on Hudson river, across the state of New
Jersey, to Delaware river, opposite Easton, Pennsylvania,
where it connects w ith the Lehigh Canal; the distance being
101 miles, the expense nearly two millions of dollars. The
Delaware and Raritan Canal extends from Bordentown, on
Delaware river, to New Brunswick, on the Raritan, forty-
two miles. In this state there are several other inconsider¬
able canals.
Pennsylvania.—The main division of the Pennsylvania
Canal commences at Columbia, at the termination of the Co¬
lumbia Railroad, passes up the bank of the Susquehannah to
the mouth of the Juniatta river, and thence to Holidays-
burg, at the eastern base of the Alleghany Mountains ; its
length being 171 miles. The western division commences at
Johnstown on the Conemaugh, pursues the course of that
stream, and also that of the Kiskiminitasand Alleghany rivers,
and finally terminates at Pittsburg. In connection with the
Columbia Railroad, it forms a grand chain of communication
between the eastern and western parts of the state, the dis¬
tance from Philadelphia to Pittsburg being about 395 miles.
It is proposed to extend this communication to the town of
Beaver, so as to unite with the Beaver division. The dis¬
tance is only twenty-five miles; and this, with a proposed
canal from Newcastle to Akron on the Ohio and Erie
Canal, would, wuth the exception of the passage over the
Alleghany Portage Railroad, of thirty-six miles, form a water-
communication from Philadelphia to New Orleans of 2435
miles. The Susquehannah division of the Pennsylvania
Canal leaves the main division at the mouth of the Juniatta,
and passing up the west bank of the Susquehannah river,
intersects the north branch and west branch divisions at
Northumberland. Its length is thirty-nine miles. The north
branch division commences at the termination of the Sus¬
quehannah division, and passes along the right bank of the
north branch of the Susquehannah. The west branch di¬
vision commences at the same point as the north branch
division, and is carried along the left bank of the west
branch of the Susquehannah. The Beaver division of the
Pennsylvania Canal commences at the town of Beaver on
the Ohio river, twenty-six miles below Pittsburg, and ascends
the valley of the Ohio river, and its tributary the Chenango
Creek, to its termination in Mercer county, a distance of
forty-six miles. It is intended, by a farther extension of
this canal, to connect Lake Erie with the Ohio; and by an¬
other canal from Newcastle on the Beaver division, twenty-
four miles above the town of Beaver, along the valley of
the Mahoning river to Akron, a distance of eighty-five
miles, to connect the canal navigation of the Ohio with
that of Pennsylvania; and thus a water-communication be¬
ing opened to Philadelphia, that city will rival New York
as the maritime emporium of the western states. At pre¬
sent the valuable produce of these rising states is carried
through Lake Erie, the navigation of which is frequently
dangerous, and the Erie Canal, to New York, a distance of
760 miles, while the route by the proposed series of canals
to Philadelphia is not above 575 miles. This route would
also possess this additional advantage over that by theP>ie
Canal, that it would not be interrupted for so long a time
by the winter frosts. All traffic on the Erie Canal is sus¬
pended during five months of the year, it being seldom na¬
vigable till the 20th April, and rarely after the 20th No¬
vember ; while, from the milder climate of Pennsylvania, its
canals are open from the 10th March to the 25th Decem¬
ber. When all the projected lines of intercourse by canals
and railroads are completed in Pennsylvania, from Pitts¬
burg to Philadelphia, the merchants of the latter city will
be enabled to monopolize the western trade during the
471
United
States.
See Trotter’s excellent work, chap. vii. 134, on the Financial Position and Credit of the States of the American Union, which contains
1‘e details respecting the internal improvements of the United States.
472
UNITED STATES.
United
States.
commencement of spring and autumn, the busiest seasons
of the year.
The Delaware division commences 'at Bristol, eighteen
miles above Philadelphia, and passes thence in a direct line
to Morrisville, opposite Trenton, a distance of fifty-nine
miles. This is the channel by which the coal-trade of the
Lehigh reaches Philadelphia. rihe Schuylkill Canal ex¬
tends from Philadelphia to Reading, and thence to Mount
Carbon, a distance of 108 miles. I he Union Canai con¬
nects the borders of the Susquehannah with those of the
Schuylkill, and is in length eighty-two miles. 1 he Lacka-
waxen Canal commences at the termination of the Dela¬
ware and Hudson, and unites with a railroad at Honesdale,
a distance of forty-nine miles. The Lehigh Canal extends
from Easton, on Delaware river, to Mauch Chunk; its length
being 46| miles. There are several other smaller canals,
chiefly for improving the navigation of the Susquehannah
river.
Delaware.—The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal con¬
nects Delaware river with Chesapeake Bay. It is four¬
teen miles in length, and was constructed at the immense
expense of 2,200,UG0 dollars, owing to_ its size, being sixty-
six feet broad at the surface, and eight feet deep, and to the
depth of its excavations and the extent of its embankments.
Maryland.— The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, com¬
menced in 1828, is a great undertaking, which, extend¬
ing from the tide-water of the Potomac river, above
Georgetown, in the district of Columbia, and terminating
at Pittsburg in Pennsylvania, a distance of 341 j miles,
would connect the Atlantic with the Ohio and the Mis¬
sissippi, terminating in the Gulf of Mexico. The breadth
of this canal, which would be a splendid improvement, is
from sixty to eighty feet at the surface, and fifty at the
bottom. In the year 1835 it was only completed to the
distance of 100 miles. The undertaking languished for
want of funds. The estimated expense is 3,050,000 dol¬
lars. The district of Columbia has two branches connected
with the above canal.
The Dismal Swamp Canal, in Virginia, connects Chesa¬
peake Bay with Albemarle Sound ; and various other small
canals have been constructed for improving the navigation
of James River, by avoiding the falls which interrupt the
navigation. They may be considered as the commence¬
ment of a series of improvements, by which the waters of
James river may be connected with the Great Kanawha,
one of the head streams of the Ohio, and a short and direct
communication thus opened from the Atlantic, into which
the James river falls, to the Mississippi and the Gulf of
Mexico. Companies have also been formed to improve the
channels of the Roanoke and its confluents in both Virginia
and North Carolina. The canals in South Carolina are
small, and chiefly have in view to improve the navigation
of the different streams which water this state, namely, the
Catawba, the Saluda, the Wateree, and others. In North
Carolina there is a canal which connects North-West River
with the Dismal Swamp Canal, and others for improving the
navigation of the Roanoke and other streams. In Georgia
there is only one canal which unites the waters of the
Ogeechee with those of the Savannah. In the state of
Kentucky there is a small canal for avoiding a fall on the
Ohio ; and in Tennessee similar improvements are projected
for improving the river of that name.
Ohio.—The canal navigation of this state is of great magni¬
tude and importance, and further improvements are in pro¬
gress. The Ohio and Erie Canal, completed in 1832, com¬
mences at Cleveland, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga, and,
passing through a numberof towns in its route, joins the Ohio
river at Portsmouth, connecting it w ith Lake Erie. The main
trunk is 310 miles in length, and, including its branches, the
total length is 334 miles. This canal has been a most suc¬
cessful undertaking, and has in many places through which
it has passed quadrupled the value of private property. The TV
Miami Canal commences at Cincinnati and terminates at -tat1
Dayton. An extension of this work is in progress, by^"\
which it. will be connected with the Wabash and Erie Canal
at Defiance. The expense of these two canals has been
5,500,500 dollars. The total length of canals in Ohio is
409 miles. The net revenue on these two canals was, for
the year 1834, ending in October 31, 191,444 dollars.
Other plans are in contemplation for extending branches
from this canal in different directions. It is proposed, by
the Mahoning and Beaver Canal, to connect it by a canal
eighty-five miles in length with the Beaver division of the
Pennsylvania Canal, by which a communication would be
secured to the western states with the Atlantic section of
the Union, and a choice would thus be afforded them of
two, and eventually, when the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal are completed, of three
great outlets for their produce.
Indiana.—The Wabash and Erie Canal, in this state, ex¬
tends from near Lafayette, on the Wabash river, up the
valley of that stream, across to the Maumee at Wayne, 105
miles. This work is to be carried from Wayne to the east
boundary of the state, where, uniting with that part of it
authorized by the state of Ohio, the whole distance will be
187 miles. Other canals are proposed in this state, some
as branches from the main trunk of other canals already
made, and others new.
In the western states, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisi¬
ana, there is no extent of canal navigation, and those which
are projected are chiefly for improving the navigation of
the streams that abound in the country.
A canal across the peninsula of Florida has for some years
been considered an object of national importance, and would
greatly facilitate the transmission of the produce and mer¬
chandise constantly passing and repassing to an immense
amount between the seaports on the Gulf of Mexico and
the Atlantic region of the United States, and at present
carried by a dangerous navigation among the Bahama
Islands and around the southern point of Florida, where the
loss of shipping has been so great that it is estimated to have
been nearly equal to the expense of the proposed canal.
The railroad is a still more striking and splendid im-
provement than the canal, and affords even greater facilities
to internal intercourse. This great improvement is mar¬
vellously aided by the power of steam, by which the speed
may be indefinitely increased : so that the time spent in tra¬
velling hundreds of miles is no longer counted, as formerly,
by weeks, or even days, but by hours, and the remote ex¬
tremities of a kingdom appear to be brought nearer than
were formerly those of the same county. The enterprising
spirit of the Americans has eagerly laid hold of this singular
improvement, which they are rapidly extending in all direc¬
tions. We shall endeavour to give a short notice of such as
are connected with the great communications of the country,1
omitting those which,being more local, are of less importance.
Massachusetts.—In this state, Boston is the centre from
which the railroads diverge in different directions.
The Boston and Worcester Railroad, w Inch extends sout-
west to Worcester, 43^ miles, at an expense of 900,000 do -
lars, and which it is proposed to carry into the state of Neff
Y( rk,and to connect with the New Yorkand Albany Rajroa^
at Greenbush, opposite to Albany, the whole distance being
about 200 miles. 2. The Boston and Providence Rai ioa(,
which extends in a straight line south from Boston to rovi
dence, Rhode Island, 42 miles, and which will connect
theStonington and Providence Railroad, making the dista| C
to Stonington 90^ miles. 3. The railroad from 08 *
westward to Lowell, 25 miles, w hich is considered the co ^
mencement of a series of railroads, still westward, t wfo
the states of New Hampshire and Vermont, to a pom ^
Lake Champlain, opposite Plattsburg, and thence aero
UNITED
t] state of New York to Ogdensburgh on the St Lawrence
rj r, tl>e entire distance being about 335 miles. A railroad
c .nds from Boston to Taunton, thirty-two miles, which it is
nriosed to unite with the Boston and Providence Railroad
at liaron, eighteen miles from Boston. It is also proposed
to ctend the Worcester Railroad to Norwich, a distance of
sh/ miles.
'ew York.—The Mohawk and Hudson Railroad extends
frc i Albany to Schenectady, about fifteen miles, and affords
communication between the tide-water of Hudson river and
thi irie Canal. It is continued by the Saratoga and Schenec-
ta<; Railroad, twenty-one miles, to the villages of Ballston
Sp-and Saratoga, which it unites with the line of steam-na-
vip;ion upon the Hudson. The Ithaca and Oswego Railroad
cx nds from the village of Ithaca, at the head of the Ca¬
va. lake, twenty-nine miles, to the village of Oswego on
thiSusquehannah river. The Haerlem Railroad is from
No York to that city. The Rensselaer and Saratoga Rail-
rot in length twenty-five miles, commences at and crosses
tlu ludson at Troy, and passes to Waterford, and thence
to fdiston Springs. The Catskill and Canajoharie Railroad
exluds between the two places, a distance of seventy miles.
Till Utica and Schenectady Railroad, between these two
plaits, extends 100 miles. Railroads are besides projected, 1 st,
fro iNew York to Lake Erie, with a capital of 10,000,000 dol-
larsj2d, from New York to the Hudson, opposite Albany ;
3d,iom Newburgh to the Delaware river, distance fifty-one
mih; 4th, the Brooklyn, Jamaica, and Long Island Rail-
roam from Brooklyn to Greenport, about 100 miles, thence
by eam-boat to Stonington, thirty-five miles, then by
raibads now in progress through Providence to Boston,
9(Mniles; total from New York 225^ miles. This work
ivaijommenced in 1835. In-1832, various companies were
innporated for railroads in different directions, which would
reqjre a capital estimated to amount to 12,000,000 dollars.
. w Jersey.—The chief railroads in this state are, the
Caailen and Amboy Railroad, ninety-six miles in length,
whin unites the two great cities of Philadelphia and New
You; the Paterson and Hudson Railroad, extending from
Pat‘son to Jersey city on the Hudson, opposite to New
Yo\ sixteen miles in length; the New Jersey Railroad, ex-
tenimg from New Brunswick to Jersey city, opposite New
Yo . Ihe New Jersey, Hudson, and Delaware Railroad
is i ended to unite the Delaware with the Hudson, opposite
Ne {York.
j nnsylvania—The Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad
ext ds 81| miles in length, from the former city to Colum¬
bia i the Susquehannah. The cost, including engines, is
esti ited at 3,595,809 dollars. From this railroad branches
ext d in different directions to Westchester, twenty-one
rnii ; and about forty miles from Philadelphia the Oxford
Raijiad, passing through Oxford, terminates at the south
•ifH't the state, where it will unite the Baltimore and Port
BC'Sit Railroad; the distance being twenty-one miles.
J leghany Portage Railroad commences at Holidays-
b'u the termination of the main division of the Pennsyl-
p11 Canal, and crossing the Alleghany Mountains at Blair’s
,a! summit, descends to its final termination at Johnstown,
" ' it intersects the western division of the canal, being
a.(.'lnce 36J miles. There are railroads from Philadel-
p u. o Germantown, seven miles, and to Morrisville, oppo-
sitc i Trenton, twenty-six miles.
e Central Railroad commences two and a half miles be-
sId Y*sv^e* and extends 44-^ miles to Sunbury, oppo-
1 c e forks of the Susquehannah river. There are besides
^ was railroads on a smaller scale from the coal-mines
11 are found in this state, or connected with the main
‘n ’ 01 ra'lroads which are formed,
rxt pTu—.^le Newcastle and Frenchtown Railroad
vr i ^4 niiles from Newcastle on Delaware river to
! lto"’n ‘n state of Maryland, and affords a direct
STATES.
communication between Delaware river and Chesapeake
Bay. The Wilmington and Susquehannah Railroad will
extend 26^ miles from Wilmington to Semper’s Point on
North-East Bay, which communicates with Chesapeake Bay
near the mouth of the Susquehannah river.
Maryland.—The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, begun in
1828, will extend from Baltimore to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
thus affording a communication between the w'aters of the
Chesapeake Bay and those of Ohio. A farther extension of
thirty miles will carry it to Williamsport, and another of
seventy-five miles to Cumberland, a country abounding in
rich bituminous coal, making the whole distance 325 miles.
Baltimore and Susquehannah Railroad, commenced in
1830, extends seventy-six miles in length, from Baltimore
to Y ork. A railroad from York to Columbia, eleven miles
in length, which was sanctioned by the Pennsylvania state
legislature in 1835, will unite the Baltimore, and Susque¬
hannah, and Philadelphia, and Columbia Railroads, and will
form a railroad communication between the cities of Phila¬
delphia and Baltimore, 168 miles in length. Branches are
proposed from this railroad, to improve the communications
of the country ; one from Baltimore, in length fifty-two
miles, to join with the Oxford Railroad, and to form a rail¬
road communication of 117 miles between the cities of Bal¬
timore and Philadelphia.
Virginia.—The Petersburg and Roanoke Railroad ex¬
tends from Petersburg to Blakeley, North Carolina, at the
foot of the Roanoke Canal, a distance of fifty-nine miles.
The Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad, seventy-seven miles
in length, commences at Portsmouth, opposite Norfolk, and
terminates at the head of the Roanoke Falls, a short distance
below the Petersburg branch. The Winchester and Po¬
tomac Railroad extends from Winchester to Harper’s Ferry,
about thirty miles, where it unites with the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad. This is an important link in the great chain
of communication now extending in the southern section of
the Union ; and measures have been taken to continue it
through the great valley of Virginia towards Tennessee.
The Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad is to
extend from the river Potomac, at the mouth of the Poto¬
mac creek, through Fredericksburg, to Richmond, about
seventy-five miles. This work connects at Richmond with
the Richmond and Petersburg line, twenty-one miles long,
and, with the Petersburg and Roanoke Railroad, will form
a continued railroad communication from the Potomac to
the Roanoke rivers of 155 miles in length. Railroads are
also proposed from Fredericksburg to Guyandot on the
Ohio river ; from Richmond to Lynchburg, thence to Knox¬
ville, Tennessee; and from Lynchburg to New River.
North Carolina—Cape Fear and Yadkin Railroad conD
mences at Wilmington, and extends to the Y’adkin river
by the way of Fayetteville; thence to Beatty’s Ford, or
some other point on the Catawba river, a distance of about
230 or 250 miles. This work is advancing very rapidly.
A railroad is begun from Newbern, on the Neuse river,
through Raleigh, to Clinton on the Yadkin. The Roanoke,
Raleigh, and Fayetteville Railroad will begin at the termi¬
nation of the Petersburg and Roanoke Railroad, and will
extent to Fayetteville.
South Carolina.—The South Carolina Railroad, begun
in 1830 and finished in 1833, in length 135^ miles, com¬
mences at Charleston, and terminate^ at Hamburg on the
Savannah river, opposite Augusta. At Augusta Uie Au¬
gusta and Athens Railroad will connect with it, which it
is proposed to carry on westward to unite with the Tus-
cumbia, Courtland, and Decatur Railroad in Alabama, and
the great Tennessee Railroad to Memphis on the Mississip¬
pi, which when finished will be one of the most important
works in the Union. The Columbia and Branchville Rail¬
road will extend from Columbia to Branchville, where it
will unite with the South Carolina Railroad. This work
3 o
473
United
States.
474 UNITED
United was about to be begun in 1835; as also the Peedee and
States. Wateree Railroad, to extend from Cheraw to Charleston, 153
' miles; the Edgefield Railroad, to run from Aiken to Charles¬
ton, 137 miles; a railroad to extend from Cheraw to Co¬
lumbia, eighty-eight or ninety miles; another from Barn¬
well to a point on the South Carolina Railroad, and like¬
wise from Beaufort to Hamburg on the Savannah river,
110 or 112 miles in length.
Georgia.—The Savannah and Macon Railroad is 210
miles between these two places. The Augusta and Athens
Railroad is 114 miles between the two places, and may be
considered as an extension of the South Carolina Railroad.
When the whole work is finished, the route from Charleston
to Memphis will be 700 miles. A railroad is projected
from Augusta to Columbus on the Chattahoochee, twenty
miles in length, with other railroads branching from it.
Florida.—A railroad is to extend from Tallahassee, the
capital, twenty-two miles, to the town of St Mark’s, to he
carried to Jacksonville on the St John’s river, 150 miles.
Alabama.—The Tuscumbia, Courtland, and Decatur
Railroad extends from Tuscumbia to Decatur, forty-five
miles. The Daletown, Woodville, and Greenshorough
Railroad, is to extend from Daletown, on the Alabama river,
northward through Woodville to Greensborough,fifty miles;
the Florida, Alabama, and Georgia Railroad, to run from
Pensacola in Florida, crossing the Escambia river about
twenty-two miles above that place, thence in a north-east
direction to Columbus, Georgia, on the Chattahoochee river,
about 210 miles. Railroads are also proposed from Mont¬
gomery to Columbus, Georgia, 100 miles in length ; from
Montgomery to Decatur on the Tennessee river, about
200 miles; and from Tuscaloosa to Decatur, about 120
miles. Partly by the Tennessee and Alabama Railroad,
partly by a water-communication from the Hiwassee, a
considerable tributary of the Tennessee, which rises in the
mountains of Georgia, it is proposed to continue a line to
Selma on the Alabama, 371 miles, and to Mobile, 600 miles.
Mississippi—Several railroads have been projected in
this state, the most important of which is the Natchez and
Jackson Railroad, in extent about ninety miles between those
places, and onwards to Livingston, thirty-one miles more.
Louisiana.—In the legislature of Louisiana a bill has
been introduced for a magnificent scheme of internal im¬
provement; namely, a railroad from New Orleans to Baton
Rouge, St Francisville, and Clinton, thence eastwardly to
the boundary line of Mississippi. This plan is recommend¬
ed as part of a great route through Mississippi, Alabama,
Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Virginia, to Wash¬
ington city. The Newr Orleans and Nashville Railroad is
proposed to extend from New Orleans to Nashville in Ten¬
nessee, from 480 to 500 miles in length.
In Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and
Illinois, extensive schemes of railroads have also been pro¬
jected, which, when they are executed, will completely in¬
tersect these districts, and afford great facilities to internal
intercourse.
Banking. 1 he substitution of paper-money for specie is a modern
improvement of obvious advantage, but liable to peculiar
risks. Dr Smith very clearly explains the benefits which arise
from the judicious operations of banking, as well as its evils
when it is carried to excess.1 The great security against the
abuse of paper-money, is its immediate convertibility into
specie. It is a promise to pay on demand a certain amount
ot gold or silver. The punctual performance of this promise
is the only sure guarantee of its value, which, where it is
not performed, may vary to any amount, until the note de¬
generate into a mere piece of waste paper, as was the case
in France during the progress of the revolution, from the
STATES.
inordinate issue of assignats. The great profit of a bank
arises from the circulation of its notes, and its chief dantrer
from the sudden return of those notes in exchange for specie'
It is well known that no bank has a store of specie equal to
the amount of its notes in circulation. The liabilities of
the Bank of England have often been between twenty and
thirty millions, while its stock of specie did not exceed one
or two millions. Specie being, however, an expensive stock
a bank is tempted to carry on business with the lowest po$.'
sible quantity; and as the disproportion between this fund
and the liabilities increases, the hazard also increases of a
run upon the bank, and a suspension of cash payments.
Against this danger the American banks, though many of
them conducted their business with success, and possessed
ample funds, were not sufficiently guarded. In a time of panic,
a bank, by the sudden influx of its notes, may be drained of
its last guinea or dollar, as happened to the Bank of England
in 1797. But when a bank has ample funds, every effort
should be made, at whatever expense, and with the least pos¬
sible delay, to provide specie, and to resume cash payments.
In this country, though the Bank of England in 1797 might
have been forced for a time to suspend its cash payments,
yet the continuance of the suspension after the panic, and
when the necessity had ceased, was a fatal error, and a most
disgraceful fraud on the community, which was followed by
the depreciation of the currency, and by great injustice and
disorder. In 1805, the bank of Paris was exposed to a drain
of specie to be remitted lor payment of the French armies
when they were in Germany, and was under a like neces
sity of suspending its cash payments; but when the pres¬
sure ceased, its payments were resumed early in 1806, after
the conclusion of the peace of Presburg.
In 1836 the number of banks in Americaamountedto636,
in 1838 to 663, besides 166 branches, and several other
banks from which no returns were received in reply to
the application made. Including these, the whole may be
estimated at between 800 and 900. Their capital was
either subscribed by individuals, or it consisted of loans
from the several states in which they were situated; and in
many cases the state was a shareholder or sole proprietor
of the bank. Where the state agreed to aid the bank with
funds, or with its credit, bonds bearing interest, and payable
in ten, twenty, or thirty, or any greater number of years
that might be agreed upon, were issued to the amount of
one or two millions of dollars, or to any greater or less
amount, lor which the borrowers gave a mortgage on real
property to double the amount. The state bonds being
disposed of in the market, the bank acquired the necessary
funds for carrying on its business. In some cases banks
have been established on the frail foundation of fictitious
capital. The fourth part of its capital, for example, or out
of 100,000 dollars, only 25,000 were really subscribed. For
the residue the shareholders gave their bills, and pledged ip
a security the stock they had paid in ; and thus the nomi¬
nal capital was 100,000 dollars, but the real capital only one
fourth. In one case the whole capital subscribed was next
day given back under the name of a loan to the subscribers.
Though such fraudulent transactions were not common, yet
many of the banks possessed a slender foundation of capital)
not amounting to 100,000 dollars, and in some cases not to
above 60,000 or 30,000 dollars, and this often made up
with paper promises. In most cases, however, the ban's
carried on a profitable business, and divided from hve 0
eight and ten per cent. . ,
No country has suffered so much from the mama u
banking, or been so deluged with depreciated and wort > css
paper money, as the United States. There were 409 an »
in existence in 1819, many of which had no adequate ou
in
In
1 Smith’s Wealth of Nations, vol. i. p. 510.
UNITED S T A T E S.
kLj <; ion of real capital. They were generally got up by
ti k )ts of speculating tradesmen and lawyers, often with-
'•{r'o, depositing a dollar beyond what was necessary to
• for paper and engraving. Even the respectable banks
itiednotes fora single dollar; but in the western country,
u'sre these establishments were on the worst footing, notes
we issued for a half, a quarter, an eighth, and even a six¬
tieth of a dollar. An immense mass of paper money was
tl s put into circulation by these banks, which, when it fell
in) discredit, was followed by a degree of embarrassment
a distress that had almost the character of a general bank-
nltcy. The paper bubbles burst, one after another, with
. e: *aordinary celerity, and involved multitudes in ruin. Of
il a undred banks in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and In-
dim, there were only two whose notes were received at the
la 1-offices. In some of these states, acts were passed by
tf legislature, suspending legal proceedings to compel pay-
nwt of debts. It may be imagined what an extraordinary
d< mgement was produced in the state of property, when
tl, circulating medium wars reduced in three years (1815
to|819) from 110 to forty-five millions of dollars.1
t)f the 663 banks which were established in America in
118) the bank of the United States is by far the most im-
pi ant, from the extent of its capital, which amounts to
3.100,000 of dollars. It was incorporated in 1791, under
tl presidency of General Washington. The charter,
w ch was for twenty years, expired in 1811; and from the
f’e that had in the mean time arisen, of this great national
kk being converted into a political engine, it was not re¬
in ed. But owing to the disorder that arose at this
ti h in the trade, and in the state of the currency, the
ccsequence partly of the war with Great Britain, it was
bright expedient to establish a new bank, with a cbar-
te for twenty years. General Jackson was decidedly op-
jk d to this establishment ; and in 1829, in his mes-
sa to Congress, he expressed his opinion in the strongest
tc is. Ihe senate and house of representatives entirely
disproved of the president’s views, in which he how-
ev persevered; and though in 1832 an act was passed
fo enewing the charter of the bank, the president exer-
cU his constitutional privilege of rejecting the act, it not
eg sanctioned by two thirds of the legislative bodies,
n ursuance of his views, he in 1833 directed the govern-
nit t deposits to be removed from the federal bank to cer-
tu ot ier banks, which he selected ; though a committee of
d ouse of representatives declared, on inquiry into its af-
foi a balance in its favour of 43,058,143 dollars.2 The
c° cst between the executive and the monied interest was
Ca e(t.on with increasing acrimony ; and such was the dis-
[l'° t'ie banks by General Jackson and his friends, that
11 I)roP°sed to collect the public revenue entirely in
Sj1' e, to be laid up in vaults under the charge of public
01 is. Ibis question has created a great division in the
' rica" community, and has finally decided the late
i st or the great office of president against Van Bu-
j, yn advocate ot this system, and in favour of General
nil ison.
tn 11 [bough General Jackson has carried too far his dis¬
co 1° 1'f kanks’ yet his measures, however mistaken,
aft |nf't|i 'tVe occ^s‘oncd the great calamity which soon
i'| / C 116 cretbt and commerce of the United States,
of ^'Ulse "as more deeply seated in the general condition
mnerce, arising from the great extent to which credit
thun ln.Grea.t Britain in the United States, and
inp- ense T1|rjt °i speculation thence arising, under the
o which vast funds were lavished in ruinous ad-
475
ventures. A great increase had taken place in the impor¬
tations, especially from Great Britain, which had risen from
108 millions, the amount in 1833, to 190 millions in 1836.'
A large debt was thus incurred to Great Britain, while
vast sums, mostly in paper, to the amount, as estimated, of
12;:>,000,000 of dollars, were expended on railroads, canals,
banks, insurance and other companies, by which states,
cities, corporations, and merchants, were involved in ex¬
tensive engagements: wild tracts of government lands were
purchased on speculation* with paper to the estimated
amount of about forty millions of dollars. ’I he sales of
these lands had increased from five millions of dollars in
1833, to twenty-five millions in 1836; extensive lots were
besides purchased around the different cities, towns, and
villages, with borrowed funds, and large sums were ex¬
pended on rash improvements and on town buildings.3 An
immense superstructure was thus reared on a slender basis,
fhere was a fair show of outward wealth and a false security,
which continued until the unfortunate speculator was rous¬
ed from his golden dreams by the commercial storm, and by
a scene of ruin which was without a parallel in the history of
commerce. 1 he alarm began in Great Britain, where credit
had been carried to a great excess. The bank contracting its
credit to American houses, they in their turn called for pay¬
ment of their American debts. At the same time Congress
passed a bill, in June 1836, ordering that the surplus revenue
of the United States, which had accumulated in the treasury,
should, after reserving five millions of dollars, be deposited,
by four quarterly instalments, with the several states. This
sum amounted to 37,468,859 dollars. It had been lent
out by the banks in which it was deposited, to the mer¬
chants of New York and other cities; and they being now
suddenly called upon for payment, insisted on prompt pay¬
ment from the merchants, at the time they were called up¬
on to pay their European debts. The treasury order issued
on 11th July 1836, in order to check the inordinate spe¬
culations in land, ordaining all payments at the land-offices
to be made in specie, increased the pressure for money, and
combined, with all the other causes, to hasten on the crisis
for which the materials had been long prepared. 'I he
scarcity of money rapidly increased ; those who in the riot
ot speculation had recklessly borrowed, were now ca'led
upon to pay ; the golden dream bad vanished, and they had
no funds. A general panic now spread far and wide ; the
banks were assailed by demands for specie; and in May
1837 cash, payments were universally suspended throughout
the United States. This was followed by a general depre¬
ciation of the currency, which was more or less in propor¬
tion to its excess or its discredit ; by a varying rate of ex¬
change in consequence, for all remittances of money between
the different states; by a universal panic, a fall in the price of
all goods, and heavy sacrifices of property in order to pro¬
cure funds. But these calamities, though they were ag¬
gravated, were not altogether occasioned by the failure of
the banks. They were involved in the general ruin which
arose from other causes, namely, the undue extension of
credit, and the excess to which speculation was carried.
Great commercial distress was also experienced from the
same cause in Great Britain, where the Bank of England
and the other banks continued to pay in specie.
lo supply the want of change, notes were issued under
the value of five dollars, though they had been prohibited
by law; and it is mentioned in a Report on the State of New
l^ork, that “ it was flooded with every species of depre¬
ciated paper, to the general annoyance and loss of the
people at large.” The suspension of cash payments is an
' ?e Mr T 6 S?cretary t',e Treasury on the Currency, 1820. Flint’s Letters from America, Nos. 16 and 17.
3 ee State ^*)ser.vat'ons on Financial Position of the States of the North American Union, i. p. 15.
Pur ) the rektion to the Condition of the State Banks, laid before Congress February 27, 1839, p. 404, Doc. No. 227.
United
States.
i tu  ? nation to Hie Condition ol the State B anks,
ssouri Assembly on the Currency, November 20, 1838.
Re-
476
United
States-
UNITED STATES.
expedient to which banks too readily resort in critical times.
The Bank of England was extremely reluctant to part with
' this privilege, which it had so recklessly abused, and in
which abuse it was, with little regard to justice, countenan¬
ced by those who then ruled the country. During the com¬
mercial pressure of 1814, all the banks south of New England
suspended their cash payments; and they were countenan¬
ced in this proceeding by the merchants of New York and
other places, though not by the government or congress,
where other and wiser views prevailed. Ihe merchants
depending on the banks for accommodation, did not insist
on a strict fulfilment of their engagements, lest it should
compel them to contract their discounts, and to call in their
debts, which would have added to the general distress. It
is accordingly mentioned as a proof that public opinion
was in favour of the banks, that in Massachusetts 1 suits
for refusing specie were instituted against thirteen only of
all the banks, and those suits are for trifling amounts.”1
The same feeling prevailed in all the other states. ‘‘ ine
suspension,” says the comptroller of the state of New
York, in his Report, “ was forced upon the New \ork
banks by several powerful classes of persons, as a mea¬
sure of relief,” on the supposition that as soon as the
banks were relieved from the obligation of redeeming their
notes, they would discount more freely.2 I he attention
of the Congress and of the legislatures of the different
states was deeply aroused by the catastrophe which had
befallen the banks, and the credit and commerce of the
country ; and acts were passed for regulating the issues, and
the general management of their business. Commissioners
were also appointed to inquire into the general condition of
all the banks, to call for and examine their books or accounts;
and they were empowered to bringthe case of any bank under
the consideration of a court of law, which might issue an
injunction to its managers, setting aside and appointing re- r
ceivers to take charge of its effects. Various acts were S
passed abolishing the issue of notes under the value of five ^
dollars, and fixing a certain proportion between the circu¬
lation and the liabilities of the different banks. By an act
passed in 1838, it is declared, that when any bank shall
transfer to the comptroller of banks, an officer appointed in
each state, a given amount of the public debt, he shall re¬
ceive in return from the said comptroller an equal amount
of circulating notes, which the said comptroller is required to
cause to be printed and engraved, and to be countersigned,
numbered, and registered in proper books, kept in his office,
and to be delivered to any bank on the conditions above
specified. According to this law, the circulating notes of
banks are to be furnished by the state; and for the whole
amount delivered, an equal amount of public stock, on which
the bank receives interest, must be conveyed to the comp-
troller, as a security to the public for the payment of the
notes.
The commissioners appointed to inquire into the condi¬
tion of the banks made their reports, containing the returns
of their capital, circulation, discounts, specie, deposits,
&c.; besides just and clear views of the principles of paper
currency, and of the necessity of specie payments to the
maintenance of its value. From these reports, it appears
that the American banks, with few exceptions, were solvent.
They had ample funds for the discharge of their debts,
though their stock of specie proved unequal to the ruinous
drains to which they were exposed during the prevailing
panic. A table is subjoined, containing a condensed state¬
ment of the capital, the circulation, deposits, debts due to
other banks, other liabilities, together with the amount of
specie in the different banks of the United States, on the
1st January 1839.
State or Territory.
Maine 
New Hampshire 
Vermont 
Massachusetts 
Ithode Island 
New York 
Pennsylvania 
Maryland* -
District of Columbia 
Virginia* 
North Carolina  
South Carolina 
Georgia 
Alabama 
Louisiana   
Arkansas 
Tennessee 
Kentucky* -
Missouri 
Indiana  
Wisconsin 
Iowa 
United States Bank of)
Pennsylvania J
Jan. 7,1S39
Dec. 3, 1(138
Sept.
Oct.
Jan. 1839
Jan. 1, ...
Nov. 1838
Jan. 1, 1839
Jan. 1, ...
Jan.
Nov. 24, 1838
Nov.
Oct.
Oct.
Dec.
Nov. 5, ...
Jan. 1, 1839
Total.
Dec. 31, ...
Nov. 17, •••
Jan.
Dec. 1838
Nov.
No. of No. of
Banks. Branches.
Capital.
Specie.
80
28
19
110
02
96
49
15
0
5
3
11
21
3
16
1
3
4
1
1
2
J
20
7
2
10
4
31
2
11
10
l
10
15
508
131
Dollars.
4,959,000
2.939.500
I, 304,530
34,030,000
9,808,773
36,801,400
25,155,783
9.954.500
1,855,790
7,458,248
3,100,750
9,153,498
15,025,971
II. 990.232
40,930,970
628,105
5,395,799
1,027,870
2,216,700
139,125
100,000
35,000,000
259,042,610
Dollars.
303,005
187,901
157,033
2,394,024
402,002
6,602,708
3,612,253
1,372,008
415,573
2,270,307
723,875
2,000,149
3,232,274
1,087,040
3,987,697
310,045
802,309
1,613,383
091,070
1,345,832
05,080
3,033
5,223,470
39,470,063
Dollars.
2,036,040
1,510,691
2,043.843
9,400,412
1,880,108
19,373,149
11,792,948
2,897,695
950,132
8,015,418
2,114,140
4,506,327
5,121,604
0,779,678
0,280,558
401,775
1,930,040
5 418,320
071,950
2,951,795
235.573
10,990
4,220,854
Deposits.
Due to other
Banks.
Dollars.
818,824
522,036
330,772
7,122,642
972,760
18,370,044
10,135,863
3,469,904
1,397,399
2,999,589
588,389
2,732,583
2,834,219
4,919,598
7,657,101
134,309
049,215
1,101,638
490,617
109,907
3,686
Dollars.
117,974
4,973
3,526,080
875,290
15,344,098
3,778,360
2,090,485
327,008
1,008,770
150,430
1,308,200
2,050,052
2,257,512
8,119,708
8,537
348,740
481,972
209,905
Other Liabi¬
lities.
8,071,421 3,106,420
100,670,640 76,032,702
45,301,750
Dollars.
189,(i7(t
2,498,5/0
582,139
4,587,885
1,913,901
1,124,326
3,059
1,452,717
1,921,127
1,060,923
1,574,179
3,522,093
2,865,098
123,159
270,008
5,035
26,542,516
50,236,361
* Incomplete. Maryland ; no return from seven banks and two branches. Kentucky; returns embracing only loans and discounts, specie and circulatio
turns from Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Mississippi, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, and Florida.
Nore-
1 See Document No. 227, laid upon the Table of Congress February 27. 1839. Report of the Bank Commissioners of Massachusetts
Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. . ru u •* those who congre'
9 “ If the legal consequence of suspension,” it is observed in the same document, “ had been a contraction of bank l*sues’ , tritctiVe to the
gated in Wall Street, instead of coercing the bunks to suspend, would have rallied round them to prevent a catastrop e s<k ji[o. 22n
honour and detrimental to the morals of the country, and so injurious to the credit of our great commercial emporium.
Kxtract from the Report of the Comptroller of the State of New York, p. 205.
UNITED STATES.
477
From the above table it will be seen that the greatest
nk-inj, establishment in America is the United States
ink of Pennsylvania, with a capital of 35,000,000 of dol-
s There is another bank in this state, with a capital of
’ too 000 dollars, seven with capitals of between 1,000,000
d 2 500,000 dollars, eighteen with capitals from 224,000
i 752,000 dollars, and seventeen with capitals from 60,000
I 185,000 dollars.
The following is a statement of the hanking capital in
U1 state of New York.
Capital in Dollars.
4  2,000,000
4  1,000,000 to 1,500,000
15  500,000 to 750,000
3U   200,000 to 242,000
31 100,000 and under 200,000.
Of fifty-one banks in Maine, the largest capital is 300,000
(liars; and there are only six that have a capital above
0,000 dollars. Of the twenty-eight banks in New Hamp-
-jire, there are only six that have a capital above 100,000
rllars. Of eighteen banks in Vermont, the highest capital
j 300,000 dollars; and there are only three that have a
(pital above 100,000 dollars. In Massachusetts there are
0 banks.
Capital in Dollars.
1 1,800,000
1 1,500,000
4 1,000,000
18 at or above 500,000
76 at or under 200,000, chiefly 100,000.
Of sixty-two banks in Rhode Island, there are fifteen of
nch the capitals are between 200,000 and 500,000 dol-
•s, and there are twenty-nine under 100,000 dollars ;
e residue between 100,000 and 200,000 dollars. Of
enty-three banks in Maryland, there are three whose
pitals are from 2,000,000 dollars to 1,199,350; eleven
th capitals from 250,000 dollars to 627,110. Of the re-
lue, the capitals are from 50,900 to 175,000 dollars. In
irginia there are five banks, with twenty branches, of
lich the capitals of three amount to 6,337,000 dollars ;
ose of the other three are from 500,000 to 700,000 dol-
*s. In North Carolina there are three banks, with seven
anches ; amount of their several capitals, 1,500,000,
10,000, 225,000 dollars. In South Carolina there are
2ven banks, with two branches ; eight with capitals va-
ing from 800,000 to 2,000,000 dollars. In Georgia there
e twenty-one banks, with sixteen branches ; six with
pituls from two millions to one million of dollars ; ten
)m 600,000 to 250,000 dollars. In Alabama, New Or-
tns, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, the capitals of the
mks vary from 500,000 to 2,500,000 dollars. They are
“nerally above a million of dollars.
j i'rom the above statement, the capital of the American
inks in many cases appears to be inconsiderable. Even
is capital was not always paid up, but consisted in
n t of the promissory notes or simple bonds of the share-
ilders, or for which the stock primarily paid in was pledged,
aws were passed to guard against such abuses, but these
ere evaded. Complaints w'ere general against the banks
the southern states, for entering into rash engagements
1 ass‘st, with permanent loans, railroads, canals, and ether
United
States.
improvements ; thus locking up the funds that should have
been available for other purposes.1 Among other expe¬
dients, the issue of bank post-bills was resorted to, by ^
which debt was accumulated, and the evil day of payment
was for a time delayed. The Scotish banks were formerly
in the practice of issuing notes with what was called an
optional clausd, deferring payment for six months, which
was wisely prohibited by act of parliament. The post¬
notes of the bank of the United States were gradually
increased, as its affairs became involved, from 4,376,424,
its amount in July 1838, to 8,994,443 dollars in Novem¬
ber following ; and other banks in the United States re¬
sorted to this and to other hazardous devices for raising
money. It is not easy to determine the due proportion
between the stock of specie and the liabilities of a bank.
The bullion in the Bank of England has varied from one
third and one fourth to one fifteenth of its circulation and
other liabilities; and the American banks have generally
retained in their coffers a proportion of bullion, amounting
to a tenth, a seventh, a fifteenth, but sometimes not to
above a 200th part, of the circulation and other liabilities.
On a general average of all the American banks, the stock
of specie amounted, in January 1839, to about forty-three
millions of dollars, which was about one fourth of the cir¬
culation and other liabilities.
Though cash payments were generally resumed in 1838,
a partial suspension again occurred at the close of the year
1839. The commerce of the country had by no means
recovered from the recent shock ; want of confidence still
prevailed, and a scarcity of cash; and many were deeply
involved in speculations of doubtful issue. The great bank
of the United States in Pennsylvania, notwithstanding its
large capital of thirty-five millions, was engaged in vast
adventures, and was greatly embarrassed by the want of
funds, to provide which it had been reduced to various
shifts ; among others, to the issue of post-notes, to the
amount, as already stated, of above eight millions of dol¬
lars. No efforts however could any longer maintain its
sinking credit; and its notes being refused by the bank of
the United States in New York, as well as in Europe, its
payments were finally suspended in October 1839, when
the notes fell to a discount of ten per cent. It was pro¬
posed to resume cash payments in January 1841 ; but, ac¬
cording to the last accounts, a new panic had arisen in the
United States, and it was doubted whether this resolution
would be carried into effect, and even whether the assets
of the bank would be found equal to its liabilities. All the
southern banks suspended their cash payments as soon
as they heard of the suspension of the Philadelphia bank ;
but those in New York honourably fulfilled, and still have
continued to fulfil, their engagements, and to pay their notes
on demand.
The debt incurred by the United States at the close of Finances,
the war with Great Britain in 1783 amounted, with ar¬
rears of interest in 1794, to 76,096,468 dollars, equal to
L.17,121,704. It was reduced to 45,154,189 dollars in
1812. In 1815, after the conclusion of the war which be¬
gan w-ith Great Britain in 1812, the debt had increased to
158,713,049 dollars, and was reduced in 1820 to 91,225,560
dollars. In 1835 it was entirely redeemed; and in the follow¬
ing year a surplus had accumulated, which, with the reserva¬
tions of five millions of dollars, was, in conformity with an act
of Congress, distributed, as already stated, among the several
the Select Committee of the State of Ohio observe : “ This .sudden expansion of the currency gave an unnatural impetus to the ordinary
ismess of the country, and opened the way to all the wild schemes of speculation that the imagination of the most enthusiastic fortune-
inter could invent. The hitherto honest, industrious, and virtuous tiller of the soil, became a bold adventurer upon the broad sea of spe-
1 a i.on i the mechanic turned merchant ; while the professional man, and the cautious dealer in dry goods and groceries, became proprietors
cibes, and the nominal owners of immense tracts of wild lands.” See Papers laid before Congress, Document No. 227, p. 617. “ No state
1 ie Union,” says the Report of the Commissioners of the State of Mississippi, “ is more deeply injured by an expanded currency than Mis-
The price of almost every article is nearly doubled, and in some instances trebled.” In this state, the capital invested in banks had
creased from 950,000 dollars, the capital of one bank, to 75,000,000 dollars in 1839.
4'r8 UNITED
United states of the Union. This sum amounted to 37,468,859
v ' —. dollars, and was to be paid in quarterly instalments. The
last instalment was however deferred for a time, in conse¬
quence of the commercial embarrassments that occurred,
and afterwards, by an act of Congress, indefinitely. The
prudence, forethought, and economy of the American go¬
vernment in the management of its affaire is singularly
conti asted with the reckless improvidence of the mother
country, whose vast debt, increasing for more than a cen¬
tury, now swallows up for interest thirty millions a year,
about two thirds of the whole national revenue. The fol¬
lowing is the state of the American finances for 1837.
STATES.
Expenditures.
Civil and miscellaneous, first three quarters 4 090S- 1
Military, first three quarters  1 iVu’qoo 3 S
Naval, first three quarters ....".r. SS I""
Estimate of above expenditure for the fourth ’ ’ ^
Public debt"for the’ year.’.V.’.V.V.V.’.VS‘00
Redemption of treasury notes for the year.”.’’.‘ft ORQ
Ralanop nn thp 5i 1 ct 7 i ooo
•34,866,987-33
Balance on the 31st of December 1838.'
Total,
•75,294,206-01
On the 1st of January 1837, the balance in
the treasury, exclusive of trust funds and
those belonging to the post-office, was....
The receipts during that year, from all
sources exclusive of the funds aforesaid,
were   
Viz.
Customs 
Lands 
Miscellaneous..
Treasury notes
Dollars.
11,169,290-39
,.6,776,236-52
..1,705,457-47
.2,992,989-15
Dollars.
46,337,688-36
22,643,973-53
Unavailable Funds in 1838.
Deposits with the states 
Due from insolvent banks before 1837.’.’....
Due from banks that suspended payment in
1837, and not payable till 1839.' 
Part of money in the mint 
28,101,644-97
- 1,100,000-00
-2,400,000-00
-...500,000-00
Total
32,101,644-97
From balance on the 31st December 1838,
being 
Deduct total unavailable as above 
.34,866,987-33
32,101,644-97
Ihese, with the balance last mentioned,
constitute an aggregate of. 68,981,661-89
The expenditures during the same year,
exclusive of the trust funds, and those
belonging to the post-office, were 31,815,409-91
Viz.
Civil list, foreign intercourse,
and miscellaneous 5,524,252-76
Military service, including for¬
tifications, Indian affairs,
pensions, arming the mili¬
tia, the Florida war, remov¬
al of the Cherokees and
Creeks, improvement of
rivers and harbours, con¬
structing roads, and build¬
ing armories and arsenals..l9,417,274-44
Naval service, including gra¬
dual improvement and ex¬
ploring expedition ...6,852,059-80
Public debt 21,822-91
I his left in the treasury, on the 1st of Ja¬
nuary 1838, a balance of 37,166,251-98
We subjom the following summary for the first three
quarters of 1838.
Receipts or Means.
Balance on the 1st of January 1838 
Receipts from customs 
Receipts from lands 
Miscellaneous 
Treasury notes issued 
Second and third bonds of United States
Bank of Pennsylvania 
Dollars.
37,166,251-98
,17,478,770-56
..3,136,828-54
 253,431-85
12,716,820-86
4,542,102-22
75,294,206-01
Available^balance remaining 2,765,342-36
Available balance in the treasury 1st January 1841 esti¬
mated at one million and a half of dollars.
1 ne aiticle entitled “ deposits with the states” is the sur¬
plus revenue that was distributed among the several states.
Hie United States are entirely free from the grievance of
internal taxes, the public revenue being wholly derived
from the customs and the sale of public lands. The post-
office merely defrays its own expense.
Besides the public debt of theUnited States, several states
of the Union have incurred debts for money laid out on rail¬
roads, canals, banking schemes, and public institutions of
every description. In 1835 these debts were estimated at
sixty millions of dollars; and they have since been greatly
increased. Of the amount raised from ] 835 to 1838, about
forty millions of dollars were appropriated to the establish¬
ment of banks, and about sixty-eight millions to works of
internal improvement. In many cases the funds have been
judiciously laid out, and will make a suitable returnbut in
other cases they will not yield a revenue sufficient for the
lepairs of the canals or railroads on which they have been
expended, and for the payment of interest. When there are
no adequate auxiliary funds, taxation must be resorted to
for upholding the credit of the state. The Pennsylvania
legislature has already agreed to the imposition of taxes, if
no adequate funds accrue from other sources; and it is not
doubted that all the other states will follow this example,
and join in upholding the credit of the state bonds, which
now form an article of traffic in the money markets of
Europe. The following table, taken from the American
Almanac for 1840, contains an account of the total amount
of stock issued and authorized to be issued by each of the
eighteen states where this mode of raising money has been
resorted to. It is partly founded on the Annual Report for
1839, of the comptroller appointed under the general bank¬
ing law passed in 1838, to inquire into the amount of the
public debt in all the states, which was stated in that Re¬
port at 123,703,750 dollars, and partly on information de¬
rived from the state laws, which have been carefully ex¬
amined, though it is probable that the aggregate amount
of stock authorized by all the states is even greater than
the amount stated in the table.
Mter'‘ “> Financial Poaiiion and Cdi. „f the Siatc, of ,h. North A„„ic.n Union, chap.
UNITED STATES
;d
*• Statement of the Amount of Stocks and Bonds issued, and authorized hy Statute to he issued, by the several States named
^ ofZttmt!9 ^ W WUCl 6(101 ^ C°mmenced lssuin9 Stock, the object for which i/was issued, and the Raff
479
United
States.
Maine 
Massachusetts.
Year.
New York.
Pennsylvania.
Maryland.
Virginia.
South Carolina.
Alabama.
Louisiana..
Tennessee.
Kentucky.
Ohio...„...
Indiana.
Illinois.
Missouri....
Mississippi.
Arkansas....
Michigan.
1830
1837
1823
1821
1824
1820
1820
1823
1824
1833
1834
1825
1832
1831
1837
1831
1830
1830
For what object issued.
! Insane Hospitals, Primary Schools, ~)
Bounty on Wheat, and General f
( Expenditures 3
Loans to Railroads 
For Canals 
... Canals 
- Lent to Hudson and Delaware Canal
Loans to Railroads 
To River Navigation 
General Fund Debt ....".
Astor Stock  
For Canals 
... Railroads 
... Turnpikes and Bridges 
... Miscellaneous 
f Medical University 
' Penitentiary 
Tobacco Inspection 
1 For Railroads 
... Canals 
Washington Monument 
Expense of Riots 
lor Canals and River Navigation....
.. Railroads  
.. Turnpikes 
I ... Revolutionary Debt 
t ... War Debt of 1814 
f Public Improvements 
I To Mrs Randolph 
-1 Cincinnati and Charleston Railroad..
i To re-build Charleston 
[Revolutionary Debt 
f For Banking 
1 ... Railroad 
f For Banking 
... Railroad 
J New Orleans Draining Company 
1 Heirs of Jelferson * 
Charity Hospital 
[State House   
f For Banking 
J ... Turnpikes 
1 Railroads and Turnpikes 
[improving Rivers 
f For Banking 
1 ... Improving Rivers by Locks, &c.
I ... Turnpikes and Macadam Roads.
[ ... Railroads 
For Canals   
For Banking 
... Canals  
... Railroads 
... Macadam Turnpikes 
_ ... River Navigation 
For Banking 
... Railroads   
... Canals 
... Payment of State Debt 
... River Navigation, &c  
For Banking 
For Banking   
For Banking   
Controversy with Ohio  
Internal Improvements,  
Lent to Railroads    
State Penitentiary  
University.,     
Per Cent.
5, 53, & 6
5
(i
5
5
4-1- & 5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5 & 6
5 & 6
5
5
t 5|, & 6
6
7
5 & 6
6
5
5
3
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
5
5 & 6
5 & C
5
5
5
Amount for each object.
Dollars.
554,97600
4,290,000-00
548,000-00
11,968,674-41
800,000-00
3,787,700-00
10,000-00
586,532-43
561,500 00
16,576,527 00
4,964,484 00
2,595,992-00
3,166,787 00
30,000-00
97,947-30
78,000-00
5,500,000-00
5,700,000-00
10,000-00
77,033-43
3,835,350-00
2,128,900-00
354,800-00
24,03900
319,000-00
1,550.000.00
10,000-00
2,000,000-00
2,000,000-00
193,770 12
7,800,000 00
3,000,00000
22,950,000 00
500,000-00
50,000-00
10,000 00
125,000-00
100,00000
3,000,000-00
118,166-66
3,730,000-00
300,00000
2,000,000-00
2,619,000-00
2,400,000-00
350,000 00
6,101,000-00
1,390,000 00
6,700,000-00
2,600,000-00
1,150,000 00
50,00000
3,000,000 00
7,400,000.00
500,00000
100,000 00
600,000-00
2.500,000-00
7,000,000-00
3,000,000.00
100,00000
5,000,000 00
120,000-00
20,000 00
100,000-00
Total.
Dollars.
554,976-00
4,290,000-00
- 18,262,406-84
27,306,790-00
11,492,980-73
- 6,662,089-00
' 5,753,770 12
10,800,000 00
- 23,735,000-00
r 7,148,166-66
7,369,000-00
6,101,000-00
- 11,890,000 00
11,600,000 00
2,500,000-00
7,000,000-00
3,000,000-00
- 5,340,000-00
IfseLthie ^T1 the am0Unt dcl,osited b? t!le United States in the treasuries of the i7WU79‘33
seteral states for sate keeping j 28,101,644-97
It makes the aggregate debt of all the states, existing and authorized 
198,907.824-32
480
Army.
UNITED STATES.
United
States.
The free spirit of the Americans, and still more their par- The American militia are under the charge of the state go. fc
simonlous S>its in public matters, make them averse to vernments. They generally rf not universally elect their t.„
the°existence of a large standing army. In this, as in some own officers, and are said to be very indifferently
European^states^toif far.^There^no'danger^ldierty °n '''The naval branch of the service became extremelypopn-j,,.
a freePs“te from a standing armv which U collected from lar, from the exploits which it performed during the last „r;
die great body of the people,’deeply imbued from the and in 1816 Congress appropriated a million of dollar,for
, . , &reHl > A r, .11Q * • -i. nf frpprlom and eisrht years to increase the navy. The grant was af'ter-
nauTespectsamos't unfit instrument of tyrants. In Great wards reduced to 500,000 dollars, and continued till 1826,
Britain, fhe old constitutional jealousy of a standing army The following statement is given of the strength of the
has been long exploded ; and there is even less reason for navy in August 1839.
jealousy on this subject in the democratical states of Ame
; besides, that regular troops can be effectually opposed
only by regular troops ; and, in the present condition of the
world, the state which denudes itself of efficient defensive
weapons may be said to court disaster and disgrace. I o
supply the want of a small number of regular troops by
masses of raw militia six times as numerous, who leave their
homes under great personal and pecuniary sacrifices, is not
economy, but the reverse; to say nothing of the certain
defeat and disgrace to which such a force is subjected in its
conflicts with a veteran enemy, and the humiliations which
these produce to national feeling. After the close of the
late war, the Congress, by act of 3d March 1815, fixed the
strength of the regular army at 9980 men ; but it was after¬
wards reduced, and its actual strength, as reported to Con-
yress in March 1822, was,
Ships of the line 3
7
1
Guns.
74 Frigates.
80
120
Guns.
■ 1 54
14 44
2 36
11
17
Schooners  8
Steam ships ^sniall).... 2
Engineers.
23
Four regiments of artillery.  1977
Seven regiments of infantry  3367
Ordnance men    ^3
5420
It has however been again increased, and the following
is the general return, as stated by the adjutant-general, No¬
vember 1838.
General staff.  57
Medical department -  83
Pay department  19
Purchasing department 
Corps of engineers '  43
Topographical engineers  36
Ordnance department  323
Two regiments of dragoons  1,498
Four regiments of artillery  3,020
Eight regiments of infantry  7,496
Total  12,539
The army is distributed at about fifty posts and places
along the sea-coast and inland frontier. The pay of a
colonel of infantry is seventy-five dollars (L.16. 10s.) per
month, and six rations a day ; of a captain, forty dollars and "‘7 7 ”7., 'ths.t ;' a large
three rations; of a first lieutenant, thirty dollars and three overturns these airy fabrics, and , ’jve t0 Je
of a sergeant, eight dollars and one ration ; of a society, the election of a monaich can ne 2 ^
five dollars and one ration. The Americans have wisest or to the most numerous part of the people.
Sloops of war  20
Brigs  4
The expense of the naval service in 1837 was 6,854,059
dollars ; and in the first three quarters of the year 1838 it
was 4,325,563 dollars.
The navy is managed by a board of three commissioners
and a secretary. A small tax of twenty cents per month
is paid by all officers and seamen, both in the navy and mer¬
chant service, for the relief of sick and disabled mariners,
part of whom are lodged in hospitals.
The great distinction of the American government is,Govi
that the first magistrate is chosen by the people, solely on men
account of his fitness for the office. In an hereditary mo¬
narchy, the same office descends from father to son, without
regard to fitness. He who is in the line of succession ob¬
tains the throne, though he may be a minor or an infant, or
however otherwise unfit for its great duties. This distinc¬
tion of birth has been adopted in all the modern kingdoms
of Europe, as the best security against rival claims, and the
danger of a disputed succession. The illustrious historian of
Rome observes, that of “ all the various forms of government
which have prevailed in the world, an hereditary monarchy
seems to present the fairest scope for ridiculea nation
being handed down like a drove of cattle to an infant son,
and the “bravest warriors and wisest statesmen” approach¬
ing the roval cradle with bended knees and protestations
of inviolable fidelity. Still, however, he adds, that though
“ satire and declamation may paint these obvious topics in
the most dazzling colours, our serious thoughts will respect
a useful prejudice, which establishes a rule of succession in¬
dependent of the passions of mankind....In the cool shade
of retirement,” he continues, “ we may easily devise imagi¬
nary forms of government, in which the sceptre shall be
constantly bestowed on the most worthy, by the free and
incorrupt suffrage of the whole community. Experience
rations :
private,
a well-conducted military academy at West Point, on the truth of these eloquent observations and their agmemst
- ~ ~ with all previous experience, could not nave oeeu 4^
Hudson, where 230 cadets, between the ages of fourteen
and twenty-one, are instructed in the branches of knowledge
necessary to form engineers. The period of service is five
years, and the expense for each pupil is about 500 dollars
per annum. But the chief military force of the United
States is the militia, consisting properly of all the males
tioned at'the time the historian wrote. The ancient -
mocracies of Greece and Home presented one contmu
scene of violence and disorder; they were bold but ru
the
sketches of civil freedom, and they shine as meteors *n
- j(H
page of history; but the proper materials were wanting
between eighteen and forty-five, but always less or more the nice machinery ot a popular govei ^b
deficient. A return made to Congress in February 1839 were fierce and ignorant; they would no su. , yj to-
makes the number amount to 1,350,805. When called out of the law ; and those rude constitutions, loosely >
qular gether, perished amid the popular conflicts to wma, '
During the elective monarchy or Kome
to the field they have the same allowances as the rew
army, and their period of service is limited to six months.
gave
> Warden, iii. 402, &c. Niles’s Reeiiter, 16tli and 30th March 1822 ; and American Papers.
2 G bbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. vii.
i^
UNITED STATES.
lied cceeded, how often was the crown the prize of successful
Apt. jlence. Nor can the remark of the Roman historian, that
J o the firm establishment of this idea (namely, the here-
i ary principle), we owe the peaceful succession and mild
ministration of European monarchies,” well be questioned,
i the face of our own experience twice during the last cen-
t y, of a disputed succession to the crown, and two civil wars
i Great Britain.
’opular election, however, if it lead to faction and disorder,
j ver fails to insure an able government, as the hereditary
j nciple is as certainly a source of v/eakness. When the
j )p!e have a free choice, they will always prefer merit to
tmerit; capacity for service becomes in this manner a
I isport to honour and distinction, and ability is secured
f the business of the state. The great men who ruled in
(eece and Rome almost invariably justified the choice of
t: people; their genius shone alike in war and policy, and
t1 conquest of the world attested the wisdom of their
cincils. Still, if the elective principle, an ever-living
s. rce though it be of energy, give rise to violence and dis-
d er, it must be sacrificed to peace, the greatest of all bless-
ii s. We cannot make use of an agency, however power-
f which we cannot control. But in America they had
n choice; they could not possibly have established a
h editary government, and hence they were driven upon
ti critical experiment of a republic. That experiment
h rever has succeeded. The great political principle of
p nilar election has been found to be compatible with
a the great ends of government; and the election of a
si reme ruler takes place every four years, without the least
ds urbance. The system therefore no longer answers to
tl description of the Roman historian; it is not an imagi-
n yformof government, an airy fabric which experience
o rthrows; it has been sanctioned by experience, and
h been found to combine liberty and every civil right with
g:d order and peace, while it admits no principle that
c; impair the native vigour of a pure democracy.
"he legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting
o Senate and a House of Representatives. The senate is
c| iposed of two members from each state, chosen for six
y rs, by the respective state legislatures, and the seats of
0 third are vacated every two years. A senator must
h thirty years of age, an inhabitant of the state for which
h is chosen, and he must have been a citizen of the Unit-
e States for nine years. The members of the House of
I iresentatives are chosen every second year, by the people,
it jie proportion of one for every 40,000 inhabitants, exclud-
h the Indians, and twro fifths of the people of colour. The
e 'tors being the same as for the most numerous branch
0 tl'6 state legislature, the right of suffrage may be de-
Sl as universal. A representative must be an inhabit-
ii of the state for which he is chosen, twenty-five years
0 ge, and he must have been seven years a citizen of the
UNIVERSAL, something that is common to many
t: igs; or it is one thing belonging to many or all things.
JN1VERSALS. See Metaphysics.
UNIVERSE, a collective name, signifying the whole
world; or the assemblage of heaven and earth, with all
that they contain. See Astronomy and Geography.
481
United States. No law can be passed without the concur¬
rence of both houses. When that is obtained, it is pre¬
sented to the president, who, if he approves, signs it; if not,
he returns it, with his objections, for the reconsideration of
Congress, and it cannot in that case become a law without
the concurrence of two thirds of the members. The execu¬
tive power is vested in a President, who is elected for four
years, by a number of electors chosen for the purpose by
the people, distinct from the senators and representatives
whom each state sends to Congress, but equal to them in num¬
ber. The president must be a native citizen of the United
States, and not under thirty-five years of age. His salary
is 25,000 dollars (L.5500) per annum.
The Congress has power to impose taxes and duties to
pay the debts and provide for the defence of the republic;
to borrow money; to regulate commerce; to establish uni¬
form laws of bankruptcy and naturalization ; to coin money,
and fix the standard of weights and measures; to establish
post-offices; to constitute tribunals; to declare war, raise
and support an army and navy; to call out the militia,
and to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining it.
The president is commander-in-chief of the army, navy,
and the militia, when in active service. By and with the
advice of the senate (two thirds concurring), he makes
treaties, and nominates ambassadors, ministers, consuls, and
judges.
The federal judiciary consists of the Supreme Court
(formed of a chief judge and six associate judges), which
sits at Washington, and a District Court in each state, in
which one judge sits. The chief justice has 4000 dollars a
year, an associate judge 3500, and a district judge from 800
to 2000. The supreme court, deriving its authority from
the constitution, is not bound by the proceedings of the
legislature farther than they are consistent with that charter.
It has, accordingly, set aside several acts of the state legis¬
latures, and even of Congress itself, on the ground that they
contravened an express provision of the constitution, by
annulling or impairing the validity of contracts. The laws
of the United States are substantially the same with the
laws of England, but differently modified in each state by
causes springing out of the physical, moral, and political
situation of the people.
There is no national church in the United States; each
congregation pays its own minister, and each sect regulates
its own concerns. Notwithstanding this, wherever the po¬
pulation is dense, the means of religious instruction are as
ample as in any country in Europe. It is computed that
there are above 8000 churches, or religious societies, of
which about 3000 belong to the Baptists, 2000 to the Me¬
thodists, 1200 to the Congregationalists, 900 to the Pres¬
byterians, 600 to the Episcopalians, and* a small number to
the Catholics, Dutch Lutherans, Universalists, and other
sects.
United
States.
3 E
’°L. XXI.
t
482
UNIVERSITIES.
UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS.
The subject of this article may be conveniently divided
into two parts ; the first embracing Universities, and the
second Schools. In treating of the former, it has been
deemed the most satisfactory method to present a view of
some of the oldest and most celebrated of the continental
universities, and to subjoin a short account of the origin,
progress, and present condition of those of Great Britain
and Ireland. An opportunity will thus be afforded of view¬
ing the higher education in its infancy, of observing the
improvements which have at various times been introduced,
and of forming an estimate of it after it has been in opera¬
tion for nearly seven centuries. The space to which we are
necessarily restricted prevents us from doing more than
stating the principal facts: the subject, if treated in detail,
would extend much beyond the limits within which it must
be comprised in a work like this.
PART I.—UNIVERSITIES.
University (Universitas) has been defined “a univer¬
sal school, in which are taught all branches of learning, or
the four faculties of 1 heology, Law, Medicine, and the
Arts, and in which degrees are conferred in these faculties.”
This we believe to be the meaning most commonly attach¬
ed to the word university ; and as it is palpably incorrect,
it will be necessary for us to endeavour to point out its true
signification. Like many other terms of extensive applica¬
tion, it has undergone various modifications of meaning, till
its origin and primary use seem to have been utterly for¬
gotten. By the nations of modern Europe, it has been ap¬
plied to the highest seminaries of learning in their respec¬
tive countries, whether these embraced “ the whole circle
of the sciences,” or were limited to one or two faculties;
and we accordingly find that the idea attached to the word
varies in extent and comprehensiveness with the institution
to which it is applied. Those who have formed their notion
of the word merely from the English universities, commonly
suppose that a university “ necessarily means a collection
and union of colleges; that it is a great corporation, embo¬
dying in one the smaller and subordinate collegiate bodies.”
The author of “ A Reply to the Calumnies of the Edin¬
burgh Review,”1 asserts that “ the university of Oxford is
not a national foundation. It is a congeries of foundations,
originating, some in royal munificence, but more in private
piety and bounty. They are moulded, indeed, into one
corporation; but each one of our twenty colleges is a cor¬
poration by itself.” The inaccuracy of this opinion will
appear from our account of that distinguished seminary. It
is indeed sufficiently refuted by the fact, that many uni¬
versities exist in which there are no colleges. This is the
case with most of the German universities ;2 and in the
Scotish universities there are no foundations which bear any
resemblance to the English colleges. Edinburgh, though
called a college, is merely a university, and has nothing in im
common with the English meaning of the term college; and i
the colleges at St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, are cor-'s*
porations chiefly endowed for the principals and professors,
and not for the students. Trinity College, Dublin, is a col¬
lege with the privileges of a university, possessing however a
munificent endowment for the provost, fellows, and scholars.
It is important, besides, to bear in mind, that the universi¬
ties of Oxford and Cambridge existed before a single col-
lege was endowed; and that the universities would con¬
tinue to exist, with all their rights and privileges unimpaired,
even if the property of all the colleges were confiscated,
and their buildings levelled with the7 * ground.3 Another
error, that universities were so called because they professed
to teach universal learning, though maintained by men of
such erudition as Mosheim,4 Tiraboschi, and Dr Wadding.
ton,5 and assented to by Mr Hallam,6 is a mere quibble
upon the word. The university of Paris, as well as Oxford
and Cambridge, existed at first only in the faculty of arts;7
Salerno and Montpellier contained the single faculty of me¬
dicine ; and even Bologna was celebrated for 200 years as
a school of law, before it contained any provision for lec¬
tures in theology. The teaching of the civil law was
prohibited in Paris from 1220 till 1679; and other re¬
markable instances might easily be adduced, in which
the study of particular faculties was forbidden in particu¬
lar universities. It is true that most of the modern uni¬
versities embrace the “ whole circle of learning,” as con¬
tained in the four faculties of the arts, theology, law, and
physic; but this was not the case in the twelfth century,
when the term universities was first applied to academical
institutions.
University, in its proper and original meaning, denotes
the whole members of an incorporated body of persons,
teaching and learning one or more departments of know¬
ledge. The word universitas, in the technical language of
the civil law, was used to signify a plurality of persons as¬
sociated for a continued purpose, and may be inadequately
rendered by society, company, corporation. In the language
of the middle ages, it was applied either loosely to any un¬
derstood class of persons, or strictly to the members oi a
municipal incorporation, or the members of a general simy-
In this application, it was used to denote either the whole
body of teachers and learners, or the whole body of learners,
or the whole body of teachers and learners divided either
by faculty, or by country, or both together; its meaning
being determined by the words with which it was con
nected. In the fourteenth century, the terms
et schoiarium, and the like, which "had hitherto been joint
with universitas, were discontinued, and the word came o
be used simply by itself, or in combination with swww. or
studium generate ;9 as universitas studii Oxoniensis, ran-
siensis, &c. In ecclesiastical language, the _term was re-
quently applied to a number of churches united under ^
superintendence of one archdeacon, and to the co ege
canons in a cathedral. It is thus used of the bo y°
1 Commonly ascribed to Dr Copleston, late provost of Oriel College, Oxford, and now bishop of Llandaff. Oxford, t®7®’ ii. chap.'•
2 Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 403. 3 Malden on the Origin of Universities, pp. 11 and 12. -on note
a History of the Church, p. 469. 6 Introduction to the literature of Europe, i. 20, note.
7 Edin. Rev. No. 121, p 218. Malden, p. 5. Bulan Historia Universitatis Pansiensis, i. 275. i in the twelfth and
8 The oldest word for an unexclusive institution of higher education, was studium and studium generate, terms emp oy yus taught, but
thirteenth centuries, and retained in those which followed. The latter term, like universitas, did not mean origina y petri Greg0^
that ichat was taught, was taught to all; “ generalitas ad universitatem non pertinet scientiarum, sed adpuhhcam causam aocena .
Tholosani De llepublica lib. xviii. c. i. sect. 87, as quoted in Edin. Rev. No. 121, p. 217. _ , „ . ^ ,21 pp. 215, 216,
9 The substance of this account of the word university is taken from an elaborate article m the Earn urg evl ’ ' fo]]0>vin» artk^'
and 217. To this article, and to two others apparently from the same pen, we have been largeiy indebte mcompi mg
UNIVERSITIES.
ic- ms of the church of Pisa, in a papal rescript of the
u >ar 688and from such a body the transition was easy to
—'■e masters and scholars of a seminary of education.2
The period when universities were first established, can-
>t be precisely ascertained. Previously to the age of
harlemagne, Europe had sunk into the grossest barbarism,
consequence of the migrations of the northern and east-
n tribes, and the devastating wars which followed in their
tin. This monarch merits the praise of having zealously
deavoured to promote the cultivation of literature and
ience throughout his vast empire. At his accession, we
, e assured that no means of education existed in his domi-
i jns; and in order to restore in some degree the spirit of
I ters, he was compelled to invite strangers from countries
i icre learning was not so thoroughly extinguished.3 Among
nse who repaired to his court, were Alcuin of England, Cle-
i ?ntof Ireland, and Theodulf of Germany, men w hose zeal
i :,s not inferior to that of the enlightened monarch. With
t; help of these, he established schools in different cities of
1 empire; and all the power and influence of the court were
(jiployed in forwarding his patriotic endeavours to diffuse
fjne portion of education among his subjects.
By an imperial enactment, it was ordained that the
I hops should erect schools contiguous to their churches,
\ ile the monks were enjoined to establish them in their
r nasteries ;4 and the imperial court, as it moved from
f ce to place, watched and rewarded the progress of science
i all the seminaries of the empire.5 The impulse thus
g en to literature, though checked by the sloth and igno-
r ice of the monks and canons of the tenth century, w^as
r/er altogether destroyed: the cathedral and monastic
s ools afforded the means of education, such as it was, to
t young men who were destined for the church ; and
c ing the two succeeding centuries, “ w hat learning there
v 5, and what scientific men there were, were contained in,
a 1 proceeded from their walls.”6 By degrees, the light
c science, which had been so long obscured, began to
s ne more brightly ; teachers, whose genius and erudition
e ihled them to overstep the narrow circle to which they
1 1 themselves been restricted, arose in various places ;
a l wherever an Anselm or an Abelard opened his school,
1 lectures were attended by crowds of admiring listeners.7
e success of one teacher invited others to the same field
C abour, and the large numbers of scholars who frequent-
£ the auditory of an admired expounder of some new or
f aurite question of scholastic logic or divinity, afforded
a ale room for the exertion of their talents and ingenuity.
1 tvas in this manner that particular schools obtained a
p manent celebrity, and that those associations of teachers
" e formed, which were afterwards recognised by the civil
a ecclesiastical power, and dignified with the name of
' ivcrsities.
(( ^ ^le oldest universities of Europe,” says Mr Malden,8
’rung up in the twelfth century, and were formed by the
z and enterprise of learned men, who undertook to de-
J > public instruction to all who were desirous of hearing
1 >'• I he fir§t teachers soon found assistants and rivals:
j5 ents resorted in great numbers to the sources of know-
1 ;e thus opened to them ; and from this voluntary con-
C| rse teachers and learners, the schools arose, which
" e afterwards recognised as public bodies, and entitled
universities,9 and which served as models for those which, int. .
in later times, were founded and established by public au- tion!
thority. Some of the oldest universities had traditions of
their foundation at a more remote period by royal or impe¬
rial authority, and these traditions might be nominally true ;
but as far as their real life, and power, and distinctive cha¬
racter are concerned, their origin was in fact spontaneous,
and is to be ascribed to the general excitement which per¬
vaded Europe in the twelfth century.”
The oldest of the European universities were those of
Paris and Bologna ; the former for several centuries so ce¬
lebrated as a school of theology as to be designated the
“ first school of the church,” and the latter equally famous
for the study of Roman jurisprudence. Of these two semi¬
naries, as forming the models on which the other universi¬
ties which subsequently sprung up in various parts of
Europe were established, it will be necessary for us to give
a somewhat detailed account. Omitting altogether the
question of priority, we shall begin with the university of
Paris, because we believe its claim to precedence on the
ground of antiquity to be equally well founded with that of
its rival, and because its form and constitution were in a
great measure adopted by the founders of the two great
English universities.
UNIVERSITY OF PARIS.
The commencement of this famous university is not re¬
corded.10 Tradition has assigned its origin to Charlemagne,
and it is consequently referred to the beginning of the ninth
century; but this opinion rests on no distinct evidence, and
has been rejected by all recent writers who have examined
the subject. Among the schools which the great emperor
of the west established, it is doubtful whether we can reckon
that of Paris; and though there are some traces of public
instruction in that city about the end of the ninth century,
it is not certain that we can assume it to be more ancient.
For two hundred years more, it can only be said that some
persons appear to have come to Paris for the purposes of
study ;u but the history of the school is very obscure, and,
according to Mr Hallam, “ it would be hard to prove an
unbroken continuity, or at least a dependence and connex¬
ion of its professors.” From the beginning of the twelfth
century, Paris became the resort of learned men, who at¬
tached themselves in some degree to the existing schools,
and infused new life into them by delivering public lectures
on scholastic theology. One of these was William of
Champeaux, who opened a school of logic in 1109, which
is remarkable as the era from which alone the university
can deduce the regular succession of its teachers.12 This
celebrated dialectitian, whose fame attracted crowds of
pupils, was eclipsed by his disciple, afterwards his rival and
adversary, Peter Abelard, to whose brilliant and hardy
genius the university appears to be indebted for its rapid
advancement as a seminary of school-divinity.13 One
of Abelard’s pupils was Peter Lombard, afterwards arch¬
bishop of Paris, whose Liber Sententiarum, a digest of pro¬
positions extracted from the fathers, obtained the highest
authority among the scholastic disputants. These and
some other less distinguished preceptors first gave per¬
manency to the future university.14
483
Dyer’s Privileges of the University of Cambridge, vol. i. p. 384.
Da ,en’p Jjyer s Privileges ot the University ot CJambi
yer s History of the University of Cambridge, vol. i. p. 139. 3 Hallam’s Europe during the Middle Ages, vol. iii. p. 520.
onnngius de Antiquitatibus Academ. Dissertat. i. sect. 43, and iii. sect. 5, with the Supplements.
S tnngtQn s Literary History of the Middle Ages, p. 153. 6 Berington, p. 230. Henry’s History of Great Britain, vol. iii. p. 441.
‘‘ am s Mid. Ages, iii. 522. Conringius, Dissert, i. sect. 45. 8 Origin of Universities, p. 2.
Sl ]rTUaS so'a sc16eet doctorum hominum studia colentium dooentiumque celebritas olim fecit.” Itterus de Gradibus Academicis, cap. iv.
j, j. 10 Hallam’s Introduction to the Literature of Europe, vol. i. p. 10.
ytam, utsnp,, where reference is made to Crevier’s Histoire de 1’Univ. de Paris, t. i. 13-75.
Hall,
P . s.Lit- of Europe, i. 19. Crevier, i. 3.
onnngius, Dissert, iii. sect. 17. Suppl. xlvi.
13 Hallam’s Mid. Ages, ut supra. Berington’s Mid. Ages, p. 286.
UNIVERSITIES.
The learning communicated in this ancient school, as in
others of the same age, was comprised in two courses, call¬
ed the Trivium and Quudrivium, terms employed from a
very early age1 to denote the seven liberal arts or sciences.
The first course comprehended grammar,logic, and rhetoric;
the second, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.
It may easily be imagined, that in the tenth and eleventh
centuries, the extent of learning comprehended under these
seven heads was not very great; but small as it was, not
many scholars proceeded beyond the 1 rivium, and the
student who mastered both courses was looked upon as a
person of profound erudition,
Qui tria, qui septem, qui omne scibile novit.2
The university, as a corporate body, had as yet no ex¬
istence ; and the teachers, on whom its reputation rested,
delivered their lectures in Paris and its neighbourhood, or
wherever the prospect of success invited them. It con¬
sisted entirely of a congeries of schools, partly in connec¬
tion with the churches and monasteries, and partly formed
by the celebrity of literary adventurers. The number
of these schools in the middle of the twelfth century
was great;3 encouragement produced masters, and able
masters increased the number of scholars. The continu¬
ally increasing number of teachers and students rendered
it expedient to establish in the university some form of go¬
vernment to maintain the regularity and discipline neces¬
sary to its permanent success; and it accordingly appears
to have been incorporated into a society toward the end
of the twelfth century.4 * Matthew Paris informs us, that
John de la Celle, elected abbot of St Albans in 1195,
had studied at Paris, and had been elected into the com¬
pany or body of established teachers.6
The antiquity of the different component parts of the
university is involved in great uncertainty. The faculty of
arts, which is acknowledged as the most ancient, appears
to have existed at a very early period, and had assumed a re¬
gular form of self-government before the year 1169. In this
year Henry II. of England offered to refer the adjustment
of his dispute with Becket to the peers of France, the Gal¬
ilean church, or the provinces (nations) of the school of
Paris.6 The head or rector of the university is named in
an ordinance of Philip Augustus in 1206 ; the procurators
of the nations (procuratores nationuni) in 1218; the faculty
of theology existed as a separate body in 1267 ; the facul¬
ties of the canon law and medicine in 1281 ; the rights of the
chancellor of Notre Dame were exercised in 1169.7 The
oldest public documents extant which have reference to
the Parisian school are two decrees of Pope Alexander
III., the first in 1180, directed against the practice, whichO
had been introduced by the chancellor, of exacting fees for 4
licenses to teach ; and the second, of nearly the same date
relieving Peter Comestor, who was then chancellor, from
this prohibition.8 The practice of receiving fees seems
to have been revived ; for when Innocent III. in 1215, by
his legate Robert de Counjon, regulated the institutions of
the university, he found it necessary to renew the ordi¬
nance that nothing should be given to the chancellor for
granting licenses.9 This ordinance, according to Savigny,1*
is remarkable as being the first in which the term univer¬
sity (universitas) is applied to the school of Paris; thereby
implying the recognition and sanction of the university by
the papal see, a sanction which was especially valuable
and even indispensable to its continued existence, when
theology had become its leading study and its distinguish¬
ing characteristic.11 Pope Nicholas IV., towards the end
of the thirteenth century, conferred upon the university the
additional privilege that the doctors who were there ap¬
proved should everywhere have the power of teaching, lec¬
turing, and directing schools (docendi, legendi, regendi),
and should enjoy the privileges and rank of doctors through¬
out Christendom. Philip Augustus, by his ordinance of
1200,12 13 granted to the university exemption from the ordi¬
nary tribunals, even from those of the church; prohibited
the citizens, under the severest penalties, from molesting
the students ; and in the few cases in which the magistrates
of the city were allowed to interfere, they were obliged to
deliver over the culprit to his academical superiors. The
person of the rector of the schools was declared to be sa¬
cred ; and the provost of the city, immediately after his
instalment, was required to wait on the masters and scholars
in full assembly, and in their presence solemnly swear
that he would carefully observe and fulfil the designs of
the ordinance. This ceremony continued to be observed
till 1592. The example of Philip was followed by the
kings of France during the two succeeding centuries, by
whom the privileges and immunities of the university were
still further increased. By various regal enactments, the
masters and scholars were exempted from all taxes imposed
to defray the expenses of war, the king’s court, family, re¬
presentatives, or officers ; from all customs, taxes, or per¬
sonal burdens; were declared not liable to arrest, or to sei¬
zure or sequestration of goods ; and were specially exempted
from being summoned out of Paris in any legal process.'
The popes were not less active in its support. By a letter
of Innocent IV., it was provided that no one should pro-
1 This division of the sciences is ascribed to St Augustin, and was certainly established early in the sixth century. Hallam s Mid. Affes,
Hi. 521. The enumeration answered to the seven cardinal virtues, seven deadly sins, seven sacraments, &c. and was comprehended in these
memorial lines,—
GRAM, loquitur ; DIA. vera docet; RHET. verba colorat;
MUS. canit; AR. numeral; GEO, ponderat; AST. colit astra. .
Rut most of these sciences were scarcely taught at all. The arithmetic, for instance, of Cassiodorus or Capella is nothing but a few de Illi
tions mingled with superstitious absurdities about the virtues of certain numbers and figures. Hallam’s Lit. of Europe, i. 4. Meiner,.
Geschichte der Hohen Schulen, ii. 339. Kiistner, Geschichte der Mathematik, p. 8.
2 This barbarous verse was written in commendation of the learning of Alanus de Insulis, who was one of the most famous scholars n
time, and who, according to Du Boulay, taught theology in Paris in the latter part of the twelfth century. Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. n. 4 ■
Conringius, Suppl. xlvi.
3 Bulaei Hist, Un. Paris, ii. 10. 4 Ibid. ii. 491.^
5 “ Hie in juventute scholarum Parisiensium frequentator assiduus, ad electorum consortium magistrorum meruit attingere.
Hist. Tin. Par. ii. 367. .. ,,,)
8 Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. ii. 365 ; iii. 563. 1 Ibid. Hi. 563 ; Crevier, *n.
8 Savigny, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter, iii. 316, 317. Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. ii. 370.
9 Itterus de Grad. Academ. cap. iv, sect. 22. , jn(j
10 Geschichte, iii. 318. It is addressed Sclwlaribus Parisiensibus. The same name is given to it by Rigord, in his history of t at pf ^
and is assumed by that learned body in a public deed, a. d. 1221. Rigordi Hist. p. 208. “Nos universitas magistrorum et scholanu ,
Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. iii. pp. 25, 52, 60, 105.
11 Malden, p. 10. ,. , some
>2 Phis ordinance was published in consequence of a quarrel between the students *nd the citizens headed by their provost, in w an(j
foreign students of eminence were killed. The masters presented their complaint to the king, demanded justice against the pro ^ ^
his accomplices, and even threatened, with their scholars, to leave the city. The provost was condemned to perpetual imprisonme
provision was made for the future protection and safety of the students. Bulsei Hist. Un. Par, iii. pp. 2 and 3. _ . .
13 Conringius, Dissert, vi, sect. 12 and 15, who quotes the words of the original enactments, from Rebuffi Privilegia Universita.u
UNIVERSITIES.
ulgate a sentence of excommunication, suspension, or in-
•rdict, against the university, or any of its members, with-
it the special license of the apostolic see; and that, if pro-
ulgated, it should be null and void.1
The university of Paris, being thus recognised by the
pe, and encouraged by the fostering care of the kings of
ance, soon became the most distinguished seminary of
liming in Europe, and students resorted to it with an
, gerness for instruction which may well astonish those
mo reflect how little of what we now deem useful could
1 imparted. A more systematic course of study was in-
(iduced; theology and the arts ceased to be the only ob-
j :ts of interest; medicine began to assume the form of a
sence; and the canon law, under the special patronage of
t? church, took its place as a new branch of jurisprudence.
' ie study of the civil law was introduced in the twelfth
t itury, soon after its revival at Bologna, but was prohi-
led by Pope Honorius in 1220; a prohibition which In-
rcent IV. endeavoured to extend to the whole of France,
1 gland, Scotland, and Hungary.2 Some attempts were
ri de to revive it under the authority of the parliament of
I ris in 1568; but the prohibition was renewed, and the
i iversity was not finally relieved from it till the year 1679.3
Te number of students in the twelfth century nearly
t railed that of the citizens, and included individuals from
£ ;ry part of Christendom. A.t the death of Charles VII.
i 1453, it amounted to 25,000 ; and wEen Joseph Scaliger
v ^ a student, it had reached 30,000.4
Having thus traced the university of Paris from its ori-
f to its full establishment, we shall now give a short ana-
1 is of its constitution in the thirteenth and fourteenth
cituries. The most ancient part of the university was
t faculty5 of arts or philosophy, which is believed to have
1 1 a special connection with the church of St Genevieve,
a 1 probably originated in the school attached to that
lurch. The faculty was divided into four nations: 1.
t French nation, including the French, Italians, Span-
i Is, Greeks, &c.; 2. the nation of Picardy7, which in-
t ded the students from the north-east of France, and
a) the Netherlands; 3. the nation of Normandy, com-
I bending those from the west; 4. the English nation
( ter 1430, called the German nation), which, besides
t students from the provinces subject to the English, as
} ctou, Guienne, &c., included the English, Scotish, Irish,
es, Germans, &c. In these nations wrere enrolled the
1 lessors and students from the respective districts, with-
c anY distinction arising from the departments of learning
t >'hich they were devoted.6 This division, as we have
; y see,1> existed in 1169 ; and there is a concordat of
1 our nations respecting the election of a rector in the
) r 1206, which proves that, at that time, their privileges
v e recognised and acted upon.7 Each nation formed an
Sail rn ^Cadfniiarum, &c. lib. vi. p. 367. Colon. Agripp. 1602. Conringius, Dissert, v. sect. 10.
M'C’m’’ i Ite’ll.1- PP- 344> 345, 346. Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect. 18.
ted, and too'inm) ?’I,V,vllIe’ '• PP- 419: 42°- To the cause of this prohibition it is unnecessary to advert. The popes were too quick-
n°' ‘o ,m,m t',“‘ t',e a",hori,y ci,ii "> *>»
M-Crie’s Life of Melville, i. 18. Hallam’s Mid. Ages, iii. 527.
s ‘d of the tear!, i V au UJt olnces 01 pnvnegea corporation, in ttie i renett universities, the faculty con
1 n. Rev. No. 101^,218 bUt 111 * 16 ltalan unlversities it was composed of the teachers and students together. Savigny, Geschiehte, iii. 141
savigny, iii. 326.
Bul;Ei Hist. Un. Par. iii. 564,
7 Savigny, iii. 318. Conringius, Dissert, v. sect. 15
8 Savigny, iii. 334.
injuries cn ^f““J- , Jhey issue<1 the decree which shut up the schools till redress was obtained from the king, for the insults
UbO IT,o' rr 6 i3by t-.yir bot y fr0IU the provost and citizens of Paris. According to Du Boulay, they formed the only governing body
• rust. Un. Par. m. 563. J o j
Tv'5'10"8 ^le" Education in France, p. 16.
id motives f *!']US 111 ^*(' lleacls of ecclesiastical establishments to which schools were attached, was sometimes used, through per-
:ate of AlJxan i Vil SK>n °-fit and able tfc,aclu’rs’ as wel1 as for the purpose of extorting a high price for license to teach. In the pon-
owingyear tl er * D' a Lateran council enacted, “ that every competent person ought to be admitted to teach;” and in the
’. le P°Pe himself issued a decree, containing the following clause: “ Ut quicunque viri idonei et literati voluerint regere stu-
1 literarum ' 11 “'Hiseu issued a decree, containing the iollowing clause: “ Ut qui
IJ Rul».* ai°lc>tia et exactioue qualibet scholas regere permit taut ur.” Conringius
1 ut. Ln. Par. i. 273-276, 385-389 ; iii, 579 ; iv. 391, 589. Conringius, Diss
, Dissert, iv. sect. 24.
Dissert, i. sect. 43.
485
independent body, had its own patron, church, place of
meeting, academical buildings, great and small seal, &c.,1
and managed exclusively its own affairs. At the head of
each was a procurator, elected from their own number,
whose duty it was to defend the rights and privileges of the
nation, to convene and preside in its meetings, swear in
new office-bearers and new members, and to see that all
the acts and statutes were duly observed. The four pro¬
curators, with the rector, originally constituted the ordinary
council of the university, in which its general government
and legislation were vested. Their power extended even
to the infliction of corporal punishment, some examples
of which are mentioned as early as 1200, and in the
fifteenth century they were not infrequent.8 They had
a common seal, and as a corporate body7 were represent¬
ed by the rector.9 Each nation was divided into pro¬
vinces, and each province into dioceses. The names of
the members of each province w7ere enrolled in a register;
and at their head was a dean, chosen by themselves. The
deans formed the ordinary council of the procurator, and
their assent was necessary in every undertaking of impor¬
tance.10
In all the old universities, the chancellor was the foun¬
tain of honour, the officer by whose authority degrees were
conferred; and this dignity brought along with it consi¬
derable power. Each bishop appointed a chancellor within
his own diocese, wdiose office it w7as to preside in the
bishop’s court, and generally to maintain and exercise jus¬
tice within the episcopal territory. After the full estab¬
lishment of monasteries, the abbots claimed the same
power, and created chancellors with similar authority. It
belonged to the bishop and his chancellor to grant licenses
to teach within his own diocese ; and the same power was
claimed and exercised by the abbot and his chancellor
within the territory of the abbey.11 When the university
was placed in an episcopal city, the bishop of the diocese
was very often the chancellor ; and if not the bishop, some
other ecclesiastical dignitary. The university of Paris be¬
ing situate partly within the diocese of Paris, and partly
within the abbey lands of St Genevieve, the power of grant¬
ing license to students and masters was claimed by both.
These chancellors were appointed, the one by his bishop,
and the other by his abbot: the right of the latter extend ¬
ed to granting degrees in the arts only ; that of the former
to degrees in theology, law, and medicine. The chancellor
of the church of St Genevieve was always the chancellor of
the faculty of arts, though the bishop of Paris was the chan¬
cellor of the other three faculties, and was considered as the
chancellor of the university at large. They chose their own
deputies or vice-chancellors, appointed annual examiners
of candidates for degrees, but had no power to interfere in
the internal government of the university.1^
Paris.
486
UNIVERSITIES.
Paris.
The rector appears to have been originally chosen by
the four nations voting collectively; but the number ot
students belonging to the French nation gave it so decided
a superiority, that the other three became dissatisfied, and
at last revolting, elected another rector. To put an end
to this difference, which threatened the prosperity of the
university, and to restore unity and peace, delegates were
appointed, by whose mediation it was agreed, and confirm¬
ed by the seals of the four nations, a. d. 1249, that the
election should in future be vested in the four procurators,
with certain provisions if they were not unanimous.1 After
the year 1280, he was chosen by electors specially appoint¬
ed for the purpose. The rector was eligible from the fa¬
culty of arts only, and continued in office for three months,
when he might be re-elected, or another chosen in his
room. He presided in the general meetings of the uni¬
versity, took charge of the registers and public money,
and administered generally the government of the univer¬
sity.2 Within the city he took precedence, not only of all
the officers and members of the university, but also of bi¬
shops, papal nuncios, and legates.3
Such was the constitution of the university of Paris till the middle
of the thirteenth century. About this time the Dominican and Fran¬
ciscan friars, supported by the pope and the bishop of Paris, succeed¬
ed in establishing the faculty of theology, which, after a strenuous
opposition on the part of the heads of the university, was recognised
in the year 1259.4 Faculties of medicine and the canon law very soon
modelled themselves upon that of theology.5 The three faculties are
separately mentioned in a deliberation which took place in the year
1277, and, four years after, were confirmed in all the rights and pri¬
vileges of the university. At the head of each faculty was a dean,
chosen in the same manner as the procurators of the nations, who
presided in its meetings, and represented the body. From this pe¬
riod, therefore, the school of Paris, which had hitherto consisted of
four bodies, was composed of seven, namely, of four nations and three
faculties, represented respectively in the general council by four pro¬
curators and three deans. To the three new faculties belonged doc¬
tors only. The bachelors and scholars of theology, law, and medicine,
were still included in the four nations of the faculty of arts. The
general government of the university was vested in the council of
seven, with the rector as president. The general assembly, compre¬
hending all the masters, scholars, and officers (pmnes magistri, tam re-
gentes, quam non-regentes), was convened on great and interesting oc¬
casions only ; and general meetings of all the regents were some¬
times held for literary business, for framing statutes respecting
discipline, privileges, and order. The meetings of faculties took
cognizance each of its own members, in matters chiefly of a literary
nature.6
The subordinate officers were, the syndic ; the general procurator
or agent of the university, who appears to have been an occasional
rather than a permanent officer ; and the greffier or recorder, who
was the clerk and assessor. Each nation and faculty had its own
clerk and assessor. There were also two classes of messengers, who
were employed in transacting business of various kinds for the stu¬
dents.7
The university, as a corporation, was always very poor, and never
possessed any public building, but was obliged to hold its meetings in
the houses of the religious orders who were willing to grant the re¬
quisite accommodation.8 The teachers originally delivered their lec¬
tures in such rooms as they could obtain for hire or otherwise. After¬
wards, however, halls or schools for the use of their teachers were
provided by the several faculties. Those of the faculty of arts and
philosophy, which appear to have been very numerous, were in the
Jlue de la Fouarre (vicus Stramineus), and were apportioned among
the nations of the faculty.9
The great concourse of students to the early universities, ren¬
dered it difficult for them to obtain lodgings, and gave rise to er r,
orbitant demands on the part of the townsmen in whose houses ^
they were forced to reside. To remedy this inconvenience, various'"'
expedients were adopted, but with inadequate effect. Frederick II
when he founded the university of Naples, fixed a maximum price for
lodgings, and enacted that they should be let according to a joint va¬
luation of two citizens and two scholars. A similar regulation was
adopted at Bologna, and established about 1237, by Gregory IX in
the university of Paris.10 The taxers were two masters of the uni¬
versity, and two burgesses elected with the consent of the masters
It was also provided that, when lodgings had once been hired the
student should not be disturbed in the possession of them, solonwas
he paid his rent, and conducted himself properly. Notwithstanding
these regulations, the hardships to which the poorer students were
exposed induced charitable individuals to provide houses, in which a
certain number of indigent scholars might be accommodated with
free lodgings during the progress of their studies. The example was
first set by the religious orders, who established in several of the uni¬
versity towns hostels (hospitia') for those of their members who resort¬
ed thither, either as teachers or learners. Free board was soon added
to free lodging, and in many cases small exhibitions or stipends to de¬
fray the necessary expenses of the scholars. For the sake of disci¬
pline, these foundations were placed under the superintendence of
one or more graduates, who assisted and instructed their pupils, but
only in subservience to the public lectures and exercises of the univer¬
sity. Such establishments were called inns, hostels, halls, or colleger,
the last term being generally restricted to foundations which provided
for the support of several graduates. These institutions, at first estab¬
lished on a small scale, led to the foundation of the colleges, which
afterwards formed one of the most important and essential branches of
the university.
Paris was the university in which collegiate establishments were first
founded. Du Boulay11 avers that colleges may be dated as far back as
the university itself; and Crevier, according to Mr Hallam,13 enumerates
fifteen which were founded during the thirteenth century, besides one
or two of a still earlier date. Savigny13 considers the famous college
of the Sorbonne, which was founded by Robert de Sorbonne, con¬
fessor of St Louis, in 1250, as the most ancient in Paris, Crevier
probably included in his enumeration the hospitia established by the
religious orders, which cannot properly be considered as colleges.
During the fourteenth century many new colleges were founded, the most
celebrated of which were those of Navarre and Du Plessis. The former,
which is said sometimes to have contained seven hundred pupils, was
founded by Joanna, queen of Philip the Fair, in 1304; and the latter
by Geoffroi du Plessis, apostolical secretary to Philip V., in 1322.1<
The Collegium Trilingue, or Royal Trilingual College, was founded
by Francis I. in 1529.15
The following account of the Parisian colleges is given by Mr Mal¬
den :16 “ The great colleges of Paris stood on a footing very different
from the colleges of the English universities. They soon became
appropriated to particular faculties, or to particular departments of a
faculty; sometimes, but rarely, they included more than one faculty.
Thus the theological faculty was collected at an early period in the col¬
lege of the Sorbonne; and all its lectures and public disputations took
place there, with the exception of two courses delivered in the college
of Navarre. Regent masters were nominated by the faculties as lec¬
turers in the colleges. These lecturers remained subject to their
several faculties, and were liable to be controlled or removed by them-
Consequently, attendance on their courses was considered as equivalent
to attendance on the public courses delivered in the schools of the
university. The colleges speedily began to admit within their vrals
scholars who were not supported by their foundations; and the college
lectures were ultimately thrown open to the members of other co
leges, and to those scholars of the university who belonged to no co
lege at all. This took place in the course of the fifteenth century.
The lectures in the public schools were thus almost entirely sup”
seded, at least in the faculties of theology and arts; and the colleges
became the instruments of the public instruction of the university
During the latter half of the fifteenth century, the great colleges oi e
faculty of arts, or, as they were called, the colleges ‘de plein exercice,
amounted to eighteen ; although by the middle of the seventeent ce
3 Rebuffi Privilegia Universitatum, p.
Waddington’s History of the Church, pp. 391
Savigny.
I Bulmi Hist. Un. Par. iii. 222. Crevier, i. 372. 2 Savigny, iii. 329.
* Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. iii. 266—360. Meiners, Geschichte der Hohen Schulen, i. 82
5 Bui. iii. 399-456.
6 Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. iii. 557-581, Dissertat. ii. iii. iv. v, vi. 1 Bulcei Hist, ut sup. Crevier, ii. 249.
9 Edin. Rev. No. 100, pp. 400, 401. Malden, p. 31. 12 Middle Ages, iii. 528.
10 Bulaei Hist. Univ. Par. iii. 160. Crevier, Hist. i. 359. 13 Savigny, iii. 328. Bulaei Hist. Un. Par. iii. 223.
II Hist. Un. Par. ii. 463, 467. 14 Bulmi Hist. Un. Par. iv. 191. s ]t
15 Previously to the erection of this college, there was no provision in the university for instructing young men in the learned la0Sua!je'jJlt;n
was originally intended, as its name imports, for teaching Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; although it was some time before a t2.aCiltr
was appointed, owing to the opposition made by the members of the university, which led Erasmus, in one of his letters, to call t em
pedants. M'Crie’s Life of Melville, i. pp. 19, 20. . wjjjch
16 Origin of Universities, p. 34, 35, 36. The substance of the account is taken from the Edinburgh Review, No. 106, p. 400, c.,
reference is made.
—
UNIVERSITIES.
iry they bad fallen to ten. There were about eighty smaller colleges, 1719, the vigour of the univercbv i, • • , o ,
/which more than half still survived in the eighteenth century, which as the emoluments of the lecturerfdepenSd^chfeflv1 o ^ V"?
rovided their scholars with lodging and board, and sometimes with pupils, an honourable and useful oLnlit- H ^ ? the feeS °f t ,elr
nail stipends, but taught them only the elements of philology, send- grid mites, Lding their pup“fsattracKwh 5 bUt ^
g them for all higher learning to the lecturers of the great colleges, the endowed professors, ceised to teach and thfmoi °f
he college of Navarre alone appears to have confined its instruction tive to exertion was thus withdrawn. ’ d ' powerful mo¬
ils own scholars. In this age of the, university it became usual for The process of graduation iha 0,11^ • , «
| the scholars to belong to some college. Those students of the study of grammar and philosophy the schoTaT^becam^I /T yearS'
liversity who were not attached to any college, were known by the that is, he proposed himself, if LL years of age* at kast
,me of martinets. As they were less amenable to discipline than the on trials, in order, after further preparation nht •t’-t
adents of the colleges, the legislation of the university was directed gree of bachelor. The object of tlds proposal bein^ mTd«S ^ ^
ainstthem; and at length it was made imperative on all scholars of was to subject the candidate to certain P • S so early,
“ 'SSZS?.!*-!? 4*- rile rule was not ..ten.i.n K. g.„e‘.l con‘d«T„Z “iXS
tury, the course of study necessary for obtaining the degree of bachelor
CT arts was fhr#ae* xroave A Ca. . .. • _
forced on students of the higher faculties.
The origin of academical degrees, like many other points connected
th the early history of universities, is involved in obscurity. Accord-
t to Du Boulay, degrees were conferred, after a regular examina-
.11. from the very foundation of the university; while others assert
it they were first introduced by Irnerius into the university of Bo¬
rn a about the year 1150, and thence transferred to the Parisian
100I.1 That such distinctions existed at a very early period is un-
estionable, but there is not sufficient evidence to justify us in believ-
r that they were coeval with the earliest universities." The oldest
,rrees were those in arts. The term bachelor,* used as the designa-
i n of the lowest degree in each faculty, which term is said to have been
Jculiar to the feudal or military law of France, seems to warrant the
erence that the whole system of academical honours has been bor-
wed from the university of Paris. The terms master, doctor, were
ginally synonymous, and were designations given in their common
'lining to persons engaged in teaching, and not titles conferred by
1 thority after a prescribed course of study or a formal examination,
process of time the name master was restricted to teachers of the
inlogy, law, and medicine. The term professor, though less fre-
•r*t in early times, had originally the same signification, and denoted
erson who professed to teach a particular subject. In the English
versities the Latin designation of a doctor of divinity still is “ sanctre
l ologi* professor.” Professor is now, in academical language, applied
t'a salaried graduate, either actually employed in teaching, or at least
' osu 11 ‘s to teach. When the masters of particular schools
»>pted regulations, which were afterwards confirmed by public autho-
1 ,10 prevent unqualified persons from assuming their office, the terms
1 ster, doctor, professor, became titles indicating a certain rank, and
< iveying certain powers in the scholastic body. They were still, bow-
< r, confined to persons admitted by competent authority to the office
1 cachers. V hen the titles of doctor and master were distinguished,
; more especially when an initiatory stage was marked by the name
< luchelor, these successive designations were called steps or degrees
( adus).8 Every graduate had an equal right of teaching publicly in
t university the subjects competent to his faculty, and to the rank
1 ns degree ; and he even incurred an obligation to teach as the con-
'i on on which the degree was granted. The bachelor or imperfect
r1 uate was hound to read, under a master or doctor of his faculty, a
c rse of lectures; and the master, doctor, or perfect graduate was, in
manner, after his promotion, obliged to commence (incipere), and
ontinup tor a portion r\A X "L S. \ A »
of arts was three years and a half. After passing the" or JearoFthe
academical examiners, he was conducted by the rector to the chancellor,
w 10 crowned and blessed him. In consequence of passing as a ba¬
chelor he wore a round cap, attended the holy mass, and became a
candidate for the degree of master of arts. He was now required to
devote an equal portion of time, three years and a half, to the study
of philosophy, and, if found qualified, after frequent and severe exami¬
nations, was presented to the chancellor as worthy to receive license
to teach the seven liberal arts. He was then invested with the bonnet,
was publicly and solemnly declared a master of arts, and was at liberty
to commence his career of teaching. But his magisterial character
was not yet complete. He next offered himself a candidate for becom¬
ing nsoems, or fellow of the masters in the university, an honour which
was in the gift of the masters themselves, and by which he was
admitted to the full enjoyment of their society, and of all their nrivi-
leges. r
To obtain the degree of doctor in divinity, it was necessary for the
student to be twenty-five years of age when proposed, and to have
eral art*, and the title of doctor was assumed by the teachers of studied philosophy for sevelTorVhe6 blloTgeTtoTrelil^
mingy, law, and medicine. The term professor, though less fre- for six veers. .r t0a rehS °.MS .h^
for six years. A further probation of nine years was requisite before
he could attain that sacred degree. Two of these years were spent in
the study of the Bible, and two in the study of the system of theoloo'y
contained in the Book of Sentences. Sixteen years were thus spent at
the university in order to become a doctor in divinity. The degree of
doctor was conferred jointly by the chancellor and by the faculty, who
admitted the candidate, with the solemnity of an oath, as a member of
their body, and entitled to their privileges. The time necessary for
acquiring the degree of doctor in law and medicine was shorter, and
the rules were not so strictly observed. In each of these decrees cer¬
tain fees were exigible.6
The students were required to wear a cap and gown of a particular
form, varying with their standing or degrees in the university. The
determiners wore a short black gown with a hood and sleeves, the
bachelors a round cap and long gown of the best black doth or’silk,
and the masters a gown which reached down to their heels.
The revenue of the university seems to have arisen at first entirely
from the fees of the scholars, and from contributions which were occa¬
sionally levied from them. Some of the colleges, however, were richly
endowed from the beginning, for the maintenance both of the scholars
and the masters. Their weekly provision appears to have been very
small. In the college of Navarre, the students of grammar received
t onttnuo f,\T. ,. ,s V'ctperej, anu smau. an me college 01 i\avarre, the students of grammar received
( lie sni • tU^ Peno^ publicly to teach (regere),* some at least each four sous a week, the students of philosophy six sous and the
‘ .lie subjects pertaining to his faculty. The students were ..,11„„..,1 _F.P,y . the
t itose'S Stbutwiie cXr 1 iTht! Xtnis Wr all0Wed tbeol°SianS ei9ht sous- The tea6l>ers respectivd/ received Vdouble
e tnur re0ent, but were expected to attach themselves to some allowance.
m particular. A period of necessary regency, different in different ~ ~ ‘
1 Ve',S‘tleS’ was generally fixed, during which the graduates were
11 to anc* after which they might, if they chose, become
regens. I be regents were allowed to exact from their pupils a
• iim regulated fee (pastus, collectum). The large number of gra-
es who were willing to devote themselves to teaching as a profession,
0 le shortening of the period of necessary regency, and enabled
'1 to whom tear'll inn* wae ^ i. „ .3: .* n •.
Of the other early French universities, the most celebrated was
that of Montpellier, which was constituted by a bull of Pope Nicholas
IV. in 1289, and placed under the superintendence of the bishop of
the diocese. Montpellier was at first only a school of medicine, hut
subsequently embraced also the other faculties. The university was
divided into three nations, and was governed by a rector, el°cted an¬
nually, with the assistance of twelve counsellors, of whom four were
t, ,e to whom te'iciimrr w * V * necessary regency, ana enaotea nuaiiy, witn me assistance ot twelve counsellors, of whom four were
4ies. The re-rents F ]rksoI,ae to obtain a dispensation from its selected from each nation.7 The university of Toulouse was founded
vii e allnweil ! ’eXFpt?n ™,reand extraordinary occasions, by Pope Gregory IX. in 1233, on the model of Paris, and was not
4 e allowed 'teftake nFrFFPt ext1raordinary occasions, by Pope Gregory IX. in 1233, on the model of Paris, and was not
il tersitv Tl , P 1 ,■ le8ls,atlon and government of the much inferior to the pattern institution in success and celebrity. It
^ Petim.r!g/ntS7ereU^tl,1lateliyvUrierjeded by the institution early acquired fame as a school of law. The university of Orleans
ecturers (professoresY who debvereH    was established in 1307, and was occupied chiefly in the study of law.
The students were at first divided into ten nations.
' r .1. • 1 1 1 ae re8ent* were ultimately superseded by the institu
t n. 'F ecturers (professores), who delivered their instructions gra-
s 7- rom the period of this innovation, which took place
Bulan Hist. Un. Par. ii. 674, &c. Dissert, vii.
^ablv dlrhFl t'fgree o{bacJlelors >s said to have been first instituted by Gregory IX., whose pontificate continued from 1227 to 1241. They
titles of the "c?,6 <r°,n?. bactllat a««le staves), either because they were admitted by receiving a little wand, or because they adopted
•i bus chevalier ii? 1 m soltJ,er>’.’ wh® exercised with sticks, in order to learn to fight with arms. The word bachelor is commonly derived
e<l- Bachelnr\Z lu ,.est sPe«es of knight, in opposition to the knight banneret; but for this expression no authority has been pro-
■ Malden „ 00 IF7 VVl0rd’ and 1S used. ,n ear,y Frencli poetry for a young man, as bachelette is for a girl. Hallam’s Middle Ages, iii.
Malden p ^ ^onnngius, Dissert, iv. sect. 24. Itteras, cap. iv. sect. 25.
ittonneeelTu F"1 slSnifying to teach in the public schools, was regere; and the master of arts, or doctor of any faculty, upon his
tinned tli7rf 'V i,eCame 3 tllat a teacher in the schools. In Paris, the masters who were desirous of exercising this privile-re,
n. Hev et svho/is ’ and schools, as they fell vacant, were granted to them by their nations, according to seniority.’
15 I .•'tjt p' Malden, p. 112. a j
u ist. Un. Par iii. p. 81, 82. « Savigny, iii. 337. 7 Ibid. iii. 352, &c.
488
UNIVERSITIES.
Bologna. UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA.
The antiquity of this famous school is at least equal to
that of Paris; and were it necessary to construe the word
university in the strict sense of a legal incorporation, it
might lay claim to still higher antiquity, inasmuch as its
teachers obtained some important privileges before any
such concession was made to those at Paris. It is alleged,
and apparently on documentary evidence, that the emperor
Theodosius established a school at Bologna in 4)33,1 which,
after it had fallen into decay, was restored by Charlemagne.
It is probable that the school continued in existence from
the period last mentioned ; but there is no evidence that
it was entitled to the name university, as that word was
understood in the twelfth century. According to Mr Hal-
lam,2 there are a few vestiges of studies pursued in that
city in the eleventh century; and there was also, in the
same century, a school of the liberal arts at Ravenna, and
a college of judges and advocates, who, besides administer¬
ing and practising law, taught its principles in a public
school. Masters and scholars are mentioned in documents
of that age ; and a certain individual, who wTas probably
the head, is called legis doctor. A lawyer, named Pepo,
who is designated by this appellation, delivered lectures on
law about 1075, but without attracting much notice.3
We may safely assume that, like the other early univer¬
sities, the progress of Bologna wras gradual, and that its
origin cannot be traced to any definite period of arbitrary
establishment. The fame of successful teachers attracted
pupils to their schools, and these, settling in the city, gra¬
dually claimed for themselves rights and privileges, which
the citizens found it their interest to recognise, and which,
in process of time, obtained the sanction of the emperor.
The university started suddenly into celebrity in the
early part of the twelfth century, when Irnerius began to
teach the Roman law. (See Civil Law.) This great ci¬
vilian is to be regarded, not only as the founder of the
university of Bologna, but as the author of a great revolu¬
tion in the jurisprudence of Europe. While engaged in
teaching the liberal arts at Ravenna, he accepted an invi¬
tation from the civic authorities of Bologna, and opened a
school in that city. He wras employed as a lecturer in
arts when copies of some of the books of the code of Jus¬
tinian, which were beginning to excite attention, and to
be circulated through Italy, reached Bologna.4 Irnerius
applied himself diligently to the study of them, and, after
making himself master of their contents, undertook to ex¬
pound them in the public schools. According to Conrin-
■gius, he engaged in this course of lectures with the sanc¬
tion of the republic of Bologna, and was rewarded for his
labours at the public expense.5 His zeal and energy col¬
lected large crowds of pupils, and gave an effectual impulse
to the study of Roman law throughout Italy, while they
raised the reputation of the lecturer to a pre-eminent
height. The precise time at which Irnerius commenced
his lectures has not been ascertained, nor are the events of
the latter part of his life known. His name is mentioned
m the records of public business and judicial proceedings
between the years 1113 and 1118, when he appears to i
have relinquished his scholastic labours, and to have enter- s ;
ed the service of the imperial court. By some he is sun." "
posed to have returned to his academical labours after the
death of his patron Henry Y. Sigonius, in his History 0f
Bologna, fixes the time of his death in the year 1150.6
The study of law having thus revived, made surprising
progress, and its fame spread rapidly from Italy over other
parts of Europe. Students flocked from all parts to Bo.
logna, and some eminent masters of that school repeated
its lessons in distant countries^ Throughout this and se¬
veral succeeding centuries, the schools of Bologna continued
to be pre-eminent for legal learning. About the year
1220 they contained 10,000 students,8 and in the middle of
the fourteenth century the number had increased to 13,000.9
“ Not very long after the revival of the civil law, another
subject of study, of much less intrinsic worth, was brought
into public notice at Bologna. In the early ages of the !
church, the public letters of bishops were known by the
name of decretals {epistolce decretales),” the influence of
which, at first feeble, kept pace with the increase of the
papal power, till the decretals of the apostolic see came to
be regarded as of equal authority with the canons ofcoun-
cils. In 1151, Gratian, a monk of St Felix in Bologna,
published a collection of these epistles, which was known
simply by the title of Decretum ; a compilation which was
immediately received with great favour, and was made the
subject of public lectures in Bologna in the pontificate of
Eugenius III., who died in the year 1153; and many
scholars were attracted to the study of it.10 (See Canon
Law.) Such was the origin of pontifical or canon law, a
branch of jurisprudence which was long regarded by the
church with peculiar favour. Of the school of arts and phi¬
losophy, in which, as we have already stated, the university
originated, nothing is known during the twelfth century.
Though obscured by the splendour of the rising school of
law, it appears nevertheless to have maintained a certain
degree of celebrity. The emperor Frederick II. deemed
it worthy of his patronage, and about the year 1220 trans¬
mitted to it certain works of Aristotle and other philoso¬
phers, which he had caused to be translated into Latin,
partly from the original Greek, and partly from Arabic
versions. The interesting letter which accompanied the
gift is quoted by Conringius.11 This gift gave a new im¬
pulse to the study of philosophy.
The earliest historical document connected with the
university is the charter of privileges granted by the em¬
peror Frederick Barbarossa, at the diet of Roncaglia, in No¬
vember 1158. In this authentic or rescript, which is en¬
titled Habita, it is provided, first, that foreign scholars tra¬
velling to any seminary of learning should be allowed to
pass without molestation ; and that no obstruction should
be offered to them, nor claim made upon them, under pre¬
tence of any public offence, or debt of the province or city
to which they belonged; and, secondly, that all scholars,
if any lawsuit were brought against them, should have the
option of having it determined either by the lord or master
under whom they studied, or by the bishop of the diocese.
Middendorpius, lib. iv. p. 3. Middendorp confesses himself unable to fix the year, but says that it took place during the reign of
* heodosius, which began a. d. 425, and continued twenty*seven years. The date here given is that of Savigny, who appears however to
doubt the genuintness. of the documents. Savigny, iii. 147.
* Mid. Ages, iii. 525, where reference is made to Tiraboschi, iii. 259, and elsewhere ; and Muratori, Dissert, xliii.
" Savigny, vi. cap. 26. _ . 4 Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect. 19.
o ■« '\'jS ^ornanurn Bononiae in Italia doceri publice coepit, sumptibus et enra reipubliese illius, per Irnerium.” Dissert, i. sect. 45..
Malden, p. 41. ? Hallam’s Mid. Ages, iii. 516. 8 Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect. 19. Middendorpius, lib. iv. ?•
Muratori, Script. Ber. Ital. xvi. 325.
10 Malden, p. 45, who refers to Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect, 19 ; and Itterus, cap. iv. 3, 21. Hallam (Mid. Ages, ii. 286) says that the
Jjc'rctum was published about the year 1140.
11 Dissert, iii. sect. 20.
Si litem eis quispiam super aliquo negotio movere voluerit, hujus rei optione data scholnribus, eos coram domino, vel magiUro
vel ipsms civitatis episcopo (quibus hanc jurisdictionem dedimus), conveniat.*’ The edict is given by Conringius, Suppl. Ixx., and i»com-
n.ented upon m bis fifth Dissertation, and the annexed supplements. It is explained by Savigny, iii. pp. 153, 154.
UNIVERSITIES.
, t},ese singular privileges, which were afterwards the
rvy of other academical institutions, the students were
, empted from the ordinary tribunals, while the professors
, ,re invested with important powders. It is true that Bo-
1 ma is not expressly mentioned in the authentic; but that
i vas intended for the benefit of Bolognese scholars is ap-
j rent, because Bologna was by much the most celebrated
t iool in the emperor’s dominions, and probably the only
(j which was at that time frequented by foreign students.
r. achers of law are specially mentioned, and Bologna was
t :n the only school of law ; and the permission granted to
t: student to bring his cause before his “ lord and mas-
tseems to assume that his judge tvas a legal character.1
I, additional reason for applying the edict peculiarly to
] logna, is found in the fact stated in Conringius,2 that
t: principal professors in the university were at that time
i attendance upon the emperor, having been invited by
l a to assist in deciding certain matters at issue between
1 a and the cities of Lombardy. It can scarcely be doubt-
ri therefore, that the edict was drawn up by them for the
d'cial benefit of their own university, though the lan-
gage was purposely made general. The professors at first
i erpreted its provisions as conferring upon them criminal
a well as civil jurisdiction ; but finding themselves unable
t repress the violence of the students, they allowed the for-
i r to remain in the hands of the magistrates of the city,
a 1 assumed to themselves only the power of determining
t il suits.3 This edict of Barbarossa is the earliest ex-
a pie of exemption or privilege granted to a university,
a 1 may be regarded as the source of the exclusive privi-
Itjes which were afterwards conferred upon collegiate in-
Si: utions. The increasing power of the university excited
i t: jealousy of the inhabitants of the city, and led to fre-
q ait collisions, which, on more than one occasion, throat¬
ed the existence of the school, but which generally end-
e in extending and strengthening its privileges. In the
y r 1226, the emperor Frederick II. threatened to remove
• t(! school of law, but in the following year recalled his
d Tee.4
lologna was at first merely a school of law, and in this
t jrefore the university consisted. The scholars were di-
v ed into two bodies, or universities, as they were called;
citramontanes and the ultramontanes; the former in-
cding the Italians, and the latter, all foreigners. These
v?e subdivided into nations; the citramontanes into seven-
t n, and the ultramontanes into eighteen. Each nation
f 1 its presiding officer, called its counsellor, except the
r( ion ot the Germans, who had two, under the name of
curators. At an early period the professors and scholars
o arts and medicine endeavoured to form themselves into
I. . . u .
separate university; but being opposed by the jurists and
hibited by the city, they were compelled to unite them-
s /es with the scholars of law. A few years after, they
rf evved their efforts, and their right as a distinct univer-
s ' was formally recognised by the city in 1316.5 After
tl middle ot the fourteenth century, a theological school
''> established by Innocent VI. It was placed under the
t lop ot Bologna, as chancellor, and, like the theological
I' dty at Paris, consisted of doctors only, the scholars be-
1 considered as belonging to the artistce. Bologna had
t s existed tor more than two hundred years, as one of
| most celebrated schools of learning, before theology
1 ned a regular branch of study. Lectures in this faculty
' been occasionally delivered, but the teachers were not
a horized or sanctioned by the university. From the year
1362, when the university of theology was founded, Bo-
logna contained four universities ; two of law; one of me-
dicine and the arts, in which were included also the scholars
of theology ; and one of the doctors of theology. The two
schools ol law, however, formed together one whole, and
are therefore frequently designated as one university.6
“ There were also formed,” says Mr Malden,? “ in course
of time, five colleges of doctors, which (with the exception
of the theological college) were established upon quite a
different principle. The theological college may have dif¬
fered only in the number of its members from the univer¬
sity of theology. But there were two colleges of law, one
of doctors of the civil law, the other of doctors of the canon
law; and two separate colleges of doctors of philosophy and
medicine. These colleges seem to have been corporations,
in which a limited number of doctors of the several facul¬
ties were united, and monopolized the power of promotion
and admission to degrees, to the exclusion of other doctors,
who, according to the earlier constitution of the university,
had an equal right to exercise it. They were confirmed,
however, by the statutes of the year 1397. The first ori¬
gin of the legal colleges runs back to the twelfth century;
probably they were then open to all doctors. Xlm legal
colleges were each under a prior; how the others were go¬
verned, Savigny does not state. By these colleges or fa¬
culties, the candidates for degrees were examined. They
had a building for their common use, in which they met,
near the cathedral ; because the public examinations were
held in the cathedral, and degrees solemnly conferred there.
Savigny warns his readers that these colleges of civil and
canon law are not to be confounded with the College of Doc¬
tors, Advocates, and Judges, w hich was an institution of the
city of Bologna for civic purposes. It may not be super¬
fluous to warn the English reader not to confound these
colleges, which were merely corporate faculties, with the
English notion of the word college. There wrere some col¬
leges in our sense of the word, which were restricted to the
relief of really indigent scholars ; but these foundations
never had any weight or influence in any Italian univer¬
sity.”
The constitution of the university was based on certain
statutes which were promulgated at various times, and con¬
firmed by Innocent IV. in 1253; but of these, and of the
privileges conferred by them, our limited space will not
permit us to give any account. The statutes wTere revised
and corrected- every twenty years, by eight scholars ap¬
pointed for the purpose, and called statuarii. They were
again confirmed in 1544, by the pope, who had then be¬
come sovereign of the city, and were made binding on the
whole community.8
Savignyu mentions as the leading distinction between the
universities of Paris and Bologna, from the earliest period,
that in the former the masters or teachers constituted the
corporation considered as a privileged body, to the exclu¬
sion of the scholars; while, in the latter, the students formed
the university, and had the power of selecting from their
own body the academical officers, whom the professors were
bound to obey. At the head of the universities of law was
the rector, who took precedence of all the other officers.
The rector is first mentioned towards the end of the twelfth
century, when only one was elected. For a long period
two were chosen, one for each university; and finally one,
which appears to have been the case in 1514, and w hich
was established as the rule before 1552. He was chosen
annually by the preceding rector, the counsellors of the na-
lalden, p. 50. 2 Suppl. ii. sect. 3. 3 Savigny, iii. 156. 4 Ibid. 161.
‘ avigny, >ii. 162. Conringius mention* several distinguished professors of medicine in the thirteenth century, who attracted a great con-
lSe 01 Pupils. They were in possession of a few books of Hippocrates and Galen, and of several translations of the works of Arabic phy-
Riss. iii. sect. 21.
■ wigny, iii. 1(53. Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect. 21. 8 Sivigny, iii. pp. 163, 164.
ipin of Universities, pp. 55, 56, 57, abridged from Savignv, iii. pp. 213, 214, &c. * Ibid. iii. 141.
(OL. XXI. ■ 3 Q
s| ms.
S'
489
Bologna.
490
UNIVERSITIES.
Bologna, tions, and a certain number of electors appointed by the
university at large, and was taken from the different nations,
according to a regular order of succession. The necessary
qualifications for a rector were, that he should be twenty-
five years of age, a clericus, not a member of any religious
order, and should have studied law for at least five years,
at his own cost. The powers of the rector were exten¬
sive. He possessed supreme authority over all members
of the university, except those of the German nation, who
were subject to their own procurators alone. His civil juris¬
diction was not doubted when both parties belonged to the
university, or when a citizen consented to bring before him
a suit against a scholar ; but when a suit against a scholar
was brought before the magistrates of the city, the claim of
the rector to hear it generally gave rise to a violent contest
between the city and the university. Soon after the insti¬
tution of the rectorate, an attempt was made by the city to
abolish the office, or to render it subservient to the civic
power ; but the university succeeded in maintaining its
privileges, which were ultimately confirmed by the autho¬
rity of the pope. The criminal jurisdiction of the rector
was limited generally to matters of academical discipline.
He had the power of punishing both professors and scholars
by fine and expulsion ; and, in deciding more serious
matters, he sometimes acted in conjunction wdth the ma¬
gistrates of the city. In 1544, the pope confirmed by a
bull his criminal jurisdiction when both parties belonged to
the university, and when the offence was not capital. The
rector was assisted by a council consisting of the counsellors
of the nations.1
Chancel- I'1 Bologna, as in Paris, there were two Chancellors. Honorius III.,
lors. whose pontificate extended from 121G to 1227, when he regulated the
promotions or collation of degrees in the school of law, placed them under
the superintendence of the archdeacon of Bologna, whose consent, to
prevent abuse, was rendered necessary. Savigny® appears to consider
this as a personal authority vested in the archdeacon for the time ; but it
was retained by his successors, who assumed the title of chancellor,
and exercised authority over ail the faculties except the faculty of
theology. The bishop of Bologna was constituted chancellor of the
university of theologians, when this faculty was established by Inno¬
cent VI. in 1362. All honours emanated from the chancellors.
Other Besides the rector and chancellors, the other officers of the univer-
officers sity were : !• The counsellors or representatives of the nations, who
assisted the rector, and formed his council. Each nation elected one
counsellor: the German nation was represented by two procurators,
who were invested with judicial power over their own nation, inde¬
pendently of the rector. 2. The syndic or common agent of both uni¬
versities, whose duty it was to defend their rights and privileges. He
was elected annually from among the scholars, and was subject to the
jurisdiction of the university at large. He received a salary of twelve
are, and latterly a third of all fines. 3. The notary, who was also com¬
mon to both universities. 4. The treasurer, who was elected annually
from the bankers of the city. 5. Two bidelli; one for each university.8
Degrees. The precise time when Degrees, properly so called, began to be
conferred, cannot be ascertained ; but perhaps we shall not much err
;n asserting' that they were nearly coeval with the university itself.
The earliest teachers were designated dominus, magistcr, judex, lord,
master, judge ; but these were names given to them as public lecturers,
and were not titles of honour, carrying with them certain privileges,
conferred by authority, and after examination.4 Magister was probably
applied indiscriminately to any teacher, while dominus and judex were
designations assigned only to the teachers of the Roman law. There
appears to be no reason to doubt that the terms soon came to be used
synonymously. Savigny5 states that, in the records of the university,
Irnerius is sty\cA judex or causidicus, but never doctor, and assigns the
middle of the twelfth century as the date of this last title. The term
doctor, here, as in Paris, originally signified merely a teacher, and
implied nothing more than that the person bearing it had obtained a
license to teach in that particular school. Some writers have asserted
that it was borrowed from the theological school of Paris, while others
have reversed the transmission, and allege that it was borrowed by
the Parisians from the Italian seminary. The truth probably is, that
it was given independently at both places. Savigny6 supposes that it
was in consequence of the privileges conferred on the masters and
teachers by the edict of Frederick I., that they found it necessary to
1 Savigny, iii. 171-181.
5 Ibid. iii. 187.
8 Ibid. iii. pp. 193, 194.
adopt measures to prevent (he voluntary assumption of their offi
and to establish a form of admission. If this supposition be adm't s “)'1 * *
it follows that degrees were conferred by public authority soon J ' ^ '
1158. The first doctors were no doubt those of the civil law, that b ' ^
the branch of learning to which the Bolognese school was indebted'f ^
its early celebrity. At the close of the twelfth century we find doctor
of the canon law, who soon obtained an equal rank with the civilian*
In the thirteenth century, doctors of medicine, grammar, logic, philoso*
phy, and the other arts, were added.7 The title or dignity of doct°"
was at first conferred by the doctors themselves by co-optation, that is
they admitted the candidate into their body by common consent This
admission or promotion conveyed to him the right of lecturing in the
school of Bologna, of exercising jurisdiction over his pupils, and of
voting in the admission of future candidates. By a papal bull the
doctors of Bologna, like those of Paris, afterwards obtained the rivlu
of lecturing anywhere. The system of self-election bavin" led°to
frequent abuse, by the admission of unworthy persons. Honorius III
in the early part of the thirteenth century, interposed his authority
and placed the promotions under the control of the archdeacon of
Bologna.
The following extract presents a curious feature in academical his¬
tory. “ Originally,” says Mr Malden,8 “ scholars were forbidden to
marry into the families of Bolognese citizens, without the license of
the rector. Exemptions from this prohibition were granted which
were at last extended to all the descendants of all doctors. By the
terms of this exemption, it is manifest that the doctors of the univer¬
sity had become closely connected with the families of the citizens.
This connection prepared the way for the gradual encroachments of
municipal selfishness ; and at last the principal chairs in the university
were granted only to Bolognese citizens. But the actual doctors pro¬
fited by the example, and went a step farther, and took an oath not to
grant degrees to any but members of their own families. This outra¬
geous monopoly began to produce its natural effects, in the ruin of the
university; and commotions and struggles ensued between the years
1295 and 1304, which ended in compelling the doctors to admit all
Bolognese equally to degrees; but the rank of doctor, at least in the
two legal colleges or faculties, was still confined to citizens of Bologna.”
Degrees were conferred in the civil law, orin the canon law, or in both.
In the early age ol the university single degrees were more common; in
later times double degrees prevailed. Six years’ previous study were
necessary for the canonist, and eight for the civilian. If the student of
the canon law had delivered a course of lectures, it was reckoned equal
to a year’s study; and in like manner the course of the civilian was
shortened one or two years, by three or four years study of the canon law.
The first step necessary for the candidate was to select a doctor who
should present or recommend him to the archdeacon. He then under- Esai
went two examinations, the first of which (examen) was private, and tion
the second (convcntus) public. Previously to the first examination, two
points of law were prescribed to him, which he was required to explain
and defend, in presence of the chancellor and college of doctors. The
doctor by whom he was presented alone examined him; the rest of
the faculty having the power merely of asking questions and of stating
objections, after making oath that no previous compact had been made
with the candidate. The doctors were bound to treat the candidate
lovingly as their own son, on pain of suspension from their functions
for a year. The votes of the faculty were then taken, and if the exa¬
mination was sustained, the candidate became a licentiate, t\vA is, he
obtained a license to present himself for public examination.9
The conventus, or public examination, by which the degree of
doctor was acquired, took place in the cathedral, in presence of the
university, when the licentiate read a thesis, and an exposition of a leg**
question, which was criticised, not by the doctors, but by the scholars.
This was followed by an address from the archdeacon, or from a doctor
deputed by him, in which the new graduate was solemnly proclaimed.
He was then presented with the insignia of his rank, and had lus
place in the cathedral assigned to him.10 It is probable that, in the
earliest age of the university, this public examination by the scholars
was the on ly one, and that the previous examination originated in an as¬
sumption of power by the doctors. The public examination frequent y
took place very soon after the private one, but sometimes a consider¬
able interval was suffered to elapse, and thus the title of licentiate be¬
came a species of degree. . ,
The candidate, before being received for examination, was require!
to swear, in presence of the rector, that be had studied for the perw(
prescribed ; before the private examination, that he had paid mere y
the requisite fees; and before the public examination, that be wou
promote the interest of the university and scholars, and if he remain^
in Bologna, would obey the rector, and comply with the statutes. ^
one time the commencing doctors took an oath to the magistrates^
the city, that they would not lecture out of Bologna; but this oat w
abolished in 1312, on the petition of the scholars, who purchase!
emption from it with a sum of money.11 It is a curious point in
* Savigny, iii. 206.
6 Ibid. iii. 187.
3 Savigny, iii. 181, 182.
7 Ibid. iii. 188.
Iu Ibid. iii. pp. 195, 196.
4 Conringius, Diss. iii. sect. 19 ; Suppl. li. sect. 3. Savigny, ii
8 Origin of Universities, pp. 57, 58.
11 Savigny, in. 198-202.
UNIVERSITIES.
491
irs.
torv of this university, that the female sex were admitted to its
/ nours and offices. In early times degrees were conferred on learned
, men w]10 were even permitted to occupy professorial chairs. No-
. la d’Andrea read lectures on the canon law in the fourteenth cen-
i y ; Laura Bassi was professor of physics in the eighteenth century ;
, j ciotilde Tambroni, who was professor of Greek, died in 1817.
The expense of graduation was considerable. The fees for the
vate examination amounted to sixty lire; those for the public ex-
■ ination to eighty. Besides the fees, it was usual for the licentiate
t give clothes to many of those who took part in the solemn pro-
(sion; a custom which was found so oppressive that Pope Clement
1 in 1311 ordained that an oath should be exacted from each candi-
< e that he would not expend more than 500 lire}
^11 doctors, in right of their degree, had the power of lecturing or
t ching publicly ; licentiates could not lecture without the permis-
f n of the rector. But even simple scholars, after five or six years of
c gent study, might obtain from the rector a license to teach, on
j onent of a fee proportioned to the importance of the branch of law
c which they proposed to lecture. The scholar who had lectured
c an entire treatise, or who had delivered a formal interpretation of
t mint of law, was considered to have earned his first degree, and
t k the name of Bachelor. When degrees became so common that
t doctors were not all necessarily obliged to teach, the jurisdiction
d r the scholars was confined to the legentes, or those who actually
llured. All doctors who had at any time taught in the schools re-
tned the right of voting in promotions.2
t is a remarkable feature in the constitution of the university of
1 ogna, that the Professors at an early period received fixed salaries.
] the year 1279 the scholars made an agreement with a lecturer to
d ver a course of lectures for a certain specified sum ; and in the fol-
1 ing year they petitioned the city to pay a sum to the canonist
( rsiasfora course of lectures on the Decretum, and their petition was
gnted. In 1289 two professorships, one of the civil law and another
( he canon law, were established, with a fixed salary. The choice of
t professors rested with the scholars, who elected annually, sometimes
r deeting the same person, and sometimes choosing another. The
i nber of endowed chairs continued to increase, so that in 1384 we
f;l nineteen salaried lecturers in law, and twenty-three in arts. The
s iries of the professors of the civil law, which were the highest,
i ounted to 495 lire each. The salaries, which had hitherto been
f nted only fora year, now began to be considered permanent, and
t professors to regard themselves as public functionaries. In 1420
t re were twenty-one teachers of law', of whom scarcely one is said
t lave been elected by the university.3 Besides the salaries given by
t state to the doctors, there were six endowed lectureships, to which
s olars only were eligible. The lecturers were appointed annually,
1 seventy-six electors, and were equally divided between the Citra-
natane and Ultramontane scholars. Doctors, licentiates, and na-
t s of Bologna, were ineligible. This arrangement, according to
f igny, was acted upon in 1338; but in consequence of the tumult
a nding the election, it afterwards became customary for the univer-
s ;s to select twelve candidates, from whom were chosen by lot four
1' urers on the civil law, and two on the decretals. According to Con-
rr ;ius,4 there were, in 1664, 126 professors in the school of Bologna,
o vhom forty-nine belonged to the faculties of law ; and the corpora-
t of the city was said to expend annually in their salaries nearly
1)00 crowns. The unsalaried professors received fees from their
P ils, and in the flourishing ages of the university many of them ac-
<} 'ed great wealth.
•uring the whole of the thirteenth century, the professors assembled
1 r pupils in their own houses; in the fourteenth century public
s )ols were founded, and were appropriated solely to the use of the
<1 tors. The bachelors were allowed the use of them twice a week
r he afternoon, if they were not occupied by a doctor. The courses
0 Jctures were begun on the 19th of October, and continued for a
Mr. 1 he holidays amounted to about ninety, including two weeks
•'i '.aster and eleven days at Christmas.5
The university of Bologna, though fallen from its former glory, is Bologna,
still one of the first in Italy ; and in several branches of study is infe- - -- "
nor only to that of Pavia. The university contains the four faculties of Modern
theology, law, physic, and philosophy, and furnished in 1833 instruc-{Jniver-
tion in nine courses of education. 1. Elementary philosophy, which s;ties'
lasts two years, and consists of logic and metaphysics, the elements of
algebra and geometry, physics and ethics. 2. Theological course, which
lasts four years, and comprehends dogmatic theology, moral theolo°-y,
lectures on the Scriptures, the Hebrew language, ecclesiastical history’
and pulpit oratory. 3. Course of law, which continues four years : first
year, institutions of the canon law, of the civil law, and of natural law;
second year, institutions of public ecclesiastical law, and of criminal law,
and text of the civil law; third year, institutions of public ecclesiastical
law, text of the canon law, and text of the civil law, taught by a different
professor from that of the second year; fourth year, text of the canon
law, and text of the civil law, by both professors. 4. Notary course, obli¬
gatory for two years : first year, logic, metaphysics, and ethics ; second
year, canon and civil institutions. 5. Medical course; theory, four years,
and two of practice. 6. Surgical course, three years, and two of prac¬
tice. 7. Pharmaceutic course, two years ; first year, chemistry and bo¬
tany ; second year, materia medica and pharmacy. 8. Veterinary course,
two years; veterinary medicine, comparative anatomy, chemistry, bo¬
tany, pharmacy, physiology, and materia medica. 9. Course of phi¬
losophy and mathematics, four years ; the first two are nearly the same
as in elementary philosophy ; in the third and fourth years, fluxions,
mechanics, hydraulics, optics, and astronomy.6 Every student, before
entering the university, must prove that he is possessed of a monthly
income of twelve scudi or dollars, this being the smallest sum on which,
it is believed, he can live respectably. The salaries of the professors
amount to from 300 to 400 dollars, and the students pay no fees. The
scholastic year begins on the 5th of September, and terminates on the
26th of June. Deducting the holidays, there are but 104 days of lec¬
tures in the year. The number of students is under 1000. The uni¬
versity library contains 150,000 volumes. There is also in the city an¬
other library, the gift of a clergyman, containing 83,000 volumes
and 4000 MSS.
ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES.
The English universities, like most of those which sprung Origin,
up in remote times, were formed on the model of the uni¬
versity of Paris, and in the earlier period of their history bear
a striking resemblance to the parent institution. Till 1836,
England contained only two universities, those of Oxford and
Cambridge. The origin of both is involved in doubt and
obscurity, and it is probably impossible to decide at how early
a period schools and places of general education existed in
either. The question of the comparative antiquity of the
two seminaries was agitated with great keenness in the
seventeenth century, but the industry of the respective an¬
tiquaries has not thrown much light on the subject. Some
of the more eager advocates of the remote antiquity of
Oxford contend that it was a seminary of learning imme¬
diately after the destruction of Troy,7 while the Cambridge
antiquaries ascribe the origin of their university to one
Cantaber, a Spaniard, by whom it was founded b. c. 375,
and from whom it obtained the name Cantabrigia.8 But
though such speculations may amuse and interest the curious,
they cannot be admitted as historical facts. The universities
of London and Durham are of very recent origin.
bavigny, jii. 202, 205. Antony a Wood mentions several instances of the expense and magnificence which attended the early taking of
l higher degrees in England in the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I. About the year 1268, he says, when Alphonsus de Senis
5iena, an Italian, studied at Oxford, one Bonifacius de Saluciis proceeded in the civil law’, at whose inception there were such cere-
1 ues and feasting, that the like for that faculty was scarce before known here. The abbot and convent of Oseney gave him the free use of
* r monastery on that occasion. He adds, that a still greater solemnity was performed some years after, at Gloucester College, by the Bene-
1 mes, for one William de Brooke, a monk at St Peter’s monastery at Gloucester, who took the degree of D. D. in 1298, being the first of
order who had attained that dignity. He was accompanied by the abbot and whole convent of his own monastery, the abbots of West-
‘l ister, Reading, Abingdon, Evesham, and Malmesbury, numerous other priors and monks, and by a hundred noblemen and esquires on
‘ S6S rickly caparisoned. Wood, Hist, and Antiq. of the Univ. of Oxford, i. pp. 65, 66.
I he legentes and non-legentes of Bologna correspond to the regents and non-regents of Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge, except that the former
"]ere applied only to doctors, while the latter were applied equally to doctors and masters.
■ avigny, hi. 225, 226. 4 Dissert, iii. sect. 21. 5 Savigny, iii. 232, 234. 6 Quarterly Journal of Education, vol. viii. 206.
Oxonienses in historiis atque annalibus suis contineri aiunt, hie ab eo tempore studia literarum floruisse, quo preestantes quidara Philo-
111 ex Gracia cum Trojanis, duce Bruto, in hanc florentissimain insulam immigrarint : suamque Academiam non modo Cantabrigiensi, sed
qwsquoque universi terrarum orbis Academiis antiquiorem et florentiorem existere aliqui constanter affirmant.” Middendorpii Acad.
\j [;n'v- Terr. Orbis libri viii. tom. ii. p. 467. Ayliffe’s Antient and Present State of the University of Oxford, vol. i. p. 9.
Lantabrum Hispanum anno ante Christum natum 375 Academiam hanc primum instituisse, et Sebertum Orientalium Anglorum
■ T'm anno post Christum 630 restituisse perhibetur.” Midd. ii. 459. Dyer’s History of the University and Colleges of Cambridge, vol. i. p. 39.
492
UNIVERSITIES.
Oxford. UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
History. }lonour 0f founding this celebrated university is
usually assigned to Alfred, who, according to John Rous,
the antiquary of Warwick, who flourished in the fif¬
teenth century, “ built in this city three halls in the
name of the Holy Trinity, for the doctors in grammar,
philosophy, and divinity.”1 This opinion, though long
maintained and strenuously supported, appears to be now
generally abandoned.2 The ablest antiquaries of modern
times seem to be agreed that, although the university may
be traced to very high antiquity, and far beyond the age of
satisfactory records, the illustrious monarch whose name
was formerly associated with it as its founder or restorer,
had really no share whatever in its establishment.3 It is
at least certain that no document or well-authenticated
history can be produced in which the name of Alfred ap¬
pears as a benefactor of the university. Soon after the
reign of Alfred, at least during the succeeding century,
schools for the acquisition of learning appear to have been
established in Oxford ; but these were either of a private
character, or were attached to the religious houses with
which the town abounded. It is certain that Oxford was
a place of study in the reign of Edward the Confessor
(104d-1066) ;4 but even at the time of the conquest it
does not appear to have enjoyed any greater pre-eminence
than that which naturally arose from the number of its mo¬
nastic establishments, and from the circumstance of itshaving
been, during the preceding century, a favourite residence
of the English monarchs. Its schools might therefore be
more numerous and better attended than those in other towms,
and might possibly derive from royal favour some trifling
privileges. When many of the secular scholars resided in
one house, it got the name of a hall or hostel; and governors
or principals were appointed over them, who superintended
the discipline and civil affairs of the house. The schools
wrere divided into grammar-schools, sophistry-schools,
schools for arts, medicine or physic-schools, law-schools,
divinity-schools, &c., names which, but for the literary re¬
mains of the early ages, would seem to indicate something
like a defined system of education. No traces, however, of
a regular plan can be discovered before the foundation of
the first college in the middle of the thirteenth century.
In the beginning of the twelfth century, Oxford is again
mentioned as a place of education. Robert Pulein, a theo¬
logian from Paris, expounded the holy Scriptures under the
patronage of Henry I., and gave new life to the study of
theology in England.5 * * 8 He continued his labours under
the protection of Henry II. till he was called to Rome, and
became chancellor of the apostolic see. In the reign of
Stephen, Vacarius, a Lombard by birth, who had studied
the civil law at Bologna, formed a school of Roman law at
Oxford; and it is reasonable to suppose, as Mr Hallam ob¬
serves, that a foreigner would not have chosen that city as
the scene of his labours if he had not found a seminary of
learning already established there. The introduction of
this new science was opposed by the students of philosophy
and theology, who prevailed upon the king to prohibit the 0
lecturer from teaching, and to demand that all the boois
of law should be delivered up to him. This prohibition
however was not carried into effect, since it appears from
two decretals of Alexander III. in 1164 and 1170, that
Vacarius remained in England in the reign of Henry II •
and there is evidence that the school subsisted for some
time after his death. The difficulty and expense of ob¬
taining copies of the original works on the Roman law in¬
duced Vacarius to compile for the use of his pupils an
abridgment of the Pandects and Code which, according to
Savigny,6 was written in England about the year 1149. fins
opinion of Savigny is confirmed by Wood, who assigns 1149
as the date of the introduction of the civil law into Oxford
and refers to the same period, or to a time very little later, the
introduction of the scholastic theology and the degree of
doctor.7 The study of the civil law, though honoured with
the special patronage of the clergy, obtained but little fa¬
vour from the laity of England. The circumstance of its
being introduced from Italy, and recommended by eccle¬
siastical authority, disposed all laymen to look upon it with
suspicion, while its rigid enactments accorded ill with the
more liberal principles of the common law. The attention
even of the clergy was soon diverted from it by the introduc¬
tion of the canon law, which must have been taught at Ox¬
ford soon after the publication of Gratian’s Decretum. The
Benedictines of St Maur mention the existence of an emi¬
nent school of the canon law at Oxford about the end of
the twelfth century, to wdiich many students repaired from
Paris.8
Even in that rude age, education seems not to have been
entirely neglected by the English monarchs. Henry I. is
said to have paid great attention to Oxford as a seminary
of learning, and to have granted to the teachers and scho¬
lars, in their individual capacity, some important privileges.
In the reigns of his two immediate successors learning de¬
clined, but it again revived under the encouragement of
Richard I. New halls and schools were established under
his patronage, and money was issued from his exchequer
for their support. To so flourishing a condition indeed did
he raise Oxford, that in the early part of the succeeding
reign (a.d. 1201) it is said to have contained 3000 scholars.9
The first reference to any public instrument where the
term university {univerSilas') is applied to Oxford, is the 3d
John (1201), an earlier date than any extant applicationof
the word to Paris.10 An unfortunate incident which oc¬
curred in 1209 interrupted this course of prosperity, and
even threatened the destruction of the town as a seat of
learning. A student, while engaged in some active exer¬
cise, accidentally killed a woman belonging to the town, and
dreading the consequences, fled from justice. The mayor
and burgesses immediately surrounded the hall to which
the supposed murderer belonged ; and failing to apprehend
him, they seized three students entirely unconnected with
the affair, and hanged them without proof or trial. I he
teachers and scholars, justly enraged at this barbarous act,
unanimously quitted Oxford, and retired, some to Cam-
1 Du Boulay says that Alfred first entertained the intention of founding the university about the year 884, and invited masters from 1‘'•ris
to form and teach it; “ ex hac nostra uuiversitate Magistros evocavit ad earn componcndam simul et regen dam.” Hist. Eniv. par. i. 211 811
224, where the passage from John Rous is quoted. Henry’s History of Great Britain, ii. 353.
2 Mr Hallam, who, in his View of the Middle Ages (vol. iii. 524), states that, if the opinion of its foundation by Alfred cannot be mam
tained as a truth, it “ contains no intrinsic marks of error,” acknowledges in his last work (Introduction to the Literature of Europe,
p. 21, note I) that he had there given more credence to it than after further consideration he believed it entitled to. Bologna, as well as ,IU 1
was full of English students about 1200. Meiners, ii. 428. Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect. 7. «.
3 Chalmers’s History of the University of Oxford, p. 11. Hallam’s Literature of Europe, i. 21. 4 Hallam, Mid. Ages, »'• 5' •
i Malden on the Origin of Universities, p. 72. AylifFe, i. 30, &c.; who alleges that Pulein’s influence at Rome obtained for the' universi.
bulls and privileges, since lost. Conringius, Dissert, iii. sect. 7.
B Geschichte des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter, iv. chap. 36. Wenk, Magister Vacarius. Lips. 1820, 8vo. Ayliffe, i. 33. . .
1 It can scarcely be doubted that these last were introduced from Paris ; and it may he suspected that Wood is a little too early in c
for Oxford the title of doctor, no such distinction being at that time known in the Parisian school. Of course the appellation, " 'r'1
used, signified merely a teacher, and was not a technical degree. Ilallam’s Introduction, &e. i. 21, note.
8 Hist. Litt. de la France, t. ix. p. 216, as quoted by Mr Hallam, Mid. Ages, iii. 525. Dyer’s History, i. pp. 143, 2’8. . ,ei
J Wood s Hist, and Antiq. cf the University of Oxford, p. 177. lu Dyer’s Privileges of the University of Cambridge, i. ->
UNIVERSITIES.
493
wi i'fce, and others to Reading.1 Not satisfied with this, they
—✓ en applied to the pope, and obtained an interdict against
etown, and against all persons who should settle in it for
■ e purpose of teaching. The inhabitants finding them-
, ves thus deserted by those on whom the prosperity of the
I vn chiefly depended, waited upon the pope’s legate, and
< rained absolution, on conditions which induced the students
t return to their former habitations. The king likewise
j stowed on the students some new immunities, exempting
t:m from any foreign judicature, and even granting them
t; power of taking cognisance in causes where one party
\ s a scholar, or the servant of a scholar, (a. d. 1214.)
jom this year Meiners dates the commencement of the
v iversity properly so called.
Henry III. took advantage of a serious dispute which
a ise between the students and citizens of Paris in 1229,
t advance the interests of Oxford, and invited the Parisian
r sters and scholars to settle there, promising them great-
t privileges than those which they had enjoyed in Paris.2
ithousand accordingly accepted his invitation ; but, pre-
sjning too much on the immunities which had been held
c; to them, they introduced a levity of manners, which gave
r. 3 to frequent tumidts, and caused great alarm and dis-
c et in the town. The reign of this monarch is particu-
lijly memorable in the annals of the university. In the
} ir 1244, he granted to it the first charter of privileges as
a orporate body,3 and in 1255 confirmed and extended
t: privileges which he had formerly conferred. Pre-
vusly to this period, the scholars and students lodged
a 1 studied in halls rented from the townsmen ; and this
y3 one great source of the numerous quarrels which con-
aintly took place between them. To remedy the evil,
al also to encourage learning, several public-spirited in-
c iduals purchased or built large houses for the recep-
t a of the teachers and scholars, and thus set the ex-
a ple of appropriating funds for the support of those
v o had not the means of prosecuting their studies to ad-
vitage. Such was the origin of the English colleges,
vtieh at first modified, and have at length entirely super-
s ed, the universities. Additional charters, some of fresh
1 vdeges, and others of general confirmation, wrere granted
1 I'-dward 1. in 1275, Edward II. in 1315, Edward III. in
1 and by succeeding kings. The English universities,
i ippears, solicited a recognition and renewal of their pri-
vlgesat the beginning of every new reign. Their privi-
s now depend upon the act of the 13th Elizabeth, a. d.
1 e Corpus St.atutorum, or body of statutes, by which the
" vorsit_y °f Oxford is governed, was compiled, chiefly
,'n ex>sting statutes, by a committee appointed during
chancellorship of Archbishop Laud, and was solemnly
r hed by the king, chancellor, and convocation, in 1636.
ise statutes, however modified by subsequent interpre-
ons, additions, or restrictions, still determine the law
- constitution of the university; and every member is
” nd by oath and subscription to their faithful observance.4
ions accounts are given of the number of students at
man kings. Wood,
says, that in the time of Henry III. they
!■! .A0 30,000; and even when Merton College was
fl lhrd in the reigns of the early Norr
11 ds Annals,5 says, that in the time
•• Hinted to 30,000; and even when wao
jIK ed (1264), the number is said to have been 15,000.
II ‘i.o, read‘ly be granted that these statements are great-
| exaggerated; still they seem to imply that the real
number was very great.6 * Of the students, many were fo- Oxford,
reigners, from Paris and other places.
The university of Oxford was confirmed by papal author!- Confirma-
ty, and received from the see of Rome those privileges whichtion*
it claimed the sole power of bestowing. It obtained a con¬
firmation of its privileges from Innocent IV. in 1252 ; and
from Boniface VIII. in 1296, thedoctorsand masters received
permission to become lecturers and regents in any univer¬
sity in Christendom, without further examination.? Oxford
is mentioned along with Paris, Bologna, and Salamanca, in
the constitutions published by Clement V. after the council
of Vienne, a. d. 1311. By these constitutions it wTas ordain¬
ed that schools for Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee, should
be erected in each of these studia; and that all prelates
and ecclesiastical corporations in England, Wales, Scot¬
land, and Ireland, should be taxed for the maintenance of
professors of these languages at Oxford.8 The interference
of the Roman pontiff was frequently solicited on the part
of the university, and his assumed authority submitted to
in silence, especially by the less able of the English kings.
It is clear, however, that by the more vigorous of the early
monarchs the authority of the pope in matters relating to
the universities was little regarded, or rather that it was
utterly disclaimed. I hey considered the universities as
not amenable to ecclesiastical superintendence, but took
them under their own peculiar authority. Thus Henry
III. on going to Gascony, appointed the archbishop of
Tork and two others guardians of the university, to receive
complaints during his absence, though, according to the
canons, the government of it was vested in the bishop of
Lincoln, the bishop of the diocese, and the archbishop of
Canterbury, the metropolitan of the province.9 Edward I.
published a brief, which w'as confirmed by a parliament
assembled at ork, against the conduct of the preaching
friars, although they were supported by papal bulls.10 Ed¬
ward III., in the fortieth year of his reign, in consequence
of petitions from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge
on the one hand, and from the friars of the four mendicant
orders on the other, made an ordinance, with the assent of
parliament, by which, after removing a prohibition im¬
posed by the universities upon the admission of young
scholars into these orders, it was enacted, “ that all bulls
and processes issuing from the court of Rome, and pro¬
cured by the friars against either of the universities, or
any person in them, should thenceforth be absolutely null
and void; and the friars were forbidden to use or allege
them.”11 The same king, nine years after, abrogated sta¬
tutes made by the chancellor, proctors, and heads of the
university, cited the official persons before him, and re¬
moved them for contumacy, although they pleaded in jus¬
tification the pope’s bulls.12 Indeed the whole tenor of the
privileges conferred by the various kings upon the univer¬
sities may be omsidered as proving that, constitutionally,
the power of the king and parliament was held to be su¬
preme, and that the interference of the pontiff was submitted
to only by sufferance.
Our space will not allow us to pursue in detail the his¬
tory of this university. Beside the unfortunate incidents
already alluded to, others occurred which gave a temporary
check to its prosperity. In the reign of Edward I. a violent
dispute arose between the university and the bishop of
Lincoln, in whose diocese Oxford was then included, con¬
cerning the limits of the bishop’s jurisdiction in university
matters, which ultimately led to the total emancipation of
the learned body from ecclesiastical authority, under the
iir's' by Mr Hallam, Mid. Ages, iii. 527. 3 Dyer’s Privileges, i. 437, &c. 5 Vol. i. pp. 206 and 266.
•A ®! ;!'st- Univ. Par. iii. 133. Meiner>, i. 214. 4 Edinburgh Rev. No. 106, p. 387. G Dallam’s Mid. Ages, iii. 526.
A'’1- Lniv. Par. iii. 250. Avliffe, i. 89. Meiners, ii. 97. s Dyer’s Privilege.-, i. 426.
uiaUEst. tin. Par. iv. 141. Malden, p. 76. 10 Ibid. i. 426.
the Univ. ot’Cambridge, i. pp. 71 and 72. Privileges, i. pp. 71 and 72. Ayliffe, i. pp. 136-7.
yers 1 nvileges, pp. 380, 381, 426.
491 UNIVERSITIES.
Oxford, sanction of a> bull granted by Boniface in the year 1301.1 One of the distinguishing peculiarities of the English Osf
v v   The plague which broke out in 1349 nearly ruined the uni- universities, is the existence of collegiate establishments ^ ,
versity, all the colleges and halls having been deserted and some of which were founded at a very early period. Wec“lk
shut up during its prevalence. The reign of Richard II. have already mentioned similar establishments in the uni-an(^
is distinguished by the appearance at this university of versity of I ai is ; but the English colleges, being more richly
John Wycliffe, who was the first warden of Canterbury endowed, have to a much greater extent engrossed the
College, and whose lectures on divinity loosened the shackles powers and privileges of the universities. Of the existine
of popish thraldom, which Henry VIII. afterwards burst collegesofOxford, three, University College, Balliol College,
asunder, from motives very different from those which ani- and Merton College, weie founded before the end of the
mated the first of the reformers. The succeeding reigns thirteenth century, and in the following century the number
present little that is remarkable in the annals of the uni- was increased to seven. The motive which led to those
versify, except the religious dissensions, which had nearly foundations was the same which has been mentioned in
caused its dissolution. The reign of Henry VIE is en- treating of the university of Paris: to furnish the students
titled to the proud distinction of having fostered, with with lodgings, to relieve the indigent from some portion of
more than ordinary success, the revival of learning. Ge- the expenses of their education, and to provide moreeffec-
nuine scholarship had, during the preceding century, be- tually for the discipline of the university. In Oxford, the
come exceedingly rare, and the Greek language had not chancellor and his deputy combined the powers of the rector i
only fallen into general disuse, but was affectedly held in and the two chancellors in Paris; and the inspection and
contempt by a great body of the students, who formed control, chiefly exercised in the latter, through the distri-
themselves into an association, under the name of Trojans, bution of the scholars into nations,4 under the government
So strong indeed was the prejudice against this language, of rector, procurators, and deans, was in the former more
that when Erasmus went to Oxford for the purpose of especially accomplished by collecting the students into cer-
teaching it, several leading men in the university read lec- tain privileged houses, subject to a principal, who was re¬
turns against him in the schools, and endeavoured to attach sponsible for the conduct of the members. But the num-
ridicule both to the man and to the knowledge which it ber of the colleges in which provision was made for the
was his object to disseminate. Through the vigorous ef- support of the members w^as, for many centuries, small in
forts of Cardinal Wolsey, the Greek language was again comparison to the halls or inns, in which the students lived
received into estimation, and a taste for elegant literature chiefly at their own expense, and were merely furnished
was introduced. In 1518, the cardinal founded seven lec- with cheap and convenient lodgings. At the commence-
tures for theology, the civil law, physic, philosophy, mathe- ment of the fourteenth century, the number of halls was
matics, Greek, and rhetoric, and appointed to all of them the about three hundred, while the colleges amounted only to
men who were most distinguished for their abilities, and for three. For the establishment of a hall, nothing more was
their knowledge in these respective branches of learning, necessary than that a few students, on a mutual agreement
After the commencement of the reformation under Henry to live together, should hire a house, find surety for a
VIIL, when the monastic orders were dissolved, and their year’s rent, and choose for principal a graduate of respect-
property confiscated, and when the church in its unsettled able character. The chancellor or his deputy could not
state presented but few inducements to the studyof theology, refuse to sanction the establishment, and to admit the prin-
the number of scholars was very much reduced.2 In 1546 cipal to his office. The halls were in general held only on
only thirteen degrees were conferred; and in 1552, though lease ; but, by a privilege common to most universities, the i
the students who had their names on the books were a rent was fixed every five years by sworn taxers, two masters
thousand and fifteen, yet the greater part were absent, and and two citizens; and houses once occupied by students
had in effect quitted the university.3 could not be resumed by the proprietors so long as the rent
The changes which took place in the religion of the court was punctually discharged. The halls were governed by
during the reigns of Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth, affected peculiar statutes, and were liable to be visited and regulated
considerably the prosperity of the university. The last- by the university.5 The causes which occasioned a dimi-
named sovereign granted to both universities the act of in- nution in the numbers of the scholars, diminished also the
corporation ; and her successor, in 1603, conferred upon number of the halls, though that of the endowed colleges
them the privilege of sending each two representatives to continued to increase. At the commencement of the
the national council. From the period of the revolution fifteenth century, while the students were diminishing, the
ed in almost every branch of science. The doctrines of 1546, the inhabited halls amounted only to eight; and m
the schools, it is true, received favour here for some time 1551, Wood remarks that “the ancient halls lay either waste,
after they had been expelled from the northern universities ; or were become the receptacles of poor religious people
but they have now given way to the more rational views of turned out of their cloisters.”0 As the students fell oil, the
experimental philosophy. rents of the halls were taxed at a lower rate; and they be-
1 Ayliflfe, i 93. Neither Oxford nor Cambridge being the seat of a bishop, the scholars appear from the very first to have electe t >OT
chancellor, subject however in both cases to the approval of the diocesan. The advantages of this are very apparent. Instead of a **a."
superior exercising only an occasional and appellative jurisdiction, the chancellor was one of their body, and combined the offices wmc),'a
the continental universities, were divided between the chancellor and rector.
2 Edin. R_ey. No. 106, 410. s Wood, as cited in Edin. Rev. No. 106, 410.
4 "4 fhe division of the scholars into nations, which prevailed in all the universities of the continent, was unknown in England, pro a
because our insular situation prevented the influx of foreign students. There was a tendency at one time at Oxford to a
distinction between the natives of the counties north and south of the Trent. For some time the proctors were chosen, one from eaj; ,
sion ; but the schism was healed. At Cambridge, by the composition between the scholars and the burgesses, in the fifty-fourth yearo _e_^
III., conservators of the peace were to be elected annually at the beginning of the academical year, twenty-three in number (the °flr^
number of a jury), ten from the town, and thirteen from the university ; and of these latter, five were to be English, three Scotch, two ^
and three Irish. Phis arrangement might easily have given rise to a division of the scholars into nations, each choosing its own conserva
hut it was not attended by any such consequence.” Malden on the Origin of Universities, p. 108.
5 Wood, as cited in Edin. Rev. No. 106, 410. 6 Edin. Rev. No. 106, 410, and authorities there cited.
the university of Oxford has continued to flourish ; its re- colleges had risen to seven. In the beginning ot tne six-
venues have been increased; and the system of education teenth century, the number of halls had fallen to fifty-fa^
now omhrar.ps thp imnrovpmpr.ts which have boon nffpet- while the endowed colleges had increased to twelve. M
UNIVERSITIES.
ciie at last of so little value to the proprietors that they
w e willing to dispose of them for a trifling sum. The old
cneges thus extended their limits by easy purchase; and
tl new colleges, of which six were founded during the six-
teith century, were built on sites either obtained gratui-
tody or for an insignificant price.1 Before this period the
ccdges had rarely admitted any students who were not
01 he foundation, and provided for by endowment; but
thy now began to receive independent members, and
th diminution of the number of students in the university
ra lered it possible to receive nearly all of them. Since
th beginning of the seventeenth century, only one college
ha been founded; and three of the eight surviving halls
hafe been changed by endowment into colleges, but one of
th e is now extinct.2
i addition to the want of endowments, it may freely be
adjitted, that the more effectual superintendence and tui-
tic: which were supplied in the colleges, in consequence of
th greater number of graduates.who were members of them,
co ributed to the downfall of the halls. It remains only
to mention the reason which, in the most crowded state of
thi.iniversity, has prevented one from being restored. Be-
foiithe period of their downfall, the establishment of a hall
waieasy, and the chancellor was not at liberty to refuse his
saution. A piece of university legislation has effectually
scored the monopoly to the colleges. The earl of Lei-
ceor, when chancellor of the university, about 1570,
“dough the absolute potency he had,” obtained from the
uniersity the right of nominating the principals of all halls,
an consequently in effect a veto upon the institution of any ;
amthis right is now vested by statute in his successors.
Til heads of colleges being in reality the governing body,
ha since prevented any interference with their monopoly,
byne establishment of a new hall.3
the earliest period of the university, the scholars lodged,
winut domestic superintendence, in the houses of the
citfens, as at Paris and Bologna, and attended such lec¬
tin; as they chose. In the year 1231, it was ordained “ that
evtty clerk or scholar resident in Oxford must subject him-
selto the discipline and tuition of some master of the
sclfolsi.e. should enter himself as the pupil of one or
of ' of the actual regents, while he was still left at liberty
to lect his o\yn place of residence. At the commence-
imt of the fifteenth century, however, it had become the
fstftlished law, that all scholars should be members of some
colige, hall, or entry, under a responsible head. The
sol ars who frequented the lectures of the university, with-
ouii ttaching themselves to any college or hall, were called
0 aberdekyns, as in Paris they were called Martinets-, and
iroiient and decisive measures were adopted against them.4
In ie foreign universities, it was only the students of the
ai, arts who were obliged to place themselves under
to giate superintendence; but in the English universities
“graduates and under-graduates of every faculty were
?lj' y reqmred to be members of a privileged house. It
l* cessary however to observe, that entrance at a college
°\ not imply entrance under any particular tutor.
j img students, and many in those days were mere boys,
J1, l)lilced by their friends under the care of tutors; but
a were private tutors, and the universities did not inter-
®,r rtl1" the private arrangement. It was not till the time
1 Leicester was chancellor, that the university under-
0< ,0 reSulate who might be tutors; and it was not till the
495
chancellorship of Laud, that it was made necessary to enter Oxford.
under a tutor resident in the same college or hall with the ~s 
pupil. Laud, therefore, may be regarded as the author of the
system of college tuition.”0 In Oxford, according to its origi¬
nal constitution, as in all the older universities of the Parisian
model, the business of instruction was not confided to a
special body of privileged professors, but was conducted by
the graduates at large. Every graduate had an equal right
to teach, and even incurred the obligation of teaching pub¬
licly, for a certain period, the subjects of his faculty, as the
condition on which he obtained his degree. Even the ba¬
chelor was obliged to give proof of his ability in teaching,
by reading a short course of lectures under the superintend¬
ence of his faculty; and the doctor, after his promotion,
immediately commenced {incipiebat) his duties as a public
teacher (regebatif It was however necessary for the uni¬
versity to enforce this obligation of public teaching, during
the term of necessary regency, only if a sufficient number of
voluntary regents did not present themselves. When this was
the case the period of necessary regency was shortened, and
even a dispensation from actual teaching during its conti¬
nuance commonly allowed.7 The regents, whose duty as
public lecturers was dispensed with, still retained their pri¬
vileges as members of the governing body. The period of
necessary regency was finally limited to one year; but the
masters were allowed to remain voluntary regents (regentes
ad placitum) for two years. A lecturer might continue to
teach as a voluntary regent, after his term of necessary re¬
gency had expired ; or he might resume his regency at
pleasure. Now that the sole effect of regency is to entitle
the master to become a member of the house of congrega¬
tion, all continue regents for two years. All professors and
public lecturers, the masters of the schools, and public exa¬
miners, are regents; and the name has been extended to
all resident doctors, to the heads of houses, and to the deans
of colleges.8
The ancient system of instruction was gradually super- Professors,
seded by the appointment of salaried professors. The un¬
salaried regents in general found their schools deserted for
the gratuitous instruction of the privileged lecturers; and
though the right was expressly reserved to every doctor and
master, of lecturing in the public schools on any subject
pertaining to his faculty, its exercise was in a great mea¬
sure abandoned.9 “ Some time,” says Mr Malden,10 “ before
the present statutes were digested under the authority of
Archbishop I,and, there were, besides the professors of the
superior faculties, ten professors or public readers of the
seven arts and the three philosophies. They were appointed
by the house of congregation, that is, by the regents ; and
attendance on their lectures was enforced by statute. In
the time of Laud six of these enjoyed a permanent endow¬
ment ; four were paid partly by the fees of their pupils,
partly by fines levied on the regents whom they relieved
from teaching. After the final collection of the statutes,
a. d. 1636, by which the university is still nominally govern¬
ed, we find eleven professors or readers in the faculty of
arts. They lectured on grammar, rhetoric, and logic, the
three branches of the ancient Trivium. Of the Ouadri-
vium, geometry and astronomy had their professors endowed
by the munificence of Sir Henry Savile, in 1619. Provi¬
sion was made by royal endowment for teaching the Greek
and Hebrew languages: and there were also professors of
natural and of moral philosophy, of metaphysics, and of his-
2Edin. Rev. No. 106, 412.
'■'i1 iu07’ ^°' 410, and authorities there cited.
I11 | 412, and authorities there cited.
^ alH ' ^nn' 1408, 1413, 1422, 1512, &c. as cited in Edin. Rev, No. 106, 407 and 408.
** * Hin'n ^ ^rom Ldin. Rev. No. 106, 392, comparing Wood, a. d. 1581, and Corp. Statut. iii. sect. 2.
’ di neV' xr ant^ ^°‘ 490, note. 9 Edin. Rev. No. 108, 490, note.
I i ', f/. °. 106, 388. to Pp. H9, 120, abridged chiefly from Edin. Rev. No. 106, pp. 389-39L
twrd University Calendar, p. 26.
496
UNIVERSITIES.
Colleges.
Heads.
Oxford, tory. Music had its professor; but it was now separated
—v—- from the faculty of arts. There were also two professois
of divinity, a professor of civil law, a professor of medicine,
and a preelector in anatomy, who ministered instruction in
the higher faculties. The regius professorships of Greek,
Hebrew, divinity, civil law, and medicine, were endowed by
Henry VIII. in the years 1535 and 1540.^ The Margaret
professorship of divinity was of older date.
Before proceeding to give an account of the system of education
at present pursued in Oxford, it seems necessary for us to describe
shortly the constitution of the various colleges of which both uni¬
versities are composed. These may be regarded either as chari¬
table foundations for the maintenance of a certain number ot
students and of resident graduates, or as houses of education in
which young men desirous of obtaining degrees are lodged and
placed under the superintendence of tutors. In the first point ot
view, each college is an independent corporation, wholly uncon¬
nected with the university, except in so far as its members are
subject to the statutes; it is governed by its own laws, and is sub¬
ject to the inspection of its own visitor, appointed in its charter ot
foundation.
Each college consists of a Head, called by tne various names ot
provost, master, rector, principal, or warden, of a body of tellows
(socii), and generally of scholars also, besides various officers or
servants. With the exception of one or two royal foundations,
the heads of colleges are elected by the fellows, from their own
number, possess superior authority in the discipline of the college
considered as a place of education, and exercise an important
office in the government of the university. In most colleges the
heads are necessarily clergymen, and are allowed to marry. Their
incomes vary so much as to render it impossible to make a definite
estimate of them. They arise generally from the produce of a
double fellowship, and from college livings attached to the office.
The office is held for life.
The Fellows are the governing body of the college. The fellow¬
ships vary according to the extent of the colleges, and were either
constituted by the original founder, or have been endowed by sub¬
sequent benefactors. In many colleges in both universities the
fellows are necessarily graduates, either by statute, or by common
usage; having passed the lowest degree, that of B. A., or student
in the civil law. This rule, however, is subject to many exceptions.
In New College, Oxford, which is an establishment connected with
Winchester College, persons of the founder’s kin are fellows on
their first admission, and the others after a probation of two years.
The classes of persons eligible to fellowships are also limited by
the statutes of each college. At Cambridge, the limitation to par¬
ticular schools, dioceses, and counties, is less common than at Ox¬
ford ; but, on the other hand, it is the general practice in the for¬
mer university for each college to confine the election of fellows
to its own students. At Oxford, some of the fellowships in every
college are open to the graduates of the whole university ; but in
some of these only is the election made on the principle of free
competition, the others are disposed of by private interest and fa¬
vour. In Downing College, Cambridge, graduates of both uni¬
versities are eligible. Some few fellowships may be held by lay¬
men, but in general they can be retained only by persons already
in holy orders, or who are ordained within a specified time. Those
who decline to take orders vacate their fellowships when the
time allowed for the choice of a profession expires. Fellowships
are of very unequal value. The best at Oxford are said to be
worth, in good years, from L.600 to L.700, while many do not ex¬
ceed L.100; and many at Cambridge fall far short of that sum.1
They are paid out of the college revenues, which are for the most
part received in corn-rents, and vary with the price of that com¬
modity. The senior fellowships are the most lucrative; but all
confer upon their holders the right to apartments in the college,
and contain privileges as to commons or meals. The fellowships
Fellows.
foundation, but their connection with it is not so intimate as tliat n
of the fellows. They are always chosen from the under-graduates w
and are often elected before they have commenced their residence
at the university. At Oxford the scholars wear a different gown
from the rest of the under-graduates, and in some colleges sue.
ceed by rotation to fellowships. In respect of discipline and edu!
cation, they are on precisely the same footing as the independent
students. The scholarships vary, in point of emolument, from
L.100 or L.80 to L.20, or less, per annum, together with some
advantages in the way of board.2 In some colleges the students
corresponding to the scholars bear different names, as the demies
(semicommunarii) of Magdalen, Oxford.
Besides the scholars, there are in nearly all the colleges students Eiti
named Exhibitioners, who have exhibitions, or annual pensions,time
given in some instances by the colleges, in others by free and
endowed schools, to young men proceeding generally to the uni-
versities, or to particular colleges. Some of these are very valu.
able.
There are also several classes of inferior students, who are main-Sav
tained either wholly or in part by the endowments. These poorSizai
students are generally required to perform some menial offices in
the college, and bear various names. At Oxford they are named
Servitors, Bible-clerks ; and in Christ Church, Scholars; at Cam.
bridge they are generally termed Sizars. In the latter university
their position is more elevated than at Oxford.
The Tutors who conduct the education of the students are se-Tuk
lected from the fellows. These, with the officers, as the Dean, who
is the highest connected with education, the Bursar, &c., are some¬
times the only resident fellow's.
The university of Oxford is incorporated oy the style of “ThePres
Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Oxford."cons
Its ancient charters were confirmed by the legislature in the 13th of non,
Elizabeth ; and its statutes, as has been already mentioned, were
reduced into a digest in the chancellorship of Archbishop Laud.
The principal officers of the university are the chancellor, the
high steward, the vice-chancellor, two proctors, a public orator, a
keeper of the archives, a registrar, public professors and lecturers,
two curators of the theatre, twm clerks of the market, the keeper of
the Bodleian library, and the keeper of the Ashmolean Museum.
The first five are invested with magisterial authority, and have
the power of appointing deputies.
The highest officer in the university is the Chancellor, who isCk
elected by the members of convocation, and holds his appuint-lor.
ment for life. In the thirteenth century the chancellor was no¬
minated by the regents and non-regents, and confirmed by the
bishop of Lincoln, who was then the diocesan ot Oxford. After
the reign of Edward III. he was elected and confirmed by there-
gents and non-regents only. Till 1484, the office was held only
for one, two, or three years, and was always conferred on a resi¬
dent ecclesiastic until the time of Sir John Mason, in 1552, who
was the first lay-chancellor. For nearly two hundred years it has
been conferred on noblemen of distinction, who have been mem¬
bers of the university. The duties of the chancellor are, to defend
its privileges, and to decide, either in person or by deputy, in a
civil questions in which a member happens to be involved.
The Seneschallus or High Steward is appointed by the chance • Hie
lor, and approved by convocation, and retains the office for life. eSte'
high steward assists the chancellor, vice-chancellor, and proctors
in the execution of their respective duties, and defends the njjits,
customs, and liberties of the university. If required by the chan¬
cellor, he hears and determines capital causes, according to 1
laws of the land and the privileges of the university, wen
scholar or privileged person is the party offending. He 1 e
holds the university court-leet, at the appointment ot the c
cellor or vice-chancellor, either by himself or deputy.
The Vice-Chancellor is in effect the supreme judicial ana e. • Vic
cutive authority in the university. He is annually
by the chancellor, from the heads of colleges ; but the ot n
practice, held by rotation for four years. The vice-chance V
duties in the case of illness, or necessary absence from the umver
sitv.
Scholars.
The fellowships practice, held by rotation lor lour years, xnc    ^
are tenable for life, unless the holder marries, or inherits estates points four deputies, from the heads of colleges, per
which afford a larger revenue, or accepts one of the livings belong¬
ing to the college. In some colleges, graduates who have been
elected to fellowships are required to pass a year of probation, dur¬
ing which they receive no income.
The Scholars are placed under different regulations, and enjoy
different advantages, in the different colleges. They' are on the
The Proctors, senior and junior, are two masters of ars’ ^ rl
least four years standing, and not more than ten, who are
annually from the several colleges by turns, according “
liar cycle, fixed by the Caroline statutes of Charles !•
1 M'Culloch’s Statistical Account of the British Empire, ii. 335. 2 M'Culloch s lat- ' CCa||y attend^
3 Previously to the year 1629, the proctors were chosen by the common suffrages of the masters, and the canvass was gt’ner prjfate
with extreme tumult. To prevent the breach of discipline usual on such occasions, Charles I. converted these public elections^ py two
ones; and that the office might he distributed through every college according to an arithmetical proportion, a cycle was raw
celebrated mathematicians, which has since been followed.
j. e 'ted by the doctors and masters of arts; and after their election sion. A proposition to enact any other new statute, or explain an Oxford
^ . t y nominate four masters of arts as deputies, and may depute their old one, must be previously referred to the hebdomadal meetino- ^
a hority to a greater number if necessary. Their duties are, to which, if it approve the proposition, draws up the terms in which V^*,"
p serve the peace of the university, in which they are assisted it must be submitted to convocation; and thus in fact takes the
b their deputies, and have under their command the academical initiative in every measure.
c.stabulary force; to repress disorders among the students, and In both houses the chancellor or vice-chancellor singly and
t, nflict summary academical punishments, as the imposition of the two proctors jointly, are officially invested with an absolute
ti :s, confinement to. college, &c. They have also an extensive negative upon all proceedings, except in elections. When the ne¬
gative of these officers is not interposed (an interposition nearly as
rare as the royal veto in parliament), every question is decided by
a majority. All elections, except for members of parliament, are
made by a private scrutiny, in which the vice-chancellor presides
and the two proctors are scrutators. The members of parliament
are chosen by the vice-chancellor, doctors, regent and non-regent
masters, in convocation.
UNIVERSITIES.
497
p ce jurisdiction in the town. Their summary authority extends
b i tounder-graduates and bachelors of arts.
'he business of the university is transacted in two distinct as-
seblies termed “ Houses,” namely, the house of Congregation and
tl house of Convocation. The chancellor or vice-chancellor, or
ir lis absence one of his four deputies, and the two proctors, or
ir heir absence their respective deputies, preside in both houses,
w re their presence is indispensably requisite,
f 'he House of Congregation consists wholly of regents, either
nt mry or ad placitum. Its business is principally confined to
tl passing of graces and dispensations, and to the granting of de-
gt s. In the sole instance of supplications for graces, but in no
ot r, every member of the house, in addition to his right of suf-
frae, has a suspending negative upon each grace for three times,
asne grace is proposed in three distinct congregations; but pre-
vi sly to the fourth supplication, he is required to state privately
tohe vice-chancellor and proctors the ground and proof of his ob-
jefon, which are subsequently submitted to the judgment of the
hole for approbation or rejection. All suffrages for or against
grj?s and dispensations in congregation are to be whispered se-
cr*y into the ear of the proctor, by a majority of which, given in
th-word placet or non-placet, the fate of the measure is ultimately
deirmined.
^he House of Convocation, which is, with some limitations,
ca posed of regents and non-regents alike,extends its power to all
suiects connected with the credit, interest, and welfare of the
ur ersity. In the exercise, however, of one particular branch of
iti rivileges, the enacting of new or the explaining of old statutes,
soi* restriction is prescribed. No proposition to explain or amend
a iVal or Caroline statute1 can be received without royal permis-
The Hebdomadal Meeting consists of the vice-chancellor, proc- Hebdoma-
tors, and heads of houses, who meet every Monday, and at other all
times when convened by the vice-chancellor, to deliberate upon all j,!
matters relating to the preservation of the privileges and liberties S'
of the university, and to inquire into and consult respecting the
due observance of statutes and customs. All letters of the chan¬
cellor, in the case of dispensations, which are addressed to convo¬
cation, must, previously to a recital in the house, be sanctioned by
their approbation.
The Professorships are of two kinds ; those instituted by the Professor-
crown, and those established by private endowment. The regius shinsT
professors are appointed by the crown, the others according t<Tthe ' 1
will of the founders. The professors as such have no direct con¬
cern with academical instruction or discipline. Attendance on
their lectures is not, except in a few merely formal instances, ne¬
cessary for the attainment either of university rank or college
emolument; although, for the purpose of being admitted to holv
orders, it is necessary for bachelors of arts to attend the lectures
of the regius professor of divinity for a short time, unless they ob¬
tain a dispensation. The lectures of professors, therefore, are at¬
tended only by voluntary students.
The following is a list of the professorships, with the date of
their foundation, and patronage.
tegius professorship of divinity.
— — — medicine.
— — — civil law.
— — — Greek.
— — — Hebrew,
largaret professorship of divinity.
’rof'essorship of natural philosophy",
avilian professorship of geometry,
avilian professorship of astronomy.
\ bite’s professorship of moral philosophy.
'ambden professorship of ancient history,
'rofessorship of music.
.audian professorship of Arabic.
herardian professorship of botany.
'rofessorship of poetry.
legius professorship of modern history and modern
languages.
rofessorship of Anglo-Saxon,
bnerian professorship of common law",
linical professorship.
.on! Almoner’s readership in Arabic.
Idriehian professorship of medicine.
— — chemistry,
rofessorship of political economy,
oden professorship of Sanscrit.
*e’s lectureship in anatomy.
1535
1535
154G
1546?
1546?
14.97
1618
1619
1619
1621
1622
1626
1636
1728
1708
1724
1795
1758
1772
1780
1803
1803
1825
1832
1750
Crown.
Crown. •
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Graduates of divinity.
Vice-chancellor, president of Magdalen, and warden of All Souls.
Archbishop of Canterbury, lord chancellor, chancellor, &c.
Ditto ditto.
Vice-chancellor, proctors, &c.
Chancellor, masters, and scholars.
Proctors.
Presidents of St John’s and Magdalen, wardens of New College,
All Souls, and Merton.
College of Physicians.
Members of convocation.2
Crowm.
Members of convocation.
Chancellor, masters, and scholars.
Members of convocation.
Lord almoner.
Members of convocation.
Members of convocation.
Chancellor, masters, and scholars.
Chancellor, masters, and scholars.
Besides, there are three readerships, in experimental philosophy, mineralogy, and geology, established by a grant from the
the years 1810, 1813, and 1818 ; the two, last of which are at present held by Dr Buckland, the celebrated geologist.
eit r )U^ i'C pra.tor js chosen by convocation, and must be at least
'a fti c .or *n. c*v*i iaw>or master of arts. He is the secre-
ca n 16 university, wrrites letters and addresses on public oc-
ar i m i)rfsen*'s those on whom the honorary degree of master of
all n-f0! e.canifrred, and delivers the annual Creweian oration
> fly with the professor of poetry.
bcic^’f s*'u<^enb admitted to the university is entered on the
hu kp° S°me ?lleSe or A*- the time of matriculation,
an oath to observe the statutes of the university, or
submit to the penalties imposed for their violation, and subscribes
his assent to the thirty.nine articles. If there is room for him in
the college, he may commence residence immediately on matricu¬
lation ; but this is not necessarily required of him till three or four
terms have elapsed. Lodging in the town is in no case allowed
to men under twelve terms standing. There is no difference in
respect of priority of degree, admission, &c. between gentlemen
commoners and commoners. The only privileges of the former con¬
sist in a particular dress, and in a separate table at the college
to ' nom8r0 1,16 sta*utes’ transmitted by Charles L, and confirmed by convocation, are those only which relate to the hebdomadal meetim
'o C-°^l Ct0rS *n kent> to the election of proctors, and to the procuratorial cycle.
0 ess°rship in the gift of convocation can be successively enjoyed by two persons of the same college.
' XI’ --- - s ^ -
498
UNIVERSITIES.
Private
Tutors.
Terms.
(linnet-, with some trifling indulgences in particular colleges. In
the case of noblemen, however, and the eldest sons of baronets
and knights, the time for taking the first degree is shortened.
The student, on entering his college, is assigned to the superin¬
tendence of some one of the tutors. This, however, in most of
the colleges, is little more than a form, as the tutors, who are ge¬
nerally three, four, or five in number, usually divide among
themselves the discipline and instruction of the college ; and the
student is equally under the superintendence of all. The instruc¬
tions of the tutors are directed solely to the preparation of the
students for taking a degree, and consist of catechetical lectures,
mixed witli reading and discussion, on a portion of some classical
or mathematical book in common use at the university examina¬
tions. Of these lectures, the students at first generally attend
three or four daily. In the colleges which have a considerable
number of under-graduates, divinity is usually taught by the dean,
and mathematics by a separate tutor; but, with these excep¬
tions, there is not much division of labour between the tutors
in the same house. The subjects which form the academical
education may be taken indifferently by any. Besides the class
lectures, the tutors have from time to time interviews with
their pupils separately, for the purpose of ascertaining more ex¬
actly their state of preparation for the public examination, con¬
sulting with them on the most effectual means of removing their
peculiar difficulties, and arranging generally their plans of study.
They also prescribe weekly exercises in composition, in Greek,
Latin, and English. In this department, however, the college tu¬
tors are not the sole labourers. Although recognised neither by
the universities, nor by any particular college, a very numerous
class has long existed both at Oxford and Cambridge, who, under
the denomination of Private Tutors, superintend and assist the stu¬
dies of individuals. Without interfering with the operation of
the college lectures, they are occupied rather in securing for the
student the best use of them, and, in the latter part of his
course, in preparing him generally for his public examination.
The fee of a private tutor at Oxford is L.50 a year; at Cambridge,
where the academical year is somewhat shorter, L.40. The course
of college lectures closes at the end of each term, with a formal
examination of the students separately, by the head and tu¬
tors. This summing up of the business of the term is called, in
the technical language of the place, collections or terminals, and oc¬
cupies from two "days to a week, according to the size of the col¬
lege or hall.
According to the statutes, residence and attendance upon the
university professors are requisite for all degrees. Students in arts
are required to attend the lectures of the professors of that faculty
during a period of four years to qualify for bachelor, and during
seven to qualify for master; the particular branches for each year
being also specified. The present practice, however, is very dif¬
ferent ; it has already been stated that the professors have been
entirely superseded by the college tutors; and although the de¬
grees emanate from them, they have no share whatever in com¬
municating the knowledge which is requisite for their attain¬
ment. The degree of B. A. is the only one for which residence is
indispensable.
The academical year is divided into four terms : 1. Michaelmas,
which extends from the 10th of October to the 17th of December ;
2. Hilary, from the 14th of January to the day before Palm Sun¬
day ; 3. Easter, from the tenth day after Easter Sunday to the day
before Whitsunday; 4. Trinity, from the first Wednesday after
Whitsunday to the Saturday after the act, which is always on the
first Tuesday in July. The year of academical residence thus in¬
cludes nearly seven months. The following is the time requisite
for obtaining the different degrees.
Bachelor of Arts (B. A.); sixteen terms, for all except the sons
and the eldest sons of the eldest sons of peers and peeresses in
their own right, baronets, and the eldest sons of baronets and
knights, who are admissible to their degree after having completed
three years. Of the sixteen terms, however, twelve only are ne¬
cessary in residence.
Master of Arts (M. A.); twelve terms after admission to a bache¬
lor’s degree. A master of arts becomes a regent after the act sub¬
sequent to his degree, and thereby obtains the privilege of voting
in convocation.
Bachelor in the Civil Law (B. C. L.); three years, to be calculated
from the regency. I'or those who do not pass through acts, twenty-
eight terms are necessary, of which seventeen must be in residence.
Doctor in the Civil Law (D. C. L.) ; five years from the time at
which the bachelor’s degree was conferred ; shortened to four f
those who intend to practise at Doctors Commons.
Bachelor in Medicine (M. B.) ; twenty-eight terms after matri'
lation.
Doctor in Medicine (M. D.); three years after taking the bu
chelor’s degree.
Bachelor in Divinity (B. D.); seven years from the regency
Doctor in Divinity (D. D.) ; four years after taking the bache
lor’s degree.
Degrees in Music are merely honorary ; but the performance of
some piece of music is required by way of exercise.
Candidates for the degree of bachelor of arts are required in the
sixth or eighth term, unless dispensation be obtained for a later
period, to undergo the preliminary examination called respontiom ■'
that is, to answer questions publicly proposed by the masters of
the schools.1 This exercise consists of an examination in the
Greek and Latin languages, chiefly with a view to their grammatical
construction ; and in the rudiments of logic, or a portion of Euclid's
Elements of Geometry. This examination is technically called
the “ little go and to have failed three times in passing it (or, in
the Oxford phraseology, to have been “ plucked”2 * three times) is
generally considered a disqualification from further pursuing the
studies of the university.
The public examinations are held twice a year, viz. in Michael-]
mas and Easter terms. The public examination comprises, 1. Thet
rudiments of religion, under which head is required a competent
knowledge of the gospels in the original Greek ; of the history of
the Old and New Testament; of the thirty-nine articles of the
church of England ; and of the evidences of religion, natural and
revealed. 2. The Literce humaniores; under which head is com-
prised a sufficient acquaintance with the Greek and Latin lan
guages, and ancient history ; with rhetoric and poetry ; yyith moral
and political science, as derived from the Greek and Homan
writers, and illustrated, if necessary, from modern authors; with
logic, which is indispensably required from all candidates for the
first, second, or third classes ; and with Latin and English com¬
position. 3. The elements of the mathematical and physical sci¬
ences.
With regard to the examination in some parts of the literae hu
maniores, and in the elements of the mathematical sciences and of
physics, the examiners have a discretionary power; aknowledgeof
the latter branches not being indispensable. They are however
bound to examine all candidates in at least three Greek and Latin
classical writers, in logic or the first four books of Euclid, and to
ascertain their proficiency in translating from English into Latin.
With respect to the rudiments of religion, they possess no dis¬
cretionary power ; and any failure in this part of the examination
must preclude the candidate from his degree, without regard to
any other attainments.
Such are the acquirements necessary to enable a student to ob¬
tain a degree. Those who aspire to “ honours” are required to
embrace a wider field, and are subjected to a more strict examina¬
tion, which lasts three or four days. The candidate for honours
may attain them either in classical literature and moral philo¬
sophy (in Uteris humanioribus), or in mathematics (in disciplinis m-
thematicis et physicis), or in both. As a preliminary condition, he
must however satisfy the examiners of his proficiency in di¬
vinity, though he is not in general subjected to a severer trial
than those who merely7 present themselves for a common degree.
The candidate for mathematical honours must, in the first instance,
“ jiass” in classics. The candidate for classical honours is allowed
to choose his own books for examination, which generally amount
to fourteen or sixteen. Among those most commonly chosen are,
Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, Sophocles, Horace, Virgil, am
Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Ethics. To these some add, according to
their inclination, Aristotle’s Poetics, Lucretius, or a scientific dia¬
logue of Cicero, part of Homer or Pindar, or TEschylus, some pla.'»
of Aristophanes; and some few take a selection from the orators,
or from Polybius or Tacitus. The necessary extent ol knowle ge
in mathematics and physics, though inferior to that which one-
quired at Cambridge, embraces geometry, algebra, Newton s
cipia, mechanics, hydrostatics, astronomy, and optics. '1 he exami¬
nations are conducted principally by means of printed papers.
When the examinations are concluded, the names of those "
have honourably distinguished themselves, by passing a
animation in a wider range than that necessary for a mere degre,
are distributed in alphabetical order into four classes, um ei c
two divisions of literae humaniores and disciplintr. mathernnhetz
1 There are three masters of the schools, who must have been admitted regents in arts, one of whom is nominated in convoc®
the vice-chancellor, and one by each of the proctors, annually, on the first day of Trinity term. The presence of two masters is necess ,
the responsions. . jj.
2 This phrase had its origin in an ancient custom, by which any one who objected to a degree about to be conferred in congregation)
fled his dissent by plucking the sleeve of the proctor’s gown.
UNIVERSITIES.
r r(j .fyucie. A fifth rlass gives the number, without mentioning the
'-^.la'mes, of those who, though they have obtained their testimonium,
' a. not .leemed worthy of any honourable distinction. Printed co¬
nes of the schedule containing these classes are sent to the ehancel-
or, vice-chancellor, the heads of houses, the proctors, and to the
efectory and common room of each college and hall. The exami-
iations for fellowships, scholarships, ike., are conducted in the
ame manner as those for honours, with this exception, that ma-
hematical knowledge generally goes for little in college competi-
ions for fellowships, unless the college should chance to be in
,ant of a tutor in that department.
mers The examiners for degrees are, seven masters of arts, four in
lassies and three in mathematics, who are appointed by the vice-
hancellor and proctors, subject to the approval of congregation
nd convocation.
Degrees in the civil law and medicine are merely nominal ho¬
nors, and are not conferred on special examination ; but they can
nly be obtained by those who have passed a bachelor’s examina-
ion in arts. For degrees in divinity, attendance on divinity leo¬
nes is requisite. There are, besides, disputations and exercises en-
lined by statute for all the higher degrees, the performance of
hich is little more than nominal.
499
. Tjle expenses of an under-graduate vary so materially, accord- Oxford.
mg to the taste and habits of each individual, that it is impossible ■ v —-
to present any satisfactory statement of them. The whole ex- Expenses,
penditure, exclusive of a private tutor’s fee, an expense which is
incurred only by those who are preparing for honours, of such
commoners as live on the most economical scale, has been es¬
timated from L.200 to L.250 a year.1 The ordinary college
account, including university and college fees of all kinds, board¬
ing, lodging, washing, coals, and servants, varies from L.tiO to
L. 100 at different colleges, for commoners, and from L.30 to
L. 40 more for gentlemen commoners. The students dine together
in the college hall, sitting at different tables according to their
ranks and degrees. Their remaining meals are taken in their own
rooms. The university, as a corporation, possesses very little pro¬
perty except the libraries and public buildings ; and of these the
most important have been raised either by the munificence of in¬
dividuals or by public subscription. The estates which have
been bequeathed to it have been appropriated either to the en¬
dowment of certain professorships, or to the augmentation of the
libraries.
For the Bodleian Library, Clarendon Press, &c. see Libraries
and Oxford.
The following are the existing Colleges and Halls at Oxford, in the Order of their Foundation.
1. University College. .
1. Balliol College.
3. Merton College.
4. Exeter College. .
6. Oriel College. .
6. Queen's College. •
7. New College. .
8. Lincoln College. .
9. All Souls College. .
0. Magdalen College.
1. Brasen-Nose College.
2. Corpus Christ! College.
3. Christ Church.
4- Trinity College.
5. St John’s College. •
6. Jesus College.
>• Vadham College. .
5' Pembroke College. .
9. Worcester College.
0 st Mary Hall.
!1. Magdalen Hall.
S'?,e71Lnn Ha»- •
i s p ban Hal1-
M Edmund Hall.
Date of
Founda¬
tion.
{between")
12G;iand j
12(18 j
1314
1326
1340
1386
1427
1437
1456
1509
1516
1525
1554
1555
1571
1613
1624
1714
1438
About 1550
About 1269
Founders.
William of Durham.
f John Balliol of Bernard)
< Castle, and Dervorguilla >
(. hiswiffe. . . )
( Walter de Merton, bi-1
X shop of Kochester. .
f Walter de Stapledon, bi-1
l shop of Exeter. . /
Adam de Brome. . .
Kobert Egglesfield. . .
1 William of Wykeham, 1
\ bishop of Winchester. /
J Richard Fleming, bishop i
1 of Lincoln. . . )
( Henry Chichele, archbi- j
I shop of Canterbury. /
(William of Waynfleet, 1
\ bishop of Winchester. /
1 William Smith, bishop of )
■? Lincoln, and Sir Rich- >
t ard Sutton, Knt. . )
Richard Fox, bishop of)
Winchester. . . f
(Cardinal Wolsey, sus-
) pended by Henry V11
) and re-established
C 1532.
Sir Thomas Pope, Knt.
isO
"C
3
Sir Thomas White, Knt.
(Hugh Price, D. C. L.\
(. treasurer of St David's. /
( Nicholas Wadham, Esq., v
1 and Dorothy his wife. /
f Thomas Tesdale, Esq.
! and Richard Wight-
(. wick, B. D. .
Sir Thomas Cookes, Bart.
The Queen.
( Archbishop of
1 Canterbury.
•H
On the Foundation.
Members in
1839.
Ofthe Total
Se- on the
nate. Board.
( Master, 13 fellows, 19 scholars, with some exhi-1 I
1 bitioners M
Master, 12 fellows, 14 scholars, and a consider-) i
able number of exhibitioners; 10 from the >
university of Glasgow J
f Archbishop of) / Warden, 24 fellows, 14 post-masters, 4 scholars )
f Canterbury. | f 2 chaplains, and 2 clerks. . . . ’)
( Bishop of Exe-
1. ter. . .
The Queen.
/ Archbishop of)
1 York. . . /
| Bishop of )
\ Winchester. /
( Bishop of Lin- )
1 coin. . . /
( Archbishop of)
) Canterbury, j
( Bishop of )
\ Winchester. /
( Bishop of Lin-)
) coin. . . >
( Bishop of )
) Winchester. /
The Queen.
f Bishop of )
l Winchester. /
1 Bishop of
} Winchester.
) r Chancellor of) f
> J the univer- > ■!
J ( sity. . . J '•
( Earl of Pcm-
) broke. .
{Bishop of
Bath and
Wells.
Chancellor of
the univer¬
sity,
Bishops of Ox-)
| ford and
j Worcester, !
> and vice- !
i chancellor of |
[ university. )
^ Chancellor of"
Ditto.
itm vci any. j
lhancellor of)
the univer- V
sity. . . J
>{
f Rector, 25 fellows, and 19 scholars and exhibi-7
l tioners j
f Provost, 18 fellows, and 17 scholars and exhibi- t
\ tioners. .•..., /
i Provost, 24 fellows, 10 masters of arts, 4 scholars, )
) 24 exhibitioners, Ac. .... /
j Warden, 70 fellows and scholars, 10 chaplains, )
) an organist, 3 clerks, and 16 choristers. . i
j Rector, 12 fellows, 8 scholars, 12 exhibitioners,)
) and 1 Bible clerk J
f Warden, 40 fellows, 2 chaplains, and 2 Bible *
( clerks. . .... J
( President, 40 fellows, 30 demies, schoolmaster,)
< usher, 4 chaplains, organist, 8 clerks, and 16 >
L choristers. .... J
( Principal, 20 fellows, and a considerable num-)
) her of scholars and exhibitioners. . /
( President, 20 fellows, 20 scholars, 2 chaplains,)
) and 4 exhibitioners. . . . J
f Dean, 8 canons, 101 students, 8 chaplains, or-7
(. ganist, 8 singing men, and 8 choristers. j
/ President, 12 fellows, 13 scholars, and 3 exhibi-1
) tioners. . . . . . /
President, 50 fellows and scholars, chaplain,
organist, 6 singing men, 6 choristers, and 2
_ sextons. . ^
( Principal, 19 fellows, 18 scholars, and a number 1
< of exhibitioners; all except two fellows must \
(. be natives of Wales. ■ . . J
I Warden, 15 fellows, 15 scholars, 2 chaplains, 2)
) clerks, and a number of exhibitioners . f
Master, 14 fellows, and 29 scholars and exhibi-)
tioners. ..... f
(Provost, 21 fellows, 16 scholars, and 3 exhibi-
) tioners. .....
Principal, vice-principal, and 3 exhibitioners.
f Principal, vice-principal, and some scholars and)
\ exhibitioners. • • • • J
Principal. .....
Principal and vice-principal.
Ditto. ditto. ....
218
83
486
119
124
54
87
107
234
309
326
327
276
153
147
105
171
390
120
897
289
230
135
245
187
179
52
22
101
2684 5331 450
Matriculations, 1838     393
Regents 182
Determining Bachelors in Lent, 1838   255
1 M'Culloch’s Stat. Acct. ii. 341.
500
Origin.
History.
UNIVERSITIES.
Cambridge.
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
It is probable that Cambridge first became a seat of
education in the seventh century, when, according to Bede,
Sigebert, king of the East Angles, with the assistance of
Bishop Felix, instituted in his kingdom a school for learning,
in imitation of those which he had seen during his exile in
France.1 This school is supposed to have been fixed at
Cambridge, which then bore the name of Cairgrant, and
was one of the most celebrated towns in Britain, though
the fact is not asserted by Bede. How long the school
thus founded continued to flourish, we are not informed;
but the complaint of Alfred that, in his youth, when he
had leisure to be instructed, he could not find teachers,
would lead to the inference that in his time no public se¬
minaries existed. The merit of restoring, or probably of
founding, the school which formed the nucleus of the future
university, is ascribed to Edward the Elder, son of Alfred ;
who appears, from the chronicle of Hyde Abbey, to have
erected, “ at his own expense, halls for the students, and
chairs and seats for the doctorsat the same time ap¬
pointing teachers, and adopting other necessary measures,
which seemed to secure the stability of the institution.2
The importance of the town, however, rendered it liable to
numerous vicissitudes, and exposed it to the ravages of
the Danes and Saxons. In the year 1010 it was burnt and
plundered by the Danes; and towards the end of the ele¬
venth century, William the Conqueror destroyed a part of
it, to make room for the fortress which he found it neces¬
sary to erect for the purpose of overawing the refractory
monks of Ely. In all these reverses of fortune the scho¬
lastic establishments had their full share.
The reign of the succeeding monarch was not more fa¬
vourable to the tranquillity of the town, and the schools
were therefore for some time abandoned. Henry I., who
is said to have been educated at Cambridge, conferred
on the town some valuable privileges, and induced the
wandering students to return to their former dwellings.
In his reign (1109) Joffrid, abbot of Croyland, “ sent to
his manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge, Gislebert, his
fellow-monk, and professor of divinity, with three other
monks who had followed him into England. These being
well versed in philosophy and other sciences, went daily to
Cambridge, and having hired a public barn, made open
profession of their sciences, and in a little time collected a
great concourse of scholars. In the second year after their
arrival, the number of their scholars from the town and
country increased so much, that there was no house, barn,
or church capable of containing them. For this reason they
separated into different parts of the town, imitating the
plan of the university of Orleans.”3 An old building is
still pointed out as the representative of the barn in which
these missionaries taught. The number of students conti¬
nued to increase, and the school gradually acquired cele¬
brity, till 1174, when nearly the whole town was consumed
by a fire “ so merciless,” says Fuller, “ that it only stopped
for want of fuel to feed its fury.” From this disaster the
seminary appears to have speedily revived ; and, in 1209,
it received an accession of numbers from Oxford, in con¬
sequence of an act of severity on the part of King John,
which has been already alluded to. This, according to MrC
Hallam,4 is the earliest authentic mention of Cambridge as^
a place of learning; though he admits the reasonableness
of the conjecture, that the Oxford scholars would not have
removed to a town so distant, if it had not already been
arndpmirjil instriiptinn. f‘
the seat of academical instruction. Cambridge was noj
yet permitted to enjoy the tranquillity which is indispen-
sable for the successful prosecution of study. In the year
1215, during the contentions between King John and his
barons, the town was laid waste ; and it shared the same
fate afterwards in the civil w ar under Henry III, Previously
to this last disaster, the king had extended his patronage to
the rising seminary, in consequence of some of the Parisian
scholars who had accepted his invitation having settled
there, and had by public letters confirmed the authority of
the academical officers, and checked the disorders which
from time to time manifested themselves. In these remote
times the students lodged in the houses of the citizens, or
in halls or inns hired of them, under the superintendence
of principals, who were responsible to the chancellor for
the conduct of their pupils.5 The extravagant demands
for rent gave rise to numerous disputes between the scho¬
lars and townsmen, and drew from the king in 1231 a pub¬
lic letter ordaining that lodgings or hostels (hospitk)
“ should be taxed according to the custom of the univer¬
sity, namely, by two masters, and two respectable and law-
ful men of the town, and let to the scholars according to
their valuation.” This order was repeated in letters patent
of the same king, with the addition that the valuation should
be renewed every five years.6 A similar regulation pre¬
vailed at Oxford.
The most important of the public instruments of Henry
III. relative to the university, besides those already men¬
tioned, are, his letter addressed to the sheriff of the county
(yicecomes), calling upon him “ to repress the insubordina¬
tion of the clerks and scholars, and to enforce obedience to
the injunctions of the bishop of Ely, either by imprison¬
ment or banishment from the university, according to the
discretion of the chancellor and masters his letter to the
bishop of Ely, ordering that “ clerks who were contumacious
and rebellious against the chancellor should be imprisoned
or banished from the town and his letter addressed to the
sheriff, in the 26th year of his reign, in which it is ordered
that “ when any clerk of the university of scholars study¬
ing at Cambridge, has been guilty of any misdemeanour,
and has been convicted by the university, and sentenced
to imprisonment, if the burgesses of the town are negligent
in carrying the sentence into effect, or are unable to do so,
the sheriff, on the warrant of the chancellor, is to cause
such malefactor to be committed to prison, and kept in safe
custody, until the chancellor demand his liberation.”7 The
mixture of jurisdictions implied in these documents is sin¬
gular ; the authority of the bishop of Ely, as diocesan, is
distinctly recognised ; but delinquents are to be tried by
the chancellor and masters, and the civil power of the she¬
riff is necessary to carry their sentence into execution. It
likewise appears from what has already been stated, that
Cambridge, though not yet incorporated, was recognised as
a university,8 and received a support from the civil power
which was not given to the continental universities. A
, ^ec^e» Eecles. Hist. Gent. Angl. lib. iii. cap. 18, as cited by Dyer, Hist, of the University of Cambridge, vol. i. p. 47.
- Henry s History of Great Britain, ii. 360. & > r
f ’ -Appendix to Ingulfus, as cited in Henry’s Hist, of Great Britain, iii. 439. Dyer’s History, i. 141.
4 Mid. Ages, ju. 527, note. > /
15th Henry III., and snp-
The highest officer of the university was originally called Rector. Mr I>yer says the name Chancellor occurs in
poses it was applied to him about the beginning of this reign. History, i. 60, note. Privileges, i. 404, 485.
Dyer s Privileges, i. 5 and 7. 7 Dyer-S priviieges, i. pp. 5, 6, 62.
a , nviieges, i. o ana /. 7 Dyer,s privilegeS) j. pp. 5, 6) 62. n
Ti 11 F rivrjSt a*68 rlvlle£es> 1' AI2, note) that he finds the term University applied to Cambridge in a public instrument of 1223. *
11 all am (Mid. Ages, iii. 527, note) assigns the date of its first incorporation to the 15th of Henry III., or 1231 ; but in Hares Kegi5"
er 0 ^ 18 # barters, and other monuments of the liberties and privileges of the university, which is the authority on which the university re
ies, t lere is no charter of incorporation of this year, or indeed any of this monarch. It is probable, therefore, that Mr Hallam bas nnsta e
UNIVERSITIES. 501
Le flore explicit recognition of the privileges of the university The university obtained its first formal charter of pri- Cambridge.
r-s found m a royal enactment of the forty-fifth of Henry vileges from Edward I. in the twentieth year of his remn   
II. (1260), prohibiting “ the king’s justices from interfer- (1291). This charter, besides confirming the letters 0ofChurters-
ng in hearing and determining offences between scholars Henry III. and the Composition, conferred upon the uni
nd laymen meaning by the latter term those who were versity some new privileges, among which was one, that no
ot scholars.1 , one imPrisoned by order of the chancellor should’be libe
The royal support thus given to the university was not rated by the mayor and bailiffs under pretext of a kino’s
ifficient to check the spirit of insubordination among the brief formerly issued/* Charters more and more ample were
iholars, or to prevent them from engaging in frequent con- granted by Edward II. Edward III. Richard II and Henry
ids with the townsmen. On one occasion the students IV. in the beginning of their reigns, as we have already
om the north and south, arranged in opposite sides, es- found to be the case with the university of Oxford By
rased the cause of two of their countrymen who had quar- these charters the university obtained the control over
died, and proceeding from words to blows, threw the uni- victuallers of all sorts, with power to punish reqraters and
ersity and town into the utmost disorder. The chancel- forestalled, and to deliver scholastics and clerks from prison •
r interfered, but academical authority was too weak ; and and all causes in which they were concerned relatino- to
,e townsmen who were called to his aid, mixing in the laws, letting of houses, &c., were made cognisable before
ay, contributed only to increase the confusion. Public the vice-chancellor or his commissary. The jurisdiction of
under, burning of records, and every species of horror en- this officer was extended to all cases, whether civil or cri
led. The king sent a delegate to inquire into the dis- minal, except those of mayhem and felony, in which one of
ites, and to cause summary justice to be executed on some the parties was a master or scholar. The assize of bread
the delinquents. Sixteen of the townsmen were hanged, wine, and beer, with the supervision of weights and measures’
k! others belonging both to the university and town took which had formerly belonged to the magistrates of the town’
fuge in the religious houses, or were committed to the were exclusively lodged in the university; and for these pri-
" f01- % thls mfans Peace was restored; but vileges the university was to pay into the exchequer a yearly
any of the scholars retired to Northampton, where they tribute often pounds. The mayor and bailiffs of the town
3re allowed by the king to form themselves into a literary were sworn every year, before the vice-chancellor to keen
ciety/ I hese tumults were likewise increased b^ the the peace of the university. ’ V
urnaments which were held at Cambridge during the So far as the extant documents enable us to judge, Cam- Confirma-
irteenth century, and which not only interrupted the bridge was not much troubled by papal bulls and rescripts-6 tion.
idles of die university during their continuance, but gave and was less exposed than the sister university to ecclesi’-
ie to animosities which did not easily subside. To re- astical interference at home. When Edward II. in the
ove tins impediment to learning, Henry III. issued letters tenth year of his reign (1316), granted to the’univer-
tent, which were confirmed by Edward II., forbidding any sity a charter containing some additional privileges he
urnament from being held within five miles of the town.3 solicited a confirmation of them from the papal see.’ 4
I lie most important document of Henry III. is the famous bull was accordingly issued at Avignon, by John XXII in
imposition (12/0) between the scholars and burgesses, the second year of his pontificate (1318), which after
nfirmed by royal authority, which ordained that “ a certain confirming the privileges conferred by former popes and for-
im icr of the scholars and the townsmen should be bound mer kings of England, ordains “ that there shall be thence-
oath to take the names of all the principal houses in the forth at Cambridge a studium. generale, and that every fa-
Lt" 1 aI Wh° d,We t Tj t,hem’rS0, that I™ Person culty shal! be maintained there ; and that the college and
Juki be lodged therein who could disturb the public peace.” masters of the said studium shall be accounted a university
fenders who could not be expelled by the authorities of and enjoy all the rights which any university whatloeve?
. university and town, were to be denounced before the lawfully established, can and ought to enjoy.'”? From the
L i lhe^ffeCtSof thisarrangement were date of this bu,1> Cambridge was recognised among the
neficially felt by the university; and accordingly the universities of Christendom. g %
!';!!!! i -ltS *rt0ry Was n0t disturbed by any violent agi- We have already seen that the jurisdiction of the bishop
, v ofdr? ie next cenutury- ln the year 1381’ the bos- of EIy> as bishop of the diocese, was in ancient times dis?
yot the townsmen to the students displayed itself with tinctly acknowledged; but it was soon limited partly bv
;^a violence which led to the destruction of the charters the concessions of the bishops themselves, and partly by
i is otlLfTV"1!t l0Se Benne,t College. After mime- papal authority. Hugh Balsham, the founder of St Peter’s
i bo. of NorliH 10 the.tumu V™8 oppressed by the College, disclaimed (1275), by a public letter, any inten-
pot Norwich, and the principal leaders were pumshed tion of derogating from the privileges of the university
1' town we^rl d?)m’fr °i •hlS, and thj liberties of or disturbing the jurisdiction of the chancellor, but re-
ten n were declared forfeited, and bestowed on the vice- quired all suits to be brought before the chancellor in the
II ul°r’ “Vvhom they were vested till the reign of Henry first instance, restricting himself to receiving appeals. In
i farrmJ1' • 'm C0IPoratlon was restored, though several of the following year the same bishop limited the jurisdiction
er privileges were retained by the university. of his archdeacon.8 Farther limitations in the power of the
* .'feat ffL1loLTof0IiaeSvritn of .inc1orP°rati?n-h PP; 93> 94)' “Wherever ” says Mr Dyer, “ we choose to make ourltand,
* pose the existeni / IIeDry IIL "h,ch undoubtedly authentic, or any which preceded him, that are of doubtful authority, they all
■ tssatj • the word w Un,Tersl*y>. but -say nothing ot its creation: nor, indeed, from the meaning of the word, does it seem to have been
1 'o the term any of TliLTw^ l? Ta "n^S“lte.d to a 'Uerary «s well as any other body : so it was insensibly adopted, without annex-
Dyer’s Privil > ^ ° c^arm Cached to it in later years. Privileges, i. 385.
feLLTmi 6\ Th,is uni™'sity ^st€d on]y four years- The students were ordered by the king to return to Cambridge in 1264
j eTS to perform it j? the ebrated D* Bentley was vice-chancellor, the mayor and corporation of Cambridge gave permission to
I lk’s Life of Bentl • 159 1’air’ WLlCh Ca' ed UU° exerc,se the Power of'the university. and Las since prevented a repetition of the offence.
I) * > * ?f Bentley, i. 152.
In the fen'ofTT67' ^TrivTileges*1 66‘ 5 dyer’s Hist. i. 67. Priv. i. 73.
Charters &c wJ 7 V V •' ‘l16 un,versity and colleges were ordered to send in all their grants, charters, statutes, and bulls ; and though
i-nts Of this l;nA Tt0™’ V “?es not aPPear that tbe bulls were returned. It is doubtful, therefore, if we possess the most ancient do-
Xhi, b‘n . . • bee Dyer s Priv. i. 394.
as Mr Par'ufTl n at fub lenS‘h by Dyer (Priv. i. 60 and 61), who successfully proves (p. 410) that it was issued by John XXII., and
supposes, by John X., whose pontificate extended from 914 to 928. 8 Dyer’s Privileges, i. 8. Malden, p. 102.
502
U N I V E R S I T I E
S.
Cambridge, bishop were made in the early part of the reign of Edward
' v  III.; and in the thirty-sixth year of the same reign, letters
patent were granted, by which the scholars were protected
from being summoned out of the university into any eccle¬
siastical court; and appeals to any ecclesiastical court what¬
ever w ere prohibited in cases cognisable by the chancellor.
These immunities were confirmed by royal letters to the
bishop of Ely in the 15th of Richard II.1 The university
elected its chancellor and other principal officers, but the
confirmation of the bishop of Ely was anciently required."
This confirmation was however dispensed with by a bull of
Boniface IX. in 1401; and in 1430, Pope Martin V. appoint¬
ed a commission to inquire whether the university by grant
or custom was subject to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of
the chancellor, and exempted from that of all others ; em¬
powering his delegates, it they should find it so, to confirm
by his authority that jurisdiction and exemption, which was
accordingly done. The sentence of the delegates was ra¬
tified by a bull of Eugenius IV. in 1433. The university
was thus relieved from the jurisdiction of the bishop of the
diocese, but not from that of the archbishop of the province.
Two examples of metropolitan visitation are recorded, the
one in 1309, and the other in 1401; but in neither case does
the archbishop appear to have acted on his own authority.
Mr Dyer3 shows that the former visitation was undertaken
by the authority of letters patent from the king. The pro¬
ceedings of the latter, which had special reference to the
heresy of Wycliffe, were confirmed by act of parliament. The
right of visitation and inspection is vested in the sovereign.
In the reign of Henry V. the university obtained two re¬
markable privileges. The one was a public statute, ordain¬
ing that none should practise the art of medicine except
those admitted in the universities, and approved by them ;
offenders were to be punished at the discretion of the
privy council. The other was a mandate from the arch¬
bishop, granted with the consent of the prelates of his pro¬
vince, that patrons should bestow ecclesiastical benefices only
on graduates and students of the university. Some addi¬
tional privileges were conferred by Edward IV. and Henry
VII. The changes which took place in the religion of the
state during the four succeeding reigns affected consider¬
ably the internal arrangements and prosperity of the uni¬
versity. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign,
granted to it an extensive charter; and by the act of par¬
liament 13 Eliz. c. 29, for the incorporation of the two
English universities, this and all preceding grants from
Henry III. downwards were confirmed, and the university
was declared to be incorporated by the name of the “ Chan¬
cellor, Masters, and Scholars.”
Colleges. Our materials do not enable us to give so minute an ac¬
count of the collegiate foundations of Cambridge, and of
other religious houses for the residence of students, as we
have already given respecting those of Oxford. In the early
part of the thirteenth century, the halls or hostels are
said to have been very numerous, and to have been crowd¬
ed with students. This is indeed implied in the public
letters of Henry III. ; and it would appear from the terms
of the Composition, that the hospitia, to which it referred,
were liable to fluctuation and change. The principal houses
were those of St Mary, St Bernard, St Thomas, and St
Augustin, assigned to artists; and St Paulinus, St Nicho¬
las, St Clement, and Hovens, to students of the civil and
canon law. Several of these houses were at length de¬
serted, and sunk into decay; others, being purchased by
patrons of literature, and obtaining charters of incorpora¬
tion, are represented by the present colleges. Caius says
there had been twenty hostels, of which seventeen remained
in his time.4 Of the existing colleges, Peter-house, or StC
Peter’s College, was founded so early as 1257; five were'
incorporated during the succeeding century, four in the
fifteenth, six in the sixteenth, and one, Downing College
so late as 1800. The term hall is not applied, as at Ox¬
ford, to houses without endowment, but is used indiscrimi¬
nately with college.
The university of Cambridge is incorporated (13 Eliz. c]
29) by the name of the “ Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars!
of the University of Cambridge,” and consists of seventeen
colleges, or societies, devoted to the study of learning and
science. Each college is a body corporate, bound by its
own statutes, but is likewise controlled by the paramount
laws of the university, each furnishing members both for the
legislative and executive government of the whole. The
statutes of Elizabeth are the foundation of the existing go¬
vernment, and form the basis of all the subsequent legisla¬
tion ; indeed no grace of the senate is considered valid
which is inconsistent with these statutes, and certain nearly
contemporary interpretations of them, or with king’s letters,
which have been accepted and acted on by the university.
The principal officers of the university have nearly the same,
offices and titles as at Oxford; namely, the chancellor, high
steward, vice-chancellor, public orator, two proctors, a li-
brarian, two taxers (who regulate the markets, assize of
bread, &c.), professors and public lecturers, two scrutators,
&c. There are also two officers peculiar to Cambridge,
styled moderators,5 who are deputies of the proctors, and
whose office it is to superintend the exercises and disputa¬
tions in philosophy, and the examinations previous to the
degree of bachelor of arts. There are, besides, a commissary,
who is an officer under the chancellor, and an assessor,
whose duty it is to assist the vice-chancellor in his court.
The chancellor is always a nobleman, and is elected by the
senate. His office is biennial, or tenable for a longer period
by the consent of the university. The other officers are
elected nearly in the same manner as at Oxford.
The business of the university is conducted by the Senate,
which consists of two Houses, denominated the Upper or lie-
gent House, and the Lower or Non-Regent House. All masters
of arts, or doctors in one or other of the faculties of divinity, civil
law, or physic, having their names upon the college boards, hold¬
ing any university office, or being resident in the town of Cam.
bridge, are members of the senate. Masters of arts of less than
five years’ standing, and doctors of less than two, compose the
regent or upper house, or, as it is otherwise called, the •whiie-
hood house, from the members wearing their hoods lined with
white silk. Masters of arts of more than five years’ standing, but
who have not advanced to the degree of doctor, constitute the non-
regent or lower house, otherwise called the black-hood house, its
members wearing black silk hoods. But doctors of more than two
years’ standing, with the public orator, may vote in either house,
according to their pleasure.
Besides the two houses, there is a council called the Caput,
chosen annually on the 12th of October, by which every univer¬
sity grace must be approved before it can be introduced in the
senate. The caput consists of the vice-chancellor, a doctor in each
of the faculties of divinity, civil law, and physic, and two masters
of arts, who represent the regent and non-regent houses. Ihe
vice-chancellor is a member of the caput by virtue of hisoftce,
the other members are chosen in the following manner: the
vice-chancellor and the two proctors severally nominate five per¬
sons properly qualified for the trust, and out of the fifteen the
heads of colleges, doctors, and scrutators, choose five. The vice-
chancellor’s list is, in general, honoured with the appointmen -
A few days before the beginning of each term, the vice-chance or
publishes a list of the days on which a Congregation or assem y
of the senate will be held for transacting university business: ^
in case of emergency, the vice-chancellor summons a congregatw
for the despatch of extraordinary affairs. Any number or meffl'
bers of the senate, not less than twenty-five, and including ^
proper officers who are obliged to be present, constitutes a co
4-
rv
■pen-
trs.
itt.
c
se.
er
sc-
lit.
1 iIyer’s Priv. i. 19 and 28. a Ibid. ii. 233. 3 Priv.i. 468. Hist. i. 73.
5 The moderators were first appointed in 1680. Monk’s Life of Bentley, i. 11.
Dyer’s Hist. i. CO and 63.
UNIVERSITIES.
[idfTf1
503
•nation, and may proceed to business. There are also statut-
)le congregations, or days of assembling enjoined by the statutes,
r the ordinary routine of university affairs, such as conferring
-rrees, electing officers, &c. Every member has a right to pre-
nt anv proposition, or grace, to the consideration of the senate ;
it previously to its being voted upon by the two houses, it must
approved by the caput, each member of which has a negative
jj'ce. After a grace has passed the caput, it is read in the non-
gent house by the senior scrutator, and also in the regent-house
■ the senior proctor, and the congregation is prorogued by the
ce-chancellor. It is read in like manner at the second congre-
tion; and if a non-placet is put in by a member of the non-regent
use, it is there voted ; and if the number of non-placets is equal
or exceeds that of the placets, the grace is thrown out, and can
oceed no farther. But if the placets exceed the non-placets, it is
•ried up to the regent-house, where it undergoes the same pro-
a; and if it passes through both houses, it is considered a regular
, of the senate. No degree is ever conferred without a grace
that purpose; those for bachelors of arts, honorary degrees,
■I masters of arts of King’s College excepted, which require to
read at one congregation only. A grace in this instance is
•med a Supplicat, and is signed by the praelector of the college
which the candidate belongs, the subscriber being made respon¬
se for the assertion which it contains. An assembly of the
late held out of term-time is called a Convocation ; in which case
pace is immediately passed to convert the convocation into a
agregation, when the business proceeds in the ordinary manner.
I he Professors, as at Oxford, are not directly concerned in the Cambridge,
public education of the university. Many of them deliver courses -
of lectures, which are m general better attended and more cele- Professors,
bratea than those in the sister university; but these are on
branches of learning or science of recent growth, and not on sub¬
jects included in the ancient and regular studies of the place.
Attendance on their lectures is in no way required, nor does the
university take cognisance of it. This rule is subject to two ex¬
ceptions ; students proceeding to the lower degrees in the civil law
and medicine, are required to present testimonials of attendance
on the lectures of particular professors. The professors are paid
from various sources, some from the university-chest, others bv
the government, or from estates left for that purpose. Education
is conducted entirely by the tutors of the various colleges, assisted,
as at Oxford, by private tutors. The annual income of the uni- Income,
versity arises from various sources. The rectory of Burwell,
and a farm at Barton, produce about L.1000 per annum; the
produce of fees at matriculations, for degrees, &c. averages about
L.2000; and the trading profits of the university press, arising-
chiefly from its share in the monopoly of printing Bibles, is suppos^
ed to be about L.2000. The whole income from every source is
believed scarcely to exceed L.5500 per annum. The funds are
managed by the vice-chancellor, or by specific trustees, and the
accounts are examined annually by three auditors appointed by
the senate.
The following table contains a list of the professorships, with
the date of their establishment, the salaries, and patronage.
Lady Margaret’* professorship of divinity
Regius professorship of divinity.
— — — civil law.
— — — physic.
— — — Hebrew.
— — — Greek.
Professorship of Arabic.
Lord Almoner’s professorship of Arabic.
Lucasian professorship of mathematics.
Professorship of casuistry.
— — chemistry.
Astronomy and experimental philosophy.
Professorship of anatomy.
Regius professorship of modern history.
| Professorship of botany.
— — geology.
— — astronomy andgeometry.
Norrisian professorship oi'divinity.
Natural and experimental philosophy.
Downing prof, of the laws of England.
— — medicine.
Professorship of mineralogy.
— — jxditical economy.
— — music.
Raraaby lecturer.
Rady Margaret’s preacher.
Sadlerian lecturer.
Christian advocate.
Hulsean lecturer.
1502
1540
1540
1540
1540
1540
1032
1663
1683
1702
1704
1707
1724
1724
1731
1749
1760
1783
1800
1800
1808
1828
1684
1524
1503
1710
1789
1789
20 marks.1
L.40
40
40
40
40
40
50
100
70
100
500
100
400
200
300
105
160
200
200
100
No salary.
10
40
300
Chancellor, doctors, inceptors, and bachelors in divinity.
Vice-chancellor, master, and two senior fellows of Trinity, &c.
Crown.
Crown.
Vice-chancellor, master, and two senior fellows of Trinity, &c.
Ditto ditto.
Vice-chancellor and heads.
Lord Almoner.
Vice-chancellor and masters of colleges.
Vice-chancellor, professors of divinity, and master of St Peter’s.
Members of senate.
Vice-chancellor, masters of Trinity, Christ’s, Caius, &c.
Vice-chancellor, proctors, and junior doctors.
Crown.
Crown.
Members of senate, chancellor, archbishop of Canterbury, &c.
Lord high chancellor, president of the Privy Council, &c.
Heads of houses.
Itegent masters of arts.
Archbishops of Canterbury and York, master of St John’s, &c.
Ditto ditto.
Senate.
Vice-chancellor and heads of houses.
Vice-chancellor, master of Trinity, &c.
he organization of the collegiate bodies, and their rules of
eminent, at Cambridge, vary from those of Oxford only in a
unessential particulars. The three ranks of independent
Dr-graduates in the former university are noblemen, fellow-
11.loners (so called originally from having their commons, or
ego dinner, at the same table with the fellows), and pensioners,
in respect to the discipline and government of those in statu
‘Han, n is to be observed, that students at Cambridge do not
scn e thirty-nine articles either at matriculation or af-
'vards; although, on taking their degree of B. A., (hey are
ged to sign a declaration of adherence to the Church of Eng-
• .edging in college is not enforced on under-graduates if
r° e mom within the walls ol the building to accommodate
1 ‘ ^ 'a chiefly to this circumstance that the great increase of
aeii s at; Cambridge of late years is to be attributed, the mem-
° ,.le ot"e,r university being necessarily limited by the
1 0 room tor lodging them. With regard to members on
er!n aatil0n’ , sch.olars ot' most colleges at Cambridge, being
* > elected by free competition from among the under-
j .e '1’emuers, form rather a distinguished class among the
sen f’-.i811 aj)<ldy distinct from the independent members, and
j '’' 'out tree competition, as is generally the case at Ox-
• a distinction exists between t wo different classes of fellow -
ships in most houses at Cambridge, which is only partially known
at Oxford; viz. between the foundation-fellowships, and what are
termed the bye-fellowships and appropriated fellowships ; the for¬
mer being part of the original endowments, and generally open to
all the world ; the latter, founded by subsequent donations, and
frequently limited by local and other restrictions. In most colleges,
the governing body is composed of the foundation-fellows offiy;
and they alone are eligible to college office. It has been already
stated, that the general usage, at Cambridge, is for each college to
elect its fellows from among its own members, whether scholars
or independent: the chief exceptions to this rule occur in the
small colleges, when they are in want of some individual to fill the
office of tutor, and no satisfactory candidate presents himself in
their own number.
In general, it may be said that the Cambridge system is less
strict in point of external discipline, and the under-graduates
under rather less close control, than at the sister university ; on the
other hand, that emulation and close attention to study are more
favoured and encouraged. All the regulations, both of the col¬
leges and university, tend in this direction. Open competition,
and rank according to merit, form the cardinal principles of the
academical constitution, as far as it relates to students.”2
The academical year consists of three terms, viz. Michaelmas, Terms,
salary
was augmented by James I. with the rectorial tiihes of Ferrjngton, Norfolk.
? M'Culloch’s Stat. Aect. ii. 350, 351.
504
Cambridge.
Admission.
UNIVERSITIES.
Degrees.
Examina-
tions.
Lent, and Easter, and includes nearly seven months. The mode
of admission on the boards of a college is either by a personal ex¬
amination before the tutors and officers, or through a recommen¬
datory certificate, specifying the age, qualifications, &c. of the
candidate, signed by a master of arts of the university, and ac¬
companied by a deposit called caution-money.1 This is generally
done before the end of Easter term ; and if the certificate be^
deemed satisfactory, the name is at once entered on the boards of
the college, and the student usually comes into residence about the
20th of October following, when the academical year begins. The
following are the principal regulations necessary for proceeding to
degrees. _ . . „
The distinguishing characteristic of this university has, for
nearly two centuries, been the pursuit of mathematical studies,
and of those branches of natural philosophy which depend on
them. To these the lectures, both public and private, are chiefly
devoted, and thus present to the student the only means by which
he can attain the honours and emoluments either of the university
or of his college. The study of classical literature, which is now
prosecuted to an extent not inferior to that in the sister university,
is of comparatively recent introduction. Original composition
forms no part of the examination for honours, but it is made a
leading feature in the competition for scholarships and other prizes.
Bachelor of Arts (B. A.), twelve terms, of which ten must be in
residence. Privy councillors, bishops, noblemen, sons of noble¬
men, the relations of the king, with their eldest sons, baronets and
knights, are admissible after having kept seven terms.
Master of Arts (M. A.), three years after taking a bachelor’s
degree. ,
Bachelor in Divinity (B. D.), must be M. A. of seven years stand¬
ing. By the 9th statute of Queen Elizabeth, persons admitted of
any college, when upwards of twenty-four years old, are permitted
to take the degree of B. D. after ten years, without having pre¬
viously taken any other, and are styled Ten-year-men. The last
two years must be in residence.
Doctor in Divinitij (D. D.), must be B. D. of five, or M. A. of
twelve years’ standing.
Bachelor in the Civil Law (B.C.L.), must be of six years’ standing
complete, and must reside the greater part of nine several terms.
The candidate is required to pass the “ previous examination,” to
attend the lectures of the professor of the civil law for one year, and
to be examined by the professor. A B. A. of four years’ standing
is also admissible to this degree.
Doctor in the Civil Law (D. C. L.), must be B. C. L. of five or
M. A. of seven years’ standing.
Bachelor in Physic (M. B.), must be of five years’ standing, and
must reside nine terms. The candidate is required to attend a
complete course of lectures on the principles of pathology and
practice of physic by the regius professor of physic, a course of
lectures by the professors of anatomy, chemistry, and botany ; to
undergo an examination by each of these four professors, and to
produce a certificate of having acquitted himself satisfactorily.
Doctor in Physic (M. D.), subject to the same regulations as a
D. C. L.
Licentiate in Physic is required to be M. A. or M. B. of one
term’s standing after he has been admitted M. B.
Bachelor in Music (Mus. B.), must enter his name in some col¬
lege, and compose and perform an exercise in his art.
Doctor in Music (Mus. D.), generally a Mus. B., and his exercise
is the same.
The system of public examinations which is pursued at Cam¬
bridge differs in many respects from that which prevails at Oxford
and as these examinations are intended to exhibit the result of
the academical instruction, a short account of them will convey to
the reader a pretty correct notion of its merits. The examina¬
tions take place in the Lent term of each year, and are conducted
by the moderators, and by examiners appointed by the senate.
It may be premised, that the course of study preparatory to the
degree of B. A. is comprehended under the three heads of Natural
Philosophy, Theology and Moral Philosophy, and the Belles Let-
tres. The first comprises Euclid’s Elements, the principles of
algebra, plane and spherical trigonometry, conic sections, mecha¬
nics, hydrostatics, optics, astronomy, fluxions, Newton’s Principia,
Increments, &c. ; the second, Beausobre’s Introduction, Dod¬
dridge’s and Paley’s Evidences, the Greek Testament, Butler’s
Analogy, Paley’s Moral Philosophy, Locke’s Essay, and Duncan’s
Logic ; and the third comprehends the most celebrated Greek and
Latin classics. The under-graduates are examined in their re 0
spective colleges yearly or half-yearly, on the subjects of theirs
studies ; and, according to the manner in which they acquit them.'
selves in these examinations, their names are arranged in classes'
and those who obtain the honour of a place in the first class receive
prizes according to merit.
The first university or “ previous” examination (technicallyu
called the “ little go)” takes place in the Lent term of the second r
year from that in which the student commences his academical
residence, and is conducted by four examiners appointed by the
senate. The subjects of examination are one of the four Gospels,
or the Acts of the Apostles, in the original Greek, Paley’s Eviden’
ces of Christianity, and one of the Greek and one of the Latin
classics. Every student is required to translate some portion of
each of the subjects appointed, to construe and explain passages
of the same, and to answer printed questions relating to the
evidences of Christianity. After the examination, the students
are arranged in two classes; those who have passed with credit,
and those to whom the examiners have only not refused their eer.
tificate of approval. Rejected candidates are required to attend
the examination of the following year. A certificate of having
passed this examination is indispensable for proceeding to the
degrees of B- A., M. B., and B. C. L.
The student has next to perform the usual exercises required ,
by the statutes for his degree; or, in academical language, to keep'
an Act under a moderator. This exercise, which at Oxford has
almost fallen into disuse, is performed at Cambridge only by those
who aspire to university honours.2 In the Lent term of his third
year, the moderator or examiner gives notice to a student that
he is to keep an act, who thereupon writes three questions, which
he proposes to maintain and defend. The first question is always
from Newton’s Principia, the second from some other mathema¬
tical work, and the third from some moral or metaphysical
writer. The moderator, on receiving these, nominates three stu¬
dents, whose attainments, he thinks, will enable them to prepare
arguments on the other side. On the day appointed, the mode¬
rator having taken his chair, the candidate for the degree, who is
termed the respondent, reads a Latin thesis, usually on the third
subject; after which the others, styled opponents, propose their ar¬
guments, in svllogistic form, against the several positions, the dis¬
cussion being conducted in Latin. It the respondent can answer
them, he does so; if not, the moderator endeavours, by question-
inghim, to ascertain from what defect in his knowledge this arises.
Each opponent, as he is dismissed, is also questioned by the mo¬
derator.
To check the practice of “ degrading,” or postponing fora year,
the degree of B. A., which had become common among the stu¬
dents, a statute was enacted in 1829, by which degraders are not
allowed to present themselves for university scholarships, or any
other academical honours, without special permission.
The Senate-House Examination also takes place in the Lent term, |
when all the men of the same year, except those who have e-j
graded, are brought into competition at the same time. ief at»
questionists,3 or candidates for the degree of B. A., are divide in c
six classes, determined by the “ exercises ’ in the schools o. e
preceding year, and sometimes by the report of their college tu¬
tors. The first four classes include those who are candidates tor
honours; those of the two remaining classes are applicants mere y
for the degree. ( .
The examination of candidates for mathematical honours, teen- lfB.
nically called the Mathematical Tripos, is confined to mathematic:
and the cognate sciences, with subsidiary questions in divinity «.
logic, and moral philosophy. It lasts eight days, the nrs
which are devoted entirely to mathematics, the time ot exa
tion for each day being five hours and a half. During <•
four days the same questions are proposed to all t®e ’ d
the fifth a distinction is made in this respect between t ie ,
last two. The examination on the first day extends onl{‘“s• e
parts of pure mathematics and natural philosophy as do no 4
the method of the differential calculus. On the second a .
days, the questions from books include, in addition to ,
subjects, the parts of natural philosophy somewhat more a ’
and the simpler application of the calculus. The four ? yer
amination extends to subjects of greater difficulty, 2are ,oft.er
being taken that there be some questions suitable lor ^
classes. On the fifth day the classes are arranged accord h ^
settled plan, when the questions proposed to all tne
1 The caution-money for a nobleman is L.50; for a fellow-commoner, L.25 ; for a pensioner, L.15; and for a sizar, L.l •
remains in the hands of the tutor or sponsor, and is not returned til! a person takes his name off the boards. . . . ^ools, nor
2 By special composition between the university and King’s College, its under-graduates do not keep any public exercises in e
are they in any way examined for the bachelor of arts degree.
3 Questionist is the name given to a student during the last six weeks of preparation for taking his degree.
n :-'f
UNIVERSITIES.
xed upon by the moderators and examiners in common ; but the
^.jty of examining the answers to the questions is apportioned
nong the moderators and examiners, as the plan directs. On
e sixth day the four glasses are examined in logic, moral philo-
phy, and divinity. The mathematical examination is resumed
the seventh day; and on the following morning are published
e classifications or //rackets, arranged according to the order of
i?rit, and each containing, alphabetically, those who have shown
emselves nearly equal. Those between whom the examiners can-
t assign a difference of merit are bracketed as equals. At the close
, the examinations, a select number, thirty at least, of those who
)ve most distinguished themselves, are recommended to the
I wtors for their approbation, and their names are set down ac-
('ding to merit, and classed in three divisions, viz. wranglers,
siior optimes, and junior optimes, which constitute the three or-
t *s of honour. Ihe highest of all is the senior wrangler for the
l tr, “ the greatest of English academical honours.”
[’he examination of the questionists of the fifth and sixth clas-
s, who are not candidates for honours, is conducted differently,
e subjects and exercises proposed are the same for all, and em-
t ce Euclid’s Elements, arithmetic, and algebra, with some of
t, elementary parts of natural philosophy ; Homer and Virgil,1
i uding questions in grammar, history, and geography; Paley’s
lidences, and Locke’s Essay, Of the six examiners, two con-
f ■ themselves to mathematics, two to classics, and two to moral
pflosophy. The examination lasts six days, and is conducted
e irely by printed papers. The questions proposed are of an
ementary character, and presuppose very moderate attainments
a .he part of the questionists. The examiners are strictly en-
jc ed to take care that the number of the questions to be ail¬
s' red, and the length of the passages to be translated, in any one
p ir, do not exceed what a person well prepared may be expected
U nswer and translate in the time allowed. The names of the
ahdates comprehended in these two classes are also arranged
505
^lendi^7 aCC°rding t0 merit’ but are not Published in the Cambridge.
and re^eA to take the oaths of allegiance ' " "
anrl supremacy, and to observe the statutes of the university - and
havmg also subscribed that they are bond fide member of the
chancellor. S d’ ^ admitted t0 their degrees by the vice-
In addition to the examination thus described, there is also an i
examination m classical learning, or a Classical Tripos, which takes Trinos*1
place on the fourth Monday after the general admission to the P
bachelor s degree, and continues five days. It is a voluntary
competition, to which those only who have obtained mathematical
honours are admissible. Translations are required of passages
selected from the best Greek and Latin authors, with written
answers to questions arising immediately out of the passages;
but no original composition either in Greek or Latin. The names
o those bachelors who pass this examination with credit are ar¬
ranged in three classes according to their respective merits.
Besides the honour of occupying a high place in the tripos lists,
Cambridge holds out to the ambitious student many strong in-
oucements to exertion, in the prizes which are annually submitted
01 competition. Those to which the greatest degree of import-
hpLC%13 attached are Smith's Prizes and the Chancellor's Medals.
ine former are assigned to two commencing bachelors of arts, for
proficiency in mathematics and natural philosophy; and as the
competition takes place soon after the mathematical tripos, the
adjudication of them forms a severe test of the accuracy of the
pi evious decision. It sometimes happens that the judgment of
the tripos examiners is reversed, and the second wrangler be¬
comes first prizeman. The chancellor’s medals are given to two
commencing bachelors of arts, who must be senior optimes at
least in classical merit. For these there is also a separate com¬
petition, but it generally happens that the first medal is gained
by the person whose name is at the head of the classical tripos.
The following are the existing Colleges and Halls at Cambridge, in the Order of their Foundation.
Names.
St Peter's College.
Clare Hall. •
Pembroke Hall. .
Gonville and Cains Col-
I lege. .
'Trinity Hall. . .
Corpus Christ! College.
King’s College.
Queen’s College. .
Catharine Hall. .
lesus College.
i[ iirist‘s College.
1 ;l John’s College.
'i Magdalene College.
‘I trinity College. .
'inanuel College.
1 ’ltlne5r-Sussex College,
^owning College. .
Date of
Foun¬
dation
Founders.
1257
1326
1343
11348
1350
1351
1441
f 1446
j 1465
1475
1496
f 1456
1505
1511
1519
1546
1584
1598
1800
/ Hugh de Balsham, bi- >
t shop of Ely. /
Elizabeth de Burgo.
Countess of Pembroke.
f Edmund Gonville,
< creased by John
l Caiusin 1558.
Visitors.
Bishop of Ely.
( Chancellor and two per
’ sons appointed by grace
. of the senate.
Lord high chancellor.
“}{
W. Bateman, bishopl
t. of Norwich. .
(The brethren of two-)
I Cambridge guilds. /
_ ( Master of Corpus Christi,
( I senior doctor in physic,
and master of Trinity
Hall.
On the Foundation.
n
Henry VI.
f Margaret of Anjou.
< Eliz. Widville, con
(. sort of Edward IV
Robert Woodlark, D.D.
/ John Alcock, bishop of)
f Henry VI. . . j
< Countess of Richmond >
f and Derby. . J
^ Countess of Richmond >
4 and Derby. . j
Baron Audley.
C Henry VIII.. aug--
l mented by Mary.
Sir Walter Mildmay.
Countess of Sussex.
f Sir George Downing,
\ Bart.
Lord high chancellor.
f Vice-chancellor and two'
I senior D. D., in ex- I
I traordinary cases the|
L Queen. . J
Bishop of Lincoln.
The Queen.
The Queen.
Bishop of Ely.
( Vice-chancellor, and two l
\ senior D.D. . /
Bishop of Ely.
Professor of Audley End.
The Queen.
(In some cases vice-chan-j
I cellor and two senior |
D.D.; in others, mas- j-
ter of Christ’s, and two j
(Master, 14 foundation and ]0 bve-
( fellows, and 59 scholars. . *
Master, 10 senior, 9 junior, and 3 bye
fellows, 44 scholars, and 4 exhibi
„ tioners.
j Master, 14 foundation and 2 bye-fel-S
lows, 23 scholars, and several bye- V
S:}
i UVVJ lljltu o, cvlliA OC Vv
v scholars and exhibitioners.
Master, 12 senior and 17 junior fel-J
lows, 28 scholars, 8 exhibitioners, 1 >
scholar in chemistry, and 4 in physic, j
Master, 12 fellows, and 17 scholars.
Members in
1839.
Of the Total
Se- on the
nate. Boards.
Patronage
f Master, 12 fellows, and 61 scholars and)
I exhibitioners. . . j
f Provost, 7 fellows, and 70 scholars,
J the latter supplied by a regular sue
(. cession from Eton College.
/ President, 19 foundation fellows, 1 bye- 1
\ fellow, 26 scholars. . j
f Master, 6 foundation and 8 bye-fel- \
\ lows, and 43 scholars. . . (
/Master, 16 foundation fellows, 46 \
\ scholars and exhibitioners. . /
/ Master, 15 clerical and 2 lay-fellows, \
\ and 85 scholars and exhibitioners. /
f Master, 32 foundation fellows, 32 ap-J
j propriated and 8 bye-fellowships, >
I and 181 scholars and exhibitioners. J
( Master, 4 foundation and 13 bye-fel- J
I lows, and 43 scholars. . . C
( Master, 60 fellows, 69 scholars, besides I
I exhibitioners and sizars. . j
/Master, 12 foundation and 3 bye-fel-J
lows. 4 foundation and 32 other j-
76
senior D. D.
Sir J. S. Sidney, Bait.
lows, 4
scholars.
| Lord high chancellor.
’Master, 9 foundation and 3 other fel- /
I lows, 20 foundation scholars, and 18 f
I other scholars and exhibitioners. (
A mathematical lecturer. . )
This college will consist of a master, J
2 professors, 16 fellows, and 6 scho- |
575
907
112
27
194
164
283
140
231
211
183
1125
189
1754
214
52
46
2705 j 5018
17
301 | 15
L- XXL
The portions of Homer and Virgil required in this examination are the first six books of the Iliad and iEneid.
3 s
506
UNIVERSITIES.
Cambridge. The following statistical information relating to the universities
-v—^ of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, was communicated to the meet¬
ing of the British Association for the Advancement ot Science,
at Newcastle, in August 1838, by the Rev. H. L. Jones.
books used by Mr Jones in compiling his tables were the Oxford,
Cambridge, and Dublin University Calendars; besides which,
private information was relied on in determining the value of
fellowships, the number of students resident, &c., points on which
the Calendars are silent. In cases of doubt, care was taken to ma e
the estimate below what was believed to be the real value. We
can only give the general abstract of Mr Jones’ tables.
Professorships No.
Lectureships —
University offices   —
College offices —
Fellowships —
University scholarships —
University fellowships —
College scholarships, exhibitions, &c.. —
Members on books or boards —
Members of convocation or senate.... —
Colleges   —
University Benefices:
N umber 
Incumbents   
Value  L.| 2 400
Oxford.
Cam¬
bridge.
24
8
37
199
557
26
399
5,264
2,646
24
College Benefices:
Number No.
Incumbents —
Value  L-
University Prizes:
Number... No.
Value  L.
455
430
136.500
College Prizes:
Number No.
Value  L.
Revenue :
Professors and lecturers  L.
University officers ■
College officers 
Heads of houses 
Fellows 
University scholarships 
College scholarships  
Total Revenue :
Colleges    L-
Universities  
Colleges and universities 
160
24
25
20
179
431
26
2
793
5,575
2,663
17
600
70
1,624
311
280
93,300 9,300
16
342
5,400
3,000
15,650
18,350
116,560
1,188
6,030
152.670
22,000
174.670
251
1,038
16
17
5,500
2,000
17,750
12,650
90.330
1,300
13,390
4,000
133.268
16,000
149.268
20,000
2,000
25,400
1.000
2,100
31,500
31,500
“ the advancement of religion and morality, and the pro.
motion of useful knowledge,” by holding forth “to all'
classes and denominations” of persons, without religious
distinction, “ encouragement for pursuing a regular and
liberal course of education,” and “ rewarding” with aca¬
demic honours and distinctions those who, by the pursuit
of such course of education as the senate, with the concur¬
rence of the government, shall prescribe, have acquired
certain ascertained degrees of “ proficiency in literature,
science, and art.” The university consists of a chancellor,
vice-chancellor, and thirty-six fellows, who form the senate,
or governing body, and are invested with the sole power of
managing and superintending its affairs, and of forming
regulations for examinations and the granting of degrees,
such regulations to be submitted to one of the secretaries
of state, and “ approved of and countersigned by him.”
The chancellor is appointed for life by the crown, under
the sign manual; the vice-chancellor, whose office is an¬
nual, is elected by the fellows from their own number. The
original fellows were appointed by the crown, under the
sign manual ; and the charter provides that, “ if at anj
time, by death or otherwise, their number shall be reduced
below twenty-five, exclusive of the chancellor and vice-
chancellor for the time being,” the members of the senate
“ shall elect twelve or more fit and proper persons” to com¬
plete the requisite number of thirty-six. The power 0:
visitation is retained by the crown. In contemplating the
effects likely to result from an establishment invested wit!
such extensive powers, and directed to such noble ends
we cannot but regard the university of London as calcu
lated eventually to attain an important station among
similar institutions in the empire, and as destined to give |
powerful impulse to the advancement of learning and sci
Mr Jones estimates the average incomes at Oxford and Cam¬
bridge as follows :—Heads, L.764. 6s., and L-774 ? Fellows, L.211,
and L.209. 6s.; University Scholars, L.42. 4s., and L.50; College
Scholars, &c. L.15 ; Professors, L.187- 3s., and L.181. 2s.; Lectu¬
rers, L.150, and L.47- 7s- The average expenditure of resident
members is estimated at L.300 for Oxford, and L.250 for Cam¬
bridge, varying however in the different colleges.
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.
Founda¬
tion.
The university comprehends two colleges, named Uni- r
versify College and Kings College, both situate in London 1
University College was established by a company of share¬
holders, for the purpose of furnishing to the inhabitants 0
the metropolis, at a moderate price, a general education
embracing a wider range of subjects than those in whicl
instruction is given at Oxford and Cambridge. Student
are admitted without reference to their religious opinion!
The classes were opened in October 1828; and a seconi
charter of incorporation was. granted in 1836. The constf
tution of both colleges nearly resembles that of the ScotisI
and German universities, and retains much of the simplicit
by which the ancient academical seminaries were charac
terized. The students do not reside in the college; an
the academical discipline is therefore confined to the class
room. The professors are dependent on the fees wuc
they receive from their pupils, and deliver their instruc
tions by means of public lectures, accompanied by cat
chetical examinations. There are public examinations s
•the end of the session, when prizes are awarded to
most distinguished students. The government is ves
in a council, consisting of a president, vice-presiden , a^
twenty-four other members, which has the power
regulations, accept endowments, appoint professors, n
&c. and to manage generally the affairs of the co cge- ^
The university of London was constituted by a royal
charter, dated the 28th of November 1836, which confers
on it the power of granting degrees in arts, law, and medi¬
cine, under regulations to be determined by the university,
subject to the approval of the secretary of state. By a
second charter, dated 5th December 1837, some of the
powers granted in the first were modified, and two new
members of senate were named. The objects proposed to
be effected by the institution, as stated in the charter, are
the members of council are elected by the proprietors. ^
struction is provided in the three faculties of arts, aM>
medicine. The college contains thirty-two
nine in literature, six in mathematical and physica sci
three in ethical and political sciences, three in law,an
medicine ; but some of these are held along w
professorships. , tpr jj
King’s College was incorporated by royal c
1829, and is confined principally to the education 0
bers of the church of England. The funds for t ie
J Journal of the Statistical Society of London, vol- i. pp. 385-397.
tig*
TTF
<j II.
we made for the cultivation of the modern languages and
erature. Each of them lurnishes instruction in English,
rench, Italian, and German; and even Chinese is taught
; a professor.
ifcd Besides the members of these two colleges, the university is
" ipowered by the charter of foundation to grant degrees in arts
d law to candidates from such institutions within the United
ngdom as are or shall be authorized under the sign manual to
ue certificates of proficiency, and also to prescribe the courses
ilstudy, and the modes of education, necessary to entitle the con¬
i' ales to be admitted to examination. The following institutions
1 /e consequently been empowered (1841) to issue certificates to
UNIVERSITIES.
507
nd support of the institution were raised partly by dona- papers, and are placed under the sunermtena^™ c * . . T
-ons, and partly by proprietary shares. The government examiners, appointed by the senate, and pai/by the^overamerH0 ^ '
vested in a councd consisting of three classes ; the visi- J" tl>ese, fourteen are assigned to the faculty of arts one to the  
it, who is the archbishop of Canterbury; the perpetual I; ty Iaw’ and thirteen to the faculty of medicine. Some of
overnors by virtue of their office, as the lord chancellor, naTi^th^1^0"- mPre than one subject. The professors take no
■cl,Wop of York, bishop of London, and other high fnnc- and Z
.onaries; the governors for hfe and those who are simply cessfnl competitors. The exhibitioners take th ” SilltLn of
luncillors. ihere are thirty-four professorships, embra- University Scholars. The course for the degree of B. A. is two
ng the same faculties as in University College, with the -vears’ and for M- A- four years; for LL. B. one year after tak-
Idition of lectures in divinity by the"principal. By no- Tr n dcSreL°fr>B'’A'; for LL“ D* tvvo years after becoming
i„g, perhaps, is the recent institution of these colleges comsf‘tw &£ tt o/m.'b'. VheSSS^
ore distinctly marked, than by the provision which they fees for graduation ffi. A. L 10 M A I 10 LI B r nfr i n
m9,,P t,1P nf-tho 1.^  „.i L 25. M. B. L.IO, M. D. L.10. The estimated public’expense
ot the university, exclusive of the revenue derived from fees, for
the year from 1st April 1840 to 31st March 1841, was L.5318. 10s
this money it appropriated to the payment of examiners, re¬
gistrar, &c. ’
UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM.
The university of Durham was incorporated by a royal Founds
charter, dated the 1st of June 1837, under the name oftion.
Hie Warden, Masters, and Scholars of the University of
.ululates for degrees in arts and law : St Cuthbert’s ColTeee Durham ” Lb 1 ’ , ^cno ars ot the University o
I haw; Stonyhurst College ; Itoyal Belfast Academical Instifu- ’ Ch authonzes the body corporate to have per¬
il; Bristol College; Manchester New Coileg’e; St Mary’s Col- Pe,ual succession, and a common seal, and to enjoy all the
- ’• - - ■ nghts and privileges which 
I e, Oscott; Carlow College; St Edmund’s College, near Ware;
i merton College; Highbury College; the Colleges of St Peter
II St Paul, at Prior Park, near Bath ; Spring Hill College, Bir-
t ighatn; and Stepney College. The senate, with The ap-
I bation of the secretary of state, has also the power of selecting
t medical institutions and schools, whether corporate or unin-
qporated,” in the metropolis or in other parts of the United Kino-,
on, “from which, either singly, or jointly with other medical
) .itutions and schools in this country or in foreign parts, it may
I proper to admit candidates for degrees in medicine,’’ and to
- ... * o —* are incident to a university
established by royal charter.” It consequently possesses and
exercises the right of granting degrees in all the faculties.
1 he great and increasing population of the north of Eng- History
land, and its remoteness from the universities of Oxford and "
Cambridge, had long pointed out the expediency of esta¬
blishing in this part of the kingdom an institution which
should secure to its inhabitants the advantages of a sound
• *•*»«.» u*.candidates o'n'lh'eTr ^S'nTSrtEtea 0^1,™^'^,heT™' d ^dingly the late bishop
“ “™'g completed the course of instruction required bv the ‘ *6 dean and chapter, believing that the
i versity. The list of “ recognised medical institutions, schools 0t the deficiency might be provided from
<i teachers,” dated 9th April 1840, besides the various hospitals .e resources oi that body, without contravening the prin-
a medical schools of the metropolis, comprehends the medical c‘P^es on which it was incorporated, agreed, bv an act of
1 r r v? har i?en tstablish®d in Birmingham, Bristol, Hull, chapter in 1831, to appropriate property producing L 3000
d per “"'lm anPacPadJ,L iSK
ef ’ r-mnburgh, and various teachers who are members of the
r al College ot Surgeons; two medical schools, besides lecturers
ly.lasgow; and medical schools in Dublin, Cork, and Belfast.
ie Session ot the university commences on the first of Oct o-
T?r the medical classes, and on the first of November for the
’ ainder, and ends in May. Students in arts, before being
ted, must produce a certificate of having completed their six-
i f6 reuquired t0 Underg0 a hona Jlde examination
t! f f.umat.hen?at1C8, natural philosophy, natural his-
, and some of the simpler doctrines of chemistry. They are
LXaminod in classics, in the grammatical structure ef .Ue
support
connection with the cathedral church. The bishop, at the
same time, promised to provide eventually for the warden,
the professor of divinity, and the professor of Greek, bv
attaching prebendal stalls to the several offices. In pursu¬
ance of this arrangement, an act of parliament was obtained
in 1832, authorizing the bishop, and the dean and chapter,
to carry their munificent resolution into effect, by empower-
ing them to establish a university for the advancement of
learning in connection with their cathedral church. The
evimino,! I ■ vx tucuuony. j ney are   b „xx.i xx,CJi L.tmcuiai cnurcn. ine
li language and gran?.mati,cal st™cture of the Eng. university was opened in October 1833, and a regular sys-
P1 Ancient histnrv n,„i , T UST1-V “na geogra- or instruction commenced. After the course of study
Pj rs- The candidates who have passiA aVarranged byute'ex! iff fiXGf ’ the arrangements fo!' conducting
d- K? mLtW° divisions) each in alphabetical order; and any candi- , 6 ‘:,usi”ess matured, a statute was passed by the dean and
C(‘ l,10,,s I,afed ma-v> on producing a certificate that he has not chapter, in July 1835, and approved by the bishop, intrust-
tWtilsn i ni"etefn^h>’ear5 be examined for honours in ma- ing the ordinary management of the university, under the
^ amiiiatio ire^mmle^nnS’ “ki als0 in classics; tbe range bishoP as visitor> and the dean and chapter as governors, to
Z°« than that the warden’ a senate’ and a convocation A body of regu-
5: Ptlai-'ed the order of merit; and to the Lr^f eachTass^n laci?nS for conducting the Judies and the general business
cjj ’i1 °f E.30, for two years, is assigned. Students of medi- 116 universit;y was soon after prepared, and was approved
0“Tf adlmssi™> are required to undergo a similar examina- by convocation on the 4th of March 1836. The various acts
vis - an.)S.a.raesul!jects’vayiedhowever to suit their professional °t' the dean and chapter were ratified by the charter of
ofj tainimv'V.10 ai^e adnutted have likewise an opportunity foundation in the following year.
W1 those in the^facuffv of eqUal am.ount .. The university consists of a warden or principal, a professor ofrVlns,.,
edT means of printed nane2 the nowPr c°"duct* dlvl,n1!^ and ecclesiastical history, a professor of Greek and eias.-^
ers of nuttinu-uiu//y-L nn 1 fi eing left to the exr sical literature, a professor ot mathematics, two proctors, and read.
11 appear to reLire exnla^atfon ^ h6 Wntten answerswhen ers j11 medicine, Hebrew, history, and polite literature, na-
le examinations for ,iLrv«Q l l i tural philosophy, chemistry, and modern languages ; with gradu-
H ations in arts are Ma ^ 0nCe.a year; 1 he ex* ates and scbolars. The warden and the professors of divinity and
lnovetnber. The course^scrih H ^ "‘i T niedlcine Gre,ek are aPPomted by the bishop of Durham; the professor of
S'’ and the plan of examinaHon , ^ /aCult/.1S,exten' uiathematics and the other officers are nominated by the dean and
•ur limited s , examinjtlon ^ tomPmbensive and judicious; chapter. The busines ‘ ' '
b,ll mr limited snapo ZA'T011 r comPrenensive and judicious; chapter. The business of the university is conducted by the war-
^ ’ 1’he examinations61118 ‘ii fr°nl1 g,V1!lg even an abstract ot‘ den and a senam and convocation. The senate, which Consists of
ue examinations are ail conducted by means of nrinted the chief officers of the ..n.VersU^
508
UNIVERSITIES.
Durham, and is competent to originate regulations and other measures
^   v ' relating to it, but such regulations and measures are not in force
till they are confirmed by the convocation. The convocation,
which, besides the members appointed on the first establishment
of the university, consists of all persons regularly admitted to the
degrees of doctor in divinity, the civil law, and medicine, and to the
degree of master of arts, confirms or rejects what is submitted to
it by the senate, but has not the power to originate or amend.
By the regulations of the university, provision has been made
for a regular course of general education similar to that which is
given at Oxford and Cambridge. The qualifications of the stu¬
dents are ascertained by examination before admission ; and their
proficiency during the continuance of the course is tested by pub¬
lic examinations held annually, particularly at the end of the third
year for the degree of bachelor of arts, and at the end of the fourth-
year for the degree of master. Instruction in theology is like¬
wise given ; and those who at the end of the course pass the re¬
quisite examination, and produce the necessary testimonials, re¬
ceive under the common seal of the university a certificate of
Civil En- competency and character, which is called a license in theology. In
gineering. 1837, an important extension of the benefits of the university was
made by the establishment of a course of instruction for students
in civil engineering and mining, suggested by the extensive public
works in the neighbourhood. The students in this department
are examined, on admission, in the Latin language, in arithmetic,
and the elements of mathematics. The full course of study ex¬
tends over three y'ears : the competency of the students is tested
by a public examination at the end of each year ; and those who
have passed all the requisite examinations are admitted to the
“ academical rank” of civil engineer. Besides the regular courses
of professional education, public lectures on various branches of
literature and science are also delivered from time to time, which
are open, under certain regulations, to persons who are not mem¬
bers of the university.
Fellow- Six university fellowships have lately been endowed by the
ships, &c. dean and chapter, which are open to any member who has passed
the examination for the degree of B. A., and are tenable for six
years. The fellowships are vacated by marriage, or by holding
preferment, office, or property real or personal, producing L.300
a year or upwards. There are also twenty university scholarships
of the annual value of L.30 each ; and others founded by the trus¬
tees of the last two bishops. Prizes of various kinds are given for
the encouragement of merit.
University University College was formed at the opening of the university,
College. for the purpose of uniting a system of domestic discipline and
superintendence with academical instruction ; and residence within
the college is enforced on every student, unless a dispensation to
reside elsewhere is granted by the warden. College examinations,
independent of those appointed by the university, are held at the
end of every term.
Degrees. Degrees are conferred by the warden and convocation, but every
grace for a degree must be allowed by the dean and chapter be¬
fore it is proposed in convocation. The academical year consists
of three terms, of not less than eight weeks each, called Michael¬
mas, Epiphany, and Easter. Michaelmas term commences not ear¬
lier than the 10th of October, and Easter term ends not later than
the 30th June. No religious test is exacted till a student proceeds
to his degree. For the terms and exercises requisite for proceeding
to the different degrees, See Durham University Calendar for 1841.
SCOTISH UNIVERSITIES.
UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS.
History. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, Scotland
contained no academical institution in which the higher
branches of knowlege were taught. The Scotish youth
who wished to obtain a more liberal education than the
seminaries of the country afforded, were under the ne¬
cessity of seeking it in foreign universities; in some of
which colleges were early endowed for their reception.
Soon after the middle of the thirteenth century, Dervor-
guilla, wife of John Balliol, founded and endowed a col¬
lege at Oxford for Scotish students; and in 1326, tlie
Scotish College in the university of Paris was founded and
endowed for a similar purpose, by David Murray, bishop of
Moray. The risk and inconvenience attending the removal
of the youth to foreign schools was long felt; and the dis¬
cerning part of the community were not insensible of the
advantages which the country would derive from the esta¬
blishment of an institution within its own limits, where the
higher branches of education, in science, philosophy, and
theology, might be attained. One of the individuals who
entertained these sentiments was Henry Wardlaw, bishop
of St Andrews, who took measures to remedy the evil
Having ascertained that his sovereign James L, at that 1
time a prisoner in England, approved of his scheme, he
resolved, with the consent and approbation of the estates
of the kingdom,1 to erect a university in the ecclesiastical
metropolis. The lectures commenced in 1411; and the [ 4
bishop, with the concurrence of the prior of St Andrews,!
and the archdeacon of Lothian, immediately granted to the
masters and students the privileges belonging to a univer¬
sity. Benedict XIII. issued a bull of confirmation on the ’
27th of August 1413, instituting a studium generale, or
university, for instruction in theology, the canon and civil
law, medicine, and the liberal arts ; and conveying to the
bishop the power of conferring degrees in these faculties,
thereby investing him with the power and dignity of chan¬
cellor. The pope on the same day signed other five bulls,
securing the rights and privileges of the university, which
were ratified by James I. in 1432.2 The king at the same
time granted to the members exemption from all the ex¬
igible tributes of his kingdom; an immunity which was
confirmed by his four immediate successors.
The university was formed on the model of those ofibtiti
Paris and Bologna. The members, or supposts, as theytj
were called, were divided into four nations, those of Fife,
Angus, Lothian, and Albany, the last including all who
did not belong to any of the other three districts. The
supposts, at a congregation or general meeting, elected
annually four procurators to watch over their interests,
and four intrants, or electors, by whom the rector was
chosen. The government was vested in the rector, of
whom it was required as a necessary qualification, that he t
should be a graduate in one of the faculties, and should
also be in holy orders. The university was represent- b
ed in the rectorial court by twelve assessors, three select¬
ed from each nation. With the advice and consent
of his assessors, the rector possessed supreme judicial
power in all causes, civil and criminal, relating to members
of the university, with the exception of crimes which in¬
ferred the highest punishment.3 * As in other cases which
have already been mentioned, the privileges and powers
possessed by the university excited the jealousy of the ma¬
gistrates of the city ; till a concordat was entered into by
the contending parties, by which their respective jurisdic¬
tions were defined and adjusted^ The members of the
university were divided into faculties, at the head of each
of which was a dean, who presided at the meetings ol the
masters for regulating the course of study, for examina¬
tions, and the conferring of degrees. The university was
well supplied with teachers even at its commencement.
Before the papal bulls were issued, it included a professor
of divinity, four lecturers on the canon law, and three "ho
taught the arts or philosophy.5 The revenues ol the insti¬
tution were at first extremely limited, and for some time
consisted chiefly of small sums received from the students
1 “ De consilio, consensu, et communi tractatu triuna statuum personarum regni Seotise.” Bulla Fundationis Univ. Sti. Andre*.
2 IVTCrie s Life of Melville, i. 211, 1819. Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed for inquiring into the State of the Lnbers w
in Scotland, p. 387.
3 Life of Melville, i. 213, and authorities there cited.
* Concordia inita, per Episcop. Jae. Kennedy, inter Supposita Universitatis et Gives Sti. Andrea;, a. d. 1440.
6 Fordun, as cited by Dr M‘Crie, Life of Melville, i. 216.
UNIVERSITIES.
t:
Iva-
Ool-
t their admission and graduation ; but the persons appoint-
d to conduct the different departments of study generally
"njoyed endowments from other sources. During the first
iventy years of its existence, great inconvenience was suf-
jred from the want of public buildings; and the schools
rere held in the different religious houses, which in con-
jquence claimed to be considered as constituent parts of
ie university. In 1430 a Pcedagogium was built for the
;hools of the faculty of arts, and for chambers for the stu-
ents of that faculty; while the studies of the faculties of
icology and law continued to be conducted in other build-
jgs. The congregations of the university were held for
t least 130 years in the Augustinian priory.1
The university was liberally patronised by James I. after
is return from his long captivity in England; and being
inducted by an active and devoted priesthood, it soon ac-
uired the confidence and respect of the country, and
:tracted students from all parts of the kingdom. To pro-
ide more effectually for their instruction, James Kennedy,
le successor of Wardlaw in the see of St Andrews, esta-
jlished in 1450 the College of St Salvator, which was
mctioned by Pope Nicholas V. about the year 1455, and
i favour of which new grants were made by the same
relate, and by Pope Pius II. in 1458. The college, was
i consist of thirteen persons, all of whom were to live
ithin its walls; a pnepositus or provost, who was to be a
odor of divinity ; a licentiate and a bachelor of the
une faculty; four masters of arts, and six poor scholars,
he provost was required to lecture in theology once a
eek, the licentiate twice, and the bachelor every read-
'>le day ; the duty of preaching at stated times to the peo-
I fie being also imposed on the two former. Two of the
lasters of arts were to be annually chosen as regents, the
ic to teach logic, and the other physics and metaphysics,
xrording to the method of the schools and the statutes of
le university. The masters of arts and poor scholars
ere to be elected by the provost, licentiate, and bachelor,
he benevolent founder granted as an endowment the
ictorial tithes of four adjoining parishes, constituting the
tree principal masters of the college rectors of three of
:iem, and reserving the fruits of the fourth as a common
ind for the maintenance and support of all members of the
mndation, together with their attendants and servants,
bout the year 1468, Pope Paul II. in consideration of the
sing reputation of the college, honoured it with the pri-
■lege ot conferring degrees in theology and the arts; there-
y constituting it a separate university, though with limit-
i powers.
Col ^ J°hn Hepburn, prior of the Augustinian mo-
astery, and Alexander Stewart, archbishop of St Andrews,
funded the College of St Leonard, which was in the same
car confirmed by a royal charter from James IV., accom-
amed, as in the case of the university, with an exemp¬
li to its members and property from all national im-
' I'ts. I he prior granted to this new erection the revenues
the hospital of St Andrews, for the support of the prin-
Pa master; four chaplains, two of whom were to be re-
cnts; six graduates in arts, who were to be diligent stu¬
nts of theology; and twenty scholars, students of philoso-
'L Ihe principal, who was to be nominated by the prior,
om the canons ot the chapter, was constituted professor
nvinity, and was invested with absolute jurisdiction over
| t ie members of the college. In conjunction with the
l!or’ ^ was to appoint the regents ; and candidates for the
"o aiships, after satisfactory examination by him, certi-
to the prior, were nominated by the latter, who was
‘'joined to be influenced in the disposal of his patronage
y merit alone, and not by individual solicitation. As in
1 case ot St Salvator’s, all the members were to live with-
509
in the walls of the college, and were bound to conform to St An-
certain regulations as to dress, amusements, and general drews.
conduct. Delinquencies were to be severely punished ; and  
the power of visiting the college and reforming its abuses
was retained by the prior and the chapter of the convent.
Notwithstanding the superior advantages of the two en- St Mary’s
dowed colleges, there were still in the university professors College,
and students who belonged to neither, and who continued
to frequent the Pcedagogium, although they were supported
by but slender funds. The disadvantages to which they
were subjected in their competition with the rival colleges
induced Archbishop Alexander Stewart to make prepara¬
tions for giving to the paedagogium a collegiate form, which
were frustrated by his premature death in the field of Flod-
don. The design was resumed by his successor James
Beaton, who in 1537 founded St Mary’s College, or as it
was sometimes called, the New College, and in the same
year procured for it the confirmation of Paul III.2 It was
founded for all the faculties; and by its charter of erection,
obtained the power of conferring degrees, thus forming a
third independent university. But the college was not fin¬
ally erected till 1553, when Archbishop Hamilton, under
the authority of a papal bull obtained in the year preced¬
ing, extended its constitution, and endowed it with the
tithes of six parishes. It was to consist of thirty-six per¬
sons ; a prefect or principal, who w'as to be a doctor or li¬
centiate in divinity, and who was to have jurisdiction over
all members on the foundation ; two professors of divinity,
the one a licentiate and the other a bachelor; a professor
of the canon law,who was to be in priest’s orders; eight stu¬
dents of divinity, whose appointments were tenable for six
years, and who, besides attending regularly the lectures of
the professors, were themselves required to lecture; three
professors or regents of philosophy, who were to teach logic,
ethics, physics, mathematics, and the other liberal arts ; a
professor of rhetoric and one of grammar, wLo were to be
masters of arts; sixteen poor scholars, students of philosophy,
who were to be well acquainted with grammar and Latin ; a
provisor, a janitor, and a cook. The defence and increase of
the Catholic faith being the declared object of the erection
of this as well as the other colleges, the principal and profes¬
sors had certain extra-academical duties assigned to them.
The principal was required to lecture on the sacred Scrip¬
tures every Monday, the licentiate five times a week, and
the canonist to deliver the same number of lectures on the
canon law. Appropriate duties were assigned to the other
members. The rector of the university, wdth the principal
of St Salvator’s College, and some of the highest ecclesias¬
tics of the city, were to elect the principal and the profes¬
sors of divinity and the canon law; and they again were to fill
up all other vacancies as they occurred in the college. The
rector was empowered to visit the college annually, and to
see that discipline was duly enforced. The college was
to be exempted from all public burdens. All vacations
were to be disallowed, and absentees for a month in the
year, without permission from the principal, were to forfeit
their appointments. Nothing probably is more remarkable
in the establishment of the colleges of St Andrews, than the
success of the founders in obtaining for them the most ce¬
lebrated teachers. Men who had distinguished themselves
in the foreign universities were urgently invited as profes¬
sors, and appear to have willingly embraced the opportunity
to diffuse among their countrymen the learning which they
had themselves acquired.
The constitutions of the colleges remained unaltered till the
reformation, with the exception of the appointment of a professor
of humanity in each of the colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard,
answering to the professor of grammar in St Mary’s. During the
agitation of the religious controversy, the academical exercises were
1 Commissioners’ Report, p. 214.
2 Ibid. p. 33S.
510
UNIVERSITIES.
St An¬
drews.
Course of
study.
Degrees.
interrupted, and in the year 1559 the faculty of arts were under
the necessity of discontinuing the public exhibitions usual at gra¬
duation.1 Immediately after the establishment of the reforma¬
tion, the laws and practice of the university were accommodated
to the change which had taken place in the religious establishment
of the country ; but the mode of teaching, and the academical ex¬
ercises, so far as related to philosophy and the arts, continued
nearly on their former footing. The students who entered a
college at the same time, formed a class, and were placed under
the superintendence and tuition of a regent, by v/hom their studies
were conducted during the whole course. The regular time of
the course was four years, but it was more usually finished in
three years and a half. The session commenced on the first of
October, and continued till the end of July, the months of August
and September2 being allowed as a vacation. The regent assem¬
bled his class three hours every day, and read and explained to
them the books of Aristotle, beginning with dialetics or logic,
then advancing to ethics, next to physics, and concluding with
metaphysics, which were considered the highest branch of philo¬
sophy, and mathematics, which included arithmetic. During
their course the students were frequently exercised in disputations
and declamations, both privately in their class, and publicly before
the college and university. The principal frequently read lec¬
tures on the higher branches of philosophy, which were attended
by all the students of the college.3
In the middle of the third year, the students who obtained from
their regent and the principal of the college an attestation of re¬
gular attendance and good conduct, were allowed to propose them¬
selves as candidates for the degree of bachelor. In the presence
of three regents, annually selected from each college as exami¬
ners, the candidates determined a question in logic or morals, and
answered such questions as were proposed to them on any of the
branches of study with which they had been occupied. Those who
acquitted themselves to the satisfaction of the examiners were
confirmed bachelors by the dean, the rest were sent to a lower
class. A similar form was observed in the act of laureation at the
end of the course ; except that on this occasion the candidates were
examined on the whole circle of the arts, and were required to de¬
fend a thesis which had been previously affixed to the gates of the
different colleges. They were then divided into classes, and their
names arranged according to merit, with a certain preference to
persons of rank. When the examinations were concluded, the de¬
gree of master of arts was solemnly conferred by the chancellor,
in nomine Patris, Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Certain fees were paid
bv the graduates, according to their rank, to the purser of the
university and of the faculty, to the dean, and to other officers.
Small annual fees seem originally to have been paid by the stu¬
dents to their regents.4
Soon after the establishment of the reformation, the leaders
of that great revolution proposed a scheme for new-model¬
ling the universities, which, though not adopted by the legis¬
lature, will remain a lasting monument of the enlightened and pa¬
triotic views of its compilers.5 After several other ineffectual at¬
tempts, a commission was appointed in 1579, on the petition of
the General Assembly, with full powers to consider the founda¬
tions in the university of St Andrews, to alter the constitution
and form of study, and* to introduce such improvements as might
appear necessary. The commissioners, finding that all the colleges
had departed from their original foundations, agreed upon a new
form of instruction, which was laid before the ensuing meeting of
parliament, and ratified on the 11th of November 1579. St
Salvator’s College was to consist of a principal, and four pro¬
fessors or regents of humanity and philosophy. The first regent
was to teach the Greek grammar, and to exercise the students in
Latin composition during the first, and in Greek during the second
half year. The second regent, who was also considered a professor
of humanity, was to teach the principles of rhetoric, and the prac¬
tice of it as exemplified in the best Greek and Latin authors.
This class was to spend an hour at least every day in composition ;
and during the last half year the students were to declaim once a
month in Greek and Latin alternately. It was the duty of the
third regent to teach, in the original language, part of the Logic of
Aristotle, with the Ethics and Politics; and the Offices of Cicero
in Latin. The fourth regent was to teach the necessary parts of
the Physics, and the doctrine of the Sphere. Each regent was con¬
fined to his own department. Professors of mathematics and law s
were also established, who were to lecture at least four times everv r
week; and the principal of the college was to act as professor of ^
medicine. Similar arramgements were made in St Leonard’s Col.
lege ; with this difference, that no classes of mathematics and law
were established in it, and the principal was to lecture on the
philosophy of Plato. St Mary’s College was appropriated solely
to the study of theology, and the languages connected with it.
The course of study was to be completed in four years, under the
instruction of a principal and four professors, each of the profes¬
sors having under his care only the students of one year. Item-
braced, in the first year, the elements of Hebrew, Chaldee, and
Syriac ; during the next eighteen months, the same languages,
with critical explanations of the Pentateuch and historical hooks of
the Old Testament; and during the remaining eighteen months
the prophetical books were examined in the same manner. Dur¬
ing the whole four years, the fourth professor was to explain the
New Testament, by comparing the original with the Syrian ver.
sion ; and the principal was to lecture on systematic divinity. The
students were required to attend the lectures of three professors
every day during the continuance of their theological course. Such
was the form of instruction drawn up by Melville, and recoin,
mended by Buchanan, which has been well characterised by Dr
M'Crie as “ the most liberal and enlightened plan of study which
had yet been established in any European university.’’6 Thisdes-
tination of the colleges continued till 1621, when, by an act of the
legislature, their original constitutions were restored, “ in all their
heads, articles, and clauses,” so far as was consistent with the re¬
formed religion, with the single exception that St Mary's should
be confined to the faculty of divinity. Professorships of mathe¬
matics and medicine were instituted in 1668 and 1721. We have
not the means of ascertaining the precise number of students who
belonged to the university at one time. In ordinary cases it appears
not to have exceeded 200, and it did not fall much short of that
number during the latter half of the sixteenth century. Fewer
had attended it during the first half, and still fewer previously to
that period.7
The three colleges continued without further alteration till the
year 1747, when, in consequence of the inadequacy of the provi-
sion for the principals and professors of the two colleges of philo¬
sophy, a union of them was effected by parliamentary enactment,
which enabled them to consolidate their endowments, and to make
provision for a more extended course of instruction. By this
statute the United College of St Salvator and St Leonard was to
consist of a principal, a professor of Greek, three professors of phi-
losophy, professors of humanity, civil history, maithematics, and
medicine, and sixteen bursars on the original foundations. The
same statute regulates the patronage of the professorships and bur¬
saries, and makes provision for the disposal of the funds of the col.
lege. No change has since taken place in the constitution of the
colleges, none of the suggestions of the royal commissioners ap¬
pointed in 1826 having been carried into effect in any ot the
Scotish universities. The principal of United College takes no
active part in teaching ; the professor of ethics delivers a course ot
lectures on political economy, and the professor of medicine teaches
chemistry and chemical pharmacy. In St Mary’s College there is
a principal, who is also primarius professor of divinity, and con¬
ducts the department of systematic theology; a professor of divi¬
nity, who confines his lectures chiefly to biblical criticism; and
professors of ecclesiastical history and oriental languages. Ihe
members of the colleges have long ceased to live in common: the
bursaries are still paid to certain poor scholars, but chambers are
no longer provided for them, nor do they eat at a common tab.e.
The professors of United College receive fees from their pupils,
but those of St Mary’s have no remuneration except their sa¬
laries, and a small grant of public money. • •in
The university consists of a chancellor, rector, two principals, L
and eleven professors. These members, with the exception ot t e
chancellor, form the governing body of the university, under tne
name of the Academical Senate. The Chancellor is the highes
dignitary in the university, and the guardian ofits privileges^
was originally the fountain of honour, and entitled to confer a
academical degrees; but this part of his official prerogative
long been in abeyance. According to the original charter,
bishop of the see, as in the other Scotish universities foundei .
V
I
1 M‘Crie’s Life of Melville, i. 228, and authorities there cited. ,• ;n
2 So early as the days of Augustin, the month of September, as the season of the vintage, appears to have been allowed as a vaca
schools. Valesiana, p. 65, a- quoted by Dr M‘Crie, Life of Melville, i. 244.
3 Life of Melville, i, 230, 231 ; and James Melville’s Diary, pp. 22—24, there cited. rr . erSttieu
* Life of Melville, i. 231-323. 5 See First Book of Discipline : Of the Erection of Vniw
6 Life of Melville, i. 245, where a more detailed account will be found, from which the abstract here given has been made,
f Life of Melville, i. 250.
I M
511
■ in
UNIVERSITIES.
■clesiastics, was chancellor ex officio. Since the abolition of epis-
n' )py» he has been elected by the senate, is generally a noble-
w" a^aml retains his appointment for life.
' Xhe Rector, who is the next office-bearer, is elected, according
! tj,e original constitution of the university, by four intrants
icsen by the four ftations ; the retiring rector having a casting
iote in the case of an equality in the votes of the intrants. By the
listing regulations, the only individuals who are eligible are the
’o principals, and the professors of divinity and ecclesiastical his-
rv. The rector nominates his substitutes and assessors from
e senate, and with their advice determines all causes which are
ought before him. He acts as a civil magistrate within the uni-
■rsitv, and possesses over the students the power of expulsion,
'flie Dean of the faculty of arts is chosen annually by the mem-
■rs of the faculty, who are the principal and professors of United
,liege. He presides in the meetings of the faculty, and commu-
cates with the senate respecting applications for degrees.
The Senatus Academicus is composed of the principals and pro-
■isors of the two colleges, with the rector as president. By this
tdy alone degrees are conferred; the faculty of arts merely exer-
,ing the privilege of recommending to it such individuals as they
nsider entitled to that distinction. The senate also manages
e university business, superintends the arrangements connected
th the library, elects the chancellor, the professor of medicine,
|e librarian, and the archbeadle. An appeal to it is competent,
i certain cases, from judgments pronounced by either of the col-
res. All members of the senate, previously to their admission,
ust sign the Formula of the Church of Scotland, in presence of
e presbytery of St Andrews.
In United College the Session or annual term of attendance for
e Latin and Greek classes begins on or about the 20th of Octo-
t ; for the other classes, on the first Thursday of November, and
of iseson the last Friday of April. In St Mary’s College, it com-
ences about the end of November, and terminates in the begin-
ng of April. In all the Scotish universities the curriculum of arts
tends over four sessions ; and at those of St Andrews, Glasgow,
d Edinburgh, whatever other classes are attended, the Greek
tst be taken the first year, the logic the second, the moral phi-
iophy the third, and the natural philosophy the fourth. At all
ese seminaries, and also at the two Aberdeen colleges, it is usual
• the student to attend the junior Latin or humanity class along
th the Greek ; and these two branches form his whole occupa-
- n for that session. In his second session, at St Andrews,
asgow, and Edinburgh, he enters the logic class; the lectures de-
ered in which, at the two former universities, embrace the sub-
, t of rhetoric also. At Edinburgh, rhetoric is taught in a sepa-
e class, attendance on which is likewise required from candi-
lcs for degrees, but without any particular year being assigned
it. In neither of the Aberdeen colleges is there any logic or
\ ptoric class. The other classes which it is customary to attend
ring the second year are the senior Greek, the senior Latin,
1 the junior mathematics. In all the universities, except those
Aberdeen, the class of moral philosophy is attended during the
rd session, and natural philosophy in the fourth. Along with
‘se the students of the third year generally attend the senior
thematics, and frequently the advanced Greek; those of the
rth year continue to advance in their mathematical studies,
both the Aberdeen colleges the class of natural philosophy is
ended in the third year, and moral philosophy in the fourth,
e qualifications required from candidates for graduation are
lerent in the different universities; and in all, the professors
! the examiners, each in his own department.
At the beginning of each session, a code of laws is read by the
iicipals to the students of their respective colleges, compliance
1 di which is strictly enforced. Delinquents are first admonished
jv i y by the principal, and, if the offence is repeated, are
1 ’light before the academical courts. The students of arts wear a
ticular dress, which varies with the rank of the wearer, according
He is a primar, secondar, or ternar. This dress was anciently worn
a fimes when the student was out of his room, but is now dis¬
ced with, except when he is within the walls of the college,
e students of both colleges are required to attend divine wor-
p every Sunday, except such as obtain dispensations from the
principals and professors. The students of St Mary’s assemble St An-
every morning in the public hall, for prayers, reading a portion of drevvs.
scripture, and singipg psalms. The duty is performed by the stu-v
dents in rotation.
The revenue of the university, as distinct from the colleges, is Revenue,
small, and is appropriated chiefly to the support of the library.
Ihe regular income for 1826 was L.297. The endowments of the
colleges have been much curtailed within the last fifty years, by
the augmentations of the stipends of those parishes, the" tithes of
which were granted to them by the original founders. The re¬
venue of United College is derived partly from the funds of
the original foundations, from royal grants made at different pe¬
riods, from the donations of private individuals, and from property
purchased by the college itself. In 1823, it amounted, including
bursary funds, to L.3021. Is. 6d. St Mary’s College was originally
endowed with tithes only, to which some additions were made bv
James VI. and William III. As in the case of United Col¬
lege, these have also been diminished by the sums which have at
various times been allocated for the maintenance of the parochial
clergy. The average income for the seven years preceding 1826
was L.1076. 5s. 5|d. The following table contains the different
professorships, with the patronage, salary, and class-fees.
UNITED COLLEGE.
Salary.l
Principal.
Greek.
Logic.
Moral philosophy.
Natural philosophy.
Humanity.
Mathematics.
Medicine.
Civil history.
L.
307
219
219
219
219
199
210
199
199
L. s.
3 3
3 3
3 3
3 3
3 3
3 3
3 3
3 3
Patronage.
Crown.
College.
College.
College.
College.
Duchess of Portland.
Crown.
University.
Marquis of Ailsa.
ST MARY S COLLEGE.
Principal.2
Divinity.
Ecclesiastical history.
Oriental languages.
Salary.
L. s.
238 8
231 16
286 0
211 0 1
Patronage.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
The funds and revenues of both colleges are managed by the
principal and professors. The annual grants from the crown amount
to L.525. The fees formerly exacted for degrees in arts have
been abolished. Those payable for graduation in medicine are
L.25. 16s. lid. ; and in divinity, when not conferred as an honor¬
ary mark of distinction, L.14.
In United College there are seventy-five bursaries, varying in Bursaries,
amount from L.5 to L.25 each. Their aggregate value is about
L.900. Twenty-two of these are open to general competition,
eight are given by competition at Madras College, seven are
assigned by the university and United College, and the rest
by private patrons. St Mary’s College possesses seventeen bur¬
saries varying from L.7 to L.18. Their aggregate value is about
L.200.
Number of students in session 1839-40, 145 ; Graduates in arts,
9 ; in divinity, 5 ; in medicine, 24 ; in law, l.3
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.
In the year 1450, Pope Nicholas V., at the solicitation of Founda-
William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow, issued a bull, establish- tion.
ing a studium generate, or university, “ for theology, the ca-
fhe salaries here given are those mentioned in the Report of the Royal Commissioners, as received in 1823. It being the practice of the
iilege to divide every year nearly their whole revenue, the incomes of the members fluctuate considerably. In 1824 the salary of each was
•35 more than in 1823..
3 TJle Pr'nc'Pal has a house and a small garden ; the three professors have each a garden, but no house.
Ihe number of students in all the Scotish universities has been much diminished within the last fifteen years. The diminution, we believe,
< been produced by causes external to the universities themselves, and may be partly accounted for by the small inducements which the
‘"'ed professions hold out to young men in Scotland ; by the superior advantages which are offered by the arts, manufactures, and cora-
ot tlle country j by the emigration of many young men who would otherwise have received a university education ; and by the schools,
) medical, which have been established in the principal towns of England and Ireland.
512
UNIVERSITIES-
Glasgow, non and civil law, the arts, and every other lawful faculty,”
at Glasgow; and granting to it all the rights and privileges
belonging to the university of Bologna. The archbishop
of Glasgow was constituted chancellor, with the same au¬
thority as was possessed by the heads of the Italian univer¬
sity, and particularly with the power of conferring degrees
History, and licenses on candidates duly examined. No mention is
made of medicine, as in the original erection of the univer¬
sity of St Andrews ; but it is implied in the expression,
“ quavis alia licita facultate.” In the following year a body
of statutes for its government was prepared by the bishop
and his chapter, which, with the papal bull, was confirmed
in 1453 by a royal charter from James II. The king like¬
wise exempted the members from taxes and all civic bur¬
dens ; and in the same year various privileges were con¬
ferred by the bishop, similar to those granted by Bishop
Wardlaw to the university of St Andrews.
In the original constitution of the university, that of
Bologna seems to have been imitated as far as circumstan¬
ces would permit. It consisted of a chancellor, rector,
deans of faculties, procurators, regents, masters, and scho¬
lars ; and was placed by the bishops beyond the control of
the civil magistrates. The supreme power was vested in
the scholars who had been marticulated, and whose names
remained on the album; and these, in their comitia or
congregations, enacted, amended, or repealed the statutes.
The supposts, or members of the university, were distri¬
buted into four nations,1 each having a procurator, elected
annually from its own number, who was invested with con¬
siderable trust and power. The supposts, assembled in
comitia, also elected the rector through the medium of
intrants, and at the same time chose four deputies to form
the rectorial council. The rector, acting with the advice of
his council, exercised supreme judicial and executive power
over all the members of the university: he was invested
with jurisdiction in all minor civil cases in which supposts
were concerned; graver offences were specially reserved
for the decision of the bishop himself. Permission was
given to the supposts to bring their causes either before the
rector or the bishop, and liberty of appeal to the latter was
allowed to any one who thought himself aggrieved by the
sentence of the former. In 1461 an ecclesiastical juris¬
diction was conceded to the rector; and such a concession
implies that this officer was always to be a person in holy
orders. All houses and lodgings for the supposts within
the city were subjected to regulations similar to those es¬
tablished by Gregory IX. in the university of Paris. The
magistrates and other officers of the city took a yearly oath
to observe and defend the privileges and liberties of the
university.
This university, at its first erection, was entirely unen¬
dowed, and for a considerable time possessed no funds,
with the exception of small perquisites paid at promotions
to degrees. Its meetings were held in the chapter-house
of the Blackfriars, or in the cathedral; and the teachers
were furnished with schools in the religious houses. In
1458, the faculty of arts commenced building a Pcedago-
gium, at the expense of its common purse ; but this design
w as superseded by the liberality of the first Lord Hamilton,
who in the following year conveyed to the principal and
the other regents of the faculty, for their use and accommo¬
dation, a tenement in the High Street, together with four
acres of land. The donor required that the principal and re¬
gents should, on their admission to office, promise on oath to
commemorate himself and his wife as the founders of the col¬
lege. The annals of the university furnish scarcely anyinfor. c
mation respecting the means of instruction which it pro. v
vided, and the mode in which that instruction was conveyed
In the higher faculties, the teaching seems to have been con¬
fined to occasional lectures. More attention appears to have
been paid to the inferior branches of science. The records
mention the admission of a regent of philosophy within two
years after the erection of the university. It may readily be
assumed that the want of salaries to the professors was the
principal reason why the higher branches of knowledge were
neglected; and even the instruction which the university
diffused was furnished by men who derived their emolu¬
ments from other sources. The professors of divinity, and
of the canon and civil law, depended for their support on
the benefices which they held as ecclesiastics in various
parts of the country.
By Lord Hamilton’s deed of bequest, the faculty of arts f,
obtained the nucleus of the college property ; but it is not
quite clear that the name of a college was then, for the first
time, conferred upon it. Two sets of records are preserved,
commencing with the origin of the university, one volume
of which is entitled “ Annales Collegii Facultatis Artium
in Universitate Glasguensiand if this title was prefixed
to it so early as 1451, the college must have existed as a
corporate faculty before the charter of Lord Hamilton. It
is not however till 1462 that express mention is made of
the Collegium Facultatis Artium; and it may be questioned
if even at that time the college w'as co-extensive with the
faculty, and not rather a select body, which assumed the
government of the whole faculty, like the colleges of fa¬
culties at Bologna. The exact imitation of all the customs
of Bologna makes the latter supposition probable. It is at
least clear that at this early period the term college had no
reference to a building for common habitation or common
maintenance.2
The university remained in this state for about a hun¬
dred years, during which time it appears, from the language
of certain grants, that the university and the college of the
faculty of arts were frequently confounded. In the year
1557, two years before the reformation, James Beaton,
archbishop of Glasgow, conveyed to the Pcedagogium, or
university, and to the masters and regents in the same, an
ecclesiastical benefice, which, from the accompanying re¬
strictions, was clearly intended for the benefit of the whole
university. Similar instances might be adduced. At what
precise period the two terms ceased to be used synony¬
mously, and the existence of a separate college to be re¬
cognised, does not appear.
From its peculiar constitution, the university of Glasgow
suffered more from the change of religion at the reforma¬
tion than the other learned seminaries of Scotland. Ihe
professors in the higher faculties being all supported by
their livings in the church, and adhering to the old religh®,
successors could not be appointed to them, owing to the
total want of salaries. It likewise suffered materially fro®
the fraudulent alienation and unjust seizure of its slender
revenues.3 This evil was in some degree remedied in L
by Queen Mary, who granted certain houses and lands or
the benefit of the college or university, and specially for
the maintenance of five bursars. In 1572 the magistrates
of Glasgow granted a charter, which was confirmed b\ aC
of parliament, conveying to the college certain churc
property for the support of a professor of divinity, « 0
was to be principal or provost, two regents of philosop y,
and twelve poor students. The regents and students wer
1 I he four nations were, Ratio ClydesdalitE, comprehending the natives of Lanarkshire, Renfrew, and Dunbarton, from Eric 5 an
source of the Clyde, to Dunbarton ; Ratio T.hevidalice, including the Lothians, Stirling, and all the towns east of the river Urr, 11 ^ ^
banite, embracing all the country north of the Forth; and Ratio Rothsaia, including Ayrshire, Galloway, Argyle, with the Isles, Lenno ,
Ireland.
s Commissioners’Report, p. 215. Malden, p. 156. 3 M'Crie’s Life of Melville, i. 70.
513
UNIVERSITIES.
w. i eat and sleep within the college, and were required to sign
-'.ie Confession of Faith. It might be supposed that these
;fts would have been sufficient to place the college on a
■spectable footing; but it appears that even then the whole
mds did not exceed L.300 Scots, or L.25 sterling.
Five years afterwards, James VI. new-modelled the constitu-
3n, and made a very considerable addition to the revenue. The
larter then granted forms the basis of the present constitution,
id is known by the name of Nova Ercctio. According to it, the
liege was to consist of a principal and three regents, to each of
horn certain salaries were assigned, four poor students, and ser-
nts. The principal, who was to have the ordinary jurisdiction
er the members of the college, and to reside there constantly,
is to be a proficient in sacred learning, and was required to lec-
re at least one hour a day lor five days in the week. He was to
nominated by the king; and failing an appointment by the
jwn within thirty days, the election devolved upon the chancel-
rector, dean of faculty, and five clergymen, including the mi-
iter of Glasgow. The regents were to he elected by the rector,
an, and principal, and were appointed each to a particular de-
rtment of learning, a principle which had never before been
ppted in Scotland, instead of conducting the students through
| the branches of instruction included in the course. The elec-
s were invested with a visitorial power over the regents, and
: ght remove them. The principal, if negligent after three ad-
i nitions, was removable by the rector, dean, and regents. The
: :tor, dean, and minister of Glasgow were to inspect and audit
t? accounts four times in the year, and to direct the surplus re-
:iue to be applied to the necessary uses of the college. It, is oh¬
ms that the intention of this charter was to place the college
der the effectual superintendence of the university. In 1581,
chbishop Boyd granted to the college an additional endowment
the support of a fourth regent, who is believed to have been
' professor of Greek. About the same time a new body of sta-
,es was framed by royal authority, which still regulates both
; university and college.
The course of instruction prescribed by the Nova Erectio is an
; litional proof of the enlightened views entertained by the early
dersofthe Church of Scotland on the subject of public educa-
n ; but having already alluded to this subject in connection with
■ university of St Andrews, our limits will not permit us to give
n detail. It may be sufficient to say, that it embraced every im-
ivement which the learning and experience of Andrew Melville
1 been able to devise. Small fees, varying with the rank and
nding of the students, were to be paid at matriculation to the
tor and beadle. New students, as well as those who had attend-
1 the former year, were to be examined in the beginning of Oc-
mr; and the examination of candidates for the degree of master
1 arts was to be held on the third week of August. After due
1 unination, the dean and others were to decide on the qualifica-
ns ot the several candidates, and to arrange their names ac-
' , n£t0 merit. The examiners were to be the dean, principal,
ifessors, and the master of the grammar-school, all of whom were
• irn to be faithful and impartial. Degrees were to be solemnly
' netted by the chancellor. Honoraria were to be paid to the re-
: Us, according to the rank and fortune of the students. Sons
the nobility and barons of Scotland were to pay annually at
st L.3; those of the second rank, who, though inferior to the
ons, possessed means sufficiently ample, were to pay L.2;
ise of the third rank to pay L.l; the poor were to be admitted
c of all charge.
1 he constitution founded on the Nova Erectio has at different
ics been extended and improved by commissions of visita-
n' .ne oppointed by the General Assembly in 1G39, and re-
*e.ct in subsequent years, recognjsed, in 1640, a class of hu-
o' , ’usfifuted a separate professorship of divinity. In
.. ’ “P01*161- professorship of divinity was established by the
iversity, and distinct departments of study were assigned to the
uupal and the other two professors of this branch. A profes-
»up of medicine, which had existed for some time, was de-
•re *° “e unnecessary. By the same commission, strict regu-
uns weie made respecting the study of Greek and Latin, the
( umiance ot public exercises, and the regularity of attendance,
r most niaterial change effected on the constitution of James
stn , 8: “ 011 t'^le understanding that it was a disadvantage
jvv en , t0 c.hanSe their masters annually, it was required that
-) master, instead of continuing to teach the same branch,
should educate his own scholars through all the four classes four Glasgow,
years being the curriculum necessary for graduation in arts. ^
In 1727 a royal visitation made several important regulations,
which have ever since remained in force. It declared the right of
electing a rector to be in all the matriculated members, modera¬
tors, or masters and students ; revised the system ofteaching in¬
troduced by the charter of Nova Erectio; and assigned permanent
professors to the three classes of philosophy. The Semi Class was
set apart for logic and metaphysics, the Bachelor Class for moral
philosophy and natural philosophy, and the Magistrand Class for
physics and experimental philosophy. Besides the professors of
humanity, Greek, and philosophy, the visitation recognised pro¬
fessors of divinity, law, medicine, botany, anatomy, oriental lan.
guages, mathematics, and history, requiring them to teach when¬
ever five or more scholars presented themselves. The same com¬
mission defined the powers of the faculty meetings, and sanction¬
ed certain privileges “ which had been assumed by them in con¬
tradiction to the statutes, and which by this time had passed into
usages. As the meetings of the faculty were composed only of
professors, this interpretation tended to give the college greater
power of self-government, and to remove it from the control of
the officers of the university.”2
The exclusive rights thus granted to the college were submitted
to the Court of Session in the years 1771 and 1772. The court
declared that the whole revenue and property of the college are
vested in the principal and masters, and are not subject to the
control of the rector and his assessors. At the same time it re¬
cognised the visitors appointed by the charter of foundation, and
their right to audit the college accounts, and to dispose of the
surplus revenue. The right of election to professorships, which
the charter intrusted to the rector, dean, and principal, was found
to be in the rector, dean, and faculty meeting, or, in other words,
in the professors themselves. The distinctive privilege of profes¬
sors of the university, and of the college of Glasgow, was finally
made in 1807, in a lawsuit which arose out of the appointment of
a regius professor of natural history. The incumbent claimed a
right to participate in all the powers and privileges of the faculty,
and to be admitted as a member of the college, which was resisted
by that body. The Court of Session recognised the rank of the
incumbent as a professor in the university, but decreed that he
was not a member of the college, and not entitled to share its
property, or to vote in any of its meetings. This decision was
acquiesced in by the crown; and, in all subsequent appoint¬
ments to regius professorships, restrictions have been introduced
which are intended to be in conformity with the deliverance of
the court.
The university at present consists of a chancellor, rector, dean Present
of faculty, principal, professors, and students. The business of Constitu-
the university is transacted in three distinct meetings; those of the tion.
Senate (Senatus Academicus), the Comitia or general Congregation,
and the Faculty. The Senate consists of the rector, dean, mem¬
bers of faculty, and the other professors. In this meeting the
rector presides, except when affairs are managed for which the dean
is competent. Aleetings of the senate are held for the election
and admission of the chancellor and dean of faculty, the vice-
chancellor and vice-rector, for electing a representative to the
General Assembly, for conferring degrees, for the management
of the libraries, and other matters belonging to the university.
The constituent members of the Comitia are, the rector, dean,
principal, professors, and the matriculated students of the uni¬
versity. In this meeting the rector or vice-rector presides.
Meetings of the comitia are held for the election and admission of
the rector, for hearing public disputations in any of the faculties
previously to the conferring of degrees, for the admission of pro¬
fessors, and for promulgating the laws and other acts of the uni¬
versity and college courts. The Meeting of Faculty, or College Meet¬
ing, consists of the principal and professors of divinity, ecclesiasti¬
cal history, oriental languages, natural philosophy, moral philoso¬
phy, mathematics, logic, Greek, humanity, civil law, medicine,
anatomy, and practical astronomy. In this meeting the principal
presides, and has a casting, but not a deliberative vote. The mem¬
bers of the faculty have the administration of the whole revenue
and property of the college, with the exception of a few particular
bequests, in which the rector and other officers of the university are
specially named. Along with the rector and dean, they exercise the
patronage of eight professorships, which is vested in the college.3
The Chancellor, who is the highest officer in the university, is Chancellor,
elected by the senate. As at St Andrews, he is usually a noble¬
man, and he holds his appointment for life. The chancellor nomi-
^ Thi 9 /■!
ill wl) ? e°- coni'uct'nrI academical education was long followed in all the universities of Scotland ; and, chiefly from the influence of Dr
! Mald° ^ave **a Prided preference, continued to prevail at Aberdeen till 1800. Commissioners’ Neport, p. 221.
voi en’ P' 3 New Statistical Account of Scotland, No. vii. p. 173.
'0LXXI. 3t
514
UNIVERSITIES.
Dean of
Faculties.
Principal.
Subordi¬
nate Of¬
ficers.
Faculties,
Revenue*
nates a deputy or vice-chancellor, and by himself or deputy has
the sole privilege of conferring degrees on persons found qualified
by the senate.
The Hector is elected by the comitia, divided into nations, ac¬
cording to the act of visitation in 1727- This office in ancient
times was invariably held by a clergyman ; and it was not till
1717 that the royal commission ordered that the rector should
not be a minister, nor bear any other office in the university. By
the statutes, the rector is an annual magistrate; but it has long
been customary to re-elect the same person for a second year.
His duties were formerly important; but the practice of electing
men distinguished in literature and politics, who are non-re¬
sident, has led to the remiss and inefficient discharge of them.
The rector nominates a vice-rector, generally a professor, who in
his absence is entitled to preside in the senate and comitia, and
to exercise the other duties of the office, with the exception of the
visitorial power.
The Dean of Faculties is elected by the senate, and generally
holds his office for two years. He is entitled to exercise a super¬
intendence over the studies, and, in conjunction with the masters,
to judge of the qualifications of candidates for degrees.
The Principal, who must be a minister of the church of Scot¬
land, is appointed by the crown. In right of his office he is pri-
raarius professor of divinity ; but the duty of teaching has long
been discontinued. He is the head of the college, presides in all
meetings of the faculty, and exercises the ordinary superintendence
of the deportment of all members of the university.
The other officers are, a Factor, appointed by the college to col¬
lect the revenue, keep accounts, &c., who must not be principal,
a professor, or master, in the university; a librarian, janitor,
beadle, &c.
In the original foundation, the Faculties of theology, the canon
law, the civil law, and the arts, are expressly enumerated; and medi¬
cine and music, though not specified, are implied. Soon after the
erection of the university, some efforts were made to teach the ca¬
non and civil law, and professors of divinity are occasionally men¬
tioned ; but till the reformation there seems to have been no regu¬
lar course of instruction, except in the faculty of arts. The uni¬
versity now contains four faculties; those of arts, theology, law,
and medicine. The faculty of law is confined to the single pro¬
fessor of the civil law; the other faculties have the usual comple¬
ment of professors. The professors of Greek, logic, moral and na¬
tural philosophy, whose chairs were earliest endowed, are denomi¬
nated regents, and enjoy, in right of their regency, certain trifling
privileges. The regius professors, whose chairs have been recently
founded and endowed by the crown, are members of the senate
only, and not of the faculty of the college.
The Revenues of the university and college are derived from
estates, tithes, and bequests, and, with some unimportant ex¬
ceptions, are administered by the principal and professors of the
college, under the control of the ordinary visitors. The gross re¬
venue, including royal grants, which together make L.510, amount¬
ed in 1824 to L.bhlfi. 18s. 3d. F'rom this fund the principal and
thirteen faculty professors receive their salaries; the others are
endowed by grants from the crown.
Connected with the college are twenty-nine foundations for
varying from three to eight years. Besides the bursaries the
principal and professors of the college possess the right of nomi-v'
noting students, natives of Scotland, who have attended twoses.
sions at the university of Glasgow, or one session there and two"
at some other Scotish university, to ten exhibitions at BalliolCol-
lege, Oxford, on the foundation of John Snell. Each exhibition
is of the yearly value of L.132, and lasts for ten years. Another
foundation, by John Warner, bishop of Rochester, of L.20 a year
to each of four Scotish students at the same college, during their
residence at Oxford, is generally given to the Glasgow exhibi¬
tioners; so that four of them have an income of L. 152. Warner’s
exhibitions are in the gift of the archbishop of Canterbury and
the bishop of Rochester, who usually nominate on the recommen¬
dation of the master of Balliol College.
The Session commences on the 10th of October, and ends in theSe
beginning of May. The only lectures delivered in summer are
those of the professor of botany, whose course continues from the
20th of April till the 20th of July.
Students in the faculty of arts may enter either the humanityCt
or Greek class, and must proceed regularly to the logic, moral St
philosophy, and natural philosophy, in order to their obtaining
degrees, or being admitted to the classes of divinity. Such as
are not natives of Scotland may enter the logic class in the
first year if found qualified. There is no examination previous¬
ly to admission ; but soon after the commencement of the ses-
sion, the students of Greek, logic, moral and natural philoso-
phy, are publicly examined on the subject of their studies in
the preceding year. This is called the Blackstone Examination,
and takes place in presence of the principal, the professor whose
class is proposed to be entered, and of all others who choose to
attend.
The ordinary academical Discipline is conducted by the primp a,
cipal and the five professors of the Gown classes, viz. the professors
of humanity, Greek, logic, moral and natural philosophy, who
meet with the students on the Saturdays in the common hall,
and take cognizance of all pretty delinquencies. Punishments
are inflicted by admonition, fine, and sometimes by extra ex-
ercises. Cases of a graver character are brought before the fa¬
culty and rectorial court, whose jurisdiction extends even to
expulsion. The professors are at due pains to enforce regular
attendance, and to stimulate the industry of the students. All
students, except those who obtain dispensations, are required to
attend divine worship every Sunday in the college chapel. The
students of languages and philosophy wear gowns of scarlet cloth
or frieze.
The number of students in session 1839-40 was 940; Gra.
duates in axis, 28 ; in medicine, G6 ; in surgery, 13; in divinity,
(i; in law, 2. The fees for graduation in arts are L.3. Is.; in di¬
vinity, L.20 ; in medicine, L.25. 3s.; for LL. B. L.10, and for
LL. D. L.20. j .
The following table contains a list of the professorships, with
the date of their foundation, the patronage, the salary attached to
each, and the fees exigible by the professors.
Salary.
Principxal 
f Logic and rhetoric 
I Moral philosophy 
| Natural philosophy 
Greek   
I Divinity 
Humanity 
J Mathematics 
Oriental languages 
Theory and practice of medicine..
Civil law 
Anatomy 
Ecclesiastical history 
^Practical astronomy   
Natural history 
Surgery  
Midwifery 
Chemistry 
Botany 
Materia medica   
Forensic medicine 
Institutes of medicine 
Civil engineering 
1577
1577
1577
1577
1581
1830
1637
1691
1709
1713
1713
1718
1720
1760
1807
1815
1815
1817
1818
1831
1839
1839
1840
L.450
289
286
291
289
425
289
292
300
270
310
250
322
270
100
50
50
50
150
40
75
11 lit
6 6
11 01
2 1
8 10
10 74
8 11
0 0
0 04
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
250 0 0
L.3 3
3 3
4 4
3 3
2 2
0
0
0
0
0
3 3 0
3 3 0
2 2 0
3 3 0
3 3 0
2 2 0
Crown.
Faculty,
Faculty,
Faculty,
Faculty,
Faculty,
F'aculty,
"Faculty,
Faculty,
Ci'own.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
rector,
rector,
rector,
rector,
rector,
rector,
rector,
rector,
and dean,
and dean,
and dean,
and dean,
and dean,
and dean,
and dean,
and dean.
UNIVERSITIES.
515
flie fee here given in the Greek class is that for the public
< The fee for the private class is L.l. Is., and attendance is
' f • after two sessions. The fee for private students in the na-
" t il philosophy class is L.3. 3s., and for the experimental course
' i 2s. The professor of natural history has a class of rninera-
t jf'/ the fee for which is L.l. 10s. 6d. The fee for the class of
S tish law, which is taught by the professor of the civil law, is L.4.
'} Part of the salaries of the principal and the professors of di-
v ty is payable in grain, and varies with the price of that arti-
(•: Several of the professors receive part of the graduation
|L ft. The principal and thirteen professors occupy houses erect-
eiby the college: the expense of keeping them in repair, the
t; ?s and civic burdens being also defrayed out of the college
f'J Is.
UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.
The university of Aberdeen was founded in 1494, by a
h i of Pope Alexander VI., issued on the representation
o fames IV., who was desirous to extend the advantages
oi education to the northern districts of his kingdom.
'Jje papal edict authorized the erection of a studium ge-
ilale et universitas studii generalis, in the city of Aber-
d n, for teaching divinity, the canon and civil law, me¬
et ine, and the liberal arts; and conferred upon it all the
p/ileges and immunities which were enjoyed by the uni-
v sides of Paris and Bologna. The university was to
c sist of a chancellor, who was to be the bishop of Aber-
d n, a rector, and doctors of faculties, and was invested
v li the power of conferring degrees, which were to be
c sidered valid throughout Christendom. Two years after,
oi; the publication of the deed of erection, the king granted
a: barter in favour of the university, bestowing upon it
c tain ecclesiastical funds for the support of its members,
a 1 communicating to it all the rights, liberties, and ad-
v itages which his ancestors had given to St Andrews and
(isgow. Its privileges were finally established by a pa-
p bull issued in 1500. In erecting this new seminary, the
njdel of Paris seems to have been mainly followed. The
s posts were divided into four nations, who seem to have
v -ted their procurators (procuratores gentium) ; but they
tf k no further part in elections, or in the government of
t university, the procurators acting as their representa-
t BS.
7. A
o! In 1505, William Elphinstone, bishop of the diocese, for
; purpose of increasing the revenues of the new univer-
s /, and enlarging the number of its members, founded and
< lowed a college in honour of the Trinity and the Virgin
«iry, which was in the following year confirmed by the
1 id of the church, and soon after by the reigning monarch.
e college was to consist of thirty-six ordinary members,
t chiet ot whom was to be a doctor or licentiate of di-
1 ity, who wras to be styled principal, and to whom all the
i mbers were to yield obedience. Next to him were doc-
< s and licentiates of the canon and civil law and medicine;
:| laster arts, who was to be regent and sub-principal; and
'| >ther who was to teach the elements of literature. Besides
* se there were five masters of arts, students of divinity,
1 o were to retain their appointments for a limited number
Mears, and thirteen poor scholars of respectable talents
1 proficiency, who were to be students of arts. j All the
1 m )ers, with the exception o^4j[lP doctor of medicine,
>e to be ecclesiastics, ^phTI were required to live within
college. I he rectof of the university, if not a member
1 t ic college, and if he was, the dean of the faculty of
an<^ ^e official of Aberdeen, were constituted visitors,
'1 l)0'ver to remedy whatever was found defective.
new erection was prepared by the bishop, and offi-
j y published in 1531, increasing the number of the
'j' ers °t the college, improving their comforts, and in-
1 ucmg a more efficient system of instruction. By this
H c larter, which, though modified by time and circum¬
stances, still regulates, in a great degree, the form and Aberdeen,
piactice ot the university, tlie members of the seminary ^"•
were to be forty-two. the first class consisted of four
doctoi s; a doctor ot divinity, who was to be principal, and
whom all the other members were respectfully to obey ;
and doctors of the canon and civil law, and medicine, or li¬
centiates if doctors could not be found. In the second class
were eight masters of arts, the first of whom, skilled in
philosophy and the arts, was to be sub-principal; the se¬
cond was to be conversant in poetry, grammar, and rhetoric ;
and the other six, from whom the regents were to be elected,
were to be students of divinity, and to retain their ap¬
pointments for six years. The next class was formed of stu¬
dents of law, who were to study the civil law, and to attend
the lectures delivered on that subject. All these, with the
exception of the doctor of medicine, were to belong to the
priesthood, and were occasionally to say mass for the
founders. There were, besides, thirteen students of arts,
retaining their endowments for three years and a half, the
usual curriculum in that faculty; and eight prebendaries,
who were to attend to sacred music, one of them being
styled Cantor, and another Sacrist, and six boys for the
choir. For all these accommodation was to be provided in
the college. The revenues were placed under the charge
of a procurator or factor, who was to be appointed by the
principal officers of the college.
The principal was to be elected by the rector of the uni¬
versity, the procurators, doctors, sub-principal, regents of
arts, humanist, theological students, cantor, and sacrist, and
to be admitted by the chancellor. His duties were to go¬
vern the college, to preside in its meetings, to direct the
regents in the delivery of their lectures, and to punish such
as were deficient in their duty, to profess every day in
philosophy and the arts, and to give lectures in divinity
to the people six days in the year. The doctors, who were
to be appointed by nearly the same electors, were likewise
to be admitted by the chancellor, and to lecture to the
students, each on the subjects belonging to his faculty.
The election and admission of the sub-principal and hu¬
manist were to be conducted in a similar manner. The for¬
mer was required to lecture in philosophy and the arts quohbet
legibili die, to instruct the students in manners and virtue,
to preside at public disputations among the students, to in¬
flict fines on such as absented themselves from divine wor¬
ship, and, along with the principal, to take a general superin¬
tendence of the affairs of the college. The students of theo¬
logy and the arts were to be elected by the sub-principal, the
regents, and the doctors of faculties, and admitted by the
principal. The theological students were required to ap¬
ply themselves to the study of their science, and to be
qualified within three years to take their bachelor’s degree.
Their places, when vacant, were to be fillejl up from the
students of arts. The college was exempted from all civic
burdens.
From this statement it appears that the northern seminary
closely resembled in its constitution the colleges of St
Andrews and Glasgow. The connection between the col¬
lege and the university is distinctly marked in the charter
of foundation, in which it is recommended that the perma¬
nent and higher offices should be supplied from the inferior
members if they were qualified, if not, from the members
of the university of Aberdeen ; and failing these, recourse
was to be had to other universities. As at Oxford, Cam¬
bridge, and St Andrews, however, the university has dis¬
appeared, and the incorporated and endowed college only
remains. The college is co-extensive with the university,
or rather the university is confined to the limits of the col¬
lege ; nor is any distinction between them preserved, as at
Glasgow.
This college remained in nearly the same state for more than
a century, without however escaping the deterioration which
-4
i ,i
516
UNIVERSITIES.
Aberdeen, seems to be incident to all exclusive bodies. In 1619 Bishop
*- v —Forbes obtained a commission of visitation, by which the abuses
that had gradually been engendered were reformed, and the
original foundation, with some exceptions, restored. By the in¬
troduction of the reformed religion, some of the offices were ren¬
dered unnecessary ; and accordingly the General Assembly, in
1639, ordered those of the ganonist and cantor to be abolished.
After the abolition of episcopacy, Charles I. resolved to apply
part of the revenues of the different sees to the support of the
universities, and appointed a commission to inquire into the state
of those of Old and New Aberdeen ; the result of which was his
executing a charter, uniting them as one university, under the
name of “ King Charles’s University of Aberdeen.” The colleges
however continued distinct, and are separately recognised in the act
of 1641, by which the grant of the rents of the bishopric of Aber¬
deen was ratified ; nor do they appear ever to have acted together
as one university. Bishop Elphinstone’s seminary has since re¬
tained the name of King’s College. Another attempt to form
both into one university was made about the year 1764, which
after long negociation and discussion was abandoned; and a simi¬
lar result is likely to attend the labours of the commission ap¬
pointed in 1636 and 1837-
From the period of its institution down to the earlier part of
the last century, various improvements were introduced by royal
and parliamentary commissions. The General Assembly also ex¬
tended its jurisdiction to the college; and the chancellor of the uni¬
versity and the ordinary visitors appear to have watched over its
interests. In what manner the rector and his assessors were elected,
and how frequently their visitations took place, are unknown for
a period of 129 years after the institution of the college. Subse¬
quently this court appears to have been efficient, and to have
been instrumental, in several instances, in giving effect to im-
proved plans of education. The senate, consisting of the regu¬
lar officers of the college, likewise applied themselves to the
same laudable object, and from time to time introduced such al¬
terations as a change of circumstances or the advancement of
knowledge rendered necessary. About the year 1620 a professor¬
ship of divinity was instituted by the college, and was confirmed
two years after by royal charter. Weekly discourses on ca¬
techetical doctrine were established ; and in 1764 a professorship
of oriental languages was founded, for which an endowment out
of the bishops’ rents was afterwards obtained. In 1753 the teach¬
ing of the elements of Latin was abolished, and the scholarship of
the class raised to the standard of the other universities. In the
same year, the senate, taking into consideration the whole state of
the college, approved of certain statutes intended to regulate the
length of the session, the management of the bursaries, and the
plan of instruction. On this last head, after mature deliberation,
it was determined, chiefly, it is alleged, through the influence of
the celebrated Dr lleid, who was at that time one of the regents,
that the old system of the same regent conducting the students
through the whole course should be continued, as at once more
beneficial to the students, and more advantageous to the cause of
literature and science. And it is a curious fact, that the system
thus sanctioned by high authority prevailed till the year 1800,
when the practice of the other universities was here introduced.
The university and college at present consist of a chancellor,
rector, principal, sub-principal, and nine professors; the office of
sub-principal being always held by one of the professors. The
college contains the four faculties, and, as at St Andrews and
Glasgow, the senate, besides managing the business of the col¬
lege, and administering the revenues, exercises the patronaee
of certain academical offices. The chancellor and rector —
appointed by the senate. The office of the rector -T.. a?es, k
, j. , . , . 13 annual:
his tour assessors, who constitute his court, are elected by the se
nate at the same time with himself. The procurators gentium
are called into existence only for the purpose of assisting in the
election of certain office-bearers, and are then appointed by th
senate. The office of dean of faculty has also fallen into desue
Constitu¬
tion.
tude, excepting in the case of a vacancy in the professorship of
divinity, when a dean of the faculty of divinity is chosen bv the
senate, he being by the charter nominated one of the electors
The principal and sub-principal are elected by the rector, procui
rators, and professors, and admitted by the chancellor. The
principal presides in the meetings of the college, but has Ion,,
ceased to take any part in academical instruction. The sub”
principal presides in the meetings of the faculty of arts, and, in the
absence of the principal, in the meetings of the senate, and col.
lects the fines imposed on the students for any breach of discipline.
The Revenue of the college arises from certain properties aci i;
quired under the foundation charters, from others obtained subse- r ’
quent to the dates of these charters, and from royal grants. A great ri,
part of the original grants consisted of tithes, which, beingsubject
to the burden of supporting the parochial clergy, have been much
diminished. The total nett revenue for 1836 amounted to L.2;iG4
the royal grants being L.1148. 6s. 8d. King’s College possesses
thirty-two foundations for bursaries, the benefit of which is ex-
tended to 134 students. Their aggregate value amounts to
L.177L 13s. I0d., and they vary from L.50 to L.5 and under.
About eighty of these are open to public competition. The bur-
sars are required to attend the junior humanity and Greek classes
during the first session, and at the commencement of the follow,
ing session are examined as to the proficiency which they have
made in these languages during the vacation. They are also
admitted to all the classes on the payment of modified fees in
proportion to the amount of their bursaries.
The Session commences on the first Monday of November, theS,
previous week being employed in deciding, by comparative trial, 11
the vacant bursaries in the gift of the college, and in ascertaining
the attainments of the bursars presented by private patrons. It
terminates at the end of twenty-one weeks. It has long ceased to
be the practice of the students to live within the walls of the col.
lege; and the discipline of the professors is therefore chiefly con¬
fined to the class-room. Strict attendance is enforced, and various
methods are adopted to fix the attention of the students on the
subjects of study. The regular fees exigible from the students
who do not hold bursaries are, for the classes of Greek, mathema¬
tics, moral and natural philosophy, L.3. 3s.; first humanity ami
second Greek classes, 10s.; second humanity class, 15s.; chemistry
and natural history, L.1.1 Is. 6d.; oriental languages, L.l. 11s.6d.;
civil law, LI. Is. These fees are modified,in the case of bursars,in
proportion to the amount of the bursaries. An academical dress
is prescribed by the charter of foundation, and is still imperative
on all students except those of medicine and divinity. The stu¬
dents are required to attend the college chapel; but a dispensation
is granted to all who produce a written request from their parents
or guardians.
The number of students in 1839-40 was 350 ;l Graduates in arts,
36 ; in divinity, 1; in law, 2 ; in medicine, 8.
The following table contains a list of the professorships, witn
the date of their foundation, the patronage, and total emoluments
of the professors, for the year 1836.2
Office.
Principal 
Professorship of Greek 
Humanity [chemistry and natural history].
Mathematics  
Natural philosophy 
Moral philosophy 
Medicine   
Civil law 
Divinity  
Oriental languages 
1505
1505
1505
1505
1505
1505
1505
1505
1620
1674
Emoluments.
L. s. d.
300 8 7
474 3 8
450 9 6
355 6 1
360 12 1
377 18 0
211 7 3
214 9 3
425 8 10
242 11 0
Rector, procuratores gentium, professors.
Rector, procuratores gentium, senate.
Rector, procuratores gentium, senate.
Senate.
Senate.
Senate. ,
Rector, procuratores gentium, senate.
Rector, procuratores gentium, senate. . .
Synod of Aberdeen, principal, dean of faculty ofdivim )'■
Crown.
ihe principal, sub principal, with the professors of humanity. Besides the professors, lecturers have been established inc,,rl
mathematics, natural and moral philosophy, and divinity, have, be- nection with the college, who teach the following branches: pre¬
sides, houses and gardens. tical religion, evidences and principles of the Christian re ig10 >
* The students of divinity, who amounted to 91, and a few of the students of medicine, were common to King’s and to Marischai Colle0
8 Report of the Royal Commissioners, printed in 1838, p. 71.
:bal
UNIVERSITIES.
»en. iateria medica, anatomy and physiology, surgery, practice of me
517
•jcine, midwifery, institutes of medicine, medical jurisprudence,
id botany. With the exception of the first, the lecturers are
| appointed by the senate.
MARISCHAL COLLEGE.
. Marischal College, in New Aberdeen, was founded by
e Earl Marischal, under royal authority, in 1593 ; and in
e same month received the sanction of the General As-
mbly. In July following it was ratified by an act of par-
iment, which granted to it all the privileges and jurisdic-
>n appertaining to any free college within the realm, but,
ntrary to the ancient practice, subjected all its members
the jurisdiction of the magistrates of the city, in all things
ne or committed by them beyond the walls of the col-
rc. The college was denominated an Academy, or Se¬
nary of Learning, and was to consist of a chancellor,
i ;tor, dean of faculty, principal, three regents, six alum-
i and two inferior persons to manage the internal af-
ilrs of the seminary. The principal was to superintend the
' lole establishment, and to exercise jurisdiction over all its
umbers; being invested with the power of censuring the
i ;ents, and of expelling them from the college, with the
< icurrencc of the rector and dean, after three admoni-
He was to be well instructed in sacred literature
1 ns
i i in the learned languages, particularly in Hebrew and
Iriac, and was required occasionally to teach divinity,
f itomy, physiology, the principles of geography, chrono-
1 ;y, and astronomy, and the elements of Hebrew grammar
i 1 construction ; duties presupposing an extent of acquire-
i nt which the founder would lifove some difficulty in ob-
1 ning. He was also invested with the power of conferring
t jrees in arts on such as he deemed worthy of the dis-
I ction. The first regent was required to teach the
( ments of arithmetic and geometry, and the sciences of
< lies and politics; the second was to teach the principles of
He, and to exercise the students in writingand declaim-
i' in Latin and Greek; and the third, who was the low-
c, was appointed to teach Greek, combining with it, dur-
i the first six months, Latin composition, afterwards the
v ting of Greek, and adding a short account of the ele-
i ntary principles of logic. It thus appears that, from the
c nmencement of the college, the regents had particular
F sessions assigned to them; and it was expressly ordained
t t no regent should undertake a new professorship. The
d Marischal reserved to himself and his heirs the patro-
i ;e of the professorships; the examination and admis-
j e Pei’sons nominated being vested in the chancel-
leges belonging to the dean of faculty at St Andrews, or Aberdeen.
in any other university. A charter of confirmation was ' . 
granted by William Earl Marischal in 1623, and a new
confirmation was given by Charles II. in 1661. It is a
curious fact, that, neither in the charter of foundation, nor
in any of the acts of parliament which relate to the col!e°-e,
is it recognised as a separate university. It nevertheless
confers degrees in all the faculties, founding, as it seems un¬
questionably entitled to do, on the clause in the first act of
confirmation, by wdiich it acquired all the privileges belong¬
ing to any college within the realm.
Notwithstanding the precautions of the founder, innovations
were soon made on the constitution of the college. A few years
after its institution, another regent was appointed, additional mem¬
bers were admitted, and each professor, in conformity with the
general practice, conducted his students through the whole course.
In 1700 the privy council of Scotland assigned the Greek depart!
ment to one professor; and in 17b3 the system was finally al¬
tered by the senate. A professorship of mathematics was found¬
ed about 1013, and in 1016 a professorship of divinity. From this
time the principal seems to have confined himself to the su¬
perintendence of the business and discipline of the college. The
state of the college was the subject of frequent visitations appoint¬
ed by the king, the privy council, and the parliament, by means
of which, and by the interposition of the senate, a system of in¬
struction differing but little from that which at present prevails
was at a comparatively early period introduced.
Marischal College at present consists of a chancellor, rector, dean Constifu-
of faculty, principal, and thirteen professors. No division of the tion
professors into faculties has ever been made. When degrees are
conferred, promoters in the different faculties are appointed. The
rector and his assessors, four in number, are elected annually by
the students, according to the charter of foundation; but as'it is
the usual practice to elect a distinguished individual who is non¬
resident, the extensive powers which belong to the office have long
been in abeyance. The dean of faculty is annually appointed by
the senate and the minister of Aberdeen. The senate consists
of the chancellor, rector, dean, principal, and professors. The
first three are seldom present, and the affairs of the college are
conducted by the ordinary members.
The Revenue of the college, including L.550. 6s. 8d. annually Revenue
granted by the crown, amounted in 1830 to L.1638. 9s. 2d., toan(] jJar-
which must now be added the endowment of the chair of humanity, saries
which is to be L.200. There are forty-five foundations for bur¬
saries, for the benefit of 115 students. Their aggregate value is
about L.1160 annually; and they vary from JL.30 to L.5 and
under. Sixty-seven of them are open to public competition ; the
patronage of the others is vested in societies, and in private indi¬
viduals. The two highest are awarded, by comparative trial, for
excellence in mathematics, to students Avho have completed two
' v- W?re a clergyman, the rector, dean, the principal
1 Kings College, and three clergymen, including the mi-
I ter of Aberdeen. By the forfeiture of the Marischal fa-
* y> the patronage devolved upon the crown. The elec-
II o the bursars was likewise retained by the founder,
■ their admission vested in the members of the college.
J 'acation was allowed; and, that the members of the
1 ege might devote themselves exclusively to their respec-
uties, they were prohibited from holding any public
I - ^ J-- «*. VS IX A iJV/l VA11J^ CXliy j.-MAW
r,’ a, even from acting as rector or dean of faculty.
p, . ^ a* icuiur or uean or lacuiiy.
^ lc'ciancellor, rector, and dean, were instructed to visit
. ^ eSe three times a year, for the purpose of correcting
a ever might be wrong in doctrine or discipline. The
or was to be elected by all the students, through the
jjtnim of procurators appointed by them when divided
1 our nations, to have jurisdiction over the college,
, 0 PreskH in its meetings, after taking the oath of of-
j . 1 > le. eail °t faculty was to be elected by the senate
le minister of Aberdeen ; his duties being to preside
* imin ’ t0 administer the oath of fidelity to the
1 ic(>n^and to ta^e cognizance of the doctrine and dili-
f the regents. He was invested with all the privi-
sessions.
The Session in arts commences with a competition for bursaries s3SSi0i,
on the last Monday of October, and ends on the first Friday of
April. The session in the other faculties is somewhat shorter.
Lectures in botany and conveyancing are given in summer. To¬
ward the end of the session, the students in arts are examined in
the public hall in presence of the principal and professors.
The professors have the power of correcting any impropriety of Discipline,
conduct in their respective classes, by the imposition of a fine, or
by expulsion from the class ; but an appeal may be made to the
senate, the rectorial court, and the chancellor. A public school,
consisting of all members of the college, is assembled once a fort¬
night, for the purpose of investigating and correcting any breach
of discipline. The bursars, as in King’s College, must attend
the curriculum in a particular order, and are examined at the
commencement of each session before they are admitted to higher
classes. The students who intend to graduate in arts are re¬
quired to undergo an entrance-examination; and before obtain¬
ing their degree, are examined on all the branches of the course,
including the evidences of Christianity. For ten years preceding
December 1840, candidates for the degree of doctor in medicine
were required to take the preliminary degree of master of arts.
By the present regulations this restriction has been removed, and
an improved course of study prescribed.
The number of students in 1839-40 was 351; Graduates in arts,
21; in divinity, 0; in law, 2; in medicine, 2.
The fees for graduation in arts are, to alumni of the college,
L.2. 14s. 8d.; to those who are not alumni, L.8; in divinity and
law, L.15; in medicine, for M. B. L.l, for M. D. L.ll.
The following is a table of the professorships, with the date of
their foundation, patronage, and the total emoluments of those
which existed in 1836.
UNIVERSITIES.
Principal
Greek....,
Civil and naturall
history 1
Moral "philosophy
and logic 
Natural philosophy.
Mathematics 
Divinity 
Medicine  
Oriental languages
L. s. d.
343 13 8 I Crown.
376 3 10 Crown.
1593
332 3 1
Chemistry 
Ecclesiastical his¬
tory 
Humanity 
Anatomy 
Surgery   
1593
1593
1613
1616
1700
1723
1793
1833
1839
1839
1839
328
335
335
1 11
7 1
2 8
112 8 41
109 10 8
97 18 6
99 0 0
97 5 0
200 0 0
the bishops, who were jealous of the reputation and pros-Ed
perity of the seminaries placed under their immediate and^
official protection.3 In 1562 the town supplicated from
Queen Mary a gift of certain ecclesiastical property within
the city, to be applied, among other things, for “ colWis
r, 1 • • . j • * ™ Kni- • 1°
Crown.
~ J 7 “   II ' I   
for leirning and upbringing of ye youth but received an
Crown.
Crown.
Town Council.
Town Council-
Crown.
Ramsay of Bal¬
main.
College.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
Crown.
The full fee for the first Greek, natural history, natural philo¬
sophy, and moral philosophy classes is L.3. 3s. ; the average bur¬
sar’s fees, L.l. 16s. 7id. The full fees for the second Greek and
mathematical classes are L.l. Is. and L.2. 2s.; and the reduced fees,
10s. Od. and L.l. 0s. 5fd. For the class of medicine the fee is
L.2. 2s., and for chemistry L.l. 11s. Od. The bursars are entitled
to attend the latter class gratis. The fees for the classes of ana¬
tomy and surgery are L.3. 3s. The professors of divinity and ori¬
ental languages receive no fees.
I ectureships in the following branches have been established in
connection with the college: practical religion, evidences of Chris-
tianitv, Scotish law and conveyancing, botany, materia medica, in¬
stitutes of medicine, midwifery, medical jurisprudence, compara¬
tive anatomv, and agriculture. With the exception of the first,
third, and last, the patronage is vested in the college.
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
Founda¬
tion.
The university of Edinburgh owes its origin to James VI.
In 1582 “ the wise monarcil” granted a charter, empower¬
ing the lord provost, magistrates, and council of the city
to repair and build houses for the reception and habitation
of professors and students of the liberal arts, humanity,
philosophy, divinity, medicine, law, and any other liberal
sciences (^quaruTncunque clUcltmu liberalium &cie.7iti(tTUT)i)*
The same charter constitutes the municipal authorities, with
the advice of the ministers {cum avisamenlo ministrorum),
electors of all the professors, with the power of dismissing
them should they find it necessary; and, with strange in¬
consistency, prohibits all persons not admitted by the pa¬
trons from professing or teaching any of the sciences within
the liberties of the city. The king, who was ambitious
History.
Lilt/ ~ J -   O'
of being commemorated as the founder and greatest bene¬
factor of this literary establishment, inserted in the charter
an imposing list of ecclesiastical properties for its support,
which however were found to possess little more than a
nominal value. Even the ground on which the college was
built (the Kirk of Field) could only be obtained by pur¬
chase from a menial servant of the king, who had acquired
a title to it; and, in like manner, the other royal benefac¬
tions proved in a great measure delusive." The plan of the
seminary was thus most extensive ; and the patrons, being
unfettered by the minute prescriptions contained in the
foundation charters of the older universities, have had fewer
difficulties to encounter in adapting it to the existing state
of philosophy and science.
The design of founding a college in the metropolis had
been contemplated by the magistrates within two years after
the reformation; but their endeavours were thwarted by
evasive answer. Renewing their application the following
year, they obtained a grant of “ the Kirk-of-Field, to big
ane schulebut seem to have been prevented from carrying
their design into effect. It was not till 1579 that success¬
ful measures were adopted. In this year the magistrates,
encouraged by the ministers and other public-spirited indi¬
viduals in the city, commenced building apartments for the
accommodation of professors and students, and three years
after obtained from the crown the charter of erection and
confirmation. The chief promoter of the design was James
Lawson, the successor of Knox as minister of Edinburgh,
by whose recommendation Robert Rollock, one of the
regents at St Andrews, and a man of high intellectual en¬
dowments, was selected in 1583 to fill the arduous situation
of first and indeed sole regent in the new institution. The
college was accordingly opened in October 1583, under the
newlv appointed regent; the number of students, who, as in
the other universities, probably all belonged to the faculty
of arts, was eighty-four. Rollock was engaged only for
a year, with a promise of continuance and promotion it he
conducted himself faithfully, and complied with the rules
and injunctions of the patrons. His salary was to be L.40
Scots, or L.3. 6s. 8d., with a quarterly allowance of L.30
Scots for board, in addition to the fees to be paid by the stu¬
dents. According to the contract, he was to receive “for
a year’s education to the sons of burgesses, L.2 Scots, and to
others at least L.3 Scots ; a small sum, apparently, but not
disproportionate to the scale on which the professor vas
maintained.”1 This rate of fees continued till 1595, when
the town council ordained that the sons of gentlemen not
burgesses of Edinburgh should pay L.8 Scots a year, and
the sons of burgesses half that sum.
A second regent was appointed soon after the opening ot
the college ; and in 1586, the town council, “ having suth-
cient proif and experience of the lyfe and conversatioun o
Rollock, “ and of his qualificatioun and learning, consti¬
tuted him principal master, with all the emoluments o t e
appointment, committing to him all the authority vestei m
the principal of any college in the universities of the realm,
and subjecting to his jurisdiction the regents established
to be established, with all other members of the college.
He was required to attend to their doctrine and come >
tion, and to punish delinquents; but the counci icse.
ed to themselves the right of deposition, and of enact g
statutes for the regulation of the seminary. _ A tmr rcg
was nominated in the same year, a fourth in J >
1597 a regent of humanity. Till 1620 the pnnctP^
regarded as professor of divinity, and his pie cc ion
confined to that department. In this year a seco" J
fessor of divinity was appointed ; but several o t ie
ing principals continued to read theological lectures,
of Dr Leighton were published after his ^1-f llowed by
The charter of erection was soon (lo84)
another, in which the king, gratified by the suc«* -j
new seminary, conveyed to the magistrates a
certain property for its support. In 1612 another
was granted by the king, ratifying those which a J
ously been given ; and in 1621, an act of t ie ^c ^
liament was passed, confirming various gian s P. t]ie
which had been made to the town of Ldinb.^rg tbc 011ly
This act, as exhibiting me
support of the institution.
1 To this sum must be added L.50 which the professor receives for delivering a weekly lecture to a11 ‘’^^J^eSeresting i» ^
2 Edinburgh Academical Annual for 1840, p. xiii. From the Introduction by Principal Lee we have obtamecu o ^ ^ An p xv.
8 MlCrie’s Life of Melville, ii. 282.
irJi
UNIVERSITIES.
institution which the college possesses, deserves particular
■itice. After detailing the establishment of the college,
cl the purposes for which it was instituted, the grants made
• carrying these into effect, the expense incurred by the city
erecting the buildings, and various bequests made by well-
, ;posed persons for the support of the professors, the act de-
, ires the anxious desire of the king for the increase of learn-
519
ires the anxious desire JPHMHH  
i r within the borough, his willingness to confirm the former
:ints made to the college, and to extend to it all the im-
! inities enjoyed by any other college within the realm, and
i] ifies and approves the infeftments previously granted by
1 majesty under his great seal, “ togidder with the erection
< the said gryit Judging, manss, and hous of the Kirk-of-
1 ild, in ane colledge for professioun of theologie, philo-
gihie, and humanitie.” The ratification concludes by de-
c ring that the college shall “ in all tyme to cum be callit
lag James Colledge,” and conferring on the magistrates as
t rons, and the rectors, regents, bursars, and students, “ all
erties, fredoms, immunities, and priviledges, appertening
ane free colledge, and that in als ample forme and lairge
ner as any colledge lies or bruikis within this his ma-
j'ie’s realme.” It is true that the term university is not ap-
| ;d to the seminary, either in this act or in the royal charter
c 1582; but the clause which has just been quoted confers
i m it all the powers and privileges of a university, and
t se necessarily involve the name.
'rom the first institution of the college, the town council,
v h the advice of the ministers and some eminent lawyers,
r ulated the mode of teaching, the discipline, the fees, and
t accommodation of the students. Students were admitted
t; application to a magistrate, under whose authority they
v enrolled; as in other universities, they were matricu-
1 id by the rector or principal. It was the intention of the
1 nders that all the students should lodge within the walls
i: he college, and wear an academical dress. The annual
r t of a chamber to a stranger student, having a bed to
! isclf, was L.4 Scots; for which sum the town furnished
sits, beds, tables, and shelves. Students whose parents
v e burgesses paid no rent, but furnished the rooms at
t ir own expense. The increase of numbers gradually put
a top to this practice. So lately, however, as the year
• h, the English dissenters offered to contribute L.1000
ajcar, for the support of a hospitium, on condition that
1 ir students might participate in the benefit.1
he system of instruction originally pursued in the university
, Jlul 'lifter materially from that of the other Scotish universities.
• li of the four regents conducted his students, during the four
s they remained under his care, over the entire curriculum of
1 Jture and philosophy, while the prelections of the principal
" c<m™ed to theology. The following interesting account of
course of study and early discipline is given by Principal Lee.2
uring the first year, about six months were spent chiefly in
S'UI y 0. the Greek and Homan classics, accompanied by fre.
|1 i exercises in translation and original composition. The re-
ader of the session was occupied in the study of the Dialectics
' j U11US> without however discontinuing the reading of Greek
' |.,a 111 authors, and committing to memory and reciting large
'ons o the ancient poets and orators. In the second year, be-
n o'ug exercise(j jn Greek themes and versions, the students
ib0tlm? the.pubhc class and in the hours of recreation in Edinburgh,
-he fields, i he principal was bound to maintain a daily superin- ■- „ -
tendence, presiding m the public devotions, and keeping a watch-
ul eye over all the regents, students, and officers of the establish¬
ment, so that, when admonition or discipline was required it
might not be omitted or postponed till insubordination and irre¬
gularity became inveterate or scandalous. Every Lord’s day was
partly employed in the religious instruction of the students in
their private classes, and chiefly in the public solemnities of divine
worship.” This course of study, which must have obtained the
sanction of the patrons, goes far to justify the powers which had
been vested in them by the charter of erection ; and when carried
into effect by the energy of the regents, readily accounts for the
celebrity which the metropolitan university early acquired. The
practice of each regent teaching the same class during the whole
period of the course was discontinued in 1708, in consequence of
a regulation by the parliamentary commission of visitation ap¬
pointed in 1090. Since that time every professor has been limited
to one particular department.
The most striking circumstance,” say the royal commis- Peculiar
sioners, in the establishment of the university of Edinburgh, constitu-
is, “ that it is not erected into an independent seminary, buttion'
is subjected, in all essential points, to the provost, magis¬
trates, and council of the city. To them is committed "the
superintendence of it, the appointment of the professors,
and the privilege of removing them when so strong a step
seemed expedient. The whole body is enjoined to obey
the regulations emanating from the council; and even the
powers of the principal are limited by the same authority.
In fact, to the college, as a college, nothing seems to be
given but immunities and privileges common to the other
universities, and which do not seem to have any reference
to its internal administration. No senatus academicus, or
college meeting, with special authority to regulate the course
of education, is recognised. Every thing specified is granted
with a view to the magistrates and council; and in the only
clause which may seem to imply that the college received a
separate and independent jurisdiction, the mode in which
it is introduced evinces that this could not have been the
Accordingly, the council have always claimed and
case.
IT qaH l" *-1 i av.mcTllLo rtllll VdolUIlci} Lilt: oLLlUcIlLS
tij rp? "Vi, stU(l.ii * * v °f logic, rhetoric, and some part of mathema-
ii i f ^11 0S0Plllcal works of Aristotle were not neglected ; and
o nir.l f1 mo.n.. s °1 the session, the practice of oratory was en-
« 1 th > lc Reclamations. The third session, carrying for¬
te ip uPU, !,C stU(fies and classical learning, introduced the youth
si! v 'm i" ei”e °* some branches of natural history and philo-
« i tW li"aVe eve!7 one an opportunity of becoming acquainted
e! cs nh ™CntS Hebrew tongue. In the fourth session,
si v’. . ..jSICS’ an<l metaphysics formed the principal object of
d utatinn part °P l^e time was occupied in the practice of
ill wa ’ . ’e regent prescribed the subject, and every candi-
fij , a c le< with an antagonist, with whom it was necessary
K .s w irp ai"ry 0,1 a debate in presence of his teacher. The re-
_| ___ required to exercise a habitual inspection of their
^ca<l- An. pp, xvi. xvii.
exercised the privileges which are conferred on them by the
charter.
The number of professors, which in 1620 was seven, in¬
cluding the principal, was raised in 1708 to fifteen, one of
whom was professor of Greek, the study of that language
being required of all students of arts after the reformation.
The present number is thirty-three. The right of institut¬
ing new professorships is vested in the patrons; and the
promptitude which they have shown in adopting the best
measures for the advancement of academical instruction is
deserving of great credit. Some years ago the clergy of
the city put forward their claim to a voice in the election
of professors, on the ground that, in the original charter,
the right of appointment was to be exercised cum avisa-
mento ministrorum. The claim was for some time keenly
agitated, and steps were taken to enforce it; but on appli¬
cation being made to the Court of Session in the case of a
particular election, the court refused to grant an interdict,
and the question was accordingly dropped. Eleven profes¬
sorships have at various times been founded by the crown, of
nine of which it has retained the patronage; but the exercise
of this power is disputed by the council, as an infringement
of their sole right of control, and a protest is regularly taken
that it shall not hurt or prejudge their rights. In the case
of some of the professorships, certain public bodies have
been admitted to a share of the patronage, in consequence
of contributing a part of the salaries of the professors. The
professor of botany holds two commissions, one from the
crown, and another from the town council.
The right of the patrons to interfere in regulating the
course of study was of late years disputed by the principal
and professors, and the subject was brought before the
2 Ibid. pp. xxviii.-xxx.
3 Report, pp. 99, 100.
520
UNIVERSITIES.
Edinburgh. Court of Session for adjudication. The court decided that
the sole government of the university in all points, even in
regulating the conditions of graduation, the course of study,
and method of instruction, is vested in the town council.
The council however has the discretion to leave matters
of discipline and ordinary detail to the principal and pro¬
fessors ; and the regulations which are from time to time
made by them, are considered valid unless they are disal¬
lowed by the patrons.
For a considerable period the college was limited to the
faculty of arts ; the other faculties were successively recog¬
nised, as the course of instruction was extended. The me¬
dical school, which has of late years become so famous, had
its origin so recently as the end of the seventeenth century,
there being no professor of medicine previously to the year
1685. The school of law is still more modern. The class
of public law was instituted in 1707, of civil law in 1710, of
Scotish law generally, in 1722, and that of the theory and
practice of conveyancing in 1825.
Want of From what has already been stated, it will appear that the con-
l’ublic Of-stitution of the university of Edinburgh differs essentially from
. i   1 ^ T ,-1 1P no vi /aP l-\£i ooirl fr* n o vro onv
licers.
Principal.
Senate.
Faculties.
tion of it has long been supplanted by the designation of theF
senate. After the institution of a separate professorship 0t\
divinity, the two sets of professors were designated as the facult ^
of arts, and the faculty of divinity ; but the precise time at which
the distinct sections were recognised is nowhere recorded, p js
to be borne in mind, however, that the four faculties merely per
that of other universities. Indeed it cannot be said to have any
independent or well-defined constitution; the patrons being in¬
vested with the powers generally given to the universities them¬
selves. No power is conferred upon it by the charter as an inde¬
pendent corporation, nor is any provision made for the appointment
of public officers. There is no mention made of a chancellor; and
although in early times the name was occasionally taken by the
provost of the city, this must be regarded as an unauthorized
assumption. For a long time there has been no chancellor of
the university. The case in regard to the offices of rector and
dean of faculty is nearly the same. “ This important office,” (the
office of rector), say the commissioners,1 “ has been much less effi¬
cient in Edinburgh than in the other universities; and the existence
of the office itself has been, apparently at least, suspended.”^ It was
held by several persons, though with frequent intervals, till 1640,
when the council resolved to elect a rector annually, with six asses¬
sors, two members of council, two ministers, and two professors. But
in the beginning of last century the office of rector was permanently
annexed to that of lord provost, who, as head of the council, al¬
ready possessed all the authority which could be deputed to the
rector, and consequently the office, till within these few years, had
become obsolete even in name. “ It is, accordingly, explicitly as¬
serted that no chancellor or vice-chancellor, rector or dean of
faculty, exercises any authority or jurisdiction over the principal,
professors, or students in the university of Edinburgh.”2 The
business of the college is managed by a section of the town council,
under the name of the college committee, who take charge of the
revenue, communicate with the senate, and exercise a general
superintendence over the seminary.
The Principal occupies an anomalous position; he holds the
same rank as the cognominal officers in the other universities, but
apparently without any of the powers which the others exercise.
Notwithstanding the stipulations made by the patrons to Bollock
when he was promoted to the office, his authority seems to be
extremely limited. The principal has long ceased to teach a class,
and he has not for a considerable period taken an active part in su¬
perintending the instruction of any of the classes. He presides in
the meetings of the senate, and is the official organ of the univer¬
sity in communicating with the crown, the patrons, and the pub¬
lic. Beyond this he does not appear, so far as we have been
able to ascertain, to possess any real power or authority. The
present principal reads lectures on biblical criticism, and has re¬
vived the ancient practice of delivering an annual address to the
students.
The Academical Senate is composed of the principal and pro¬
fessors, who, in right of their appointment, become constituent
members. The principal presides, and has both a deliberative and
a casting vote. The senate claims the right of instituting new fa¬
culties, and of fixing the privileges and immunities belonging to
then). This court, however, is not mentioned in the charter, nor
does it appear to have ever been recognised by the patrons, as pos¬
sessing any independent powers. The meetings of the senate are
called by the principal, or any member of the theological faculty.
The university contains the four Faculties of divinity, law, me¬
dicine, and arts, each of which has a dean, chosen by the faculty.
The term Faculty was originally employed to denote the whole
body of professors in their corporate capacity, but this applica-
form certain duties under the senate, without whose sanction their
proposals and regulations cannot be carried into effect. The faculty
of arts comprehends the professors of languages and philosonhv
with those of mathematics, rhetoric, practical astronomy, aiid
universal history. The professor of natural history belongs to the
faculty of medicine. The professors of agriculture and music have
not yet been attached to any of the faculties.
The total Bevenue of the university, derived from original pro.n
perty, from parliamentary enactments, from royal grants, and
from the benefactions of individuals, amounted in 1825 to about
L.3770- In this sum was included the income of the bursars
amounting to L.420. Of the remainder, the principal part was
made up of the royal grants, which then amounted to L.1135
and were given as salaries to certain professors. A. large portion
of the college funds, amounting to L.13,119, having been under
the management of the magistrates and town council, and being
involved in the late embarrassment of the city’s affairs, the act of
settlement in 1838 provides an annual “ sum of L.2500 for the
maintenance and support of the college and schools of the said
city, in full of all demands,” &c.; and adds, that the said sum
“ shall be applied by the lord provost, magistrates, and council of
the city, in defraying the obligations and payments incumbent
upon them in relation to the debts due by the said city to the said
college, in paying the salaries and house-rents due to or on ac¬
count of the professors, in repairing and maintaining the college
buildings, and in the other necessary expenses thereof, and the
remainder towards the schools and educational purposes of the
city in consideration of which payment, the “ college debt” of
L.13,119 is declared to be extinguished.
By the will of General Beid, dated 1806, a large bequest was
made to the senate for endowing a professorship of music, adding
to the library, and otherwise promoting the general interest of
the university. This bequest, after being liferented by the tes¬
tator’s daughter, lately became available to the university. It
amounted, after deductionof legacy-duty and expenses, to L.C2,500.
A professorship of music has since been established, and the series
of annual concerts appointed by the will has been commenced.
The Bursaries attached to the university are thirty-four, theB
benefit of which is extended to eighty students: their aggregate
value is L.l 172 a year. Three are of the annual value of L.100;
the others vary from L.30 to L.5 and under.
There are two Sessions. The winter session commences on theS
first Tuesday of November, and closes in the end of April. The
summer session, during which a few classes of the medical faculty
are taught, begins on the first Monday of May, and terminates at
the end of July. The theological session is somewhat shorter.
Each student pays a matriculation fee of L.l. No certain order
for the attendance of classes, is prescribed by the statutes. At¬
tendance on certain classes, however, is requisite for those who
are destined to particular professions, or who aspire to academi¬
cal degrees. It is recommended to students who mean to follow out
a regular course of study in the faculty of arts, and it is enjoine
on those preparing for the church, or proceeding to degrees, that
they commence with the classes of languages and mathematics.
Candidates for the degree of Master of Arts must be in the four
year of their academical studies, and must have attended e
classes of humanity, Greek, mathematics, logic, rhetoric, mora an
natural philosophy. They are required to give in their names o
the dean of faculty on or before the last day of March. 1 n- 6*
aminations take place in April, and continue for three days, r
twelve to four each day. The candidates are required t° ? ^
written answers to questions, and translations of PaS:i^es/p
classical authors put into their hands. Those who are °‘in
titled to the degree are classified in the order of their pro n’ -j,
as ascertained by the results of the examinations; and the list ^
graduates so classified is affixed to the college 811 ^ . ti,e
in the library, and advertised in the newspapers, btuden ^
close of the third year of the regular curriculum of ar3 ,
mitted to that part of the examination which relates to class y
ficiency ; and those who avail themselves of this fourth
examined in mathematics and philosophy at the close 0 e the
year of their studies. The examinations are conduct /
professors ofthe faculty. , . ^
Arrangements have lately been
for reviving the degree of B. D,
Students who have
1 Beport, p. 114.
Report, p. 115.
UNIVERSITIES.
521
,;r theological curriculum, and who have previously taken the
jrrree of A. M., are allowed to present themselves as candidates
• this new honour, and are required to undergo a strict examina-
n on the evidences and doctrines of Christianity, in ecclesiastical
story, and in oriental languages. Those by whom the exami-
tion is successfully undergone, receive from the faculty a cer-
icate, which entitles them, on obtaining license, to apply to the
iversity for the actual conferring of the degree. This we are
•lined to consider as a great improvement, and as likely to form
powerful stimulus to students of divinity. It is to be presumed
it the faculty intend this arrangement as preliminary to confer-
g on the bachelors the higher degree.
The celebrity of Edinburgh as a school of medicine seems to
iiiand of us a general statement of the course of study necessary
i obtain a Medical Degree. No student can be admitted to the
(aminations for the degree of doctor of medicine, who has not
] >n engaged in medical study for four years, during at least six
i nths in each, either in the university of Edinburgh, or in some
i ter university where the degree of M. D. is given, unless, in
! lition to three Anni Medici in a university, he has attended,
iring at least six winter months, the medical or surgical practice
i a general hospital which accommodates at least eighty patients,
; 1 during the same period a course of practical anatomy, in which
qe three years of university study are admitted. Candidates
i st give sufficient evidence that they have studied, once at least,
e li of the following departments of medical science, under pro-
i Mrs of medicine, namely, anatomy, chemistry', materia medica,
a 1 pharmacy, institutes of medicine, practice of medicine, sur-
j. y, midwifery and the diseases peculiar to women and children,
j. eral pathology, and practical anatomy, during a course of six
i nths; clinical medicine, that is, the treatment of patients in a
public hospital, under a professor of medicine, bvwhom lectures on Edinburgh.
the cases are given, during a course of six months, or during two   
courses of three months ; and clinical surgery, medical jurispru¬
dence, botany, natural history, including zoology, during a course
of at least three months. They must attend the university of
Edinburgh at least one year, must submit to the examiners a
medical dissertation composed by themselves, and a written decla¬
ration that they are twenty-one" years of age. Before candidates
are examined in medicine, the faculty ascertain, bv examination,
that they possess a competent knowledge of the Latin language ;
and being satisfied on this point, they proceed to examine”them’
either viva voce, or in writing, on anatomy, chemistry, botany’
institutes of medicine, natural history, materia medica, pathology,
practice of medicine, surgery, midwifery, and medical jurispru¬
dence. The examinations take place in May, June, and July,
and the successful candidates are admitted to their degrees on the
first lawful day of August. All degrees are conferred in the
name of the senate. Honorary degrees alone are granted in the
faculties of law and divinity.
The professors exercise no superintendence over the students. Discipline
except within the walls of the college. Delinquents are brought
before the senate, and admonished by the principal, or, if guilty
of a grave breach of discipline, are expelled. The students wear
no academical dress, nor are they required to attend any particu¬
lar place of worship. Accommodation for 200 is provided in one
of the churches in the immediate neighbourhood of the college.
The number of students in 1839-40 was 1298; graduates in
arts, 4 ; in medicine, 111.
Fees for graduation in arts, L.3. 3s.; in medicine, L.25, in¬
cluding the stamp. The degrees in law and divinity being hono¬
rary, are always given without the payment of any fee.
1 ile containing a List of the Professorships, the Date of their Foundation, the Patronage, the Salary attached to each, and the Fees exigible by
the Professors.
Principal1...,
Humanity2.
Divinity  
Hebrew 
Mathematics  
Botany3 
Theory of physic4 
Practice of physic 
Church history 
Anatomy and physiology.
Greek5  
Natural philosophy 
Moral philosophy 
Logic and metaphysics 
Civil law3  
Chemistry 
Universal history6 
Scotish law6 
Midwifery 
Clinical medicine7 
Ithetoric 
Natural history 
Materia medica 
Practical astronomy 
Agriculture 
Clinical surgery 
Military surgery 
Medical jurisprudence..
Conveyancing  
Surgery 
General pathology
Music 
Biblical criticism1 
Found¬
ed.
1585
1597
1620
1642
1674
1676
1685
1685
1695
1705
1708
1708
1708
1708
1710
1713
1719
1722
1726
1741
1762
1767
1768
1786
1790
1803
1806
1807
1825
1831
1831
1839
1841
Salary.
Fees.
L. s. d.
151 2 2
87 4 4
196 2 2
115 0 0
148 6 8
127 15 6
None.
None.
200 0 0
50 0 0
87 4 4
52 4 4
102 4 4
52 4 4
100 0 0
None.
100 0 0
100 0 0
None.
None.
100 0 o
100 0 0
None.
120 0 0
50 0 0
100 0 0
100 0 0
100 0 0
120 0 0
None.
None.
300 0 0
L. s. d.
None.
3 3 0
3 0
3 0
4 0
4 0
4 4 0
4 4 0
3 3 0
4 4 0
4 4 0
4 4 0
4 4 0
Patronage.
Town Council.
/ Lords of Session, Town Council, Faculty of Advo-
( cates, Writers to the Signet.
Town Council.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Crown and Town Council.
Town Council.
Ditto.
Crown.
Town Council.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Faculty of Advocates and Town Council.
Town Council.
Faculty of Advocates and Town Council.
Ditto ditto.
Town Council.
Crown.
Ditto.
Town Council.
Crown.
f Lords of Session, Barons of Exchequer, Town Coun-
( cil, Senate.
Crown.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Town Council, Dep. Keeper, and Writers to the Signet.
Town Council.
Crown.
Senate.
Crown.
• ° he office of principal is attached one of the deaneries of
] Hro>’a1’ ^,e emoluments of which are said to be under
I rp'ro . .ne,ry has also been assigned as an endowment for
■ j *!, ■ inst>tuted professorship of biblical criticism,
i d >car ^0’ the lords of session contributed one thou-
' writpr” / anc^ ^le Acuity of advocates and the society
l >sum ■*] ° ^ iS'^net one thousand pounds, to be added to a
t nation ^ ^ie town council; and in consequence of the
•OL x ° 1 llS^0‘nt stoc^> ^ was stipulated that a professorship
of humanity or laws should be founded, and that two delegates
from the lords, two from the advocates and writers, and two from
the town council, should elect the professor. This contract conti¬
nues to be acted upon to the present time—Edin. Acad. Ann.
p. xviii.
3. The professor of botany holds two commissions, one from
the crown as regius professor of botany and keeper of the garden,
and another from the town council as professor of medicine and
botany.
3 u
522
UNIVERSITIES.
Edinburgh. 4. The six senior professors of the medical faculty have an ad-
s——dition to their emoluments, of about L.200 a year each, arising
from the fees paid at graduation.
5. The four professorships set down as founded in 1708 are
evidently the four regentships which, along with the principal-
ship, formed the original establishment of the college, but the
holders of which were not confined to the teaching of separate
departments till the date here given.
6. The professors of the civil law, universal history, and Scotish
law are elected by the town council, from a list ot two names
in each case, submitted by the faculty of advocates; aform which,
in effect, gives the appointment to the latter body.
7. The class of clinical medicine is taught in rotation by cer¬
tain of the medical professors, according to an arrangement among
themselves. The fees are divided among the lecturers. The fee
for the summer course is L.8. 8s.
UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN.
Ireland is represented by her native historians as being,
in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, the university of
Europe ; and the manuscript remains of Irish literature be¬
longing to that period, which are still preserved in various
libraries, strongly corroborate the statement. During the
three succeeding centuries, little is known of the state of
learning; and the subjugation of the country by Henry II.
in the twelfth century seems to have extinguished the feeble
spark which still burned. Soon after the beginning of the
fourteenth century, a university was established by a bull
from John XXII., in connection with the cathedral church
of St Patrick’s, which continued for some time to support a
feeble existence.
The present university was founded in 1592, through the
exertions of Archbishop Loftus, who prevailed on the cor¬
poration of Dublin to appropriate for its support the ground
and buildings of the dissolved monastery of All-Hallows,
on Hoggin Green, in the eastern suburbs of the city, at that
time valued at L.20 per annum. A charter was soon after
obtained from Queen Elizabeth, incoi’porating the univer¬
sity under the name of “ The Provost, Fellows, and Scho¬
lars of the College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity,
founded by Queen Elizabeth, near Dublin and empower¬
ing it to accept such lands and contributions for its main¬
tenance as any of her charitable subjects should bestow, to
the amount of L.400 a year. This was the extent of the
royal bounty; no funds were provided for the erection of
buildings, or for the support of the members of the college.
The liberality of the Irish gentry was appealed to by cir¬
cular letters from the lord-deputy, and a sufficient sum of
money was by this means raised to enable the archbishop to
commence the buildings. The first stone was laid on the
13th of March 1591, and the college was opened for the
reception of students January 9, 1593. The whole income
of the university, including voluntary and temporary con¬
tributions amounted in 1594 to the sum of L174. 18s.,
and in 1600 it was increased by certain allowances granted
by the queen to L.544. 13s. 4d. Such w'as the foundation
of the university of Dublin ; and on this scanty provision it
had to struggle for existence, often reduced, by the non¬
payment of rents, to the very brink of dissolution, till the
beginning of the reign of James I., when it w'cis endowed
by that monarch with lands, which have since become valu¬
able, in the province of Ulster, besides a pension of L.388.
i5s. English, paid annually from the exchequer.
By the charter ot foundation, the body corporate was
to consist of a provost, three fellows, and three scho¬
Trinity
College.
Original
Constitu¬
tion.
lars, with pow'er to increase their number as the funds of
the college permitted. To the provost and fellows was^l
intrusted the power of enacting statutes for themselves, and
of appointing such acts and exercises as they might consi¬
der necessary to qualify for degrees. To them also be¬
longed the duties of tuition, the scholarships being intended
as foundations for the maintenance of the poorer students
The provost and fellows constituted the only university
convocation or senate recognised by the charter, and with
them resided exclusively the power of conferring degrees.1
The fellows were to elect their provost on every vacancy of
this office; and fellowships were tenable for seven years
only after taking the degree of M. A. William Cecil Lord
Burghley was nominated by the charter the first chancel¬
lor of the university, with a provision, that on all future
occasions, the election of chancellor, vice-chancellor, and
proctors, should belong to the provost and fellows.
In this, the original constitution of the university, many ob¬
vious defects soon began to show themselves. The election
of a provost was a continual source of discord; and the autho¬
rity of this officer being by the charter scarcely greater than
that of the other fellows, was insufficient for the preservation
of discipline in the college. The three fellows nominated by
the charter were ecclesiastics, whose sacred duties prevent¬
ed them from engaging in the actual labours of instruction;
and accordingly, when the business of education really com¬
menced, it was found necessary to obtain additional aid.
The poverty of the society not admitting of their endowing
permanent fellowships, an expedient was resorted to which
afterwards led to an important alteration in the constitution
of the college. About the year 1600, four masters, after¬
wards increased to seven, w'ere appointed as lecturers of the
junior classes, and, about 1610, were regularly constituted,
by statute, probationer or junior fellows; from these the
senior fellowships, instituted by charter, were filled upon
every vacancy. About 1615, the number of senior fellows
was fixed by statute at seven, and the number of proba¬
tioner fellows at nine; the scholars, as at present, amounted
to seventy. The junior fellows were to have no part in the
government of the college, and were to be considered in
every respect as scholars, except that they were recognised
as college tutors, and employed in instructing others. This
increase in the number of the fellows and scholars was most
probably made soon after the income of the college was
augmented by the grants of King James I. Though pro¬
ductive of beneficial effects to the college, by increasing the
number of its instructors, it was at first the occasion otsome
very serious difficulties. The junior fellows claimed for
themselves an express right by the charter to have a voice
in the government and elections of the college; which was
resisted by the governing body, on the ground that the title
of fellows had been conferred on them, not as a matter ot
right, belt by courtesy and honoris causa, and that their
rights, as determined in the charter, were those of scholars
only. Accordingly, Bishop Bedell’s statutes, framed in
1627, provided against the difficulty, by dividing the scholars
into nine socii scholares, or probationer fellows, andsevenU
scholares discipuli, or scholars, commonly so called, as being
still in statu pupillari.
The dissensions to which we have already alluded con-,
tinned to increase, and at last rendered the interference ° ^
the legislature absolutely necessary. Accordingly -rc |
bishop Laud, who had been elected chancellor of the uni
versity in 1633, and had lately completed a revision 0 ie
statutes of Oxford, as chancellor of that university, unttr
1 from this statute it is obvious that the university of Dublin is simply a college with university privileges and powers, and there °r^
fers in its constitution from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which are corporations distinct from the colleges or ha s
within their jurisdiction. In Dublin the provost and fellows are invested with the power of electing officers and conferring degrees,
in the English univer-ities, belongs to a body consisting of masters of arts and doctors in the higher faculties. At an early perio 0,]n1^ ^
instituted tor the public conferring of degrees by the vice-chancellor, in a solemn meeting of doctors and masters; and these, sane 10
time, have long since become the established rule of the university.
UNIVERSITIES.
523
I ,k to remodel the statute-book which had hitherto been
j use in the university of Dublin. The new charter and
>utes after encountering the most violent opposition,
^re read and published in the chapel of the university on
' inity Monday, June 5, 1637, and the oaths prescribed to
t provost, fellows, and other officers, administered by the
a hbishops of Armagh and Dublin, the new visitors of the
c lege. The opposition was not however quieted by the
imulgation of the statutes. After Laud had fallen from
1 power, and was no longer able to protect his favourites,
a iimrous prosecution was commenced in the Irish parlia-
r n"tagainst Bishop Chappel, the provost, by whose assistance
t work of reformation had been carried into effect; but
t rebellion of 1641, and the subversion of the British mo-
r chv which so soon followed, diverted the attention of par-
I iieiit to more important matters. The clamour appears
t have subsided during the commonwealth, when the
i! versity became nearly extinct, and it was not revived
a ?r the restoration. The Laudian constitution, with some
s ;ht modiffcations, has continued till the present day ; and
tit the university owes much of its celebrity and usefulness.
fhe alterations made by the new charter in the constitu-
II and government of the university were important, and
1 (special reference to the dissensions which had been occa-
s ned in the body by its former mode of government. The
( ction of provost, and the power of enacting and repeal-
i; statutes, were taken from the fellows, and reserved to
t; crown. Fellowships, which had hitherto expired at
t: end of seven years after taking a master’s degree, were
i de tenable for life. The nine probationer fellows were
: nitted members of the corporation, under the name of
‘ unior fellowsbut the entire control, both as to discip-
11* and finance, was vested in the provost and seven senior
1 lows, subject to the jurisdiction of visitors nominated by
t; crown, in whom the right of ultimate appeal was vested.
1 cases not provided for by the statutes, the provost and
s iior fellows were empowered to make new statutes not
i mgnant to those granted by the king, which new statutes
vre to be confirmed by the visitors, and to remain in force
t the enacting body should think proper to rescind them.
e election of officers, as chancellor, proctors, &c., was
i itinued in the provost and fellows, the chancellor being
ipmitted to nominate the vice-chancellor. The number
• visitors w'as reduced from eight to twro, viz. the chancel-
I or, in his absence, the vice-chancellor, and the arch-
1 hop of Dublin. A special clause provided that no per-
s should profess or teach the liberal arts in any other
| ce in Ireland, without a special license from the crown.
e changes since made in the statutes have consisted
1 rely in the repeal of certain clauses which were found to
1 inconvenient; the augmentation of salaries, the foun-
j ion of professorships, and the regulation of the library ;
- no alteration has been made affecting the constitution
j the college, except the foundation of additional junior fel-
ships by different sovereigns, whereby their number was
of i! leased from nine to eighteen. By a statute of Queen Vic-
1 ia, dated on the 6th of May 1840, the statute of Charles
' enjp>ning celibacy on the fellows, has been repealed, and
I 'vision made for founding ten new fellowships. The addi-
J1 *° fellowships, according to the new statute, is to
!e 'llade by the annual election, at the accustomed time
place, of one new fellow in this (1840) and in each of the
1 R succeeding nine years, over and above the vacancies
l may occur in the subsisting body.” Of the ten addi-
la fellows, only the four seniors for the time being are
H appointed tutors; but the remaining six are to enjoy
t )e other rights, profits, and emoluments, and perform
ot ier the duties and functions of junior fellows, and to
be eligible to all other offices to which any junior fellows Dublin,
may now be elected or appointed.” After the year 1849,
when the number of additional fellows shall have been com¬
pleted, though no vacancy should occur in the body of fel¬
low’s, there is still to be an annual election of one, who shall
succeed to the first vacancy, “ unless there be at the same
time two or more such persons so elected, in which case
the senior of them shall succeed to the first vacancy.” It
is also ordained, “ that after the year 1849, there shall be
no more than two persons elected, whether as fellows or
candidate fellows, in any one year, whatever number of
vacancies may occur in the body.”
James I., by his charter in 1613, granted to the provost,
fellows, and scholars, the right of returning two represen¬
tatives to the Irish parliament. The act of Union in 1800
restricted this number to one ; but by the Irish reform bill,
the original number was restored, and the right of elec¬
tion extended to all members of the university of twenty-
one years of age, who at that time had, or who should
thereafter obtain, a fellowship or scholarship, the degree of
master of arts, or any higher degree.
The entire government of the university is vested in the fol- Officers,
lowing Officers: the chancellor, who is elected by the provost and
senior fellows, and whose office is tenable for life; the vice-chan¬
cellor, nominated for life by the chancellor, and who has the power
to appoint a pro-vice-chancellor in special cases ; the provost, ap¬
pointed by the crown ; the vice-provost, an annual officer, who is
usually the first of the seven senior fellows; two proctors,
chosen annually, one from the senior and the other from the
junior fellows, for regulating the forms for taking degrees; two
deans and a censor, whose duty it is to inspect the details of moral
discipline ; two librarians; a registrar, who performs the duty of
secretary to the provost and senior fellows; a registrar for the
electors admitted under the reform act; an auditor ; six univer¬
sity preachers ; four morning lecturers ; and nine examiners.
The ordinary affairs of the college are managed by a Board, Board,
consisting of the provost and senior fellows, who hold a meeting
every Saturday. The provost must be in holy orders, and a doc¬
tor, or at least a bachelor in divinity, and not less than thirty
years of age. The fellows are all bound to enter into priests’ or¬
ders, except three; one of whom is elected Medians by the pro¬
vost and senior fellows ; the other two are elected Jurista juris
civilis, and Jurista juris Anglici, respectively.
The Senate of the university consists of all masters of arts, Senate,
and doctors in the three faculties, who have their names upon the
college books, and are resident in the university. The Caput Caput.
Senatus Academici is a council consisting of the vice-chancellor, the
provost, or in his absence the vice-provost, and the senior master
non-regent? resident in the college- The vice-chancellor and the
provost are members of the caput ex officio; the senior master non¬
regent is annually elected by the vice-chancellor and provost, with
the consent of the congregation. Every grace must pass the caput
before it can be proposed to the senate of the university in public
congregation, and each member of the caput has a negative voice.
The System of Instruction is conducted by means of professor- System of
ships, lectures, and periodical examinations. According to the Instruction,
statutes of Laud, all professorships were to be held by fellows.
The provost was to appoint from the body of fellows, senior and
junior, such a number as he thought fit, to be college tutors; and
the fees paid by pupils, together with the emoluments of lecture¬
ships, professorships, and other offices, were to constitute the sa¬
laries of the fellows. At this period the only professorship in the
university was that of divinity, which however was not recognised
as the regius professorship till the year 1074. Two professorships,
of jurisprudence and medicine, were appointed by statute, and the
fellows who devoted themselves to these professions were ex¬
empted from the obligation of entering into holy orders. The in¬
crease of students, by augmenting the duties as well as the emo¬
luments of the tutors, has now broken in upon the original spirit
of the statutes ; and the increased value of the college lands has
supplied the means of assigning to the senior fellow’s ample sala¬
ries without subjecting them to the necessity of acting as tutors.
Accordingly some annual offices, with several professorships, are
now held exclusively by senior fellows, while the duties of tuition
have been for many years confined to the junior fellows. By
some recent regulations, four of the latter now hold offices incom-
t
Lich master of arts is called a regent during the three years following the time when he took that degree. The name had its origin in
v toruierly imposed on such masters, of regulating the disputations of the schools.
524
Dublin, patible with that of tutor, and have consequently resigned their
i-mpi'k ; so that the number of tutors is limited to fourteen.1 It
was not till the latter end of last century that the principle was
recognised of having professors in the university who were not
fellows. In 1761 a statute wras passed, which obliged the regius
professor of divinity, on his appointment to that office, to resign
his fellowship ; and in the same year the regius professorship of
feudal and English law was founded upon the same condition, if
filled by a fellow. In 1774 Provost Andrews bequeathed to the
UNIVERSITIES.
Terms.
Sarks.
college an endowment for a professor of astronomy. A school f
medicine was established by act of parliament in 1785, consistin. T
of three professorships not tenable with fellowships; and besulS ^ *
these, two professorships of modern languages were founded ll
1777. These, with the exception of the professorship of politioa[
economy, moral philosophy, and biblical Greek, are the only nr
fessorships which can be held by persons who are not fellows.
The following is a table of the professorships and lecturerships
with the date of foundation, and the patronage.
Ilegius professorship of divinity 
    of civil and canon law 
  — of feudal and English law....
  — of physic 
  — of Greek 
King’s lectureship in divinity 
Lord Donegall’s lectureship in mathematics...
Royal astronomer of Ireland 
Smith’s professorship of natural philosophy....
  — of oratory 
  — of mathematics 
— — of history 
  — of oriental languages 
Professorship of anatomy and surgery 
— of chemistry 
.— of botany 
Lectureship in natural history 
Professorship of French and German 
— of Italian and Spanish  -
Whately’s professorship of political economy.
Professorship of moral philosophy 
— of biblical Greek 
Founded.
1607
1668
1761
1637
1761
1729
1674
1783
1724
1724
1762
1762
1762
1785
1783
1785
1816
1777
1777
1832
1837
1838
Patrons.
Provost and senior fellows.
Provost and senior fellows.
Provost and senior fellows.
Provost and senior fellows.
Two candidates are selected by the provost and senior fellows,
the one of whom is appointed by the board of Erasmus
f Smith, for such time as they think proper; Smith’s exhibi-
j tioners being, cceleris 'paribus, preferred.
Provost and senior fellows.
Provost and senior fellows.
Crown.
Crown.
Provost and senior fellows.
The professorial system, as established in the university, has
never been efficient. Some of the professorships and lectureships
are annual offices, and these, with others which are not annual,
are all held by persons whose time is occupied by other duties ;
and besides this, the lectores of the professors are not sufficiently
connected with the education of such as are looking for university
honours or degrees. The education of the students in arts is in¬
trusted almost exclusively to those of the junior fellows who ex¬
ercise the functions of tutors.
The academical year is divided into three terms, Michaelmas,
Hilary, and Trinity. Those of Michaelmas and Hilary are fol¬
lowed each by a short recess ; that of Trinity by a vacation of
three months. Terms are kept, during the under-graduate course,
not by residence, as at Oxford and Cambridge, but by answering
at the examinations held for the purpose at the beginning of each
term. Students of divinity, law, and medicine are required to
attend the lectures of the professors, and therefore reside either in
the college or in the city. The under-graduate course consists of
four years, in each of which the students are distinguished by the
titles of junior and senior Freshmen, and junior and senior Sophis-
ters. After taking his first degree, the student becomes suc¬
cessively a junior, middle, and senior Bachelor, when he is admitted
to the degree of master of arts. A bachelor of divinity must be
M. A. of seven years’ standing; a doctor in divinity must be B. D.
of five, or a master of arts of twelve : a bachelor of laws must be
of six years’ standing.2 A doctor of laws must be LL. B. of four
years’ standing, or a master of arts of six. A bachelor in medicine
must be B. A. of three years’ standing, or M. A. of two ; a doctor
in medicine must be M. B. of five years’, or a master of arts of
seven years’ standing. A bachelor in music must compose and
perform a solemn piece of music before the university ; a doctor
in music must be Mus. B. of five years, and perform a similar ex¬
ercise. The fees for B. A. are L.7. 17s. 6d., for M. A. L.9. 19s. 6d.,
for B.D. L.13. 15s., for D. D. L.26, for LL. B. I,.11. 15s., for
LL. D. L 22, for M. B. L.U. 15s., and M. D. L.22.
The students are arranged in four Ranks : 1. Noblemen and ba¬
ronets, styled nobiles, filii nobilium, and equites, who are entitled
to the degree of B. A. per specialem gratiam. 2. Fellow commoners,
who are entitled to graduate at the commencement of their fourth
or senior sophister year. These two classes pay a high annual
stipend, and dine at the same table with the fellows in the com¬
mons hall. 3. Pensioners, who constitute the great body of the
students. 4. Sizars, who have their commons free, and are ex¬
empted from annual fees. The number of sizars is limited to
thirty-six, and admission is obtained after a very strict examination
held annually to supply vacancies, the endowment being tenable
for four years. Each of these classes is distinguished by a parti¬
cular dress. The mode of admission is by an examination, held Ac (iJt
at the beginning of each term, in the public theatre of the college.
The examiners for entrance are the junior fellows. The senior
lecturer commences the examination by proposing to the candi¬
dates a subject, on which they are required to write in Latin, or
else by giving them a few sentences in English to translate into
that language. After a sufficient time allowed for this exercise,
the examination in classics begins. The following is the course
appointed.
Greek Homer, Iliad, lib. i.-viii.; Walker’s Lucian; Nov. Test.
the Gospels and Acts; Xenophon’s Anab. lib. i.-iii.
Latin Sallust; Horace ; Virgil, jEn. lib. i.-vi.; Terence, An.
dria, and Heautontimorumenos ; Juvenal, Sat. hi. x. xiii. xiv.
The examination is conducted viva voce; each examiner takes
a separate book, and goes round the hall, requiring from the can¬
didates separately an oral translation of a few lines or sentences,
and asking some grammatical or historical questions. After the
examination, places are determined by the reports of the examiners.
Entrances are also held on the first Monday of every month
during terms. Those who enter after November, and propose
to go on with the junior freshman class, must pay a year in a -
vance, instead of half a year, and their names must be on t e
college books at latest before the eighth of July. The exami¬
nation for sizarships is held annually on the first Tuesday an
Wednesday after Trinity Sunday; and the candidates, toget e
with the ordinary entrance course, are examined in all the a
ditional classics read in the first two terms of the junior ires-wm
' ^'he following is a table of the half-yearly charges, including
tuition, but exclusive of rooms and commons.
Noblemen 
Fellow-commoners.
Pensioner 
Sizar 
Entrance, including
the first Half Year.
L.60
30
15
L.30 0
15 0
7 0
Every student at his admission must select one of ^ fuar-
junior fellows who act as tutors to be his instructor, atu n 
1 tpii the nuna*
1 This was the number previous to the statute of Victoria. When the additional fellows provided for by this statute are elect ,
her of tutors wall be increased to eighteen.
2 A bachelor of arts may take this degree in three years, and a master of arts in two.
UNIVERSITIES.
525
] i of his interests during his academic life. The tutors dur-
. tenn deliver lectures to the first three classes, each to his own
' The subjects of these lectures are the science, and some-
| es also the Latin book, appointed by the college for the exami-
ji ion of the ensuing term ; and they are conducted in the same
v ■ as in the English universities. Besides the lectures of the
rate tutors, all under-graduates who reside in the college or in
ti citv are bound to attend the lectures on science and Greek
(1 vered by the college lecturers. Freshmen are also required to
a >nd weekly catechetical lectures. Three distinct Courses are
a ointed, one in mathematics and physics, another in logic and
oral philosophy, and a third in classics, in any one cr more of
v ch a student, according to his taste and inclination, may con-
tld for honours at his degree examination. In each course two
riks of honour-men are formed, called senior and junior Modera-
p;, the number in each rank being limited to one fortieth of the
e ire class.1 The science taught in the first year of the course
islathematics; in the second, logic; in the third, astronomy and
p sics; in the fourth, ethics; in addition to which the student
u it be prepared to answer in a certain portion of Latin and
C ek, selected from the classical writers. An extended course of
silies is prescribed for those who aspire to academic honours.
A the examinations, senior and junior freshmen are accountable
li.the science taught in all the preceding terms from the begin-
njr of the course; senior and junior sophisters, for the science
t; dit from the beginning of the third or junior sophister year ;
b except for honours at the degree examination, t he science of
t! freshmen classes is not carried beyond the second year. To
h i his class, a pensioner must have credit for two out of the three
e minations of that class, one of which must be the third or
G ober examination, if he is either a senior freshmen or a senior
sii lister. A senior sophister who may not have secured credit
fi his October examination, may qualify himself for his degree
banswering in the same business at any subsequent examination
o senior sophisters; and a senior freshman may repair the like
o ssion in the same way at the first examination of the senior
sinister year. Fellow-commoners and sizars are subject to the
s ie rule, with some slight exceptions.
inch term commences with an Examination, not only of the
8i lies of that immediately preceding, but, with the exceptions
a ady stated, of the substance of most of those which had been
p viously gone over. These examinations are of peculiar im-
]i lance in the university of Dublin, from their effect upon the
s lents generally', and because they constitute, to a very large
pPortion of those who graduate there, the otdy university educa-
t they receive. We have already alluded to that peculiarity
ojisciplineby which residence is not enforced on under-graduates.
Ar student, unless he be a scholar, is permitted, at his own dis¬
ci ion, to prepare himself for the examinations w’ithout residing
b he college or in the city; and on his being represented by his
ti ir as a resident in the country, no other academic duties are
r .bred of him. The expense of residence would be an insuper-
a f obstacle to many who are at present in the university ; and
t •efbre, by the admission of non-resident students, some part
n he advantages of a university education are extended to a large
n aber of individuals by whom, if residence were enforced, not even
t ; part would be attainable. Thus, w'hile five or six hun-
d 1 students annually receive at Dublin all the advantages that
r dence and college discipline can communicate, about an equal
r aber are induced to study, and are furnished with the means of
a ining one at least of the objects proposed by a university edu-
c on, namely, the power of acquiring knowledge. The examiners
j1 the fellows, masters of arts, or doctors, resident in the col¬
li who are selected by the provost and senior fellows. The
s tents of the same class or year assemble together for exami-
i| on, and are separated into divisions not exceeding forty, to jects are taken.
i of which three examiners are assigned, one in science, one
1 l.atin, and one in Greek. The examination of each class oc-
ies four days; the first two days being devoted to the deter-
‘ation ^ of judgments^ and the remaining two to the separate
e mination of honour-men. The examiners of the first two
, s se^ect ^oin their divisions such as they deem qualified to
^uie candidates for honours or prizes, and return their names
Dublin.
to the senior lecturer. The examination of those who have not
been selected for honours is then concluded ; but on the third day ,
the candidates selected for honours in science are examined bv a
separate court of examiners ; and on the fourth day, the candidates
for honours in classics ; the examination, as in the former case, be¬
ing conducted partly viva voce, and partly by written papers. The
prizes, during the first three years, are books of the value of L.4
and L.2, given at the close of the year to the best answerers dur¬
ing the three examinations. The number of prizes is subject to
the same limitation as the honours. At the Michaelmas exami¬
nation of the fourth year, the examiners of the first two days se¬
lect from among the candidates for degrees those whom they deem
qualified to become candidates for honours in any of the three de¬
partments of the academical course. Those belonging to the same
department are then examined together by a body of examiners
during two days, by whom they are arranged in two divisions of se¬
nior and junior moderators. The limit to the number of modera¬
tors of each division is determined, as in the case of honours and
prizes, at the previous examinations. At the conclusion of each
examination, lists of the successful candidates for prizes, honours,
or moderatorships, are made out by the senior lecturer, who is re¬
quired to insert them in his book, and also to have them affixed
to the college gates, and published in the newspapers. The suc¬
cessful candidates of each rank are arranged according to the order
of their standing on the college books, excepting only the senior
moderators, who, at the degree examination, are placed according
to the order of merit.
The Comitia, or commencements, for conferring degrees, are held Comitia.
twice a year; on Shrove Tuesday and the Tuesday next before
the eighth of July. The grace of the house for a degree in any
faculty must first be granted by the provost and senior fellows
before it can be proposed to the caput. Those who have been ad¬
mitted to a degree at the board are then presented to the vice-
chancellor and the whole university, at a public congregation, by
the regius professor of the faculty in which the degree is to be
taken; or if it be a degree in arts, by one of the proctors. If no
member of the caput objects, the presenting officer supplicates the
congregation for their public grace, and collects their suffrages; if
the placets be the majority, the candidates kneel before the vice-
chancellor, who confers the degree, according to a formula fixed
by the university statutes.
The examination for Scholarships is held annually on the Thurs- Scholar-
day and Friday before Whitsunday. The examiners are the pro- ships,
vost and senior fellows. Scholarships are open to all students,
being Protestants, who have reached their third under-graduate
year, and are tenable till the holder is entitled to the degree of
master of arts. Students of higher standing are also permitted
to become candidates, but an extended course of reading is re¬
quired of them. The course appointed includes all the classics read
for entrance and in the extended course for under-graduates, to
the end of the second examination of the junior sophister year;
or, should the candidate be of higher standing than that of junior
sophister (reckoned from the time of his entrance), to the end of
the last examination which he might have answered had he pro¬
ceeded regularly with his class. The examination is conducted
entirely viva voce. The scholars have their commons free of ex¬
pense, and their rooms for half the charge paid by pensioners;
they pay for tuition, but are exempted from college charges or
decrements, and receive from the college an annual salary.
The Fellowship examination, when a vacancy occurs, is held by Fellow-
the provost and senior fellows, on the Wednesday, Thursday, ships.
Friday, and Saturday preceding Trinity Sunday. Two hours are
devoted to each subject, and two subjects occupy a day. The
examination continues from eight to ten a. m. and from two to
four p. m. each day. The following is the order in which the sub-
Morning. Afternoon.
First day Logic Mathematics.
Second day Physics Ethics.
Third day History and chronology Greek, Latin, and
Hebrew.
Fourth day Latin verse composition Latin prose.
Die terms first class, second class, &c., in Dublin, mean students who are in their first, second, &c. year.
Die examiners are required to fix the merit of every candidate in each subject appointed for the examination, according to a scale of six
I / • O 1 1 Tr shnlL.^J «*...    A _ -—1 * I _ . 1 I .. . _ f V A1* I — .-w-.^ Is c<4~ H s-\ sxwi 4> i r, L x r X i « /d .iri-vx 1 .1
| (toned; that is to say, the examination in which he is thus disgraced is not suffered to count in the number required for keeping his year,
vt ns degree. If he have received two <
| i cautioned again, on the succeed!
'reek, another for Latin, and another ]
1 mg to the subjects read by the class.
526
UNIVERSITIES-
Dublin. “ In each of these subjects a course sufficiently extensive is pre-
- v scribed by the examiners. Tlie examination is conducted alto¬
gether viva voce, and in the Latin language. Even the classical
examination of the third day is conducted in the same mariner; a
Greek or Latin classic is piaced in the hands of each candidate,
and he is required to translate or paraphrase a few lines of it orally
in Latin. The income of a senior fellow, arising from various
sources, is generally estimated at about a thousand pounds per
annum; but it necessarily fluctuates according to the offices
held, and, on an average, is probably not so great. The emolu¬
ments of fourteen of the junior fellows are derived entirely from
tuition.”
The college has at its disposal twenty-one lucrative benefices
in the northern dioceses, and the vacancies are sunnlipH k .1
fellows. By the late act for regulating the established ,7, \C 1 '
in Ireland, the archbishops of Armagh and Dublin were re '5'
to select a benefice, not exceeding the annual value of r inn
out of each of the ten extinguished bishoprics, to which benefi
when vacant, they are to nominate a fellow or ex-fellow f
college. The incomes of the senior fellows arise partly from l
stipends of the professorships which they hold, and partly f
the college lands. The provost derives his income from hnl"
appropriated to his use. dntls
The number of students matriculated in 1839 was 38 f 11
commoners, and 340 pensioners. Students on the books iw/ u
1840, 1100. »> uecemw
CONTINENTAL UNIVERSITIES.
The following is a list of the existing European universities, exclusive of those of Great Britain, Ireland, and
France. The number of students for the years previous to 1840 has been taken chiefly from the “ Genealogiscl)-hi».
torisch-statistischer Almanach fur das Jahr 1840,” published at Weimar. When the year is not mentioned, the num¬
ber of students given may be taken as the average attendance.
Alcala..
Athens.
Basel...
Berlin 
Berne 
Bologna...
Bonn 
Breslau....
Brussels...
Cagliari...
Camerino.
Catania...
Cervera...
Charkoff..
Christiania...
Coimbra 
Copenhagen.
Corfu 
Cracow 
Dorpat 
Erlangen....
Ferrara 
Florence....
Freiburg....
Genoa 
Ghent 
Giessen  
Gottingen...
Granada 
Griitz 
Country in which
situate.
r fc,
P, O
Spain  
Greece  
Switzerland.
Prussia 
Switzerland..
Papal States.
Prussia 
Prussia 
Belgium 
Sardinia Island.
Papal States 
Two Sicilies 
Spain 
Russia 
Norway 
Portugal 
Denmark 
Ionian Islands...
Republic of Cracow
Russia  
Greifswald..
Groningen....
Halle1  
Heidelberg...
Helsingfors2..
Huesca 
Innsbruck.,
Jena 
Kasan orOson
Kiel 
Kiew  
Kbnigsberg...
Leipzig....,
Lemberg...
Bavaria 
Papal States 
Tuscany 
Baden 
Sardinia  
Belgium 
Hesse-Darmstadt...
Hanover 
Spain 
Austria 
Prussia 
Holland 
Prussia 
Baden 
Russia 
Spain 
Austria 
Weimar 
Russia 
Denmark 
Russia 
Prussia 
Saxony 
Austria 
1499
1459
R.1582
1810
1834
1119
1780
R.1818
1702
1834
17G4
1824
1445
1717
1803
1811
R.1818
1279
1438
1823
1632
R. 1803
1743
1824
1433
1457
1812
1816
1607
1734
1531
1586
R.1826
1456
1694
1386
1828
1354
1672
R. 1825
1587
1803
1665
1833
1544
1409
1784
R.1817
1828
1840
1834
^ 1840
1840
1838
1832
1831
1838
1838
1838
1839
1835
1838
1840
1836
1840
1832
1837
1840
1840
■ 1828
1839
1840
1839
1840
1833
1828
1840
1838
1838
1835
1839
1840
•1833
B 2
to'
c c:
3 2
55 Ph
364
114
1778
208
550
648
631
210
250
200
500
573
315
600
1600
1301
60
289
563
325
200
200
315
500
292
377
675
812
321
217
274
625
622
422
537
352
450
170
300
203
405
925
1311
86
81
30
Universities.
Leyden....
Liege 
Louvain..,
Lund 
Macerata.
Malines...
Marburg.
Messina..,
Moscow...
Munich...
Munster..
Naples....,
Olrniitz...
Onate 
Orihuela 
Oviedo 
Padua 
Palermo 
Palma 
Pavia 
Perugia 
Pesth 
Petersburg....
Pisa 
Prague 
Rome 
Rostock 
Salamanca 
Santiago 
Saragoza 
Sassari 
Seville 
Siena 
Toledo 
Tubingen 
Tuxin 
Upsala  
Uxhino 
Utrecht....
Valencia...
Valladolid.
Vienna 
Vladimir..,
Warsaw'...,
Country in which
situate.
Holland 
Belgium 
Belgium 
Sweden 
Papal States..
Belgium 
Elect. Hesse.
Two Sicilies..
Russia 
Bavaria 
Prussia 
Two Sicilies..
Austria 
Spain 
Spain  
Spain 
Austria 
Two Sicilies 
Spain  
Austria 
Papal States 
Austria 
Russia  
Tuscany 
Austria 
Papal States  
Mecklenburg Schw,
Spain 
Spain  
Spain  
Sardinia Island 
Spain 
Tuscany 
Spain  
Wiirtemberg 
Sardinia 
Sweden <
Papal States.
Holland 
Spain 
Spain 
Austria 
Russia 
Poland 
Wurzburg..
Zurich  
Bavaria   |
Switzerland 
oj 7-5 c a
c OJ 0
pH o
1575
1816
1426
1666
1824
1834
1527
1755
18263
1631
1224
1581
R. 182?
1552
1580
1228
1447
1361
1307
1784
1819
1338
1348
1248
1419
1222
1532'
1474
1766
1504
1337
1499
1477
1412
1478
R. 1595
1824
1634
1410
1346
1365
1818
1403 )
R.1582 )
1833
E 3
1840
1837
1836
1840
1838
1840
1839
| 1833
1831
1831
1834
1838
1836
1825
1840
1828
1828
1832
1836
1840
1832
1838
1840
1828
1828
1838
1835
1840
1834
614
379
350
645
200
276
nil
1440
223
1500
682
270
124
420
410
500
177
1300
200
1610
385
545
1449
1000
115
418
1050
1165
230
1!07
245
257 | ...
729 44
1250:...
1350 CO
200 ...
510 ...
1550 ...
1243 i ...
2620 77
.!
408' ■ ■
447 31
164 54
1 The university of YVittemberg was united with it in 1815. i Transferred from Abo after the fire in l82-
3 Founded by the removal thither of the former university of Landshut.
UNIVERSITIES.
527
ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE.
ranee, before the revolution, contained twenty-three
ersities, of which the most important have already been
,1c ribed. The others were those of Aix, Angers, Avignon,
li( m^on, Bourges, Bordeaux, Caen, Cahors, Dijon, Douai,
A\: tes, Orange, Pau, Perpignan, Poitiers, Pont-a-Mous-
sol. Reims, Strasburg, and Valence. These venerable
inatutions disappeared during the revolution, and the pub¬
lic ducation of the country was for some time left xvithout
an legislative protection. After several unsuccessful at-
terits to establish a national system, an Imperial Univer-
git,was instituted in 1808, which, with some modifications,
Jiasurvived the various changes of government which the
co;itry has since undergone. The Royal University of
Office embraces the whole system of national education,
an:includes all the institutions for imparting instruction
wfh are spread over the whole kingdom, from the lowest
scbls up to the royal colleges. The term may thus be
coidered as synonymous with the French national sys-
teiiof education. The university is placed under the di-
re/ion of a council of six members, called the “ royal
co.icil of public instruction,” of which the minister of pub¬
lic istruction is the official president. Each counsellor has
thtBpecial charge of one or more divisions of public in-
slr :tion. Subordinate to this council are the inspectors-ge-
ne l of the university, who are required to examine once a
ye; the institutions of every description, each within a cer-
tai;district assigned to him, and to transmit a report to the
co cil. The university is composed of twenty-six aca-
de es, each of which comprehends two, three, or more of
tli departments into which the kingdom is divided, and
co ains one or more royal colleges. The presiding officer
of ich academy is the rector, who is appointed by the mini-
stoof public instruction, and is assisted by two inspectors and
a i oncil. The governing body of each academy has the
so rintendence of all the communal colleges, institutions,
pe /oRs (boardingschools), normal schools, or schools for the
cdiation of teachers, and primary schools, within the dis¬
til which the seminary comprehends. Besides the su-
pentending body, the academy includes the teaching
C«s, or faculties ; namely, the faculties of letters, science,
m icine, law, and theology, all of which however do not
ac ally exist in every academy; in some, indeed, there is no
or nization of faculties. The faculties consist of a variable
hi; ber of professors, one of whom is dean, and a com-
nree of whom examine candidates for degrees. There
:>r| imvever some institutions which are not subject to the
jo diction of the university ; as the College of France, the
-d cum of Natural History, the Ecole des Charles, School
otoriental Languages, the French Institute, and societies
ol 1 kinds for the advancement of knowledge.
ie royal colleges are supported chiefly by the government, and
'It salaries of the professors, which are generally from L.UO to
u D, are paid from the budget of the minister of public instruc-
1,1 f he students are divided into two classes, the internes and
111 hm, or boarders and day-scholars. The communal colleges
•ll supported principally by the communes in which they are si-
'J1 •; some of them have endowments, but the majority depend
II ly for their support on the fees paid by the students. The
III ssors or teachers receive but small salaries, varying from L.40
11 DO. In IftISS a law wras passed, ordaining that every com-
e by itself, or by uniting with others, should have one school
0 ementary instruction ; that every commune the population
u hick exceeded (J0U0, should also have a school for superior in-
s. ; and that every department should have a normal school,
I' ;r by itself, or in conjunction with some other department. In
niools of elementary instruction, reading, writing, arithmetic,
•n the established system of weights and measures, are taught;
schools for superior instruction, in addition to the ac-
|1J ements of the lower schools, embrace the elements of geo-
J an(l ks application to the arts; the elements of chemistry
l,latllral history, as applied to the ordinary habits and pursuits
e; the elements of history and geography, and more especi¬
ally the history and geography of France. Since the passing of France,
this law, the cause of education has advanced rapidly ; the number ^ Y _
of schools has greatly increased, and the proportion of children at
school, though less than in some of the neighbouring countries, is
about one third greater than before 1833. The following is a
tabular view of the institutions comprised in the UnivenTity of
France in 1836.
Aix 
Amiens 
Angers 
Resaneon 
Bordeaux....
Bourges 
Caen 
Cahors 
Clermont 
Dijon 
Douai 
Grenoble 
Limoges 
Lyon 
Metz 
Montpellier.
Nancy 
Nimes 
Orleans 
Paris 
Pau 
Poitiers 
Rennes 
Rouen 
Strasburg...
Toulouse 
Total.,
12
12
13
12
15
22
42
13
12
14
11
20
15
23
14
39
24
180
12
15
33
17
14
15
160
121
118
110
170
129
212
90
287
88
131
133
88
276
190
199
110
365
241
1629
57
130
346
164
121
112
5779
230
180
no
160
120
120
290
160
292
150
110
141
220
264
240
256
260
226
286
3324
90
201
407
491
203
239
26
36
25
26
31
251
32
34
35
68
15
55
8870 1 318 446 11114 j 54 42,318
1,659
2.697
1,212
1,671
1,209
532
2,340
1,451
1,121
1,855
2,643
1,120
264
1,470
1,541
1,766
2,444
1.594
730
4,203
1,734
1,536
941
1,712
1.543
1,327
There are six faculties of Catholic theology, at Aix, Bordeaux,
Lyon, Paris, Rouen, and Toulouse; and two of Protestant theology,
one, of the Lutheran or Augsburg Confession, at Strasburg., and
another, of the Calvinist or Helvetic Confession, at Montauban,
under the academy of Toulouse. The faculties of law are nine, at Aix,
Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasburg,and Tou¬
louse. There are three faculties of medicine, at Grenoble, Paris,
and Montpellier; with seventeen secondary schools of medicine. The
faculties of science are nine in number, at Paris, Bordeaux, Stras¬
burg, Caen, Toulouse, Montpellier, Dijon, Lyon, and Grenoble;
those of letters or literature, seven, at Paris, Strasburg, Bordeaux,
Toulouse, Caen, Dijon, and Besamjon. In order to become a student
in the faculty of law or theology, a person must have taken the
degree of bachelor of letters; and a course of three years in either
faculty is requisite to obtain the degree of bachelor; for the de¬
gree of doctor, four years; and to obtain the degree of doctor in
divinity, the candidate must defend a final and general thesis.
Candidates for the degree of doctor in medicine must have taken
the degree of bachelor of letters, and also of sciences, and must
complete a course of four years. The faculties of law and medicine
at Paris are greatly distinguished. The former has sixteen profes¬
sors, and had in 1836 upwards of 3000 students; the latter twenty-
seven professors, and, in 1836, about 4000 students.
At the end of 1837, the total number of schools, public and pri¬
vate, throughout France, was 53,020 ; 39,504 for hoys, and 14,416
for girls. The number of pupils at the same period was 2,651,492 ;
1,552,847 bovs, and 1,098,645 girls. The masters of the elemen¬
tary schools have a residence, and receive a yearly salary of 200
francs, or little more than L.8 ; the masters of the superior schools
have a residence and a salary of 400 francs, or somewhat more
than L.16. The whole charge to the state of the department of
public instruction, according to the budget ofl838, was 19,005,673
francs, or nearly L.800,000, which was distributed as follows :—
Francs.
Central administration  686,623
General services ;  238,000
Departmental and academic administration  919,900
Superior instruction—faculties 1,9723)50
Secondary instruction 1,655,600
Elementary instruction, general fund 1,600,000
  — additional   3,500,000
Primary normal school 
Literary and scientific establishments 7,676,.>00
Subscriptions to literary works, &c 
Total....
557,000
. 19,005,673
528
UNIVERSITIES.
United
States.
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES.
To render our account of the seminaries for higher edu¬
cation as complete as possible, we have added, from the
“ American Almanac for 1841,” a list of the colleges in
the United States, which are sometimes dignified with the
name of Universities; but it must be borne in mind that
large proportion of these furnish instruction only to a if
mited extent; and none of them, we believe, will bear '
comparison with the great majority of the European semi
naries. We have subjoined, from the same source, lists oi'
the medical, theological, and law schools.
COLLEGES.
Bowdoin.
Waterville,*
Dartmouth,
University of Vermont,
Middlebury,
Norwich University,
Harvard University,
Williams,
Amherst,
Brown University,*
Yale,
Washington,!
Wesleyan University,t
Columbia,!
Union,
Hamilton,
Hamilton Lit. and Theol.*
Geneva, t
University of New York,
College of New Jersey,
Rutgers, ,
University of Pennsylv.
Dickinson,}
Jefferson,
Washington,
Allegheny,! .
Western University, .
Pennsylvania,
Lafayette,
Marshall,
Newark, .
St John's,
St Mary's,§
Mount St Mary’s,§ ,
Georgetown,§
Columbian,* .
William and Mary,t
Hampden-Sidney,
Washington,
University ofVirginia,
Randolph-Macon,! .
Emory and Henry,
Rector College,
University of N. Carolina,
Davidson,
Wake Forest,*
Charleston,
South Carolina College,
University of Georgia,
Oglethorpe,
Brunswick, Maine,
Waterville, ditto,
Hanover, New Hampshire,
Burlington, Vermont,
Middlebury, ditto,
Norwich, ditto,
Cambridge, Massachusetts,
Williamstown, ditto, .
Amherst, ditto,
Providence, Rhode Island.
New Haven, Connecticut,
Hartford, ditto,
Middletown, ditto.
New York, New York, .
Schenectady, ditto,
Clinton, ditto,
Hamilton, ditto,
Geneva, ditto,
New York, ditto,
Princeton, New Jersey,
New Brunswick, ditto,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Carlisle, ditto,
Canonsburg, ditto,
Washington, ditto, .
Meadville, ditto,
Pittsburg, ditto, .
Gettysburg, ditto,
Easton, ditto,
Mercersburg, ditto, .
Newark, Delaware,
Annapolis, Maryland, .
Baltimore, ditto,
Emmitsburg, ditto,
Georgetown, D. of Colum.,
Washington, ditto,
Williamsburg, Virginia,
Prince Edward Co., ditto,
Lexington, ditto,
Charlottesville, ditto,
Boydton, ditto.
Glade Spring, ditto,
Hairison Co., ditto,
Chapel-Hill, No. Carolina,
Mecklenberg Co., ditto.
Wake Forest, ditto,
Charleston, S, Carolina,
Columbia, South Carolina,
Athens, Georgia, ;
Midway, ditto,
1794
1820
1770
1791
1800
1884
1638
1793
1821
1764
1700
1824
1831
1754
1795
1812
1819
1823
1831
1746
1770
1755
1783
1802
1806
1815
1819
1832
1832
1836
1833
1784
1799
1830
1789
1821
1693
1783
1812
1819
1832
1839
1839
1791
1838
1838
1795
1804
1785
1836
No.
150
55
321
109
67
57
236
128
169
177
438
78
124
139
241
92
74
66
85
263
76
111
99
147
59
100
59
51
53
55
27
73
31
154
25
140
65
49
243
98
120
50
156
86
77
50
168
116
31
Emory,!
University of Alabama,
Lagrange,!
Spring Hill,§
Jefferson,
Oakland,
Louisiana,
Jefferson, .
St Charles, §
Baton Rouge,
Greeneville,
Washington,
University of Nashville,
East Tennessee,
Jackson,
Transylvania,
St Joseph’s,? .
Centre,
Augusta,!
Cumberland, ,
Georgetown,*
Bacon, .
St Mary’s,!
University of Ohio, .
Miami University,
Franklin,
Western Reserve, .
Kenyon,!
Granville,*
Marietta, .
Oborlin Institute,
Cincinnati,
Woodward, . •
Indiana,
South Hanover, .
Wabash,
Ind. Asbury University,!
Illinois,
Shurtleff,*
M’Kendree,!
M'Donough,
University of St Louis,§
c, a
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92 ,
93 St Mary’s,!
94 Marion,
95 Columbia,
96 St Charles,t
97 Fayette,
98 Michigan University,
99 Marshall,
100 St Philip’s,! .
Place.
Oxford, Georgia, .
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, .
Lagrange, ditto.
Spring Hill, ditto,
Washington, Mississippi,
Oakland, ditto,
Jackson, Louisiana, ,
Bringiers, ditto,
Grand Coteau, ditto,
Baton Rouge, ditto, .
Greeneville, Tennessee,
Washington Co., ditto,
Nashville, ditto,
Knoxville, ditto, .
Near Columbia, ditto, .
Lexington, Kentucky,
Bardstown, ditto,
Danville, ditto, . .
Augusta, ditto, .
Princeton, ditto, .
Georgetown, ditto,
Harrodsburg, ditto,
Marion Co., ditto,
Athens, Ohio,
Oxford, ditto,
New Athens, ditto, .
Hudson, ditto.
Gambler, ditto, .
Granville, ditto,
Marietta, ditto,
Oberlin, ditto,
Cincinnati, ditto, .
Cincinnati, ditto,
Bloomington, Indiana,
South Hanover, ditto, .
Crawfordsvilte, ditto, .
Jacksonville, Illinois,
Upper Alton, ditto, .
Lebanon, ditto,
Macomb, ditto, .
St Louis, Missouri,
Barrens, ditto, .
New Palmyra, ditto, .
Columbia, ditto,
St Charles, ditto, .
Fayette, ditto,
Ann Aibour, Michigan,
Marshall, ditto, .
Near Detroit, ditto,
1837
1828
1831
1830
1802
1831
1825
1831
1838
1794
1794
1806
1807
1830
1798
1819
1822
1825
1825
1829
1836
1837
1821
1809
1825
1826
1826
1832
1832
1834
1819
1827
1829
1833
1839
1629
1835
1834
1837
1829
1830
1831
1835
1839
1837
Remarks.
The colleges marked thus (*) are under the direction’of the Baptists! thus (!),
Episcopalians; thus (!), Methodists ; thus (!), Catholics.
With respect to the colleges which are unmarked, the prevailing religious in¬
fluence of those in the New England states, is Congregationalism; of the most
of the others, Presbyterianism. Norwich university, Vermont, is an institution
recently established by the Universalists.
By students in the above table, with an exception of a few of the colleges in the
southern and western states, is meant under-graduates, or members ot the four
collegiate classes, not including such as are pursuing professional education, or
such as are members of a preparatory department.
The whole number of students on the catalogue, including those of theology, law,
and medicine, as well as under-graduates, in Harvard University, in 1839, was 426 ;
in Yale College, 608, In the university of Pennsylvania, in 1838-9, in the collegiate
department 113, in the academical department 128, and in the medical depart¬
ment 402,—total, 643.
Some of the colleges above enumerated are not in full operation, and scarcely de¬
serve a place in the table. Several other colleges have been incorporated, which
are not yet fully organized.
The information given in these tables has been obtained from various sources.
Much aid has been derived from a valuable document entitled Statistics of Colleges
and Theological Seminaries in the United States, found in the Appendix to the
“ Twenty-iourth Annual Report of the Directors of the American Education
Society.”
LAW-SCHOOLS.
Place.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, .
New Haven, Connecticut, .
New York City,
Carlisle, Pennsylvania, . .
Williamsburg, Virginia, . .
Charlottesville, Virginia, .
Lexington, Kentucky, .
Cincinnati, Ohio,
Name.
Harvard University,
Yale College,
Law Dep. New York Univ. .
Dickinson College, . . .
William and Mary College, .
University of Virginia, . .
Transylvania University,
Cincinnati College, . .
Prot. Sudents.
2 120
2 45
3
1 23
1 36
1 72
3 71
3 25
Schools for the study of law are much less frequented than schools for the stui
™ ^hneIPHr?fe?rnTT- Vc tirst institut,on of this nature, of much note, th
^,o ihbluhi dilrVthe States- was the lav/ school at Litchfield, in Connei
ticut, which had, from 1798 to 1827, 730 students ; but it is now discontinued.
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.
Denomina¬
tions.
Com-
opera¬
tion. j
Bangor Theol. Seminary,
Thomaston Theol. Inst.
Gilmanton Theol. Sem.
Theological Seminary,
Divinity School,
Theological Institution,
Theol. Dep. Yale College,
Theol. Inst, of Conn.
Theol. Inst. Epis. Church,
New York Theol. Sem.
Theol. Sem. of Auburn,
Hamilton Lit. and Th. Inst.
Hartwick Seminary,
Theol. Sem. As. Ref. Ch.
Th. Sem. Dutch Rf. Ch.
Theol. Sem. Pr. Ch. U. S.
Sem. Luth. Ch. U. States,
German Reformed,
West. Theol. Seminary,
Theological School,
Theological Seminary,
Epis. Theol. School of Va.
Union Theol. Seminary,
Virginia Baptist Seminary,
Southern Theol. Seminary,
Theological Seminary,
Furman Theol. Seminary,
Lit. and Theol. Seminary,
South-West Theol. Sem.
Lane Seminary,
Theol. Dep. Ken. College,
heol. Dep. Wes. Res. Col.
Theological School,
Granville Theol. Dep.
Oberlin Theol. Dep.
Indiana Theol. Seminary,
Alton Theol. Seminary,
Carlinville Theol. Sem.
I’heol. Dep. Marion Col.
Bangor, Me.
Thomaston, do.
Gilmanton, N. H.
Andover, Mass.
Cambridge, do.
Newton, do.
N. Haven, Ct.
E. Windsor, do.
New York, N. Y.
New York, do
Auburn, do.
Hamilton, do.
Hartwick, do.
Newburgh, do.
N. Brunswick, N. J
Princeton, do
Gettysburg, Pa.
York, do,
Allegheny T. do,
Canonsburg, do.
Pittsburg. do.
Fairfax Co. Va.
Pr. Ed. Co. do.
Richmond, do-
Colurabia, S. C.
Lexington, do.
High Hills, do.
Eaton, Ga.
Maryville, Ten.
Cincinnati, Ohio,
Gam bier, do.
Hudson, do.
Columbus, do,
Granville, do.
Oberlin, do,
S. Hanover, In.
Upper Alton, II.
Carlinville, do.
N. Palmyra, Mo.
Cong.
Baptist,
Cong.
Cong.
Cong. Unit.
Baptist,
-Cong.
Long.
Prot. Epis.
Presbyt.
Preshyt.
Baptist,
Lutheran,
Ass. Ref. Ch.
Dutch Ref.
Presbyt.
Evang. L.
G. Ref. Ch.
Presbyt.
Asso. Ch.
Asso- Ref.
Prot. Epis.
Preshyt.
Baptist,
Presbyt.
Lutheran,
Baptist,
Baptist,
Presbyt.
Preshyt.
Prot. Epis.
Presbyt.
Lutheran,
Baptist,
Presbyt.
Presbyt.
Baptist,
Preshyt.
Preshyt-
UNIVERSITIES.
529
MEDICAL SCHOOLS.
Name.
aine Medical School,
cw Hampshire Medical School, .
ermont Academy of Medicine,
ermont Medical College 
assichusetts Medical School, Harv. Univ.
.■rkshire Med. Inst., Williams College,
edical School, Yale College, .
ill. Physicians and Surgeons, New York,
,11. Physicians and Surgeons, West. Dist.
;neva Medical College,
hany Medical College, .
edical Dep. University, Pennsylvania,
c-dical Dep. Jefferson College,
edical Dep. Pennsylvania College,
'dical Dep. University, Maryland,
ashington Medical College, ,
■dical Dep. University, Virginia,
impden-Sidney College,
■dical College of the State of South Car.
,dical College of Georgia,
,dical College of Louisiana,
,dical College of Trans. Univ.
uisville Medical College, .
■dical College of Ohio, .
illoughby Medical College, .
formed Medical College of Ohio,
uisville Medical School,
Place.
Brunswick,
Hanover, .
Castleton,
Woodstock,
Boston.
Pittsfield,
New Haven,
New York,
Fairfield, .
Geneva, .
Albany,
Philadelphia,
do.
do.
Baltimore,
do
Char lottesville
j Richmond, Va
i Charleston,
i Augusta,
; New Orleans,
i Lexington,
| Louisville,
| Cincinnati,
; Willoughby,
i Worthington,
Louisville,
70
77
25
80
85
100
45
106
164
81
68
444
145
60
65
60
45
50
1!)3
55
30
257
204
120
35
204
PART II.—SCHOOLS.
he length to which the first part of this article has ex¬
it; led leaves us room merely to mention what was intend¬
ed) form the subject of the second. In thus extending
th first part, to the exclusion of the second, we have been
in enced by a wish to furnish accurate and satisfactory in¬
fo lation on a subject which is important and interesting,
wl e to the general reader it is by no means easily acces-
sit . I he subject of schools does not yield to the other,
eii ?r in importance or interest; but it is one of which some-
thg is more generally known, and on which extended in¬
fo, ation can be more readily obtained.
I ie duty of providing schools for the education of the people
haueen generally acknowledged and acted upon by the govern-
iik s of modern Lurope; and accordingly we find established in
Ilf anous countries a national system of instruction more or less
exasive, according to the circumstances and capabilities of each.
Iti/ns rule, which is all but universal, England forms a remark,
a ) exception. Here no system of public instruction has been
est lished by the authority of the legislature ; and the education
o e people has been left to individual beneficence, and to the
ex ions of public societies. Nearly all the grammar-schools in
ii ingdom owe their origin to the former source; and th re is
!><■ ips no country in which so large an amount of property has
Dei appropnated for the education of youth. The estates and
e property left for educational purposes would, it is believed,
w hperly managed, yield an annual revenue of L.400,000. The
«n nt actually realized falls far short of this, and its utility is
i cr impaired by the conditions and restrictions under which it
^le^' grammar and endowed schools, which are nu
1 US, were principally intended for the upper and middle classes;
„ni ’™le lhejn. as Eton, Westminster, and Winchester, are
tn u en< e< so)ely by the sons of the nobility and higher gen-
was not till a comparatively recent period that any vigorous
«as made to supply the lower classes with education, or to
tlm P0w^rful instrument of civilisation within the reach of
tin r!-( r^n P00r- Much however has been done during
Im bf611 century> an(l many schools have been founded for this
SUl 6 fHlrP()Se- These consist chiefly of what are called
Sc L National Schools, and British and Foreign
eti , nr owe their origin to the benevolent
e« s nf M"VT,u"y owe ineir origin to tne oenevoient
thi ivpr , Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, by whom
nu • nln„eStabJ v.,1” that town in Being patronized by
rai lv i'8! i*11 pnnanthropic individuals, the plan extended
no 'in111 ias.been productive of incalculable benefit to the
tin ini>;i'e n'ee'tin^S„are in the afternoon of Sunday; and
teN ehiefl^f1St l°^ as weii as children. Though in-
Du ’ of tl ^ °ruthf colnniunication of religious instruction, in
nv tn h86 m °0!S reaii‘ng and writing are also taught. Ac-
>n iTt e onidal returns, there were in England and Wales,
hilBon L.,.ev'er ti|an H>,828 Sunday schools, attended by
by 5o I,)? *! an(i a<inlts. Of these, 62-17 schools, attended
S imal xv;C , ren an(i a(Iults, belonged to dissenters. The
:JL xxii0°3 are uncier the control of the “ National So-
ciety for promoting the Education of the Poor,” established in Schools.
I Ml, aim are conducted on the system recommended by the late ' , 
Hr Bell of Madras. This society is supported solely by members
of the established church, and the church catechism is used in its
schools. According to the report for 1889, the schools and scholars
were,—4291 places, with 4882 Sunday and daily, and 2197 Sunday
schools containing 180,76? boys and 146,752 girls as Sunday and
daily scholars, and 122,084 boys and 130,928 girls as Sundav’scho-
lars only; making, with the Infant Schools, in all 0778 schools, with
597,911 scholars. The Schools o;' the British and Foreign School So¬
ciety are not connected with any religious sect, but are open to all
pupils, of whatever creed. This society maintains a considerable
number of schools in all parts of the country, and has contributed
extensively towards the diffusion of elementary education among
the working classes. The system adopted is that of Joseph Lan¬
caster, through whose exertions the society was formed in 1810.
According to the education returns in 1833, the number receiving
instruction in daily schools was 1,276,94?. At an average of Eng¬
land and Wales, perhaps from one-tenth to one-eleventh part of
the population may be attending schools and seminaries of various
kinds. We believe however that, speaking generally, the education
communicated is of an inferior description, and that, in point of
quality, it is decidedly below the standard of Holland, Prussia,
Scotland, and some other countries.
In Scotland, in addition to the schools on the parochial sys¬
tem, of which a short account will be found in the article Scot¬
land, much has of late years been done for the more general dif.
fusion of education among the great mass of the people. The
Society for propagating Christian Knowledge” maintains 159
schools in different parts of the kingdom, which are attended by
12,619 scholars; and the “ Committee of the General Assembly,”
whose exertions are directed chiefly to the Highlands and Islands,
have under their care 126 schools, which are attended by 12,000
scholars. Nor have the various dissenting bodies been backward
in contributing towards the same benevolent object. The schools
supported by them in the large towns amount to a considerable
number. The state of primary education in Scotland will be best
exhibited by the following abstract from the Parliamentary Report
(Session 183?), prepared from returns by the parochial clergy.
Aberdeen,
Argyle,
Ayr,
Banff,
Berwick,
Bute,
Caithness,
Clackmannan,
Dunbarton,
Dumfries,
Edinburgh,
Elgin, .
Fife,
Forfar,
Haddington,
Inverness,
Kincardine,
Kinross,
Kirkcudbright,
Lanark,
Linlithgow,
Nairne,
Orkney and Shetland,
Peebles,
Peith,
Renfrew,
Ross and Cromarty
Roxburgh,
Selkirk,
Stirling,
Sutherland,
Wigton,
Totals,
No. of | No. of
Parochial Instrnc-
Schools. I tors.
No. of
Schools
Non-paro-
chial.
No. of
Instruc¬
tors.
93
74
46
25
34
10
10
5
13
65
32
21
55
53
30
34
22
5
49
72
13
4
28
16
73
19
33
44
5
33
13
18
96
78
62
29
40
10
11
6
15
69
40
27
61
60
32
34
22
7
55
90
13
4
29
17
75
22
33
50
8
39
15
21
347
200
225
125
59
30
80
26
54
129
460
70
223
223
51
122
85
13
56
352
48
14
113
14
251
169
124
68
13
121
43
81
379
207
241
131
60
34
86
39
55
143
640
88
252
255
55
127
86
15
60
376
55
15
113
17
259
193
129
80
14
138
45
82
It appears that, taking the largest amount of attendance, a ninth of the whole
population of Scotland is, on an average, receiving education in public schools,
either parochial or non-parochial. This is exclusive of private boarding schools,
both for males and females, and of those who are educated under domestic tutors.
The schools under the superintendence of the “Board of
Education” in Ireland, of the origin of which an account will be
found in the article Ireland, continue to extend over every part
of the island, notwithstanding the violent opposition which the
svstem has had to encounter. The number of schools in December
1839 was 1581, which were attended by about 205,000 scholars.
In August 1840, 200 schools had been added to this number; and
at that dale there were before the board 309 applications for aid,
about 200 of which were from presbyterians. (b. w.)
3 x
530
U P P
U R A
Unter- UNST. See Zetland.
waldcn UNTERWALDEN, one of the cantons of Switzerland,
Upping- ant^ one t^e most ancient of the confederacy, having
ham. been established as an independent state in the year 1308.
 v—It is bounded on the north by Lucerne and the lake Lu¬
cerne, on the east by Uri, on the south by Berne, and on
the west by Lucerne. The extent of it is 198 geographi¬
cal square miles. It is divided into two parts, called Ob-
walden and Nidwalden, or the upper and lower forest.
The capital of the former is Sarnen, with 2000 inhabitants.
The capital of the latter is Stanz, with a population of
2000. These two divisions form separate states, having si¬
milar democratic constitutions, but distinct administrations ;
and they alternately send deputies to the general assembly
of the confederation.
The inhabitants of both are of German origin, and
speak a patois of that language. They are a simple pasto¬
ral people, attached to their ancient customs, and bigoted
to their faith, which is that of the Romish church, under
the episcopal jurisdiction of the bishop of Constance.
There are thirteen parish churches, and five churches in
the same number of monasteries. In 1838 the population
amounted to 22,571.
The sovereignty is in the whole of the males above twenty
years of age, who assemble on the last Sunday in April,
when the government is appointed, and the laws which
are proposed by the executive power are agreed to or re¬
jected. Each man is taught the use of arms, and is en¬
rolled as a soldier in the militia. The tax paid to the ge¬
neral confederacy is 1910 francs, and the contingent of
men is 383. The chief, called the landammann, is chosen
yearly; and the members of the council also resign their
offices each year, but are almost always re-chosen. This
description of the government applies to both the states
which form the canton, though there are some trifling varia¬
tions between the two divisions.
On the borders of the canton are some of the lofty ele¬
vations of the Alps, the most remarkable of which is the
Till is, whose snowy peak is 10,700 feet. Next to it are the
Wellenstock and the Jockberge, 1000 feet lower ; and seve¬
ral of inferior height, as the Geisburg and Bruning on the
boundary of Berne; the Nesselstock and the Pilatus on the
frontier of Lucerne ; and the Engelberg, the Rothstock,
and the Brozen on the borders of Uri. The interior has
only lower Alps, ranging from 3000 to 5500 feet in height.
There are few rivers of much consequence. The most con¬
siderable is the Welch, issuing from the lake of Sarnen,
and, after uniting with the Aa, losing itself in the lake of
the Four Cantons. The chief productions are potatoes and
hemp, with some corn in the valleys, but scarcely sufficient
for the consumption. On the side of the Alps, and at a
great height, in the summer, there is good pasture, and
many cows are bred, and their milk made into cheese. The
forests yield much timber. The only trade is the export
of butter, cheese, hides, chestnuts, and wood, with which
are purchased iron, spirits, and the few foreign articles that
are used. There are not any manufactures ; and besides
keeping the flocks and herds, and cutting the wood, there
is no occupation except that of fishing on the lakes.
There are several mineral springs; one impregnated with
sulphur, at Schwendel, is much frequented. The climate
is severe, very hot in the short summer, and dreadfully cold
in winter. Fruit trees cease to bear above the elevation
of 4-000 feet; but chestnuts, which are abundant, are to be
found higher than that level.
UPPINGHAM, a market-town in the county of Rut¬
land, in the hundred of Martinsley, eighty-nine miles from
London and seven from Oakham. It is a clean and well-
built town, standing on an eminence, and consisting prin¬
cipally of one long street, with a hospital and a free school,
both erected in 1584, and a tine Gothic parish-church. It
has a well-frequented market on Wednesday, and two hr
fairs, one in March, the other in July. The nonubtii
amounted in 1821 to 1630, and in 1831 to 1757. ^ °
UPSALA, one of the provinces of the kingdom ofSn(
den. It has been formed out of the western part of th
ancient province of Upland. It extends in north latitmi
from 59° 24' to 60° 39', and in east longitude from 16° 3
to 18° 17'. It comprehends 2112 square miles, with tw
cities, one market-town, and 3546 villages and hamlet
The population is 80,926. It is rather an undulating tha
a level district, with small groups of hills connected %
ther, which in the north may be almost described e
mountains. It extends along the Gulf of Bothnia, bi
has no good harbours; but the lake of Malaren, whit
forms its southern boundary, and is connected with th
sea at Stockholm, provides a good egress for the produc I
tions. This lake is connected with a chain of others, whicl!
by means of canals, forms a communication between th
two seas that bound the eastern and western sides of th
kingdom towards the south.
The soil of the southern part of the province is a ric
black loam, highly fertile ; but in the north, beyond th
60th degree of latitude, it is much less productive. Tl
chief corn is rye, and in the north barley, with some oats
but the whole province usually yields sufficient grain fori
consumption. The inhabitants of the northern part sut
sist almost wholly on oaten bread. It is not favourable t
the growth of fruit, except that some cherries are seen, an
in most parts abundance of wortle-berries.
In the north there are extensive woods, mostly of pint
and firs, with some beeches. The cattle are generall
small, but ol late the wool of the sheep has been improve
by the introduction of Saxon rams. The fisheries, both o
the sea and the lakes, afford a supply of food, and give en
ployment to many persons ; but the chief occupation arist
from the extensive mines of iron that are worked. Th
most considerable of them, that of Dannemora, is a prod
gious work, and furnishes to commerce the best bar-iroi
and converts a part into various articles for domestic use,
The capital of the province is the city of the same nam
standing on the river Fyrisac, which divides it into tn
parts. Upsala is one of the most beautiful old-fashione
cities in Europe. It has a castle or palace, the residence!
the governor; a cathedral, in which many of the kings hav
been interred, and in which there is a fine monument t
the memory of the celebrated Linnaeus. It is the seat!
an archbishop, and likewise of the chief university of th
kingdom. This institution, founded in 1478, has a goo
library of 50,000 volumes, a fine botanic garden, an astrc
nomical observatory, and the several other aids to stud
usually found in universities. The average number i
students is 800. 'The trade of this place is inconsidei
able, the manufactures being limited to making snu
and tobacco, and weaving coarse linens. The inhabitanl
amount to 15,000, who mostly depend on the university ft
employment and the means of subsistence. In the neijd
bourhood are many remains of Gothic antiquity. Lonl
27. 31. 40. E. Lat. 59. 51. 56. N.
UPTON-ON-SEVERN, a market-town of the count
of Worcester, in the hundred of Pershore, 109 miles froi
London and ten from Worcester. It stands on the rigji
bank of the Severn, over which is a stone bridge of si
arches. The town is w'ell built, and has a very neat churn
erected in 1758. There is a weekly market on Thursday
and three annual fairs ; but the chief trade is owing to tli
navigable river on whose bank it is built. The populatioi
amounted in 1821 to 2319, and in 1831 to 2313.
URANIA, one of the nine Muses, was supposed to pre
side over astronomy. She is commonly represented in »
azure robe, crowned with stars, and supporting a lar§
globe with both hands.
i -
U R I
jand :URBINO AND Pesaro, a delegation or province of
) t > papal dominion in Italy, formed out of the ancient
tkedom of Urbino. It is hounded on the north by Forli
a 1 the republic of St Marino, on the north-east by the
“"Vriatic Sea, on the south-east by Ancona, on the south-
wit by Perugia, and on the west by Tuscany. It ex-
pds over 1733 square miles, comprehending twelve cities,
s,:een market-towns, and 410 hamlets and villages. The
p mlation amounts to 216,071 persons. As it extends
o r a great portion of the Apennines, it is necessarily
n untainous. It produces, on the sides of the hills and in the
v, eys, silk, wine, corn, hemp, flax, fruit, cattle, wax, and
h ey. The capital is the city of Urbino, which is situated
oi a hill, and is surrounded with ancient walls and towers.
13 ng the seat of a bishop, it has a cathedral and also seve-
n other churches, ten monasteries, and six nunneries. A
uversity was founded here by Pope Clement X., but it
hs disappeared, though a college is still left, and one of
tl oldest academies of Italy. The population amounts to
1:1300 persons. This city is remarkable as the birth-place
ofie celebrated artist Raphael. Long. 12. 31. 5. E. Lat
4143. 36. N.
IRGUNGE, or Urghenz, an extensive tract of terri-
to situated on the Lower Oxus, near its junction with
thlAral, and between the lake and the Caspian. It is a
w and desolate tract, traversed by wandering and pre-
da ry hordes of Turkomans. The bulk of the population
is Elected in fortified tow ns, and is maintained by a few
fe le spots. The principal of these is called the “ region,”
ar is about four miles in circuit, surrounded by walls of
etfi; and the houses are built of the same material. A
m tet is formed by one long street, which is covered
ab e, and here the little trade of the surrounding country
is rned on. It has been almost ruined by the devasta-
tic| of war.
RI, a canton of Switzerland, one of the smallest of the
"1 e confederacy. It is one of the oldest, having gained
it* (dependence in the year 1307. It is bounded on the
no ) by the canton of Schwytz, on the east by those of
11 us and the Orisons, on the south by Ticino, and on
tli' vest by Herne and Unterwalden. The extent of it is
31 geographical square miles, and the population, which has
no like that of most of the other divisions of Switzerland,
Mf rased of late years, amounted in 1838 to 40,650 indi-
vn ils. It contains the capital, Altorf, with 1620 inhabi-
toi , and eleven divisions, genossamen, or communes. The
go rnment is a pure democracy. Every male who has at-
S i ,ntWentieth year is a member of the assembly, in
tli rr n fre made and revermes granted, and where
* 16 ’ ca“ed the landammann, and the other executive
I rs, are chosen. As the whole male population are
« s, so they are also soldiers; all are drilled and exer-
arr Sia^(' „ormed into militia battalions. The inhabitants
Ian i. ° tl^lTlan or‘gin> ,and use a corrupt patois of that
latv^K i e courts °f lavv are as popular as the legis-
bu k Ut]t lpre are aPPeals from inferior to superior tri-
si,, o, ’ “ ^ommon report may be trusted, the deci-
an direc.tedby bribery and popularity, than by
th3h„r,k°rfjTprinciPle8- rp^le °nly religion is that of
occ sin=(■■, I and the bishop of Constance is the
thr- ‘ ^lca suPeri°r, having under him fifteen curates and
pw ,i naS ene,Si‘ no Part °f Switzerland are the
arP ic lip™1Sera^ ^ c^otbcd, and lodged ; in no part
Pai. othHnL^:merOUS and 80 Wrtunate. The tax
COI
USA
0 tl,07 , anu 80 importunate. 1 he tax
vornfr '!eC? ederative government is 1180 francs, and the
°f i ].• i ° trooPs is 236 men. rI he canton contains some
pajkf.kp /i niountains of Switzerland. In the northern
theLs!f nl ps ar^ ,the Galenstock, 11,330 feet in height;
1,1 e southTst^G^h5 and.the Spitzleberg, 10,680.
98( . p; ‘ 18 pt Oothard, with the points, viz. Libia,
’ ndo, 9o50; and Prosa, 9250 feet. On the east-
firn w6 aJe n° bnoS^n the Sclleerhorn, 10,100 feet high ;
le W indgelle, 9300 feet; and the Bristenstock, 9500.
These are almost all surrounded with glaciers, the most re¬
markable of which is that of St Gothard, over which is one
o t ie great roads to Italy. It is to be supposed that in such
an inhospitable region there can be but little cultivation.
In the valley of Reuss, the plough is used, but its adop-
tion extends but a little w-ay from the vale. In some other
of the vales potatoes are grown, and a few other of the
more hardy esculents, but rather in gardens than in farms.
I oor as the sustenance of the people is, it.is scarcely suffi¬
cient for their support; and hence corn is wanted every
year from other districts. The chief husbandry is breed¬
ing cattle, and the dairy. With cheese, cattle, hides, and
some wood, the inhabitants are enabled to pay for the
small portions of corn, iron, tobacco, wine, and colonial
articles which they consume; and there is now scarcely any
other trade. Till lately the road by St Gothard was much
used for the transport of goods to and from Italy, and then
it was filled with waggons, pack-horses, and their attend¬
ants, by which some money was brought into the canton ;
but the opening of new roads over the Simplon and by
the Splugen has attracted much of that commerce into
other channels. I here are no manufactures, except some
of articles which each family prepares for itself.
URIM and Thummim, among the ancient Hebrews,
denoted a certain oracular consultation by the high priest,
dressed in his robes, and wearing his pectoral or breast¬
plate. Various have been the sentiments of commentators
concerning the Urim and Thummim. Josephus and se¬
veral others maintain that it meant the precious stones
set in the high priest’s breastplate, which, by extraordi¬
nary lustre, made known the will of God to those who con¬
sulted him. Dr Spencer believes that the Urim and Thum¬
mim were two little golden figures shut up in the pectoral,
as in a purse, which gave responses with an articulate
voice. In short, there are as many opinions concerning
the Urim and 1 hummim as there are particular authors
that have written about them. 1 he safest opinion, ac¬
cording to Broughton, seems to be, that the words Urim
and Thummim signify some divine virtue and power an¬
nexed to the breastplate of the high priest, by which an
oracular answer was obtained from God when he was thus
consulted ; and that this was called Urim and I hummim,
to express the clearness and perfection which these oracu¬
lar answers always carried with them ; for Urim signifies
“ light,” and Thummim “ perfection these answers not
being imperfect and ambiguous, like the heathen oracles,
but clear and evident. The use made of the Urim and
I hummim was, to consult God in difficult cases relating to
the whole state of Israel, and sometimes in cases relating
to the king, the sanhedrim, the general of the army, or
some other great personage.
URN, a kind of vase, of a roundish form, but swelling in
the middle, like the common pitchers; now seldom used
but in the way of ornament over chimney-pieces, in buffets,
&c. The great use of urns among the ancients was to
preserve the ashes of the dead after they were burnt; for
which reason they were called cineraria, and urnce cine-
rarice, and were placed sometimes under the tombstone on
which the epitaph was engraved, and sometimes in vaults
in their own houses.
URSA, the name of two constellations in the northern
hemisphere.
URSULINES, an order of nuns, founded by St Angela
of Brescia, in the year 1537, and so called from St Ursula,
to whom they were dedicated.
URUMEA. See Ouroomia.
USANCE is a determined time fixed for the payment of
bills of exchange, reckoned either from the day of the bills
being accepted, or from the day of their date; and thus
531
Urim and
Thunimim
II
Usance.
532
Use
II
TJstica.
U S T
called because regulated by the usage and custom of the
places on which they are drawn.
, USE, in Law, the profit or benefit of lands and tene¬
ments, or a trust and confidence reposed in a person for
the holding of lands, &c., that he to whose use the trust is
made shall receive the profits.
USHANT, an island on the coast of France, in the de¬
partment of Finisterre and arrondissement of Brest. It is
a lofty district, surrounded wdth steep rocks, but to navi¬
gators is an important point when approaching from the
west. It is about eighteen miles in compass. It contains,
besides the garrison, 1650 inhabitants, subsisting by agri¬
culture and fishing. There is a light-house on the island.
Long. 5. 9. 11. W. Lau 48. 23. 8. N.
Ushant, or Ouessant, a small island in the Pacific
Ocean, discovered in 1768, by M. Bougainville, near the
coast of New Guinea. Long. 146. S3. E. Lat. 11. 5. S.
USHER, an officer or servant who has the care and di¬
rection of the door of a court, hall, chamber, or the like.
Usher of the Black Bod, the eldest of the gentlemen
ushers, daily waiters at court, whose duty is to bear the
rod before the queen at the feast of St George, and other
solemnities.
USIDSCHA, or Ustcza, a city of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Semendria. It is situated in a beautiful
valley, watered by a small river, which divides it into two
parts. It is surrounded by walls, has several Greek
churches, and 6000 inhabitants, mostly of that nation, who
carry on considerable trade.
USK, a market-town in the hundred of the same name,
in the county of Monmouth, 144 miles from London. It
takes the name of the river on which it is built. On a
hill near it are the ruins of its ancient castle. The church
is of Norman construction, built in the form of a cathe¬
dral. The priory, to which it appertained, is now in ruins.
Usk is a borough, and, in conjunction with Monmouth and
Newport, returns one member to the House of Commons.
A market is held on Monday. The population amounted
in 1821 to 989, and in 1831 to 1160.
Usk, a river of Wales, which rises on the west of Breck¬
nockshire, and runs south-east through that county and
Monmouthshire, falling into the mouth of the Severn.
USMAN, a circle of the Russian government of Tam¬
bov/, extending in north latitude from 51° 58' to 52° 23',
and in east longitude from 39° 14' to 41° 24'. It is water¬
ed by the rivers Usman and Woronesh, is 1804 square
miles in extent, and contains 54,600 inhabitants. Numer¬
ous herds of horned cattle are depastured in its rich mea¬
dows, and the attendance on them is the chief occupation.
The capital is a city of the same name, situated at the
junction of the two rivers before mentioned. It has four
churches, 474 houses, and 3140 inhabitants. It is 778
miles distant from St Petersburg. Long. 39. 40. E. Lat.
53. 5. N.
USTEE, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the Nag-
poor Mahrattas, in the province of Berar, fifty miles east
from Ellichpoor. Long. 75. 52. E. Lat. 21. 18. N.
USTICA, one of the Lipari group of islands, in the Tyr¬
rhenian Sea, belonging to the kingdom of Naples. It is the
Osteodes, or Island of Bones, of the ancients, and is about
forty miles north by west from Palermo. It has in it the
town of Santa Maria, with a haven of sufficient capacity for
the feluccas that trade to it. The inhabitants amount
to about 1700, exclusive of the garrison. They are more
civilized than the people of the other islands of the
group, from having direct weekly intercourse with the ca¬
pital. The island is composed of volcanic substances, de¬
rived from hornstone base. The soil is an aggregate of
decomposed scoriae, tufa, sand, and ashes. .It is extremely
fertile, but liable to be washed away, especially from the
sides of the hill, by heavy rains. From the nature of these
u s u
materials, there are no springs; rain-water is therefore
kept in capacious cisterns. As heavy dews fall, the trees 1
bear abundance of fruit; and the whole ground is well
cultivated, and yields very good wine. Charcoal and fire-
wood are supplied, chiefly from the roots of the olive tree
from Cefalu and Palermo.
USTJUG-WELIKI, a circle of the Russian province
Wologda, extending in north latitude from 59° 4(y to
64° 40', and in east longitude from 43° 19' to 48° 40’. It
is bounded on the north by Solw ytschegodsk, on the east
by Ustsysolsk, on the south-east by Wiatka, on the south
by Nikolsk, and on the west by Totma and Welsk. It
comprehends 8338 square miles, and contains 68,350 in-
habitants. It is chiefly an elevated plain, the source of
most of those streams which unite to form the river Dwina.
'Hie climate is raw and the soil poor. It produces flax and
hemp, some barley, but the chief products are timber, tar,
and pitch. The capital is the city of the same name, si¬
tuated on the river Suchona, at its junction with the Jug. It
is a large place, built after the old Russian fashion, contain¬
ing five monasteries, twenty-three churches, 2000 houses,
and 11,500 inhabitants, employed in coarse manufactures
of linen and cloth. It is 1076 miles from St Petersburg,
Long. 45. 43. E Lat. 60. 10. N.
USTJUSHNA, a circle of the Russian government of
Novogorod. It extends in north latitude from 58° 28’ to
59° 55', and in east longitude from 34° 11' to 37° 15'.
Only one tenth of the surface is used for agriculture and
pasture ; about three tenths consist of wood, and the rest is
quite w’aste. It contains a city, a market-town, 550 vil¬
lages or hamlets, and 45,300 inhabitants. Ihe capital isa
city of the same name, situated on the river Wolga, in a
district where are some rich mines of iron. It contains
460 houses, w ith 3130 inhabitants, who trade on the river,
and carry on fisheries. It is 372 miles from St Petersburg.
Long. 36. 26. E. Lat. 58. 53. N.
USTSYSOLSK, a circle of the Russian province of
Wologda, extending in north latitude from 59° 30' to
64° 56', and in east longitude from 47° lO' to 57° 34'. It
comprehends the vast space of 66,814 square miles, with
not more than 36,000 inhabitants. The soil is very sterile,
yielding no other corn than a little barley. The chiet pro¬
ductions are those of the forests, and the only part ot them
tiiat will bear the cost of conveyance consists of pitch, tar,
and the furs of wild animals. The capital is the city o
the same name, situated on the river Sysolka, and contain¬
ing 360 houses, with 1940 inhabitants, who trade chic j
in peltry. It is 1345 miles from St Petersburg. Long.
49. 16. E. Lat. 60. 37. N. .
USUFRUCT, in the Civil Law, the use or enjoyment
of any lands or tenements, or the right of receiving ne
fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other thing, wit ion
a power of alienating or changing the property of it.
USURER, a person charged with a habit or actot usury
USURPATION, in Law, is an injurious usmg °r
joyment of a thing for continuance of time, that be ongs
right to another. f
USURY, an unlawful contract upon the loan ot mo ^
to receive the same again with exorbitant increase. .
statute 37 Hen. VIII. c. 9, the rate of interest was hxeu^
ten per cent, per annum; w'hich the statute 13 12j jU
confirms, and ordains that all brokers shall be gul ^ ^
prcemunire who transact any contracts for more’,anr c j
securities themselves shall be void. I he statute , .
c. 17, reduced interest to eight per cent.; and i
been lowered in 1650, during the usurpation, u ^
cent., the same reduction was re-enacted altei 1 j?
ration by statute 12 Car. II. c. 13; and lb6 8 4 i a)|
Ann®, st. 2, c. 16, reduced it to five per cent. !N0 Uj
contracts for taking more were in themselves u o ^
but also the lender was to forfeit treble the sum
U T R
b rowed. If any scrivener or broker took more than five
, |jngS per cent, procuration-money, or more than twelve
n ice for making a bond, he was to forfeit L.20, with costs,
a | to suffer imprisonment for half a year. By 3 & 4 Will,
f c. 98> § hills not having more than three months
t, un were exempted from the operation of the laws against
u ry By 1 Viet. c. 80, the exemption was extended to
b s payable at twelve months; and the operation of the
a was’limited to the first day of January 1840. By 2 &
Sfict. c. 37, it is enacted, that bills of exchange and
citracts for loans or forbearance of money above L.10,
8;ll not be affected by the usury laws. Five per cent,
b still left as the legal interest of money, unless it shall
a .ear that any different rate was agreed to between the
nties. All previous enactments relative to pawnbrokers
a to remain in full force. This act is to continue in force
ti the first day of January 1842.
JT1CA, a town of ancient Africa Propria, on the Me-
d >rranean. It was founded by a Tyrian colony, and was
oji-r than Carthage; its name, according to Bochart, de¬
ni ng o/d. After the destruction of Carthage, it became
t capital of all the Roman territories in Africa. Accord-
ir to Strabo, it stood on the same bay with Carthage, at
o 'of the promontories called Apollonium, bounding the
br on the west side, the other to the east, called Hermeia,
L ng at Carthage. Utica became famous by the death of
(:o, called Cato Uticensis.
UTRECHT, one of the provinces of the kingdom of
1 Hand. It extends in north latitude from 51° 58' to 52°
1, and in east longitude from 4° 41' to 5° 32'. It is
1 inded on the north by the province of Holland and by
t Zuyder Zee, on the east by Gueldres, on the south by
( eldres and by Holland, and on the west by Holland. It
c itains 535 square miles, is divided into two circles, those
c Utrecht and Amersfort, and the population in 1838
£ ounted to 140,574. About two thirds of the people
a; of the Calvinist church, and one third adhere to the
I mish communion. In the northern and western parts,
: 1 on the borders of the Lech, the land is low and flat;
II in the eastern part, between the towns of Utrecht and
i nersfbrt, is a range of hills of slight elevation. The soil
i the low parts is rich and fertile, having, like Holland,
i >st productive meadows, and ploughed land yielding
; findant crops of corn. Here and there are some woods,
t ed with shrubs rather than trees, and several extensive
1 iths. The chief occupation is agriculture, with breeding
1 tie, and the making of butter and cheese. The province
I > a surplus of corn, and that, with the products of the
1 ry, forms the chief exports. Besides these, they send to
1 ier districts honey, wax, wool, tobacco, madder, and some
1 ‘w articles. The tobacco is much valued, especially that
Amersfort, though it is ‘chiefly mixed with the tobacco
1 America, to give it a peculiar flavour. There are in
3 towns manufactories of woollen, silk, linen, and cotton
jods. Abundance of fuel is supplied by the turf, and
wsmitted with facility by means of canals. The capital
the province is the city of the same name, as it also is
a circle subdivided into nine cantons. It stands in a plea*
't situation on the Old Rhine, which has here become a
'all stream, by the separation from it of the great body of
"ater. It is however still navigable for small craft,
d is connected by a canal with Amsterdam. The en-
•ons, especially near the river, are adorned by many
autilul country-seats, belonging to the rich class of mer-
ants of Amsterdam; and the gardens around them are
d out with great care and taste. The city is large, well
"it, and fortified ; but its defences have been neglected,
1 are now useless. The most remarkable buildings are,
e f*ome Kirk, with its lofty tower, from which is an ex-
nMVe prospect j the royal palace, where, in 1579, the
11011 with Holland was signed, and the peace of 1713,
u z
533
Uz.
which bears the name of the city; the town-hall, the mint, Uttoxeter
and the foundling hospital. There are fifteen churches,
seven of which belong to the Calvinists, three to the Ca-^
tholics, and one each to the French Protestants, to the
English, to the Remonstrants, to the Lutherans, and to the
Mennonites. There is a celebrated university, with nineteen
professors and about 600 students; and attached to it is a
library, a botanic garden, an observatory, and several mu¬
seums. The inhabitants amounted in 1838 to 20,390
males and 23,017 females, making together 43,407 persons.
The commerce has much declined from its former state,
but of late years has received a revival from the introduc¬
tion of new articles of manufacture, especially those of cot¬
ton, of silk, and of goods composed of these two materials
together. Here they also make some needles, stockings,
serges, refined sugar, and sailcloth. Long. 5. 1. 12. E.
Eat. 52. 5. 12. N.
UTTOXETER, a market-town of the hundred of Tot-
monslow, in the county of Stafford, 135 miles from London.
It stands on a rising ground on the river Dove, in a dis¬
trict abounding with woods. It is moderately well built;
and the church is distinguished by the loftiness of its spire.
There is much trade in some branches of hardware, and, by
means of the navigable canals, much interchange of com¬
modities with all parts of the kingdom. There is a well-
frequented market on Wednesday, and four annual fairs.
The population amounted in 1821 to 4658, and in 1831
to 4864.
UVA, a lake of Asiatic Russia, in the government of
Tobolsk, about twenty-eight miles in circumference. It is
sixty-eight miles south-east of Tobolsk.
UXBRIDGE, a market-town of the county of Middle¬
sex, fifteen miles from London. It is a part of the parish of
Hillingdon, in the hundred of Elthorne. It is tolerably
built, well paved, and lighted. The river Colne here joins
the Grand Junction Canal, and thus forms a water commu¬
nication with the metropolis. There is an extensive corn
market on Thursday, and many mills in the vicinity are
employed in grinding it, and in preparing the flour for the
supply of London. This place is remarkable as the scene
of the treaty attempted between Charles I. and his parlia¬
ment. The house then used has been preserved, but is
now occupied as an inn. Near the town are the remains,
on Heiling Down, of an ancient encampment, commonly
supposed to have been the work of the Britons. This town
gives the title of earl to the eldest son of the marquis of
Anglesea. The population amounted in 1821 to 2750, and
in 1831 to 3043.
UZ, or Utz, the country and place of residence of Job.
In the genealogy of the patriarchs, there are three persons
called Uz, any of whom might give this district its name.
The first was the grandson of Shem, by his son Aram
(Gen. xxii. 23), who, according to Josephus, occupied the
Trachonitis and Damascus, to the north of Palestine; but
Job was among the sons of the East. Another Uz was the
son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gen. x. 21), who, after
passing the Euphrates, appears to have removed from
Haran of Mesopotamia to Arabia Deserta. The third Uz
was a Horite, from Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 28), and thus
not of Eber’s posterity. Now the question is, from which
of these the country of Job took its name. Not from the
first, as is already shown; nor from the second, because his
country is always called Seir, or Edom, never Uz ; and then
called a south, not an east, country, in Scripture. It there¬
fore remains that Ave look for the country and place of resi¬
dence of Job in Arabia Deserta, for which there are very
probable reasons. The plunderers of Job are called Chal¬
deans and Sabeans, next neighbours to him. These Sa-
beans came not from Arabia Felix, but from a nearer Sabe
in Arabia Deserta (Ptolemy) ; and his friends, except Eli-
phaz the Themanite, were of Arabia Deserta.
534
V.
VAC
VAC
V, \T or v is properly a consonant, and as such is placed be-
Vaccina- V fore all the vowels ; as in vacant, venal, vibrate, &c.
non. Though the letters v and u always had two sounds, they
had only the form v till the beginning of the fourth cen¬
tury, when the other form was introduced, the inconveni¬
ence of expressing two different sounds by the same letter
having long before been observed. In numerals V stands
for five; and with a dash added at top, thus Y, it signifies
5000.
In abbreviations, among the Romans, Y. A. stood for
veterani assignati; V. B. viro bono; V. B. A. viri boni ar-
bitratu; V. B. F. vir bonce fidei; V. C. vir consularis;
V. C. C. F. vale, conjux charissime, feliciter; V. D. D. voto
dedicatur; V. G.verbi gratia; Yir. Ve. virgo vestalis; VL.
videlicet; V. N. quinto nonarum.
VACCINATION, (from vacca, a cow), is the artificial
production of a disease, originally obtained from the cow,
(cow-pox), by bringing the matter of that disease in con¬
tact with the living fibre.
To Dr, Edward Jenner we are indebted for the discovery
of vaccination. His attention was first directed to the
subject by the popular belief which existed in Gloucester¬
shire, where he resided, that those who were infected with
matter from the sores on the udder of the cow, were ever
after secured from the contagion of small-pox. It was not,
however, till the 14th of May 1796, that he made it the
subject of direct experiment, by taking matter from the
sore on the hand of a dairymaid who had contracted cow-
pox from the udders of her master’s cows, and applying it,
by means of two superficial incisions, to the arm of a boy.
Pustules somewhat similar to those of small-pox, but darker
in their hue, and filled with a limpid fluid, were produced,
and became surrounded with an erysipelatous or red circle,
but the whole died away, leaving on the inoculated part scabs
and subsequent eschars, without producing any other in¬
convenience. On the seventh day after the operation, the
boy complained of some uneasiness in the arm-pit; on the
ninth he became chilly, had headach, loss of appetite, and
was otherwise indisposed, and passed a restless night, but
was well by next day. As the object of the experiment was
to ascertain whether the cow-pox gave immunity from the
small-pox, he was on the 1st of July inoculated with small¬
pox matter, but no disease was produced; and the same
result was obtained when this was repeated some months
afterwards. Numerous experiments of the same kind were
afterwards made; and they ended in establishing the fact
that the matter of cow-pox protected the human body from
being acted on by the infection of small-pox, while it was
itself a mild and safe disease, exciting little more constitu¬
tional disturbance than what resulted from the local sore.
Di. Jenner accounted for this singular fact, by asserting
that cow-pox was nothing else than small-pox modified, or
deprived of all its noxious qualities,by having passed through
the system of the cow; and that the disease in the heel of
the horse, called grease, which he showed was capable of
producing the vaccine vesicle in the cow, was also but a
vai iety of the same disease. In fact, he at first regarded
both small-pox and cow-pox as originally derived from the
horse.
The publication of such an interesting fact did not fail
to excite general attention ; and, accordingly, the very same
year m which Dr. Jenner’s Inquiry made its appearance,
Dr. Pearson published the results of his investigations, which
tended to confirm the opinion advanced by Dr. Jenner as
to the anti-variolous powers of the cow-pox. In two points
alone did he dissent. He regarded cow-pox and small-pox '
as two very different diseases, and denied that the cow-Lvv.
could be produced by the matter of the diseased heel of
the horse ; and he was supported in his opinion by the
inquiries of Sir Isaac Pennington, the arguments of Dr
Parr, and the experiments of Dr. Woodville, and of Mr
Simmons.
Other experimentalists were, however, much more suc¬
cessful in confirming the opinion of Dr. Jenner as to the
analogy or rather identity of the disease of the horse’s heel
and the cow-pox. Mr. Tanner succeeded in communicating
the cow-pox to the cow, by inserting on the udder some
liquid matter taken from the diseased heel of the horse; and
the experiments of Mr. Lupton and Dr. John Loy corro-
borated the same fact. Dr. Loy, indeed, found that even
the equine matter produced in man as perfect vaccine
vesicles, as that derived from the cow itself, and afforded
equal protection from the infection of small-pox. These
conclusions have been confirmed by subsequent experi¬
mentalists both in this country and on the continent, so
that it is now to be x’egarded as an established fact, that
grease and cow-pox are the same complaint, modified by
the constitution of the animals in which they occur.
Dr. Woodville of the London Small-Pox Hospital lent
his aid to ascertain, by direct experiment on a large scale,
whether the introduction of the mild disease, cow-pox,
was worthy of the encomiums bestowed upon it by Dr.
Jenner and Dr. Pearson, and whether it really guarded the
system from a subsequent attack of that loathsome and
fatal disease, the small-pox. The results of these experi¬
ments were published in 1799, by which time he had vac¬
cinated six hundred individuals. In most of these cases,
small-pox inoculation had been performed at a subsequent
period, to test the efficacy of the protective power of the
cow-pox, but not one of them took the small-pox. An
anomalous occurrence, however, showed itself in nearly
three-fifths of the patients vaccinated at the Small-Pox Hos¬
pital. Pustular eruptions, more or less numerous, resem¬
bling those of small-pox, appeared on various parts of the
body, in some cases maturating much in the same way as
the pustules do in that disease, in others fading away
without proceeding to the formation of matter. Dr. Jenner,
at the time when the circumstance occurred, endeavoured to
explain it, by supposing that it was owing to some pecu¬
liarity in the air which these patients breathed, or to a
contamination of the original cow-pox matter with small¬
pox. That it could not be owing to contamination with
small-pox matter, Dr. Woodville showed from the fact,
that the same matter, when employed for the vaccination
of individuals out of the Small-Pox Hospital, did not pro¬
duce these same pustular eruptions; and some of the identical
matter sent to the country, and used in vaccinating one
thousand individuals, only produced pustular eruptions
in two cases. Dr. Woodville, therefore, very justly drew
the inference, that the cases vaccinated at the Small-Pox
Hospital differed from those vaccinated elsewhere, in being
placed in the centre of a variolated atmosphere, to the action
of which the pustular eruption was to be ascribed; a state¬
ment which was in a manner proved at the time by the fact,
that though at first nearly three-fifths of all the cases vacci¬
nated showed pustular eruptions, yet the eruptions afterw ar s
diminished so much, that of the last hundred cases which he
published in his first Reports, only seven were thus affecte
V
VAC
VAC
535
4-
^ ;0qUent observation has shown that this was in reality
fj"' true explanation of the tact#
, )r> Woodville considered small-pox and cow- pox as
v( / closely allied in their nature, indeed, “ to a very
nr cipal point essentially the same,” and consequently re-
[t mended the general adoption of cow-pox, as an effec-
tu preservative from the infection of small-pox, as perfectly
g;l an(] free from danger, and incapable of being propaga¬
te by infectious effluvia. This last he considered a very
stuig circumstance in its favour, since small-pox, even in
its widest form, as produced by inoculation, tended greatly
to. veil the bills of mortality, by spreading the infection from
th sick to the healthy.
was during the progress of Dr. Woodville’s experiments
at he Small-Pox Hospital that the merits of vaccination
be in to be appreciated, and the practice of it generally
in iduced into all parts of this country; and the publication
of is Observations in 1800 may be regarded as marking
th, epoch. At this period, indeed, the efficacy of vaccina-
ti( as an anti-variolous agent was so generally admitted,
art the practice so universally adopted, that, in the course
of I few months, its benefits were extended to many thou-
sa I persons in all parts of this island, and matter found
its/ay to France, Italy, Germany, Holland, Turkey, most
of ir colonies, and the United States of North America.
N nerous were the publications, in all languages, announcing
th success of the practice; and almost every one agreed in
th that it gave as perfect protection from the infection of
sn ll-pox, as if the individual had once had the natural or
in ulated disease.
(any of the partizans of vaccination, however, went much
fa ler than this, and asserted that those who had once gone
th ugh the vaccine disease, were at no subsequent period
ot ieir lives liable to take small-pox. When, therefore,
ca s of small-pox did occur after vaccination, they endea-
vi, -ed to explain away the fact, by asserting that it was
n< true small-pox, or that the individual had not gone
tb ugh the true, but a spurious vaccine disease. This was,
in ed, claiming for vaccination a power which was not
essed by any other disease. There is a class of dis¬
ea s which usually occur but once during the course of life,
hi though a second attack is not a common occurrence,
st it is every now and then met with; and there are very
fe medical men of any standing in their profession who
ha; not met with cases of second attacks of measles, scar-
le fever, small-pox, typhus, &c. Dr. Thomson of Edin-
hii'h,in hiswork on the Varioloid Epidemic of 1818, was the
hi to point out this clearly with regard to small-pox; and
hi the circumstance been duly attended to w hen vaccina-
ti' was first introduced, it would have prevented much
ot lie controversy which has since arisen. It was un-
reronable to expect from vaccination a protective power
g* ter than that afforded by small-pox itself; and yet it was
h11 the advocates of vaccination advancing this doctrine,
H doctrine apparently borne out by the perfect immunity
ded to so many thousands vaccinated in all parts of
h ope on its first introduction,—that others, who had seen
Cil s of small-pox after it, were led to deny altogether its
81 -variolous power, or at least to affirm that it only gave im-
111 uty from the disease for a very limited number of years.
was not, however, till the year 1818, that the true va-
11 of the protective powers of vaccination was properly
11 srstood. During the years 1816-17-18, small-pox raged
‘1 emically in various parts of Europe, and attacked both
1 vaccinated and variolated, as wadi as those who had
I'J ler *)ad cow-pox nor small-pox. Chicken-pox was at
J time extremely prevalent, and the phenomena of
, two diseases were found to be frequently and generally
■'I i changed. Dr. Hodenpyl of Rotterdam, Dr. fhomson
|| ‘ i:'burgh, and MM. Berard and De Lavit of Montpel-
1 "no all described this epidemic, agreed in regard¬
ing small-pox and chicken-pox as the same disease, which Vaccina-
could be shown to originate from the same source. But tion-
the most important fact, and the one most interesting to' v'""1*’
humanity, was the ascertaining the comparative mortality
of small-pox, when it attacked these three classes :—1st, the
vaccinated; 2d, the variolated, i.e. those who had small-pox;
and, 3d, those who had neither been vaccinated nor had
small-pox. The conclusions at which these different writers
arrived were nearly the same. Of those who had neither
had cow-pox nor small-pox, 1 out of every 4 who were
seized with the disease died ; of those who had small-pox
naturally, or by inoculation, 1 out of every 25 to 1 in 75
died; while of those who had been vaccinated, and were
afterwards seized with small-pox, not more than 1 in 330
cases died : thus showing the great superiority of vac¬
cination even to the small-pox itself, in protecting the
system from the fatal effects of a second attack. Nor is it
difficult to understand how this should happen. Small-pox
is a disease not only very fatal, as proved by its cutting offa
fourth of all whom it attacks, but it disfigures or renders
infirm from an eighth to a tenth of those who recover. Its
action is besides found to develope any latent disease, but
particularly any scrofulous tendency which may exist in
the constitution, and is thus indirectly the cause of death to
a much larger portion of the human race than what at first
sight appears. It is not therefore to be wondered at, that
small-pox, attacking for the second time a constitution thus
enfeebled, should cause a much greater proportion of deaths
than takes place when it occurs after vaccination; for no fact
is more firmly established than this, that vaccination neither
developes any latent malady, nor engenders a predisposition
to any particular disease.
The fact above mentioned, of the comparative mortality
of the three classes, viz. the vaccinated, the variolated, and the
non-vaccinated,has been, since 1818, repeatedly demonstrat¬
ed. One of the most accurate and interesting details,and one
which ought to set the point for ever at rest, is that given
by M.Bousquet in his Traile de la Vaccme, as having occur¬
red at Marseille during the epidemic small-pox of 1825. The
population of Marseille, amounting to 40,000, may be di¬
vided into three classes, of which the respective numbers
stand thus: 30,000 vaccinated; 8000 neither vaccinated nor
variolated; and 2000 variolated, that is, who had the small¬
pox either naturally or by inoculation. Of the 30,000
vaccinated, about 2000 were seized with the prevalent small¬
pox epidemic, of which number twenty died, or one for
every hundred affected. Of the 2000 variolated, twenty
were attacked, and four died, or one in every five cases. Of
the 8000 non-vaccinated, 4000 were affected, and of this
number 1000 died, or one out of every four cases. From
this it follows, that one-half of the non-vaccinated, 1-15th
of the vaccinated, and only l-100th of the variolated, took
the disease. But such was the difference in the compara¬
tive severity of the attack in the vaccinated and variolated,
that while the variolated part of the population were cut
off in the proportion of one out of every 500, the vacci¬
nated part of the population only lost one out of every
1500; or, in other words, of an equal number of variolated
and vaccinated cases, three variolated died from the second
attack, for every one w ho died of the disease after vaccina¬
tion.
Many similar instances might be quoted; all of them
demonstrating the very great security to the individual, and
the saving of life to the community, afforded by the intro¬
duction of vaccination. This is a subject, indeed, which
has engaged the attention of political economists; and as it
lias been calculated that in Britain alone, before the intro¬
duction of vaccination, no few'er than 35,000 were annually
cut off by small-pox, while in France the deaths from that
cause amounted to 85,685, and proportionally large numbers
occurred in other parts of Europe and America, the saving
536
VAC
V
A
C
Vaccina- of life effected by this invaluable discover'1 must be im- disease. He however failed to communicate small-po \
don. mense. to the cow after the manner found successful by Dr. So ml
.rfP-V-w xi,0Ugh the benefits of vaccination were thus clearly land. Mr. Ceely inoculated heifers with the matter of small'^
proved, the public confidence in it has been attempted to pox, and found it to produce genuine vaccine vesicles!
be shaken by raising the outcry, that the vaccine virus, if which ran their course like the natural or inoculated cow’
it really possesses anti-variolous powers,loses them as life ad- pox, and furnished limpid lymph for vaccination. The
vances; so that, at the end of a few years, those vaccinated lymph was employed in vaccinating many children, and dif.
individuals are as liable to the attack'of small-pox as if they fered in no respects from that obtained from the natural
had never been affected by the disease. It is fortunate- cow-pox vesicle of the cow. It ran the same course when
ly an easy matter to trace such an opinion to its true sources; introduced by punctures on the arm; did not give rise to
namely, to a disbelief in the fact, that small-pox can occur any eruption on the skin, any more than primary vaccine
twice in the same individual; and to a disbelief in the iden- lymph; and afforded equal protection against small-pox, as
tity of small-pox and cow-pox. Those holding such opi- found by exposing the children to the small-pox effluvium
nions as these, see every thing through the mist of prejudice, and also by inoculating them with small-pox virus; in fact, it
and represent every instance of the occurrence of small-pox did not in any respect differ from ordinary vaccine lymph, as
after vaccination as an additional proof of the correctness of obtained from the natural vaccine vesicle,
their theory ; shutting their eyes to the facts daily happen- Nothing could be more satisfactory than the result of
ing around them, that a second attack of small-pox is not such an experiment. For here it is proved, beyond the
only by no means a very rare occurrence, but that it is a possibility of a doubt, that small-pox and cow-pox are
much more dangerous and fatal disease than small-pox af- but varieties of the same disease. It is therefore no longer
ter vaccination, cutting off at least three times as many vie- to be regarded as an anomaly, that cow-pox should protect
tims. the system from an attack of small-pox, but it is in beau-
As the first of these objections ha?, it is conceived, been tiful accordance with what has been generally admitted tn
satisfactorily shown to rest on no solid grounds, we are next be a law in nature, that certain diseases, once undergone,
to examine whether the second stands on any better founda- protect the system from a subsequent attack,
tion. The chief objection to vaccination having been, it is
Every writer who has opposed vaccination, whatever may hoped, answered satisfactorily, it only remains to show, that
havebeen hisothergroundsofobjection,haseonstantlysetout the protective powers of vaccination do not wear out of the
with the proposition, that there are certain diseases which oc- system as life advances, any more than those of small-pox
cur but once in the course of life, and which effect some un- itself. This is a most important inquiry; as nothing is
known change on the constitution, rendering it unsusceptible more likely to prove hurtful to the cause of vaccination, and
of a second attack of the same disease. As they regard small- render the public careless of securing to themselves its
pox and cow-pox as two distinct diseases, they cannot ima- benefits, than the belief, that they would require to submit
gine how the one disease should guard the human frame from to revaccination every ten or fifteen years, and that at no
the ravages of the other; and one of the latest writers on the period of their lives they could with certainty reckon on
subject of vaccination, Dr. G. Gregory of the Small-Pox escaping the small-pox.
Hospital, London, actually declares, that “ vaccination is Starting from the point which has been proved, that
not small-pox, but just the reverse—the antagonist prin- the cow-pox and the small-pox are the same disease, all
ciple.” In order to answer such an objection, all that is re- analogy shows that the system having once passed througli
quisite is, to show that small-pox and cow-pox are really this disease, is not in general susceptible of a second
identical, the latter only modified by having passed through attack. More than forty years have now elapsed since
the system of the cow, as originally advanced by Dr. Jen- vaccination was introduced; and if, as the opponents of
ner, the father of vaccination. vaccination assert, its anti-variolous powers wore outoftbe
It was announced so early as 1802, by Professor Viborg system in a few years, why does it happen that small-pox
of Copenhagen, that, at Berlin, small-pox was communi- is not now as deadly a scourge among the grown popuia-
cated to the cow by inoculation; but the details of these tion, as it was before the introduction of vaccination.-' It
experiments do not appear to have reached this country, has pot been for want of epidemics of small-pox that the
and all attempts to repeat them here have failed. It was grown population has escaped for so many years. At Mar-
not till 1830, that any detailed account of successful expe- seille, after a lapse of twenty-five years, it was found that
riments of this kind were published, when Dr. Sonderland of the protective powers were not in the least diminished.
Barmen announced that he could produce the true vaccine Of the 30,000 who had undergone vaccination in that city,
disease in the cow at pleasure, by covering the animal with only twenty fell victims to the small-pox, or one out of every
the blankets from the bed of a patient who had died of small- 1500 individuals: while of the 8000 who had not been
pox, and by hanging them up around it, that it might breathe vaccinated, no fewer than 1000 died, or one out of every eight
the effluvia arising from them. In a few days, he says, the persons. Here was no falling off of the protective power ol vac-
animal became sick, and pustules appeared on the udder cination after twenty-five years. Nay, the security affords
and other parts, precisely similar to the cow-pox vesicles, by vaccination was even greater than that of small-pox itse i
and filled, like them, with lymph. This lymph, transferred for out of a population of 2000 who had had small-pox, no
to the human subject, he found to produce the genuine fewer than four died, or one out of every 500 indiviuuas,
vaccine vesicle, together with the usual constitutional dis- exactly three times as many as those who had been protect
turbance, and to protect the individual from the small-pox ed by vaccination. But this is only one ot many =irour
virus or contagion. In fact, such a change was effected on instances which might be produced,
the small-pox matter, during its transit through the system It having been found, that from a sixth to a third of t ose
of the cow, that it was converted from a virulent and fatal who havebeen vaccinated are capable of receiving vacciiiat1(),|
into a mild and safe disease. a second time, after the lapse of a greater or lesser mini ^
Ihe announcement of this curious experiment incited of months or years, the opponents of vaccination a
others to repeat it, though without success; and it was not duce this as an additional argument to prove that >tsa^
till 1839 that Mr. Robert Ceely, surgeon to the Bucking- variolous pow ers wear out of the system. But sucja ^
hamshire Infirmary, succeeded in proving the identity of tions will not bear a moment’s serious reflection. A o"‘^r
the two diseases, by communicating small-pox by inocula- for the sake of argument, that all those who com l-
tion to the cow, and finding it produce the true cow -pox vaccinated successfully, would be equally liable to an a
m.
v
VAC
small-pox, if exposed to its influence, (which they are
w tt, as it has been clearly proved by experiment that indi¬
duals may be successfully revaccinated, and yet be un-
giceptible of the poison of small-pox,) what would be the
r ult ? Their chances of recovery would be as 100 to one,
tit of dying as one to 100. Or, in other words, if 100
v re attacked with small-pox after vaccination, only one
vuld die; whereas, if 100 who had formerly had small-
I < were again attacked, no fewer than twenty would die.
Iiw this is stating the facts in their most favourable light
1 the opponents of vaccination, as, according to what has
(purred in several of the variolous epidemics, only one of
t! vaccinated has died out of 330 individuals attacked; but
ther of the statements is quite sufficient to prove the im-
r nse superiority of vaccination to inoculation, and also the
f t, that the security afforded does not decrease with the
a /ance of life.
The Royal Academy of Medicine of France, after the
f est inquiry into this subject, have arrived at the conclu-
sjn, that vaccination gives, in general, perfect protection
iiti a subsequent attack of small-pox,—a protection fully
a perfect as if the individual had gone through the small-
p: itself; and when the government applied to them in
H9, to ask their advice as to whether the students at the
d Lrent public schools and colleges ought to be revacci-
r ed before leaving them, they returned for answer that
tl y ought not, as having been once vaccinated gave pro-
t' don from small-pox for the remainder of life.
t is extremely satisfactory to learn that all extend-
e inquiries have led to the same result, that vaccination
ges full protection from small-pox for life. Too little
a mtion has, in this country, been paid to the statistics of
(1 'ase, and also to vaccination, to give anything like accu-
r; results as to the effects of vaccination in diminishing
t mortality from small-pox ; but in several countries of
t continent of Europe, the same remissness has not been
si wn, and there the advantages of the general introduction
o accination is demonstrated. One instance may suffice
j/1 ™[10n* In Sweden, in the year 1779, no fewer
1 15,000 persons were cut off by small-pox; and in 1800,
year before the introduction of vaccination, 12,000 fell
vi ims to the same disease. Great exertions were now
nue to introduce and carry into effect the beneficial prac-
i o vaccination, when the mortality from small -pox yearly
unished, till it fell so low as eleven in the year 1822, and
t ty-seven m the year 1823. Since then, “ for a period
• ‘S1 years’ not/ single case of small-pox has occurred
edoimmons of his Swedish majesty: the whole inhabi-
u s had been vaccinated.”
^thc anti-variolous powers of vaccination failed after a
l hn nUrr,lbfr,0yearS’ Say ten or fifteen> intend of having,
Dc State,d’ a,n, .annually decreasing number of small-
hjS^-h°U«haVe Sefn them0ccurrinS in agradually
tl)f. iat!0- Iiut as the practice has now stood the
ef -tuflllv 10 ? Sfneration, and has been found to be as
W nnir J Protectlvethe end of that long period as at the
yy nning, we mav r , •
V A I
537
Lat. 47. 47. Vacuum
F, may ^[elyacquiesce in the conclusion of the
lo'tatitv ^edidne; The truth is’ tha‘ ^e ratio
th. that If i sma -Pox> aPter vaccination, is greatly less
sugrt. i ln0St any disease to which the human frame is
arefullv ntt vaccinatlon as generally practised, and
Syden tlf ' 6 ded f0’ in and other countries, as in
thi the sm!l|angUin-hi°pe0f Jfnner might yet be fulfilled,
AC8 a "pox-m'ght be quite extinguished, (c. m.)
th Lrovinnp^/.i0 jle ^ustr*an kingdom of Hungary, in
°* iesame Fpper Danube, the capital of a circle
st-ds on thpame’ b^t <;alled by the Germans Waizen. It
^ofabi.hnnnrDanube’°nafruM P^in. It is the
tH monastprie’ laS a.cathedral and several other churches,
*ckemv r, S> a eehege, an orphan house, and a military
ou xxi contains 800 houses, with 5430 inhabitants,
who trade largely in corn, cattle, and wine.
Long. 19. 2. 35. E.
VACUUM, in Philosophy, denotes a space void of all VailLnt.
matter or body. It has been disputed whether there be in —v—
nature a perfect vacuum ; but if bodies consist of material
solid atoms, it is evident that there must be vacuities or
motion would be impossible. We can even produce some-
"ear a vacuum in the receiver of an air-pump,
and in the Toricelhan tube. ^
\ AGABOND, or Vagrant, one who wanders illegally,
by^the^aws611 habltatl0n- Such persons are cognizable
VAILLANT, Jean Foy, to whom, according to Vol-
taire, France was indebted for the science of medals, and
Louis XIV. for one half of his cabinet, was born at Beau-
vms on the 24th of May 1632. At the age of three, he
ost his father and the charge of his education was under¬
taken by one of his maternal uncles. This uncle, who be¬
longed to the magistracy, and who had destined him for his
successor, died after bequeathing him his name and a part
of his fortune; and being thus left to follow his own incli¬
nation, he relinquished the study of law for that of physic
and took a doctor’s degree. He engaged in practice at
Beauvais, but was accidentally drawn into a new depart¬
ment of study, which he prosecuted with great ardour du-
rmg the remainder of his life. A farmer of that vicinity
had found a great quantity of ancient coins, and Vaillant at
first inspected them in a cursory manner ; but perceiving
that they bore a reference to events either forgotten or in¬
accurately detailed by historians, he was induced to resume
their examination with deep attention, and he succeeded
in explaining them with a facility which is generally the
result of long experience. Having afterwards made a visit
to 1 aris, he became known to Seguin, eminent for his nu¬
mismatic skill, and astonished him by the extent of his
knowledge. He was introduced to other men of learning •
and the minister Colbert proposed to employ him in travel-
hng to collect medals for the royal cabinet. He accepted
of the offer, and after travelling into Italy, Greece, Egypt,
and Persia, he returned with so many medals as made the
king s cabinet superior to any in Europe. In one of his
voyages, in 1674, the ship was taken by an Algerine cor¬
sair. After a captivity of nearly five months, he was per¬
mitted to return to France, and received at the same time
twenty gold medals which had been taken from him He
embarked in a vessel bound for Marseille, and was carried
with a favourable wind for two days, when another corsair
appeared, which, in spite of all the sail they could make,
bore down upon them within the reach of cannon shot.
Vaillant, dreading the miseries of a fresh slavery, resolved
at all events to secure the medals which he had recovered at
Algiers, and therefore swallowed them. But a sudden change
of the wind freed them from this adversary, and cast them
upon the coast of Catalonia; and after expecting to run
aground every moment, they at length fell among the sands
at the mouth of the Rhone. He reached the shore in a
skiff, but felt himself extremely incommoded with the me¬
dals he had swallowed, which might weigh altogether five
or six ounces, and therefore did not pass like Scarborough
waters. He had recourse to a couple of physicians, who
were a little puzzled with the singularity of his case ; how¬
ever, nature relieved him from time to time, and he found
himsel f in possession of the greatest part of his treasure when
he arrived at Lyon. Among his collection was an Otho,
valuable for its rarity. He was much caressed on his re¬
turn ; and when Louis XIV. gave a new form to the Aca¬
demy of Inscriptions in 1701, Vaillant was first made asso¬
ciate, and then pensionary. In the course of his researches,
he had twelve times visited Italy, and twice England and
Holland, He was successively married to two sisters; hav¬
ing obtained a dispensation from the pope, upon condition
3 y
1
538
V A L
V A L
Vair
II.
Valaise.
of working for some time as a common labourer at St. Pe¬
ter’s church in Rome. He died on the 23d of October
1706, in the seventy-fifth year of his age.
Vaillant possessed great knowledge and skill as an an¬
tiquary, and published various works, of which the follow¬
ing are the most important. Numismata Imperatorum Ro-
manorum praistantiora, a Julio Caesare ad Posthumum et
Tyrannos. Paris. 1674, 4to. Paris. 1694, 2 tom. 4to.
Romae, 1743, 3 tom. 4to. This last edition contains addi¬
tions and improvements by Baldini; and a supplement was
published under the title of Jos. Khell ad Numismata Im¬
peratorum Romanorum a Vaillantio edita Supplementum.
Viennse, 1757, 4to. Seleucidarum Imperium : sive, His-
toria Regum Syriae, ad fidem Numismatum accommodata.
Paris. 1681, 4to. Hag. Com. 1732, fol. Numismata JErea
Imperatorum, Augustorum, et Caesarum, in Coloniis, Muni-
cipiis, et Urbibus jure Latino donatis, ex omni modulo per-
cussa. Paris. 1688, fol. Numismata Imperatorum, Au¬
gustorum, et Caesarum, a Populis Romanae ditionis Graece
loquentibus ex omni modulo percussa. Paris. 1695, 4to.
Amst. 1700, fol. Historia Ptolemaeorum Algypti Regum,
ad fidem Numismatum accommodata. Amst. 1701, fol.
Nummi Antiqui Familiarum Romanarum, perpetuis inter-
pretationibus illustrati. Amst. 1703, 2 part. fol. Arsaci-
darum Imperium : sive, Regum Parthorum Historia, ad
fidem Numismatum accommodata. Achaemenidarum Im¬
perium: sive, Regum Ponti, Bosphori, et Bithynice Historia,
ad fidem Numismatum accommodata. Paris. 1725, 2 tom.
4to. This posthumous wrork was published by Charles de
Valois, of the Academie des Inscriptions.
VAIR, or Vaire, a kind of fur, formerly used for lin¬
ing the garments of great men. It is represented in en¬
graving by the figures of little bells reversed, ranged in a
line.
VAIRY, in Heraldry, expresses a coat, or the bearings
of a coat, when charged or chequered with vairs.
VALAISE, or Waeeis, a canton of Switzerland, in the
south-western part, a district comprehending a large portion
of the Alps and the land between them and Italy. It ex¬
tends in north latitude from 45° 55' to 46° 30', and in east
longitude from 6° 35' to 8° 9', containing 1254 square geo¬
graphical miles. It is bounded on the north-west by the
Lake of Geneva and the canton of Vaud, on the north by
Berne, on the north-east by Uri and Tecino, on the east,
south-east, and south-west by the states of the king of Sar¬
dinia.
This canton is on every side surrounded by lofty moun¬
tains, so close to each other that the passes between them
are few and very narrow. These ranges on the boundaries
present some of the loftiest pinnacles of the Alps, such as
Monte Rosa 14,580 feet in height, the Matterhorn orCervin
13,380 feet, St. Bernard’s 10,380 feet, the Grimsel 8580 feet,
the Col de Baume 7080 feet, and the Simplon 6174 feet.
The most practicable passes through these ranges, which,
however, are often dangerous in winter, though kept open
at a vast expense, are that by the Gemmi, the Grimsel, the
Furca, and the Antonierberg, to the interior of Switzer¬
land; that by the St. Bernard and the Simplon into Italy;
and that by St. Maurice into the canton of Vaud. In the
interior there are lower ranges of Alps, generally running
from north to south, and thus dividing the whole surface
into small vales. These vales differ much in their character;
some of them are stoney and marshy, and others sterile, but
others of them have valuable meadows, and land, which, when
cultivated, yields profitable crops.
The climate is excessively variable. The lofty Alps
protect the canton from the north wind, but the raw east
wind brings frost and snow. The west wind brings heat,
and the sudden changes are prejudicial to health. To these
sudden and violent changes are attributed the fevers which
are so prevalent; and in part is attributed to them, though
in part to the Tuffa water, the great number of cretins that Va]1
are to be found in the canton. y.^
The chief products of the country are cattle, and thev*
butter and cheese which they yield. Much of the cheese is
made from the milk of goats, which are much more numerous
than sheep. Horses are but rarely seen except on the
great road ; but many mules are used for riding as well as
for purposes of husbandry. The corn grown is principally
barley and oats. In some of the southern valleys wine is
made to a considerable extent. The growth of various
fruits gives much occupation to the inhabitants. In many
districts chesnuts are used as a substitute for bread. There
is abundance of wood in the forests, but it is chiefly
used at home for fuel or building. There are no manu¬
factures except those of the domestic kind, which each
family must manage for itself as well as it can.
The only export articles are wine, cattle, cheese, hides,
wool, and dried fruits, which are sold to purchase salt, corn,
iron, colonial goods, and clothing for the very few who can
afford better dresses than their neighbours. In fact the com¬
monest gratifications which in other countries have become
almost necessaries, must be dispensed with, as the mass of
the people are too poor to purchase any thing, and there¬
fore must rest satisfied with what their own hands, with
native materials, can provide.
The population of the canton in 1838 amounted to 75,798
persons, of whom 25,000 were of German origin, 46,000
of French, and 4750 of Italian, all speaking corrupt dialects
of the several races from which they are derived. They
are of the Catholic church, and no other public worship is
permitted to be exercised. The ecclesiastical divisions
are forty-eight parishes, and there are eight monasteries or
nunneries. The bishop of Sitten, or Sion, is the head of
the church under the pope.
The constitution is a pure democracy. Each male that
has completed his eighteenth year has a vote; when he has
completed his twrenty-first may be chosen a representative,
and after his twenty-fifth may become one of the executive
council. The legislature assembles twice in the year, but
a committee of it is permanent, and assists the landamman
or governor. All the public officers are appointed for two ;
years. Every man is enrolled in the militia. The canton
is bound to furnish a contingent of 1280 men to the gene-
ral confederation, and to pay a contribution to the same of
9600 francs. The whole revenue is 133,100 francs, and the
annual expenditure 114,820 francs. The capital is Sitten,
a small city, with 2500 inhabitants, on the Simplon road.
VALANGIN, a market town, the capital of a county oi
the same name in the canton of Neufchatel, in Switzerland. ^
It stands on a narrow pass between mountains, on the river
Seyon. It is the seat of a court of justice over a large dis¬
trict, with three towns in it, and it contains 5640 inhabitants.
Near to it is a very large cotton manufactory. Lat. 47.0.4 •
Long. 6. 48. E. .
VALCKENAER, Lewis Caspar, one of the ablest
scholars of the eighteenth century, was born at Leeuwaujn
in Friesland, in the year 1715. Fie prosecuted his aca e-
mical studies at Franeker and Leyden, and at an early age
distinguished himself by his uncommon skill in ancien 1
terature. The first appointment which bis learning pr^
cured him was that of conrector of the gymnasium 0
pen; and in 1741, after he had recommended himse y
some very erudite publications, he succeeded Hemster 1
sius in the Greek chair at Franeker. W ith this, in ’
was united the professorship of Greek antiquities, n
he was called to the university of Leyden ; where, w> 1 ,
chair of the Greek language and Gpeek antiquities, e
held that of. the history of his native country, m ^ .n
nourable station he continued for nearly twenty yea ’ ^
the enjoyment of a very high and well-earned r^Pu ^
He formed many excellent scholars, and eminent y
y a l
V A L
539
me
bu.d to maintain the credit which the university had ac- phine and Provenrp a . ,
qu-d as the first seminary of Greek literature. He died vinces were linfW n ° Pieclmont’ wIien these pro- Valdenses.
L 15th ofMarch 1785, in the seventieth year ofhisage 1 ^ ^ a‘ " ^
alckenaer possessed a masterly acquaintance with the thrfe valleys ofPerosa San Min]™ n°7TC()nflned to the
tn; e compass of the Greek language and literature. He Italian sidfof^ °n1 the
va'an acute and sagacious critic, and he displayed no of Sardinia. ’ the dominions of the kmg
In these beautiful valleys, extending up the slopes of
mount Viso and mount Genevre, and lying between the
rivers Pehce and Clusone, which come to a point of junc¬
tion a httle before they fall into the Po, the remnant of the
Valdenses still have their existence as an established church
of regular organization. They have endowments of land,
Cria eistigavit e Mali., 'atque "adnotilon'ibua'tasTraxU | theyt^e 1 liturgy of Zlr'owT t0 tlMmsel'“;
schiia, partim nunc priinum evulgata, subjecit. Fran. 1755 the laws nftVm f + i- n ’ duy are recognised by
4to Euripidis Hippolytus, &c. " Accedit Diatribe in Eu fd bvTreaties * they belong, and protect-
rip s perdiforum Dramatum Reliquias. Lu°-d. Bat. 1768 Eurone It lias not t^aC h Wltl t !? Protestant powers of
4ta The Diatribe, which is very able and daboraie was time^r lit i been accurately determined at what
pnhshed separately in 1767. Theocriti, Bionis,et Moschi under which thev have been k 6 appe atl(?n Valdenses,
Caiiiina Bucolica, Gnece et Latine. Emendavit variisoue Zl wW L ^ m kn°Wn since the 12tb century,
lectnibus instruxit. Lugd. Bat. 1779, 8vo. He had pub- has been ’erroteoif ortIJ°SraPhy»
lishil ten idvlsof Theocritus in 177^ T; 1 erroneously tliought to identify their derivation
111V, talents as a Latin orator. We subjoin a hst of his
pri ;ipal works. De Ritibus in Jurando a veteribus He-
braii maxime ac Graecis observatis. Franequerae, 1735,
4tc: Specimina Academica. Fran. 1737, 4to. Ammo-
rhii de adfinium Vocabulorum Differentia. Accedunt
Opfecula nondum edita, &c. Lugd. Bat. 1739, 4to. Eu-
rip is Phcenissa;. Interpretationem addidit H. Grotii
lislilten idyls of Theocritus in 1773. Ti. Hemsterhusii
On ones, quarum prima est de Paulo Apostolo. L. C.
A akenari tres Orationes,quibus subjectum est Schediasma,
Speunen exhibens Adnotationum Criticarum in Loca quae-
daniLibroi urn Sacrorum ovi Foederis. Praefiguntur duae
Onjones Joannis Chrysostomi in Laudem Pauli Apostoli,
curveted versione Latina Aniani, ex. cod. MS. hie illic
emi data. Lugd. Bat. 1784, 8vo. Schedius was the edi¬
tor his Observationes Academicae, quibus via munitur ad
Onines Graecas investigandas, Lexicorumque Defectus
resamendos. Traj. ad Rhen. 1790, 8vo. These observa-
tionare accompanied with the prelections of Van Lennep
e lnalogia Linguae Graecae. The following posthumous
with that of the disciples of Valdo, the Lyonese reformer,
brom the circumstances of the times, and, from the fact,
that the fugitives from Lyon took refuge 1 with them as
with a people of similar religious tenets, they come into
historical notoriety under the name of Vaudois and Wal-
denses contemporaneously with Valdo ; but traces of them,
as a body of subalpine Christians, protesting against the
errors of Rome, are found in ecclesiastical records of a much
earlier date.
That the Cottian Alps have been inhabited by a rela- The tradi-
tively pure association of Christians from time immemorial tioiial
who have testified for the truth, upon the same articles of the
of faith, as the Protestant churches of modern times, is a Valdensea-
wowof Valckenaer was puW shed bv his snn fn W T 7 , ’ aS 1116 ™estant churches of modern times, is a
±hi ferr. 4^- cL Eje^a SS:
“• Lugd. Bat. 1799, 8vo. J. A. H. Tittmann pub-
f,1 Davidis Ruhnkenii, L. C. Valckenarii, et aliorum, ad
Joli lug. Ernesti Epistolas. Accedunt D. Ruhnkenii Ob-
sen lones in Callimachum, et L. C. Valckenarii Adnota-
tion ad Thomam Magistrum. Lipsiae, 1802, 2 tom. 8vo.
%be de Anstobulo Judaeo, Philosopho Peripatetico
Aleindrino. Lugd. Bat. 1806, 4to. Opuscula Philolo-
» c^ntica, et Qratona, nunc primum conjunctim edita.
M>i.e, 1809, 2 tom. 8vo.
I ■ son John Valckenaer, successively professor of law
an ’J11' er> Utrecht, and Leyden, was likewise known as
. * . _     —icuivna
maintain that they are descended from a race, who peopled
the same villages, and professed the same gospel, in the
first centuries of the Christian era. “ We have inherited
our religion,” say they, “ with our lands, from the primitive
Christians.” This is no modern pretension, put forth since
the Reformation ; for the same language, as to their anti¬
quity, was held by their ancestors, not only after the time
of Valdo, but in the age before that reformer, to whom
their origin is sometimes imputed.
The author of the “ Nobla Leyczon,”2 a.d. 1100;
uirecnt, amt Leyden, was likewise known as Moneta,5 who wrote against the alleged heresies of hi« rLv’
Fd in opposition to the house of Orange ; and he acted
ac Tjcuous part in the public affairs of the eventful era
i lath h * /e ()n8ed- Lie became a member of the legis-
, gp.... 0 y 0 the new republic; and the Batavian directory
Li i"1/" a dlplomat|c mission to Spain. When Bona-
doai f u iiVU fed ,US intention of incorporating the king-
S bed ""p Wlth t,le French Valckenaer was
mea rt». ij: F^r‘S in order to remonstrate against such a
was completed in 1250; all bear witness that the religion¬
ists mentioned by them, under the appellations of Vaudes
and Lombardi Pauperes, and whom we are led to identify
with the Valdenses, professed, in those times, to trace their
religious genealogyand characteristics to the primitive acres.
The inquirer, who would make himself master of Ithe Tenets of
religious character of the Valdensian church, must takethe Val’
care not to be led out of his way in search of it. He mustdenses'
His plnn,.o ~ , a»amsi sucn a care not to De led oar ot Ins way in search of it. He must
!lis 1 urn, relinauishimr l|VaS ll0'v'ever ineffectual; and, on confine his attention to one particular locality, that is, the
M imself to a delicrhtf 1 COnnect,onwith politics, he be- subalpine territory lying between Mount Genevre and Mount
lom x , 1 oiig.htful retreat in the vicinir.v of Haar- Visr>_ hocm iko      , ,
lem, here7 d- , Ugn ,tUl retreat m the vicinity of Haar-
i of si, y-two °n t ie lptp of January 1820, at the age
V-u Valdenses, Vallenses, Value six,
VAVpsn-v VALLENSES, V ALX
Pot!’n 4Ins A n0]018’ a conimunity of Christians ii
84 a rritiVi kn10wn under these names, whether
rntonal or ecclesiastical distinction
continuous and extensive
in the
used
They formerly
mountain tract of
com v Kntu • r anu extensive mountain tract of The secoi
—-— ranee and Italy, in the provinces of Dau- Reformation
Viso. It has been the mistake of many writers and readers
to ask among the heretics of all times and places for the
creed of the Valdenses. But, if we would do them justice,
and ascertain the articles of faith really maintained by
them, we should look to three periods of time for this infor¬
mation.
The first is the present period.
The second is a point of time immediately before the
! r MS. volume in6^8!if serenJes;“StePhen de Borbone, apud Eckhart. Scrip. Ord. Prred. vol. i. p. 192.
- mot.. -  ^ library of Geneva, and Choiv des Popsihs dps TYnnhadnnrc r.oi. :: .
in thp 111 e i' —opuu oenp. Liia. Lnea. vol. i. p. lyz.
\ :neta contra Cathams piT/if tjene.Va' a,ld Choix des Poesies des Troubadours, par Raynouard, vol. ii. pp. 73—102.
1 Ultras de Sp.c a • £t ' MdensesJ hb. v. p. 405. edit. Ricchini. Rom®, 1743.
oectis Antiquorum Haereticorum, c. 4. Bib. Patr. vol. iv.
niii
540
VALDENSES.
Valdenses.
The third is the aee immediatialy before that of Valdo. cient and modern writers than that of any other part oH
1 ne thvQ is i. e g , ^ •  : „ TtoK, • Qnrl Dili Pnzzo. a native writer, has derlaro,! 4 v
The authorities to bf con^lted for the religious opinions My ; and Dal Pozzo a nati.e writer, has declareS,< i» ..g
aiie rtuiuuunco o Icorncrl wnrlr. that, in no remon of Kurnnp *
History of
the Val>
denses.
o'f the Valdenses at these periods, are, 1. the public acts very learned work, that in no region of Europe has the
of synod, and the liturgy of the Valdensian church, as it truth of history been so concealed,
now exists; 2. the account given of the Valdenses by Another circumstance which has contributed to darken
Claude Sevssel, archbishop of Turin, after his visitation of Valdensian history, is the doubtful line of separation between
the diocese in 1517; and, 3. that admirable monument of kingdom and kingdom, diocese and diocese, during ihe
faitll hope, and charity, called the Nobla Leyczwi, al- middle ages, and the frequent transfers from one ,ml,„*
leeed to have been written in the year 1100. These re- to another. The bishops of Turm and Embnin sometime!
nresenl the Valdenses as rejecting image worship, the exercised jurisdiction almost mdiscrimmately on each side
invocation of saints, the necessity of auricular confession, of the Cottian Alps; and in many of the old documents,
the obligations to celibacy, papal supremacy and infallibility, when we read of the /'ii eys of 1 raissimere, ragcti, C n-
and the doctrine of purgatori; as professing to take scrip- sone, and others, it ,s difficult to unde stand to .hal lo,
tare for the only rule ?f faith; and believing in the holy calities or people they refer. Need it therefore occasion
Trinity! in original sin, in the atonement and mediation of surprise, if many links are found to be wanting, in thecham
Chris alone, in justification by faith, in the two sacraments of documentary evidence necessary to unite the presen, .,,1,
„f baptism and the Lord’s Supper, and in the apostolical the past, m the annals of an obscure district, belonging „
Irdin .ooe of hnlv orders a realm whose entirc h,st0,'>' 18 Wra|>t m raySlery ?
Tim misrepresentations of friends and enemies, and the In a few years, perhaps, it will be more easy to giro a
destruction of their documents in the course of number-
less persecutions, render it a hard task to disentangle
Valdensian history from the confusion under which it
lies. Notwithstanding all that has been written on the
subject, we still want evidence of a more convincing and
irresistible nature, as to their origin,1 * succession, and pro¬
gress. There are provoking uncertainties attending the
±11 <X 1CVV .....     j i*
satisfactory account of the Valdenses, because the present
king of Sardinia is permitting the ancient records of his
states to be examined and published; and an historical
commission at Turin, has already sent many important do¬
cuments to press, which throw light on subalpine affairs.3 5 6
It is in vain to pretend to reduce the annals of the Val¬
densian church to any thing like connected history, till we
inquiry, .....   —- - -
ed, one bright truth gleams strongly out of the darkness,
even from the time when the Valdenses came first into
notoriety and conflict. The'little Christian flock has
been indestructible, in defiance of those who strove to
be its destroyers, and, like the flaming bush, it has burn¬
ed, but has not been consumed. Neither executions nor
arguments, neither violence nor calumnies, have prevailed
for its extinction. To what can this be attributed? Not
to the protection of situation only, not to accidental causes,
but, under the divine blessing, to the stronghold which the
sanctity of truth has upon the sympathies of men, in spite
of their angry passions. The Valdenses found favour with
their sovereigns, and obtained immunities, privileges, and
pledges of security from time to time, which could not
have been forced from the strong by the weak, and never
would have been conceded to fanatical or rebellious sub-
The very fact of their existence is an attestation to
Lhere are provoking uncenainues atLcimiug me ucuaian e.. ^ 3 0 • .
but amidst all the clouds in which it is involv- descend to the period when persecution brought it into notice
. , , ,  i . .i— u-.c-wsco -uta rr.axr fmp. nipk no a few materials relatmv to tnc
We may, it is true, pick up a few materials relating to the
country, and to the general aspect of religion, from the early
documents which have come down to us, but these are scanty
and unsatisfactory. For example, we learn that the Cottian
Alps received the gospel in the second century, and that
Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, made himself master of the Celtic
language, that he might minister among the mountaineers;
that facilities of intercourse between the subalpines and the
inhabitants of the plain, were secured by good roads lead¬
ing through the centre of the valleys now called Protestant,
in the direction of Mount Genevre, Oulx and Fenestre e
that the village of StSecondo, in the valley of the Clusone
is so called from a martyr of that name in the year U
that Crisolo, near Rora in Val Lucerna, was the Pace 0
St Geoffrey’s concealment, before his martyrdom in 297
and that, during the persecution of Diocletian, many Chris
tians of the Theban legion found refuge in these regions.
lects. Ihe very tact or tneir existence is an auiesiaLiun m Liana m ^.......... c a imkrnsp
the purity of their faith and conduct, and a refutation of We know that a hundred years afterwards, Ambrose o
those who reproached them with gross errors. He who has Mdan, whose diocese extended to the Alps, I ^
made darkness his secret place, has mysteriously preserved his mountain clergy refusing to become cel ba , ^
them ; and astonished the pride of Christian orthodoxy, by plea of ancient custom ;7 and that Vlgllantl is ,
making a fold for these few sheep in the wilderness, from Cottian Alps the place of his sojournment, ^
whence they might rebuke error, and bear witness to the posed himself to the errors of the church,
truth. J 8 he was received with kindness by professors ot uin
The history of Piedmont, and of all the states subject to anity, who refused to adopt the observances of
the house of Savoy, whether in the Cottian Alps, or else- prayers for the dead, saint and relic worship, a ^
where, has hitherto been a sealed book, in consequence of superstitions, which were creeping into prac i
where, has hitherto been a sealed book, in consequence ot superstitions, wmen were c.eeping l—r,
the reluctance of the dukes of Savoy and kings of Sardinia, after an interval of more than 400 years, wennu, .
.  r :itrinps. r-nllpd hv .Tonas of Orleans and Eiungi !
the reluctance ot the dukes ot oavoy ana Kings oi oaruinia, aitei du nncivai .... j nlino'alus.
to permit the family and state documents to be brought to trines, called by Jonas of Orleans and g , ^
light. Muratori confessed that he despaired of illustrating heresy of Vigilantius, were still chensle
the history of Piedmont.8 * 10 Giannone relinquished in disgust Claude, bishop of I urin, “ that bright an £
his intended history of the country, because the archives of the chain of Cisalpine Protestantism, gave ^ r(
Turin were not more freely opened to him. Hallams says his episcopal authority to opinions, vv uc l,. jeroi
that the history of Piedmont is far less elucidated by an- former of the fourth century had been revi (—
softhefif'
1 On the origin of the Valdenses, some curious materials for conjecture will be found in the history of the Goth*^ 9*\riStia!1)]ree buniin
century, and their relics in France and Italy. Salvianus de Gub. Dei, 1. 7, Alcuin in his Epistles, and Theodo p u ,
century, and their relics in trance ana Italy, ftalvianus ae cuin. i^ei, i. /, aicuiu hi u»» , r. y.serVanres.
years later, speak of the purity of their lives, while they allude to the imperfections of their notions in relation t0 c‘iurc , j 376.
   ^      ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ IIS U1 UJCII iiutiuna ill    .
Muratori Rer. Ital. Scrip, vol. xi. praefat. ad Chron. Ast. 3 Hallam’s Europe in the Middle Ages, vo
4 Essai sur les Anciennes Assemblees Nationales de la Savoye et du Piemont, pp. xx. xxi. , . ipyj-jn in IB!)
5 These publications appear in folio volumes, under the title “ Historic Patriae'Monumenta.” The ^rst was P”n..e ... • cap, 50.
6 See “ Storia delle Alpi Marittime,” published in Flist. Patr. Mon. ‘ De Omens,
8 Hieron. Opera, vol. iv. p. 279. Epist. 37, aliter 53. , _ called Do
9 Mr Faber (see his very learned Inquiry into the History of the Vallenses, p. 227) thinks the Valdenses may have
ists from this Vigilantius, the Leonist or native of Lugdunum Convenamm. _ 4 i na 153-1®^'
10 See Dungali Epist. adv. Claud, and Jonae Aur. Episc. Epist. adv. Claud, in Bib. Pat. vol. iv. p. 536. and vol. V. PF’
nronounding. Claude found two parties in his diocese, that much information relating to the “ Evangelical Valleys Valdenses.
VALDENSES.
541
ta^ne of which favoured his schemes of church reform ; and
\er his death (according to the authority of Dungalus)
, was caiied the sect of Claude. Thus it is certain that Vi-
lanthis, and after him Claude, left disciples in these parts,1 *
st where we are looking for them ; but we have no ground
r maintaining that the Valdenses were in a state of seces-
on from the provincial bishops of France or Italy, within
hose dioceses they were situated, at either of the periods
i which we have just referred, the fourth and the ninth
mturies. In those days, and for two or three hundred
ears after Claude, the truth might be held, and public tes-
monies for the truth might be given, and protests against
ie errors of Rome might be made, without the necessity
fseparation from the church called catholic: witness the
real Iconoclastic question which agitated Christendom in
ie ninth and tenth centuries. There is reason therefore
> believe that, until a much later period, congregations of
le Cottian Alps may have continued to maintain a purer
iith than that of Rome, without leading to any proceedings
i those parts, which could be called acts of schism on the
ne side, or of persecution on the other.
The accusing and remonstrating voice within the church,
nd not open secession from her, may have distinguished
he Valdensian from the Romanist, for a series of ages;
nd the political condition, as well as the natural position
f the territory, to which he belonged, may have proved
iis security. There was no occasion for him to separate,
o long as he was not compelled to do violence to his con-
cience ; so long as the civil rights enjoyed in Ostro-gothic
,nd feudal Italy protected him.^ In some parts of the south
if France, as well as in the Cottian Alps, opinions were
icld at variance with those of the great body of the church,
without bringing the dissidents into violent collision with
t. There the Gothic Christians, to whom Alcuin addressed
i epistle of expostulation,3 * 5 professed their disbelief in
he virtue of auricular confession and sacramental absolu-
ion, and remained unmolested ; and there the Christians
)f Narbonne, in 820, (if we interpret rightly the metrical4
lescription of Theodulphus, bishop of Orleans,) had an
jcclesiastical system of their own, which savoured of reli¬
gious principles very different from those held at Rome,
without being denounced as schismatics. Until the bishop
of Turin, acting upon the system introduced by Innocent
he Third, obtained the authority of the Emperor Otho in
1210, to persecute the Valdenses, we have no instance of
iny public act of oppression committed in the Piedmontese
valleys of the Alps against religious freedom. Up to that time
die strongholds of nature, and the protection of the Lombard
law,5 which, in its code of personal legislation, permitted every
man to choose the national law under which he would be
governed, gave the people in these Alpine fastnesses, pri¬
vileges of which even pontifical tyranny could not deprive
them, and offered a permanent settlement to the assertors
of primitive Christianity, who, while they protested against
superstitious novelties, communicated with the established
clergy, as Wesleyan Methodists now profess to do, and
vindicated their claim to be considered members of the
church of Christ. The mass of historical documents which
the commission at Turin has published since 1836,6 exhi¬
bits too many marks of suppression not to excite our fears
been brought to light, to satisfy us, that the political con¬
dition of the Cottian Alps, and of the people whom some
ecclesiastical writers are fond of deriding under the term
“brutae gentes Alpium,” (between the age of Claude and the
first public persecution of the Valdenses)was exactly such as
to secure religious objectors from molestation, and to justify
the language, which the Valdenses have invariably held in
all their petitions to their sovereigns, when their religious
liberties have been threatened—“ We have asserted our
right to enjoy liberty of conscience,” “ da ogni tempo,” “ da
tempo immemoriale,” from time immemorial. “ Is it not
extraordinary,” says the historian Leger, “ that it has
never once happened that any one of our princes or their
ministers should have offered the least contradiction to their
Valdensian subjects, who have again and again asserted in
their presence, ‘ We are descended from those who, from
father to son, have preserved entire the apostolical faith,
in the valleys which we now occupy. Permit us therefore
to have that free exercise of our religion, which we have
enjoyed from time out of mind, before the dukes of Savoy
became princes of Piemont ?’ ”
The supreme authority of the princes of the house of
Savoy was not fully established in Piedmont until the middle
of the thirteenth century, (before that time the emperors
of Germany exercised all the rights of suzerainte) and it
is a curious fact, that the house of Savoy arrived at abso¬
lute power by means of the public confidence which it
enjoyed, in consequence of its equitable government, and
faithful adherence, for many ages, to compacts made with
its subjects. These compacts were the origin and the pre¬
servatives of the religious liberties of the Valdenses. “ W e
are obliged to tolerate heresy in the valleys of our realm,”
was the confession of a duke of Savoy in 1602.7 It was a
matter of solemn stipulation, recorded in the ancient char¬
ters and documents now under publication at Turin, that
the inhabitants of certain townships, communes, and vil¬
lages, should remain in the undisturbed possession of their
accustomed rights and franchises; and some of the very
communes and hamlets which are now the dwelling places
of the Valdenses, are named among those entitled to such
privileges.
In allusion to these immunities of the Valdenses, bas¬
ed on Charter* Archbishop Seyssel made the following
bitter complaint: “ It has contributed not a little to the
toleration of their heresy, that it has never wanted persons
to protect and favour it, and among those especially who
ought to be the guardians of the Christian religion, inas¬
much as they rule and reign over provinces and kingdoms.”9
We have no well-authenticated record which will enable
us to say, when the feeble tie was broken, which still kept
the Valdenses in communion with the provincial bishops of
Turin and Embrun, while they protested against Romish
corruptions. Sclopis, a Piedmontese writer on jurisprudence,
of great celebrity, who has made it his business to search
into the history of the laws and customs of his country,
declares that he cannot assign any period to the first ap¬
pearance of schism in the subalpine valleys, nor can he
discover the origin of the name Valdenses.™
It is probable, however, that being excommunicated at
1 It is curious to observe, how, from Philastrius, who died in 387, down to Ratherius, who died in 974, Pe^’
Clugny, who wrote in 1127, to the Reformation, mountain districts are stated to have been the latibula, or places ot security, whe
nonconformity with the dominant church lurked. , _ .. , VmHnY soldiers hv Justinian
a These immunities were of a very ancient date. See the privileges granted to Go ne am Thenduluhi Paraenesis ad Judices
523, xii. Cod. de Hmr. 'a Alcuini Epistola 26, aliter 71, ad Gothos. . 4
5 See Guizot’s Lectures on European Civilization, lecture 3. In Germany as we a® 1,1 ^ / t- whom Evervinus complained to
tmn congregations, with more or less of othodoxy, who must have been connected with the sectarians of whom Evervinus complained
St Bernard in 1140. “ We and our fathers,” said they, “ are apostolical m our doctrine and hte.
» Historise Patri* Monumenta. 7 Raccolta deSl Edlttl delh DUChl d S > ’ P'
“ Especially those of 1448, 1466, 1473, 1499, and 1309 ; cited in Raccolta, p. 5. Piemonte u 487.
’ Cl. Seyssel adv.Val. fob 8. 10 See Sclopis, Stona del. Antic. Legis. del Piedmonte, p.
542
VALDENSES.
Valden?es. the beginning of the thirteenth century, after their recep-
~ "“^^tion of the followers of Valdo, they were then obliged for
the first time to constitute ministers of their own, out of the
clergy, whose orders were derived from the national churches
of France and Italy, and who espoused their cause. That
they had originally the form of an episcopal church, with
clergy of different orders, (although their discipline is now
Presbyterian, very much resembling that of the Church of
Scotland,)1 appears both in an ancient MS. which speaks
of regidors,"1 or leaders of the flock, as well as of priests;
and in the direct and plain evidence of Claude Seyssel in
1520, who speaks tauntingly of persons whom they called
their bishops and priests, and challenges them to show from
what lawful source of authority, from what church, and
from what province, they, who boasted of their apostolical
descent, derived their orders and succession.3
The fiercest declaimers against Valdensian schismatics
might find some extenuation for a people who were forced
into secession ; first, by the corruptions and spiritual neglect
of the clergy of the dominant church ; and, secondly, by
excommunication. Every ecclesiastical history makes men¬
tion of the utter depravity of most of the Romish clergy of
the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries; and
we gather from the first volume of the Piedmontese Histori¬
cal Documents, published in 1836, that at one time nearly
all the ecclesiastics of the Cottian Alps fled from before
the Saracen invaders, and never returned to their parishes ;
and at another time that there was a wreck of churches
{naufragatis ecclesiis,) and destitution of pastors through¬
out the whole diocese of Turin. Endowments for parochial
service were transferred to monasteries at a distance, and
villages were left without regular pastoral superintendence.
One charter states that a third of the whole mountain ter-
ntory between Mount Cenis and Mount Genevre was made
^ a ^istant convent. Another consigns no less than
halt of all the lands lying between Pignerol and Col Ses-
trieTrre® an abbey at Pignerol. A third despoils the whole
of Val Guichard of its rents, for the enrichment of a fra¬
ternity of monks in another part of the country, in the
plains on the banks of the Po. All this must have con¬
tributed to produce that state of spiritual destitution which
ultimately led to, and warranted separation; and when the
severance was once completed, the hierarchy of Rome
could never re-establish its authority over those valleys of
Piedmont which are now called Protestant. They were
so free from Romish intrusiveness at one period, that Vin-
centius Ferrerius, the Dominican, who preached to the Val-
denses in the year 1405,4 reported to the principal of his
order, that they had not heard the voice of a minister of
the church for thirty years before; and Claude Seyssel
declared a century afterwards, that so entirely had they
been abandoned by priests and bishops, no prelate but
nimself had dared to approach them within the memory of
tection of the people of their domains; so that ]|l
privileges which were favourable to religious libertv *
they were exercised by lay superiors, became dangerom» K
the vassals of estates, in process of time, when iL!','
marlp mrov frv IrF 1  ^GFC
Fhe transfer of property in the valleys, to monasteries
and convents, was the first step that led to persecution.
ri!l?iP0SfSeSS-°r of lands1 in signoralty carried with it certain
rights of junsd'ct,on, which enabled the monastic bodies to
exercise temporal as well as spiritual tyranny. They ac-
K elTr °f h0,ding l0Cal C0UrtS Por the adjudication
of all cnminal causes, co-extensive with that which had been
iginally conferred on the feudal proprietors for the pro-
made over to ecclesiastics. The commencement nfWfi
thirteenth century is the era from which we date th 6
horrible atrocities with which religion has been insult°!ie
and humanity outraged, to appease the offended maiest l
Rome. Innocent the Third, and Dominic, the father oflt
Inquisition (the seraphic spirit of Dante’s commendation^
divide the honour of having let loose fire and sword again,
those who presumed to question the dogmas of the Vatica
in two new forms, impiously called “ missions of peace anil
good will. The one w’as the crusade against the 41bl
genses, which swept multitudes from the face of the earth
in open warfare; and the other was the institution of a
secret tribunal, which had its informers and its executioners
every where, and, as an “act of faith,” condemned thousands
after the mockery of a trial, to expire in the flames, or to
linger out life in a dungeon. But though some martyrs
were dragged to the stake from the vicinities of the Cot
tian Alps, nearest to the plains of Piedmont on the one
side, and to the cities of Dauphine on the other, yet the
more secluded of these regions continued to be secure
asylums until the end of the fourteenth century. The
communes of Fressiniere and Argentiere, in the diocese of
Embrun, on the French side of the mountains, were then
ransacked for victims, in obedience to a papal bull.5 Whole
families were sacrificed, and others were obliged to fly to
the very edge of the glaciers for safety. But it is remark¬
able, that although a similar bull was issued against the
nonconformists of the valleys of Lucerna and San Martino
on the Italian border, no means were there found of putting
the exterminating commission in execution. Again and
again the temporal sovereigns of the Piedmontese Valdenses
received mandates from Rome to draw the sword against
them, and to “ crush the serpent,” but they would not.
Even when the persecuting storm of 1400 extended from
Dauphine to the Italian valley of Pragela, which was then
under the dominion of France, the adjoining valleys of
Lucerna and San Martino heard the pontifical thunder,
but were unscorched by its lightning.
At length the memorable bull6 of Innocent the Eighth,
which gave unlimited powers to Albert de Capitaneis to
carry confiscation and death throughout the whole of those
parts of the sees of Embrun and Turin which were infected
with heresy, precipitated a host of armed enemies upon the
mountain retreats of the Valdenses. The edict of Iolanta,
the regent-mother, during the minority of the duke of Sa¬
voy, in the year 1476,7 in which she called on the authori¬
ties of the province of Pignerol to assist the inquisitors
in compelling heretics, and especially those of Val Lu¬
cerna, to come into the bosom of the church, is one of the
first state papers which indicate a departure from the mild
and tolerant principles on which the house of Savoy had
hitherto acted. But the sanguinary torrent rolled through
these valleys, without forcing any of the inhabitants into
the arms of Rome. Some subsequent edicts of the dukes
of Savoy, speak of their Valdensian subjects, not under the
obnoxious appellation of heretics, but under the gentle and
more courteous term of Religionists, and call them
“ men of the valleys,” “ beloved and faithful vassals,” whom
authority rests with ecclesiastical ^ftieers''eJl^ t! wgeS VVere .e^ecled in the government of the Valdensian church. The principal
hy two lay members. These are elected bv the Sv a^le’c.°"sl.stl"g of the moderator, the moderator-adjoint, and the secretary, assisted
moderator presides at ordinations Pasrm-K ^ ynod, which is held every five years, in the presence of a royal commissioner, fhe
2 “ Eslagistan Regidors del Poble et Pr^ nom|nated by parishes, subject to the approbation of the Table, and confirmation of Synod.
3 The episcopaffo™ of church cove,rZi ^ 9®^” See Morl»"d’s Churches of Piedmont, p. 74.
and Stephen de Borbone. ' "aS retalne<i hy many other separatists from Rome, in Italy and Germany. See Reiner
6 This and the document next minted nro „„i,i; u j • , 4 See Prsef Ricchini ad Monetam, p. xvi.
* Printed in the J d Yr Pll,),lshed in tfie works of Morland and Leger.
and and Leger. 7 RaCcolta degl’ Editti del Piemonte, p. 1. » Those of 1499 and 1509
VALDENSES.
543
t,y recognised as privileged persons, entitled to immuni-
< and franchises, by virtue of ancient stipulations.1
I 5tat;e policy, disputes with France, and the necessity of
ciciliating the borderers, when a band of gallant soldiers
ws required for the defence of the frontier, often operated
I irtheir favour, in the moment of danger; and even at
tj es when the sovereigns of the principality consented to
t ir destruction, the lords of the soil became their advo-
c2S. Thus, in the year 1553, when the havoc which was
nde among the nonconformists of Provence and Dau-
p ne, reached the valleys of Piedmont, it would have been
n re fatal, had not Blanche, countess of Lucerna,2 inter-
p ed in behalf of her dependents.
n 1560, the dark cloud which had long been gathering
o r the mountain church, burst upon it with all its fury;
a I never did the majesty of truth and innocence stand out
n re brightly to view, than during the tempests of perse-
c ion, which raged at intervals for the next hundred years
a I more.
The subalpine communities, which had been placed un-
d* papal interdicts, saw themselves exposed to the hostile
p vev of the French king on one side, and to that of the
d :e of Savoy on the other. They were commanded by
ects to banish their ministers and schoolmasters, to ab-
s n from the exercise of their own forms of worship, and
t attend the services of the Romish church. They re-
f sd, and orders for confiscation, imprisonment, and death,
v -e launched against them. Plundreds perished on the
s<Hold, or at the stake; and the villages swarmed with
1 stands, who, under the name of officers of justice, plun-
d ed the wretched inhabitants, and haled them to prisop,
t ;il the dungeons were choked with victims.
The population of the valleys still remaining faithful to
ti religion of their forefathers, the sword was openly un-
s allied, and the scabhard thrown away. An armed force,
cnmanded by a chief whose name was in terrible con-
t st with his character, the Count de la Trinite, poured
i j the proscribed territory. But a spirit stronger than
t( sword upheld the Valdenses, and an arm more powerful
tin that which assailed them, fought on their side. The
v ages near the plains were deserted, the women, the chil-
( n, the feeble, and the aged, were sent for refuge to the
1 ghts of the mountains, to the rocks and to the forests.
1 cry man and boy who could handle a weapon, planted
1 iself against the invaders, and a successful guerilla war-
t e was carried on by small brigades of peasants, against
t veteran troops who were let loose upon them. Greater
t doits, and instances of more enduring fortitude, were
i /er recounted, than those wdiich have immortalized the
i istance offered by the Valdenses to their oppressors. It
i st however suffice to say, that the history of the Val-
I ises, from the year 1560 to the close of the eighteenth
< 'tury, is a narrative of sanguinary struggles for existence,
II h very few intervals of repose.
j h the churches of the valleys had an intermission of suf-
i"g under one reign, they were driven to desperation in
• ither. Ihe years 1565, 1573, 1581, 1583, and the pe-
'1 between 1591 and 1594, are memorable as dates of re-
1 ions and civil conflict.
,n ^95, the duke of Savoy smiled upon his Protestant
''ijects; in 1596 and 1597 he persecuted them. From
j " to 1620, a series of edicts,3 some threatening, and
1 ars indulgent, kept the Valdenses in a state of perpetual
| Pen^e and agitation ; but the tenor of the most alarming
t icse, which confined them wnthin certain limits, proves
1 t ey had rights and privileges, within those limits at
least, which nothing but the importunity and the misrepre- Valdenses.
sentations of the Romish hierarchy, could induce their sove-
reigns reluctantly to violate.
Of the twenty years that followed, almost all were distin¬
guished by some act of cruelty or oppression. In 1640,4 the
appointment of an English envoy at the court of Turin, and
his occasional residence at La Tour, the principal village
of the Valdenses, shed a ray of transient sunshine over this
afflicted people; but this was shortly followed by a hurricane
of persecution similar to that of 1560, and unutterable atro¬
cities were committed by the soldiery employed to enforce
the destroying edict of 1655. That year would have seen
the last of the Valdenses, had not all the Protestant powers
of Europe interposed, especially England, whose supreme
ruler, Oliver Cromwell, under the influence of Milton, be¬
came their protector.
In 1686, Victor Amadeus, the young duke of Savoy, in¬
stigated by the courts of France and Rome, and ambitious
of succeeding where his ancestors had failed, sent an over¬
whelming body of troops into the valleys of Lucerna, Pe-
rosa, and San Martino, to compel the inhabitants to go to
mass. During three years and a half, the exercise of the
ancient religion of the Valdenses had to all appearance
ceased in Piedmont. Those who would not conform were
obliged to flee for their lives. But the return of eight hun¬
dred Valdensian exiles in 1689,5 who marched from the
borders of the lake of Geneva to their native mountains, for
the recovery of their rights, was signalised by incidents un
surpassed in the history of providential and romantic events,
and was crowned with success. At this critical juncture, a
quarrel arose between the king of France and Victor Ama¬
deus, which induced the latter to take this heroic band and
the scattered remnant of his Protestant subjects into fa¬
vour. “ Hitherto,” said he, “ we have been enemies, but
from henceforth we must be friends ; others are to blame
more than myself for the evils you have suffered.” This
happy turn in their affairs was followed by treaties between
the English and Piedmontese governments, in the reigns of
William the Third and Queen Anne, articles of which were
meant to secure to the Valdenses the undisturbed exercise
of their religion within certain territorial limits.6 From that
period to the present, Great Britain has been empowered,
by virtue of solemn compacts, to interpose for their pro¬
tection, and their churches ought to have had rest.
But the wrongs of the Valdenses were not yet at an end,
and their sovereigns, under their new title of kings of Sar¬
dinia, forgot to be generous and just. Again and again
these sufferers have had to contend not only against petty
injuries and harassing grievances, but also against absolute
oppression. By an act of open violence, the valley of Pra-
gela was dragooned into conformity with Rome, in the year
1727, on the diplomatic pretence, that this region was not
included in the articles of treaty which secured toleration
within defined boundaries. The English ambassador at
Turin remonstrated, and urged the sacred engagements
which guaranteed toleration and safety to the Protestants
of Piedmont, but he was not properly supported by his go¬
vernment at home, and the objects of his sympathy cried
for redress in vain.7
During the French empire of Napoleon, when the iron
crown of Italy was placed on the head of the Corsican, the
Valdenses enjoyed equal rights and privileges in common
with the rest of their countrymen. But, at the restoration
of the house of Savoy to the kingdom of Sardinia, four days
after the king had taken possession of his palace at Turin,
they were replaced under their former disabilities, and bare
JWcolta degl’ Editti di Savoia e del Piedmonte. * Gilles, p. 39. 3 See Raccolta degl’ Editti.
Hlst- Eccles. des Vaud. p. 567.
Ve e,ltl'L<p gloneuse des Vaudois, par H. Arnaud, and Translation by H. D. Acland.
s e • 78 Wa]densian Researches, p. 555.
tL tlie Correspondence of Mr Hedges with the duke of Newcastle, published in Dr Gilly’s Waldensian Researches, pp. 539, 540.
544
y a l
V A L
Valdenses. toleration only was conceded to them.1 The restored
prince acknowledged, on more occasions than one, “the
constant and distinguished proof which the Valdenses had
ever given to his predecessors of attachment and fidelity
and bore this testimony to their merit: “ I know I have
faithful subjects in the Vaudois; they will never dishonour
their character.” But still he listened to evil counsel, and
the yoke was again placed upon their necks. And evil coun¬
sellors still prevail. In 1832, the measures adopted against
the Valdenses were so threatening, that the British parlia¬
ment took up their cause; and extracts of the treaties be¬
tween Great Britain and the dukes of Savoy and kings of
Sardinia, were ordered by the House of Commons to be
printed, on the motion of Sir R. Inglis, with the correspon¬
dence of the British minister at Turin, relative to the treat¬
ment of the Protestants in Piedmont in 1727.2
The reigning king of Sardinia, Charles Albert, is dispos¬
ed to shew them kindness, and to place them on a level
with his other subjects. He has proved this by number¬
less acts of favour; but the tiara and the mitre are too
strong for the crown in Piedmont; and the baneful influ¬
ence of the papal authority, so late as September 1837,
wrung from the reluctant king two articles in the new code
of Sardinia, by which the intolerant edicts of the 16th and
17th centuries3 are renewed, and may be put in force as
soon as the Roman hierarchy shall feel itself strong enough
to do so. In the meantime, another engine is employed
against the hapless Valdenses. The rich order of St
Maurice and St Lazarus has contributed 238,617 francs,
(L.9544) and an income of 17,000 francs (L.680) a-year,
towards the establishment of a fraternity of missionary
priests at La Tour, whose business it will be to make pro¬
selytes from among the descendants of a race which has
never yet swerved from its faith, but which will now be
exposed more than ever, to the threats and artifices of an
adversary who knows well how to turn opportunities to ad¬
vantage.
The Protestants of England have not been inattentive to
the condition of their brethren in the valleys of Piedmont.
Public collections have on several occasions been made
throughout the kingdom ; and the Society for the Propa¬
gation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts is the trustee of
considerable funds raised in their behalf. A committee
in London, consisting of the archbishop of Canterbury, seve¬
ral bishops, and other persons of distinction, has also been
employing contributions in aid of the clergy, hospitals, and
schools of the Valdenses, and watching over their interests
since the year 1825.
The difficulties with which the Valdenses have now to
contend are, poverty, and reduced numbers, being confin¬
ed to limits which do not produce subsistence for more
than a very limited population. They also labour under the
disadvantage of having to learn three languages before they
can receive competent instruction. Their national language
is Italian; their vernacular tongue is a provincial dialect,
peculiar to their district; and the language of instruction
is French, because in that only they can obtain books of de¬
votion used by Protestants.
If the government of Great Britain should cease to ex¬
ercise its good offices at the court of Turin, in behalf of
the Protestants of Piedmont; or, if the people of Great
Britain should become indifterent to the moral and spiritual'
wants of this impoverished community, the religious liber-
ties of the Valdenses will be no more, and the lamp of this
little mountain-church will be extinguished for ever.
Since this article went to press, some additional infer-
mation on the sacred literature and religious prospects of
this interesting community has transpired. Their liber¬
ties have been further threatened by three intimations
which strike at the very root of their Christian privf
leges. The first is an article of the code promulgated
at Turin, which forbids the printing of manuscripts, for
their use, in other countries, unless they shall have pre-
viously passed the censorship at Turin. This will have
the effect of cutting off the future supply of religious books
and tracts, because the board of censors is composed en¬
tirely of Roman Catholics. The second is an order pub¬
lished in the Turin Gazette of 27th December 1840,tothis
effect:—“ By decree of the holy congregation of Rome,
the New Testament of our Lord Jesus Christ, translated
into the Piedmontese language, is condemned and prohi¬
bited.” This prohibition, made at the instigation of Rome,
appears seven years after the book had passed the censor¬
ship, and had been introduced by legal permission into the
Protestant valleys of Piedmont. The third is a message
sent to the Valdensian moderator, by the president of re¬
vision at Turin, demanding by what authority the College
of the Holy Trinity at La Tour has a library of books!!
The other intelligence is of a more pleasing nature, viz.
the existence of three copies of the ancient Valdensian ver¬
sion of the New Testament. It was feared that all the
manuscripts of this valuable and vernacular translation had
perished, but some recent inquiries made by the Rev. Dr.
Gilly have led to the announcement that three at least re¬
in the public library of Grenoble, the Codex No.
Ar
488, is a relic of the thirteenth century. It is a manuscript
on vellum, a small 4to, containing, in the following order,
the four Gospels, the Epistles of St. Paul, St. James, St,
Peter, St. John, and St. Jude, the Acts of the Apostles, the
Apocalypse, the Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Wis¬
dom, Ecclesiasticus, and the Song of Solomon ; all in the
Piedmontano-Provenyal dialect of the Valdenses.
In the library of Trinity College, Dublin, a transcriptol
the same version, on parchment, is preserved, which is said
to have been written in 1522. In the public library ot
Zurich, there is also to be seen a copy of an ancient Val¬
densian translation of the New Testament, which differs in
some degree from the two above-mentioned, but is be¬
lieved to have been written between the years 1350 and
1400. This manuscript is thus described:—“ Codex MS
Novi Testamenti Valdensis, C. chartseus, saeculi xiv,
formas 12. nunc constans foliis Dill.” (D-F')
VALDEPENNAS, a town of Spain, in the province oi
La Mancha and the partido of Ciudad Real, of which
partido it is the capital. It is surrounded with walls, is wel
built, having a college, three churches, nine monastenes
and five hospitals, with about 9000 inhabitants. It has somt
manufactures of gloves and woollen goods, and some tan^
1 Avery able-pamphlet was published in 1829, by Count Ferdinand dal Pozzo, late Maitre des Requetes, and First Presidento 1
imperial Court of Genoa, entitled “ The complete Emancipation of the Vaudois advocated.” In this the author maintains, that by 1
treaty of Paris, May 81, 1814, the Valdenses were put in possession of all the rights acquired by the inhabitants of Piedmont under
French dominion, and that, in violation of these rights, there are no Protestants now in Europe, in so low and degraded a position ■
they.
^ See Orders of the House of Commons, 15th May 1832, and Returns to an Address to bis Majesty, dated 24th January J832.^ ^
These, 1st, prohibit the Valdenses from acquiring landed property beyond certain limits, and from exercising certain professions
forbid them to make proselytes themselves, or to otfer any opposition to the conversion of Protestants by Roman Catholics ; 3d, PreV
their reclaiming their own children, when they have been taken into Roman catholic hospices or convents ; 4tb, prohibit the augmen a
of churches or ministers of religion, even within their own valleys.
V A L D O.
, r .jeS) and is celebrated for the wine which bears its name.
fc'I taste and colour it resembles the best of the Burgundy
I ^ In former times, a portion of it was always en-
,r:ed for the table of the king; but very little of it finds
it way to other countries, from the want of casks to con-
t; i it; and from being conveyed in goats’ skins it ac-
q res a disagreeable flavour. Good wheat is produced in
tl neighbourhood. The town is about eighty miles
st th-east from Toledo, and one hundred and ten south of
drid.
^ALDO, or Waldo, Peter, frequently described as
tl Lyonese reformer of the twelfth century, appears
ir contemporary documents under the appellation of Valdes.
I, he earliest existing documents he is called Valdes (by W.
V nes,) and Valdesius (by the Chronicler of Laon), Valde-
j, Valdius, Valdensis, Waldius, and Waldensis. Unless he
di ;ved his name from some locality, Valdes or Valdo was
h right appellation. The latter is of very common occur-
race in Gallic and Germanic documents, from the ninth
tc he twelfth century, and W is the Germano-Burgundian
S[! ling. It is uncertain why or where he was first named
/ er. His prsenomen Petrus occurs, we believe for
tl first time, in a Latin book of Peter de Polichdorf,
w ten during the last half of the fourteenth century.
'ontemporary and documentary history is silent as to the
p :e and date of Valdo’s birth, and the events of his earlier
d. s; but tradition states that he was born in a place
w ch, by some, has been called Vaud, Vaux, Vaudram; by
o .ts Walden and Val-Grant. There is still a village near
L m called Vaux, and another in the mountain region,
b ween Mont Dauphine and Brian^on, called Vaux de
R ne. The first authentic mention of the Gallic reformer
aj ears in the Chronicle of Laon, under the year 1173.
L is there introduced to our notice as a citizen of Lyon,
w i, having amassed considerable wealth by usurious prac-
ti s, had his conscience alarmed in a very remarkable
miner. One Sunday, in the year 1173, hearing a Trou-
b our in the streets of the city, reciting passages from the
R naunt called the “ Life of Alexis,” Valdo invited him
b le, and listened with earnest attention to the whole of
tl poem. Alexis, as the legend tells us, was a saint of
eipient piety, who was so dead to all the attractions of this
w that he fled from the house of a wealthy father, and
1( his young bride on the day of his marriage, to devote
h self to a life of poverty and mortification. After seven-
tf i years of self-imposed exile, he returned to the paternal
al ae, in the character of a mendicant, and for many years
u lived daily relief at his father’s door, without making
' sell known. At his death a written paper revealed his
st et. The narrative made a deep impression on the mind
ol a^°> °1 which the Troubadour1 failed not to take ad-
'! a?e< Moved by the serious discourse of his guest,
i lo went the next morning to unburthen his mind to a
J’"st Sreat reputation in the city, and consulted him as
fi hat he should do for the attainment of Christian per-
(> ion. “ If thou wouldest be perfect,” was the answer,
0) sell all thou hast, and give to the poor.” Valdo re-
ed to obey the injunction to the very letter. He con-
fe ns property into money; he placed his two daugh-
J 1111 le convent of Fontevrault;2 he distributed largely
ie poor; he fed all who came to him three days in the
J ’ anci on tbe festival of the assumption of the Virgin
L 'e publicly proclaimed his intention of abandoning
the service of mammon for that of God, and invited his
fellow-citizens to follow his example. His wife, alarmed
by these proceedings, implored the archbishop of Lyon to
check the imprudent zeal of her husband, and that prelate
and his suffragan, the bishop of Bourg-en-Bresse, gave Valdo
some advice upon the occasion. Nothing however could
damp his ardour; he persevered in his system of self-denial,
and gained over a number of followers, who imitated his ex¬
ample, by embracing voluntary poverty, and by minister¬
ing bountifully to the wants of the poor.
A severe famine, which desolated the whole of Gaul at
this time, gave them full opportunities of exercising the
virtue of almsgiving, and they did so to the very utmost.
I orming themselves into a fraternity, under the name of
“ Poor Men of Lyon,” Valdo and his disciples at first made
themselves conspicuous, by the sanctity of their lives
only, but they soon began to attract further notice, by re¬
buking the rapaciousness and corrupt manners of the
ecclesiastical and monkish orders. Here indeed was am¬
ple room for complaint: the ignorance and profligacy of the
clergy, with some few bright exceptions, were the scandal
of the church; and we require not the evidence of her ad¬
versaries—that of churchmen is quite sufficient—to estab¬
lish this fact. It was a long course of wickedness in high
places, and inefficiency on the part of those who called
themselves the successors of the apostles, and the lawfully
appointed ministers of Christ, which prepared the way for
such a work as Valdo had to perform. But though he was
one of the most eminent of early reformers, he was not the
first to rouse Christendom from her unholy slumbers, and
to say to those who slept, “ aw ake !” Even before the
scenes at Orleans in 1017, described by Glaber, voices had
been heard, almost simultaneously, from Germany, France,
and Italy, protesting against ecclesiastical corruptions; and
we have the testimony of Bernard of Clairvaux, Peter of
Clugny, and Evervinus of Cologne, who flourished between
1120 and 1150, to prove that, in that age, zealous and ho¬
ly men were to be found, who declaimed against the vices
and errors of the clergy, and proposed schemes of reforma¬
tion.
By degrees, Valdo and the Poor Men of Lyon took up
on themselves to exhort and to admonish, in fact to preach
both in public and private. “ Coeperunt paulatim,” says
the Chronicle of Laon, “ tarn publicis quam privatis admo-
nitionibus sua et aliena culpare peccata.” This was no
slight matter of exasperation to a powerful body of men,
whose priesthood was disgraced by priestcraft; but another
proceeding of the reformer called lorth their fiercest ani¬
mosity. Valdo employed his time and property on one of
the most useful and sacred objects to which a Christian
could dedicate himself, the translation and circulation of
Scripture in the vernacular tongue of the country, and for
this he has never been forgiven by the successors of Hil¬
debrand. To lock up Scripture, or to refuse the free use
of it, was one of the novelties of an imperious and jealous
church, and a disproof of the infallibility of popes and
councils. In 841, the third council of Tours decreed, in its
seventh canon, that bishops should promote scriptural in¬
struction by translations of certain homilies and psalms in
the vulgar tongue, “ in rusticam Romanam linguam aut
Theotiscam.” In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a
new' light broke in upon Christian hierarchs, or they began
to prefer darkness to light, and it was forbidden by eoun-
545
Valdo.
in lose Jye. many of the jongleurs and wandering troubadours often combined the several characters of pedlars, poets, and religious
They were a privileged order, whose harp, and song, and news, obtained for them admission into the castles of the barons,
V(J fe i ouses of tlle citizens. They would oftentimes begin by diverting their hearers, and, after touching some string which roused de-
mgs, they would launch into sacred subjects, produce transcripts of Scripture, and converse on the deepest points of sacred truth,
wl h i, 0\t0U' ^ fraternity, called “ The Poor of Christ,” wrus settled here in 1103, under the government of a woman ; an institution
as been severely attacked by Bayle.
3 z
0L. XXI.
546
V A L D O.
Valdo.
cils to turn Scripture into vernacular languages for the use
'of the people. The manner in which Valdo set about his
work, attests the soundness of his judgment, as wed as toe
devotedness of his zeal. In the first place, he obtained the
assistance of three eminent scholars, who had a critical ac¬
quaintance with the sacred writings ; Bernard ol Ydros,
who was afterwards held in great estimation by the Domi¬
nican order; Stephen of Ansa or Empsa, eminent as a gram¬
marian and linguist, who was promoted in course ot time
to a benefice in the city of Lyon;1 * and John ot LuS10’ A
biblical scholar of high reputation, who became the head ot
a religious congregation in Lombardy. The latter was the
only one of the three who remained faithful to the cause ot
Valdo, and the silence of the two former, after they desert¬
ed him, as to any spots in his moral character, is a strong
attestation in his favour. Stephen translated into the
Gallo-Proven9al language, John examined authorities and
corrected the translations, and Bernard transcribed the
version so prepared for the use of the copyists, who were
to multiply copies for general circulation. But not satis-
probans votum quod fuerat volunteriae paupertatis, &c.” k
says the faithful narrator whom we have before cited,5 s
He approved of the order of the “ Poor Men of Lyon” as ^
professors of voluntary poverty; but while he gave them
a limited license as preachers, he forbade them to exercise
it without the especial permission of the regular priesthood.
Up to this period the conduct of Valdo and his disciples
had been irreproachable even at Rome, or the pope would
not have shown him such favour. In fact, all his proceed¬
ings hitherto had been strongly characteristic of one who
acted as a dutiful member of the holy Catholic church.
It was a church-legend which first made a serious impres¬
sion upon him; it was to a priest that he first went for
spiritual counsel, after his conscience had been awakened.
The adviser whom he next consulted was a bishop; so
closely did he observe the canon of Ignatius, “ nihil sine
episcopoHe placed his daughters in a convent; an act
which savoured of the most rigid adherence to ecclesiasti¬
cal customs. The holy book on which the church builds
its faith was his constant study; and his chosen fellow-la-
fied°with>thestTmeans for procuring correct translations of bourers in the work of transcribing ^ translating,.™
neu wiui i-iicac ,    :—t- r>f thf* fisifprdntal order. So blameless was his
members of the sacerdotal order. So blameless was his
career, and so conscious was he himself of the purity ofhis
motives, that he sought, as we have shewn, an interview
with him who was called the supreme Head of the Church,
and was received with indulgence and honour. The child¬
like submission and meekness of this exemplary Christian
were carried to such an extent, that for a time he obeyed
the pope, and forbore to preach, except on the terms im¬
posed upon him. At length however his ardent zeal,
sharpened by the opposition of the clergy, who hated the
spirituality and fervour which condemned their own negli¬
gence, could no longer be restrained, and he preached
without their permission. He and his disciples were com¬
manded by episcopal authority not to speak at all, not
preach in the name of Jesus; they answered as Peter an
John had done before the council at Jerusalem, the)
the Bible, Valdo also c ollected sentences of the ancient
fathers, particularly ot A morose, Augustin, Gregory, and
Jerome,3 in illustration of the books of Scripture, of which
copies were to be made; and these, too, he put in circula¬
tion to serve as notes or comments for the help ofhis Scrip¬
ture readers. This being done, the master and his disciples
committed many passages of Scripture to memory, and thus
armed with the word of God, they went forth into the
streets and the houses of Lyon, and into the villages of the
neighbourhood, and delivered the gospel message with so
much ardour and success, as largely7 to increase the number
of their adherents. In some few places the churches were
open to them by consent of the secular clergy; and where
they could not have access to the sanctuaries, they preach¬
ed and expounded Scripture in the streets and highways.
It is uncertain how many books of the Bible were transla-   —- ann,tnlit
ted and circulated by the Lyonese Reformer, and the Poor were accused of a Presl‘mPtu0"® ^ t|1(
Men of Lyons. Walter Mapes says, that the volume of office, and were again admonishedtobesdent,oa^^tJ
Valdo which was presented to Pope Alexander, contained severest ecclesiastical censure. T hey . f -
the text and a gloss of the Jhsalms, and ofmant/ books of the and from disobedience, says one of our histoncal w tne^
Old and New Testament. Reiner leads us to believe, that the they fell into contumacy, and from contumacy, mto
whole of the New Testament was circulated by them, in the penalty of excommunication.* The fearfu^
vulear tongue. Stephen de Borbone speaks only of many was meant to deprive them of aU the ordinance re g
books of the Bible, without designating them. The effect to exclude them from the church ^ ,
produced by the gospel tidings, as they were delivered by baptism to their children, burial to their dead, inarm
these^new expounders, was felt like an electric spark —* -   ^71 - th.m from Lvon, was pass
throughout the whole of the province and diocese of Lyon.
The common people heard them gladly, for now, for the
first time in their lives, they listened to preachers who
spoke in the language of Scripture, and pointed to the sacred
page, in confirmation of every doctrine which they urged.
After persevering in this course for five years, Valdo
found that the increasing enmity of the monks and clergy
of Lyons had become dangerous to him. In 1178, he
therefore took the bold and honest step of going to Rome,
to make his views known to the sovereign pontiff Alexan¬
der III. and to request the papal sanction to his proceed¬
ings.4 In fact, he asked the pope to recognize his frater¬
nity of the “ Poor Men of Lyon” as an ecclesiastical order torm tne omces oi religion, auu a“llll,,“^ 'V'n [ Lvoi
of authorised preachers, and licensed circulators of Scrip- Thus Valdo and the “Poor Men, or a cjiurc
ture. Never did the founder of a religious community ex- were not voluntary seceders from 11C contrary
perience a better reception from prince or pontiff. The pope but they were thrust out of her, an o > acc0U
embraced Valdo, “ Valdesium amplexatus est papa, ap- her usual policy, which is to turn ent usi  
1 Stephen de Borbone, apud Echart Scrip. Ordinis Prsedicatorum, vol. i. p. 192.
^ Reinerus de Cath. c. 6 ; and Polickdorf, c. I. 3 See Moneta contra Valdenses, l'b- v- c. i. ^
4 Chronicle of Laon. See Bouquet, vol. xiii. p. 680. s Ibid. 6 Stephen de ’ jn otherw®
5 From all we can collect, this was not done until after very mature deliberation and consultation with relig 0 ' • accuseis,stoj
tries, whose eyes had been opened to the corruptions of the Latin church. Moneta, the most dispassionate o a gtatement. ^
that Valdo “ ordinem habuit ab universitate fratrum suorum,” and that a Lombard separatist was his authority or
neta contra Valdenses, lib. v. c. 1.
Uctpu&lil Lw L11CA1 w 
their betrothed, and to banish them from Lyon, was
ed by John de Bellesmains, archbishop of Lyon, in
Pope Lucius confirmed the excommunication in l»
In the Lateran council of 1215, the same dread senen*
was again fulminated against all who should embrace tnt
doctrines, or receive them into their houses. iey
driven ignominiously from their homes; and seeing no p
of producing a reformation in the bosom of the nnpe
church, out of which they had been cast, or ottong
ceived back into it, without doing violence to tnen
sciences, Valdo and his followers had no other a .
than to form themselves into a community, m '' 1
sons, selected from their own body, were appom e
form the offices of religion, and administer the sacra
f-
y a l
i her own favour, if not in her own way, has to thank
J-'self for a schism, which rent from her communion some
( the most devout Christians of France, and of several
(ier countries, in which the doctrines of the Lyonese re-
( mers gradually found recipients.
The “ Poor Men of Lyon,” exiled from their native city,
f ud refuge in the secluded parts of Provence and Lom-
1 -dy, and were hospitably received there by persons who
] d kindred opinions. The document, which states this,
I nts to religious communities on each side of the Cottian
j p8) to the territorial Waldenses of ecclesiastical history,
v ose situation providentially enabled them to maintain in
s ety opinions at variance wuth those of Rome. A re-
n rkable passage in the authority which gives us this in-
f mation, adds that the exiles imbibed the errors of these
s lalpine heretics, and became, when they mingled with
t m, the most determined enemies of the church.1
From this time the “ Poor Men of Lyon,” and the Val¬
ises (territorially so called) of the Cottian Alps, became
<ed up in ecclesiastical history, as if they were one and
t same. But the former, after their exile from Lyon,
v re never gathered together in any one district or pro-
\ ce as a distinct people, but were scattered among the
r ions; and those who embraced their tenets,sometimes ad-
1 -ed to them openly, sometimes secretly, but never in suffi-
(nt numbers, or local strength, to constitute a church.
1 hen or where Valdo died, remains in obscurity, but his
t ne was given to almost every sect who protested against
j ial usurpation.
A happier destiny wras reserved for the subalpine Val-
(uses. 'They were the inhabitants of a mountain tract of
(intry, where they constituted the majority of the popu-
1 ion; and at this hour the remains of them form an estab-
1 led church, and a well known and intelligent religious
( nmunity in a region of Piedmont.
The persecutions which, for 200 years, swept Europe of
£ who were called Valdenses, except in the subalpine
t ritories, were an outrage upon humanity, and have fixed
i indelible stigma on the church of Rome. Her offend-
i pride was satisfied with nothing short of death, wdien-
(;r she could cause it to be inflicted on those who dared
t dispute her authority; and Stephen de Borbone relates,
v bout a breath of compunction, that he was present when
i hty of Valdo’s sect were condemned to the flames.
jl pericus the chronicler states the number to have been
■ 2, and speaks of it as a sacrifice of a sweet-smelling sa-
) ir acceptable to the Lord,—“Holocaustum placabile Do-
1 io.” But with all the animosity of the early persecu-
t s of Valdo and his disciples, they have not recorded one
111 authenticated accusation of immorality against them.
1 is a singular attestation to the moral and religious cha-
• ter of Valdo, that none of those calumnies, which were
r awards circulated by Roman catholic writers, were ad-
iiced against him during his lifetime. The chronicle
1 Laon briefly mentions his disobedience in preaching
diout permission, and the ruin and scandal which it oc-
‘ ioned.
Walter Mapes, who was present at Rome when Valdo
* sealed to the pope, indulges in a vein of irony against
1' V aldesii, who wanted to reform the church ; he ridicul-
' them as a parcel of “ houseless,“ bare-footed,” “ indi-
D O. 547
gent, and “illiterate idiots, unworthy of notice; but utters Valdo.
not a word against their morality. On the contrary, in one of
those unguarded expressions, which truth wrings from pre¬
judice, he admitted that they preserved the faith, and vvere
ready to die for the sake of the Lord Jesus Christ.5
The earliest calumniator of “ the Poor Men of Lyon,”
Alanus insignis theologus, who inveighed with the utmost
severity against them, said nothing worse of their founder,
than that he presumed to preach without inspiration or
literature, to call himself an apostle without a mission, and
a teacher without learning.4
Moneta,5 who wrote a history of the Valdenses of Lyon,
within half a century after their first appearance, speaks of
a certain man named Valdesius, from whom they de¬
rived their origin, without casting any stain upon his moral
fame ; and though Moneta was an inquisitor, the bosom
friend of Dominic, and condemned heretics to the flames,
and wrote forty folio pages in defence of persecution, yet
he admits that the Valdenses still respected the validity of
Romish ordination, received the Old as well as the New
Testament, and did not give reins to licentiousness.
Peter, the monk of Vaux Sernay,6 who wrote in 1217,
and was clamorous for the total extinction of the Albi-
genses by fire and sword, mentions the name of Waldius,
the founder of a sect of heretics called Waldenses, with¬
out a syllable of reproach; and states the principal errors
of those schismatics to have been “ an affected imitation of
the apostles, refusal to take an oath, denial of the power of
the magistrate to inflict the punishment of death, and pre¬
suming, because they were sandal-wearers,7 to celebrate
the Eucharist without episcopal ordination.”
Reiner,8 whose work bears the date of 1250, has no
charge to bring against Valdo, and no other against his
followers than their separation from, and hostility to, the
church of Rome, their use of Scripture in the vulgar
tongue, and the estimation in which they held those of
their sect who embraced a life of poverty, and believed in
justification by faith. We may therefore consider that all
the licentious tales which have been told at the expense
of Valdo and his disciples, were the invention of after times.
That individuals among them may have broached some
extravagant and fanatical dogmas, is not improbable; but
we have no contemporary evidence in proof of their hav¬
ing departed from the strictest rules of moral and reli¬
gious purity, or of their having been guilty of any other
than the unpardonable offence of disobeying a spiritual
authority, which had become as tyrannical in the exercise
of its power, as it was remiss in the discharge of the sacred
trusts committed to it. “ The worst that can be said of
them,” said the inquisitor Reiner, whose business it was
to accuse and hunt them down, “ is, that they detest the
Roman church.” (d. f.)
VALENCE, an arrondissement in the department of the
Drome, in the south-east of France. It is thirty-five and
a-half square miles in extent, is divided into ten cantons,
distributed into 101 communes, and in 1836 contained
138,546 inhabitants. The capital of the same name stands
on the left bank of the Rhone, is surrounded with walls, and
has an ancient castle, in which pope Pius the sixth died
in 1799. In 1836 it contained 10,967 inhabitants. They
carry on cotton manufactories on a large scale, and make
See Stephen de Borbone, ut supra.
‘‘ Ydiotas, illiterates, ineptos. Hii certa nusquam habent domicilia, bini et bini eircumeunt : midi pedes, laneis induti, habentes
(''W >ibi communia tanquam Apostoli, midi nudum Christum sequentes.” See Guult. Map. MS- Bndl.
Sunt certe temporibus nostris licet a nobis damiiati et derisi, qui fidem servare velint et si ponantur ad rationem ut dudum, ponant
• 'nas suas pro pastore suo Domino Jesu.” Ibid.
; filler secundus Alani insig. Theol. contra Vald. p. 175. edit. Par. 1612.
•uoneta contra Valdenses, lib. v. * Petri Monachi Hist. Albig., p. 8. edit. Trever. I6i5.
) 11'e Greek ritualists inform us that the sandal was a mark of sacerdotal dignity. Some very curious mistakes have occurred from the
™ Aabatati and Sabatati applied to the followers of Valdo. The term is derived from sabot, a sandal.
',||ierus de Sectis Antiq. Her. c. 4, 5. Bibliotheca Putrum, vol. iv.
J
548
V A L
V A L
Valencia.
gloves and silk hoes, and trade extensively in wine. Lat.
44. 55. 59. Long. 4. 47. 20. W.
VALENCIA, a province, or, as it is called from its an¬
cient title, a kingdom of Spain. It extends over 643 square
leagues, and its population amounts to 825,059 souls, being
the most densely peopled part of the peninsula. It appears
by authentic data taken in the year 1808, that in the course
of forty years prior to that date, the population had been
doubled. Valencia is bounded on the north by Catalonia and
part of Aragon, on the west by New Castile, on the south
by Murcia, and on the east by the Mediterranean sea. Al¬
though, like the rest of Spain, Valencia is a mountainous
country, so that two-thirds of it may be considered as deso¬
late elevations, yet the rest of the province consists of level
and beautiful valleys, covered with exquisite fruits, and
other productions of a most valuable kind, as silk, rice,
hemp, flax, and grain. It does not, however, raise wheat
sufficient for its own consumption. Alicant is the most
considerable trading port in Valencia. It is in the form of
a half-moon on the shores of the sea. From this port
the principal productions of the province are shipped for
the different foreign markets. Notwithstanding the ferti¬
lity of the soil, and the assiduous care exercised on the
cultivation of it, the peasantry are in a state of poverty.
Most of the lands are either the property of the corpora¬
tions, or of nobles who hold them under the strict entail
denominated mayorazo. These let them to tenants, and
they again to sub-tenants; by which process the rent is
raised to a rate that impoverishes the actual cultivators.
The climate of this province on the sea-shore is by no
means healthy, but at a little distance from the coast,
where it is gently elevated, it is very favourable to longe¬
vity; and even on the coast they have been less severely
visited by epidemic fevers than in the provinces of An¬
dalusia and Murcia.
Valencia, a city of Spain, the capital of the province or
kingdom of the same name. It is situated on the river
Turia, which is not navigable, but is principally beneficial by
its being adapted to the purposes of irrigation. It has how¬
ever six spacious bridges over it, though at some seasons it
is fordable. The city is about two miles from the sea, where
the fortress of Graco is built to protect the landing, and a
mole is projected, which, when accomplished, will be of
vast advantage. The city is large, and nearly forms a cir¬
cle. It has lofty walls of ancient construction, with some of
the towers of the same date still standing. The streets are
narrow and crooked, and almost destitute of pavement, and
the whole place is very filthy.
Valencia is the seat of an archbishop ; and the cathedral
is endowed with an enormous revenue, great part of which
is expended in the erection of religious edifices. The ca¬
thedral is a very large Gothic pile of building, but with a
mixture of more modern taste, and has not much to re¬
commend it; but the entrance is adorned in a most pro¬
fuse manner, and contains some very good pictures. The
other churches and convents are very numerous, and no city,
even in Spain, has a greater proportion of ecclesiastics. The
lorza or exchange is the best of the secular buildings. It is
of the date of the fifteenth century, when architectural taste
in Spain was at its zenith.
The city abounds with Roman antiquities; but the Moors,
frornhaving been early dispossessed of this province, have left
behind them much fewer of their best remains than in those
provinces which they held to a later period, when their man¬
ners had become more refined, and their means of erecting
durable edifices more extensive.
The principal manufacture of this city is that of silk in
all its various branches. It employs about 25,000 persons,
and the silk annually used amounts to about 900,000 pounds.
Sometimes the produce of silk is insufficient for the supply
of all the looms, in which case many of the poor are unem¬
ployed, and to remedy this, a decree is in force, preventing
the exportation of raw silk. The inhabitants of Valencia
amount to about 160,000, of whom 100,000 are within the
walls, and the rest in the extensive suburbs, where the to.
working people employed in the silk manufactory reside.
Valencia contains a university, two public libraries, a'
seminary for youths of noble families, and several printing
offices. Lat. 39- 29- Long. 0. 24. W.
VALENCIENNES, a strongly fortified city of France,
in the department of the North, and the arrondissement of
Douay. It stands on the river Scheldt, wdiere the Rhonelle
falls into that stream. It has a powerful citadel and deep
trenches. After a brave defence, it was captured by the duke
of York in 1793. It is a place of great manufacturing in-
dustry. The city is ill built, with narrow and crooked streets,
and in 1836 contained 18,953 inhabitants. Lat. 50.21.
Long. 3. 25. E.
VALENTIN1ANS, a sect of Christian heretics, who
sprung up in the second century, and were so called from
their leader Valentinus. The Valentinians were only a
branch of the Gnostics, who realised or personified the
Platonic ideas concerning the Deity, whom they called
Pleroma or Plenitude.
VALERIUS FLACCUS, Caius. See Flacccs.
VALERIUS MAXIMUS, a Latin writer of the age of
Tiberius. Ydsprcenomen is by some supposed to have been
Publius, by others Marcus. We learn from different pas¬
sages of his own work, that he served in Asia with Sextus
Pompeius, and returned to Rome after the death of'Seja-
mis, or towards the end of the reign of Tiberius. This
S. Pompeius was consul during the year when Augustus
died. The work of Valerius, “ Dictorum Factorumque
memorabilium libri novem,” he inscribed to the successor
of that emperor. It is valuable, not from any peculiar ele¬
gance of diction, but for its copious and variegated collec¬
tion of ancient anecdotes of public and private life. Ac¬
cording to the opinion of some critics, his composition has
not descended to our times in its original form, but as it was
reduced to an epitome, either by Julius Paris, or by Janua-
rius Nepotianus. It is however far from being certain that
his work was remodelled. See Vossius de Historicis Lati-
nis, p. 123, and Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, tom. ii. p.50.
edit. Ernesti.
The earliest edition of Valerius Maximus is supposed to
have been printed at Strasburg by Mentelin. It is a folio
volume without date, but conjectured to be at least as early
as the year 1470. An edition which appeared soon after
this period, has very frequently been described as the first.
It was printed by P. Schoefter de Gernshem, Mogunt. iTh
fol. And the same year produced an edition by V.de Spira,
Venet. 1471, fol. After some intermediate editions, other
two proceeded from the press of Aldus, Venet. 1502,1514
8vo. Many editions afterwards appeared, several with an¬
notations by Pighius, and a few with brief notes by Lipsius
Among the early impressions, we may specify that whit'
contains the annotations of Pighius and Golems, Franco
1627, 8vo. A very elaborate and valuable edition, accom
panied with a great body of notes, was at length publis ei
by Torrenius, Leidae, 1726, 4to. Several other e rtron
have more recently appeared; and among these we roa;
venture to recommend that of Kapp, Lipsiae, 1782, vo.
VALERY, St, a sea-port of France, in the departmen
of the Lower Seine, and the arrondissement of Yvetot. .
the English channel it has a good tide-harbour, from w i
the herring and other fisheries are extensively carne
and where many ships are built. Lat. 49- 52. 12, 0 3
4. 35. 20. The inhabitants in 1836 amounted to 5.^-
VALET, a French term, used as a common name
domestic men-servants. .
VALETTA, La, the capital of the island of Maim,
situated on the east side of the island, in 14° 30 • B
V A L
VAN
549
3(50 53' N. lat. It was founded in 1566 by the cele-
*1 T ed grandmaster of the same name, and received muni-
nt contributions from the pope, and from the kings of
v in France, and Portugal, and it is now one of the
iiist towns in Europe. It consists of five parts, La Va-
' [e i or Citta Nuova, Citta Vittoriosa, Senleya or the isle
oi St. Michael, Barmola, and Cottonera. The situation
0f ^ town is beautiful, the streets are regular, and well
p; J with lava. The public buildings and private houses
ar of a very superior order ; they are built of stone,
w i flat or terraced roofs. Water is supplied by means of
aI aqueduct seventeen thousand yards long, conveying
fii -eightgallons per minute. The city contains above twenty
cl relies, great and small, besides the cathedral. The princi-
p, edifices are the cathedral, the palace of the grandmasters,
[l lodges of the different languages, the conservatory, the
ui/ersity, the treasury, the palace of justice, the hospital,
th Monte di Pieta, the barracks, the theatre, and the ex-
c! ige. These buildings are distinguished by the elegance
arf chasteness of their architecture. The public library
cctains about 100,000 volumes, and there is also an ex-
te ive museum. The total population of the island in
If 6, including the troops, amounted to 106,614, of which
al. it 40,000 resided in the capital.
rALLADOLID, one of the provinces into which the
ki rdom of Leon in Spain is divided. It extends over 271
so ire leagues, and has a population of 187,390 souls. It is
skated in a country destitute of trees, except an occasional
m ture of fir woods in some of the more sandy soils. From
hi ig thus denuded of trees, it appears more barren than it
ii^ality is; for it produces good crops of corn, especially of
vv :at, when the summer is moist, and on all those spots
w re either natural or artificial irrigation is practised; but
It all the plains of Castile and Leon, it suffers most severely
ii iry seasons. The canal of Castile runs through a portion
o his department, and as it is designed for irrigation, as
h I as for navigation, it is very beneficial as far as it ex-
tels; and if ever it should be completed, so as to unite the
ri r Santander with the Ebro and the Douro, it will be of
irulculable advantage to the whole of Valladolid.
^alladoud, a city of Spain in the province of Leon,
a. the capital of a district of the same name. It is situ-
a 1 on a plain at the spot where the rivers Pisuerga and
1 piiva form a junction ; and the waters of the latter, di-
v ed into two branches, pass through a part of the city.
I e country around it is not productive, but might be made
h hly fertile by a small expense in irrigation. The city
is irge, and contains a population of about 30,000 souls.
I e streets are narrow and crooked, and exhibit signs of
<1 ay, but the principal square is very magnificent, and has
i) iy remains of that ancient grandeur which belonged to
>1 'hen this place was a royal residence, and the palace,
II f hastening to ruin, was occupied by the court of Philip
tj Third. The convent of the Dominicans is a fine Go-
1 • pile, and some other ecclesiastical edifices are both large
a venerable; but the university, which was once flourish-
11. is hastening to decay, and has very few students, and
1 se are constantly diminishing in number. Valladolid is
s ated in Lat. 41. 42.
talognes, an arrondisement of the department of
* nche in France. It extends over 406 square miles, and
c'prehends seven cantons, which are divided into 118
c lmunes, with 95,950 inhabitants in 1836. The capital
1 he city of the same name, nine miles from the sea, on
1 hanks ot the river Werderet. It is a place of manufac-
| ng industry, in which cloths called drops de Valognes,
^ extensively made. In 1836 it contained 1050 houses,
u h555 inhabitants. Near to it are the remains of an an¬
cient city and an amphitheatre. Lat. 49. 30. 26. Lone. Valleeino
1.33. 45. W. 6 ||
VALLEGGIO, a city of Italy, in the delegation of Ve- VanbniSb-
rona, and under the Austrian government of Milan. It stands'" ^
on the river Mincio, and contains 5350 inhabitants, chiefly
employed in the culture of silk. Near to it is Borghetto,
where, in 1796, the Austrian army was defeated by Bona¬
parte.
VALVE, in Hydraulics, Pneumatics, &c. is a kind of
lid or cover of a tube or vessel, so contrived as to open one
way, but which, the more forcibly it is pressed the other
way, the closer it shuts the aperture ; so that it either ad¬
mits the entrance of a fluid into the tube or vessel, and pre¬
vents its return ; or admits its escape, and prevents its re-
entrance.
VANBRUGH, Sir John, a very eminent dramatic
writer, descended from a family originally of Ghent in Flan¬
ders. The persecution of the protestants by the duke of
Alva drove his grandfather to London, where he established
himself as a merchant. His son Giles went to reside in the
city of Chester; and there it is supposed that he carried on
the business of a sugar-baker. He is mentioned as one of
those worthy citizens of Chester, who, although in commu¬
nion with the church of England, attended the week-day
lectures of Matthew Henry, “ and always treated him with
great and sincere respect.”1 Whatever was his trade, he
became rich by it, and married the youngest daughter of Sir
Dudley Carleton. By that lady he had eight sons, of whom
John was the second. The precise period of his birth,
though it probably happened soon after the Restoration, is
not known ; and we are also left to conjecture what may
have been the variety and extent of his early studies. His
father’s wealth, and the evidence of his own writings, would
lead us to suppose that his education was not neglected. At
an early age, he served as an ensign in the army, but after
a short trial abandoned the military profession. What led to
this precipitate retirement does not appear; but it is easy to
imagine a thousand causes of disgust to a service, in which
“ preferment goes by letter and affection.” Vanbrugh was
a younger brother; and being in all likelihood attracted to
the profession of arms by no higher motives than a juvenile
fondness for feathers and scarlet cloth, which soon become
objects of indifference to the silliest person that wears
them, he resolved to pursue some mode of life which might
be favourably contrasted with the glittering penury of a
subaltern.
In the absence of other resources, he thought of writing
for the stage; an occupation usually productive of more
vexation than emolument. In those days, however, dra¬
matic writing, if the most precarious, was also the most
profitable species of literary labour. And the dramatist
has this advantage over every other man of letters, that he
is either greeted by sudden applause, or relieved from the
horrors of suspense by immediate condemnation. In some
provincial town where his regiment was stationed, Van¬
brugh formed the acquaintance of Sir Thomas Skipwith,
from whom, Cibber, in his Apology for his Life, states that
“ he happened to receive a particular obligation,” of what
nature he does not explain. By way of showing his grati¬
tude to Sir Thomas, who had some share in the Theatre
Royal, Drury Lane, he wrote for that house the comedy of
the Relapse, or Virtue in Danger. This play, w hich is a
sequel to Cibber’s Love’s Last Shift, was acted in 1697, with
complete success. The Relapse was a very seasonable
acquisition to the company, whose affairs were in great
disorder, owing to the secession of Betterton and the prin¬
cipal comedians, who had been provoked by the tyranny of
the patentees to erect an independent standard in Lincoln’s-
1 Tong’s Account of the Life and Death of Mr. Matthew Henry, p. 63.
550
VAN
VAN
Vanbrugh. Inn-Fields. Soon after this comedy had been performed,
Lord Halifax, who was a great admirer of Betterton, re¬
quested Vanbrugh to finish the Provoked Wife, which had
been shown to his lordship in an imperfect state, and give
it to the other house. This solicitation he was unable to
resist; nor did his compliance give any offence to Sir
Thomas Skipwith. The Provoked Wife was performed in
1697, and was received with as much applause as the Re¬
lapse. In the preface to that comedy he says, “ there is
not one woman of real reputation in town, but, when she
has read it impartially over in her closet, will find it so
innocent, she’ll think it no affront to her prayer-book to
lay it upon the same shelf.” This reminds us of Smollett,
who flattered himself that in his novel of Peregrine Pickle
there would not be found a single “ adventure, phrase, or
insinuation, that could be construed by the most delicate
reader into a trespass upon the rules of decorum!” Of the
tendency of Vanbrugh's writings, a very different opinion
was formed by the arch-enemy of the theatre, Jeremy Col¬
lier, who, in his celebrated View of the Immorality of the
Stage, assigned him a conspicuous place among the offen¬
ders against religion and decency. Vanbrugh replied in
“ A Short Vindication of the Relapse and the Provok’d
Wife from Immorality and Prophaneness.” Lond. 1698,
8vo. This tract contains more wit than argument; and
the grave charge brought against him, Sir John Vanbrugh
rebuts too much in the manner of Sir John Falstaff, ano¬
ther ingenious sophist of equestrian rank. Although petu¬
lant enough, however, he was not angry, like some of the
other antagonists of Collier. The world acknowledged
that he had not written foolishly, and it gave him very
little concern that, in the opinion of one rigid censor, he
had written wickedly. Lefebvre-Cauchy has said in a few
words all that can be urged in extenuation of his offence:
“ Malheureusement la plus grande licence regnait alors sur
la scene Anglaise, et fon ne devait pas attendee qu’un jeune
militaire cherchat a en epurer la morale.”1
During the same year, 1697, Vanbrugh, who was again
at liberty to oblige his fi-iend Sir Thomas Skipwith, brought
out Esop, a comedy in two parts, at Drury Lane. This
comedy, which was a translation, with the addition of
some new characters, from the French of Boursault, met
with a much more moderate share of success than its
predecessors. Pope is said to have complimented Vanbrugh
by saying, that the fables in his Esop were written in the true
style of La Fontaine, very much to the surprise of the dra¬
matist, who knew nothing of La Fontaine or his produc¬
tions. Esop was followed in 1700 by the Pilgrim, and in
1702 by the False Friend. About this period was finished a
theatre in the Haymarket, forwhich Vanbrugh had sufficient
interest to procure thirty subscriptions at one hundred pounds
each. On the foundation-stone of this structure were inscrib-
i ed the words “ Little Whig,” in compliment to Lady Sun¬
derland, the second daughter of the duke of Marlborough.
The management of the house was conducted by Congreve
and Vanbrugh, in whose company the names of Betterton
and his principal adherents were enrolled. That great tra¬
gedian and his associates had not found their account in
deserting the patentees, and now hoped that a succession
of new pieces from the chief favourites of the town would
speedily retrieve their affairs. They were however dis¬
appointed in their expectations. The house was badly
adapted for the conveyance of sound ; and although Van¬
brugh wrote with great despatch, Congreve was too jealous
of his fame to suffer any thing to come from his hands that
had not been polished to the most dazzling brilliancy.
About this time the Italian opera, though yet in an embryo
form, had found favour in England ; and to humour the
prevailing taste, the new managers opened their theatr
with a piece set to Italian music, called the Triumph of
Love, which brought nothing into the treasury. In 1705 Van
brugh produced the Confederacy, founded on the « Bou^
geois a la mode ” of Dancour. This piece was also coldlv
received; and Congreve quitted with some precipitation
what he considered to be a falling house. Vanbrugh Was
now left to his own resources, and in the year 1706 pro.
duced the Cuckold in Conceit, Squire Treelooby, and the
Mistake, from the “Cocu Imaginaire,” the “Monsieur de
Pourceaugnac,” and the “ Depit Amoreux ” of Moliere,
The terse antithesis and epigrammatic point of the French
comedian were little to the taste of an English audience-
and Vanbrugh, now thoroughly disgusted with theatrical
management, assigned his house and properties to Mr.
Owen Swiney, upon condition of receiving five pounds for
every acting night, or an income not exceeding two hun¬
dred per annum. But if he had no dexterity in managing
a theatre, he possessed to a wonderful degree the more im¬
portant art of endearing himself to powerful friends. A
lively writer is often a very sombre companion; but Van¬
brugh’s most “entertaining scenes,” says Cibber, who
knew him well, “ seemed to be no more than his common
conversation committed to paper.” Great men are not al¬
ways in haste to provide for the needy companions of their
pleasures, W’ho seldom acquire any thing by such exalted
intercourse, but a taste for enjoyments which they car
rarely secure. Such helpless witlings it is often impossible
to rescue from the miseries of dependence, which seems tt
be their natural element. But Vanbrugh was a man o
true genius, whom it was reputable to befriend, and a mar
of energy, who was never plunged in disreputable indi
gence, and who was perfectly able to befriend himself
Dignity and wealth now flowed fast upon him. At Green
wich in 1714 he received the honour of knighthood; ir
1715 he was appointed comptroller of the royal works; ant
in the ensuing year, surveyor of the works at Greenwicl
Hospital. Some years before, he had been made Claren
cieux king-at-arms, an office for w-hich he had no qualities
tions. His appointment created such an outcry in the Col
lege of Heralds, that he had the modesty to resign. Hi
successor however had recourse to more palatable argu
ments than abuse. In 1715 he produceda farce called tin
Country House.
At one period of his life, Vanbrugh paid a visit to France
where he met with a remarkable adventure. When sun
veying some fortifications with minute attention, he at
tracted the notice of an engineer, upon whose informatior
he was handed over to the civil authorities, and conveyec
to the Bastile. Upon the news of this extraordinary in-
carceration, he was visited by some of the French nobility
whose language he spoke with perfect fluency and elegance
and who were so much charmed by his wit and vivacity
that they exerted themselves strenuously in his behalf, an>
he w-as speedily restored to liberty. In that gloomy e i
fice, which had often re-echoed to the groans of despair
Vanbrugh passed some of the most pleasant hours of 1
life. It is singular enough that a similar incident occurrei
to Hogarth, who w-as taken into custody when sketc wj
the gate of Calais. But that morose and irritable humour
ist had no distinguished visitors to cheer the gloom o 1
confinement, and commemorated this disagreeable even o
his history in the print entitled, “ O, the Roast Bee o
Old England!” , , .
Although he had retired from the bustle ofthean
management,Vanbrugh still continued his dramatic
and was engaged in writing the Provoked Husband, w
his hand was arrested by the stroke of death. Thisev
* Biographic Universelle, tom. xlvii. p. 418.
VAN DIEMEN’S LAND.
551
k place at his house in Whitehall, on the 26th of March
''i | !(J ‘ His widow survived till the year 1776, when she
, \t the age of ninety. Their only son, an ensign in the
^ (‘ ond regiment of foot guards, died in 1745 of the wounds
uch he had received in a battle fought near Tournay.
" The Provoked Husband was admirably finished by Cib-
, anj is still a favourite piece ; every comic actress of
a’eminence including Lady Townly in her list of parts.
1 on the revival of the Provoked Wife, Vanbrugh had
a >ady exhibited some regard to decency, by divesting
® John Brute of his clerical costume in a scene of the
f rth act, and providing him with the habiliments of a
fiionable demirep. In his prologue to the Provoked
I isband, Cibber informs us that the departed dramatist
d igned,' if his life had been prolonged, to have made still
r re important sacrifices at the shrine of decorum.
4s an architect, Sir John Vanbrugh is accused by Swift of
s ding his plans from the edifices erected by children with
c ds or mud; and after he had built St. John’s Church in
Westminster, some Pasquin of the time suggested the fol¬
ding retaliation:
Lie heavy on him, earth, for he
Laid many a heavy load on thee.
' hen Pope remonstrated with Swift upon his speaking with
s ;h unmeasured contempt of one of the most remarkable
i n of his time, the dean said that Vanbrugh was a puppy
i 1 a coxcomb, although he knew nothing of him but that he
i s neither a Tory nor a high-churchman. At last he became
} lamed of his injustice; and in the preface to the Miscel-
liies, collected by Pope and himself, an ample apology is
i ide for his unseasonable merriment at the expense of “ a
i m of wit and honour.”
Vanbrugh is now to be viewed in the character of a drama-
writer. In assimilating remote ideas, which is the proper
wince of wit, he is only inferior to Congreve, who was so pro-
i ;al in his use of this faculty, that Pope is induced to inquire
f Congreve’s fools are fools indeed.” The personages of
ingreve’s scenes are reproductions of the obsolete charac-
s of the old comedy, and his dialogue is a perpetual blaze
wit. The wit of the fine gentleman, and that of his
:key, are no doubt discriminated with great nicety; but
th utter such brilliant things, every time they have occa-
m to speak, as perhaps no man but Congreve himself
uld have devised. If this is a fault, it is one which modern
amatists, Sheridan alone excepted, have avoided with sin-
ilar success. Although Vanbrugh is less liberal than Con¬
eve in his expenditure of wit, he was a more faithful painter
the manners of the age in which he lived; his characters are
e men and women of the time, and appropriate language
put in the mouth of each. And if he is deficient in refine-
ent, he is never deficient in wit and vivacity. “ 1 here
something so catching to the ear,” says Cibber, “ so
easy to the memory in all he wrote, that it has been
i )served by all the actors of my time, that the style of no
ithor whatsoever gave their memory less trouble than that
Sir John Vanbrugh; which I myself, who have been charg-
1 with several of his strongest characters, can confirm by a
easing experience.” Had Vanbrugh lived a few years
'nger, he would probably have enriched the stage with
.'enes of equal purity and elegance, and his easy and har-
[ lonious lines, which are too often but a captivating garb
,r maxims of depravity, might have been a graceful vehicle
,r sentiments of virtue, and instructed the understanding,
bile they improved the heart.
VAN DIEMEN’S LAND, or Tasmania. This island
as long considered to form the southern termination
1 the great island of New Holland; and it was only as-
ertained to he an island in 17985 by Surgeon Bass and
lieutenant Flinders. It is situated between the paral-
ds ot 41° 20' and 43° 40' S., and the meridians of 144°
40' and 148° 20' E. It is of an irregular shape, somewhat Van Die-
in the form of a heart, its broadest part toward the north, men’s Land
Its greatest extent from north to south is estimated at about
210 miles, and from east to west 150 miles. It is nearly
about the size of Ireland, covering an area of about 24,000
square miles. This country was first discovered by Tas¬
man in 1642. In 1773 it was visited by Captain Furneaux,
and by Captain Cook in 1777, since which period it has
been visited by different navigators. Among others, Bruny
d’Entrecasteaux made this coast in 1792, and afterwards
revisited it in 1793. He entered a channel, which he spent
some time in exploring, and which is since known by the name
of D’Entrecasteaux’s channel. These discoveries were fur¬
ther prosecuted by subsequent navigators, and particularly
by Lieutenants Bass and Flinders, who, in different voyages,
in which they were occupied from 1795 to 1803, made a
complete survey of this coast, and also a great part of the
coast of New Holland.
In 1803, a detachment of troops under Lieutenant Bowen
arrived here from Sydney, for the purpose of establishing
a penal settlement; but nothing appears to have been
effected at that time beyond the selection of a spot for that
purpose. Early in 1804, Lieutenant-Governor Collins,
having in view a settlement on the southern coast of New
Holland, arrived from England with a more considerable ex¬
pedition ; and having altered his determination, he directed
his course to the river Derwent, when the island was formal¬
ly taken possession of in the name ol his Britannic Majesty.
After various surveys of the Derwent, the present site ot
Hobart-Town was decided upon lor head-quarters. Be¬
sides several individuals of respectability, he had with him
about 400 pensioners, with about fifty prisoners. The co¬
lony being thus planted, continued to take root, although
at times suffering great hardship. For the first three years
the inhabitants were wholly dependent on foreign supplies
of food, and were occasionally reduced to great straits, in¬
somuch that kangaroo meat was purchased at Is. 6d. per lb.,
and sea-weed, or any other vegetable substance fit for
food, likewise at a high price. About this time sheep and
cattle began first to be imported into the colony; and
fresh arrivals of prisoners increased the population, which
still preserved the character of a penal settlement for con¬
victed felons. In 1810 Governor Collins died, and was
succeeded by his second in command, and by other three
provisional governors. In 1813 Lieutenant-Colonel Da-
vey arrived from England as lieutenant-governor; and
about this period the rising importance of the colony began
to be gradually developed, and its prosperity was greatly
favoured by its port, from which hitherto all merchant ves¬
sels, except those from England and New South Wales, had
been interdicted, being declared free to the ships of all na¬
tions. This wise and necessary measure was followed by
the most beneficial effects; trade began to improve, its
surplus produce was freely exported, and such returns were
received as were calculated greatly to increase the wealth ot.
the colony. Society began to assume the appealance of
civilization; and although the stream of emigration from
home had not begun to flow in this direction, yet the officers
of the different regiments which had been stationed in the
colony, and so remained in it, with the settlers brought
from Norfolk Island on its evacuation, besides occasional
arrivals from New South Wales, and emancipated convicts,
formed a considerable addition to the population. A greater
quantity of land was cultivated, houses multiplied in uitie-
rent quarters, farms were inclosed, and symptoms of grow¬
ing wealth and prosperity began daily to appear. Colonel
Davey’s administration lasted till the year 1817. He was
succeeded by Colonel Sorell, who was intent on the inter¬
nal improvement of the colony, and who directed the for¬
mation of new roads, the erection of bridges, and the esta¬
blishment of schools and other institutions. In 1821 emi-
I
552
VAN DIEMEN’S LAND.
Van Die- grants began to resort in great numbers to this country;
men’s Land an(j as t£ey brought with them an increase of capital,
cultivation was rapidly extended on all sides. A regu¬
lar trade was begun, distilleries and breweries were erect¬
ed, the Van Diemen's bank was established, St. David’s
church at Hobart-Town was completed, and every thing
now indicated the rapid progress of this rising community.
According to a census taken in 1821, the inhabitants were
found to amount to 7185; the acres in cultivation to 14,940;
sheep, to 170,000 ; cattle, 35,000; and horses, 350. The
colony was still dependent on New South Wales, and had
no regular civil or criminal courts, occasional sessions being
only held by judges who arrived from New South Wales.
In 1825 this defect was remedied: Van Diemen’s Land
was declared by the king in council independent of the
colony of New South Wales; the chief authority was vest¬
ed in a lieutenant-governor and council, the latter consist¬
ing, according to the 9th Geo. IV. c. 83, of fifteen mem¬
bers; civil and criminal courts were established; and the
sole dependency of the colony was in future on the mother
country.
The prosperity of the colony was long retarded, and the
lives and properties of the inhabitants endangered by a ban¬
ditti of runaway convicts, who took shelter in the woods,
and issued in bands from these hiding-places, to plunder the
settlements and to murder their proprietors. They were
known under the title of bush-rangers; and they even
proceeded so far as to write threatening letters to the
magistracy and the lieutenant-governor. A feeling of in¬
security pervaded the more remote settlements; and the
most respectable farmers, with one accord, betook them¬
selves to the towns as the only certain refuge from the
violence of these wretches, who scrupled not at confla¬
gration, robbery, and murder. They long continued their
depredations with impunity, owing to the insufficiency
of the military force, the ample subsistence afforded by
the abundance of game, and the superior local knowledge
which they acquired in the course of their wandering
life. In order to abate this growing evil, Colonel Davey
proclaimed the whole island under martial law; and the
military being seconded by the respectable inhabitants,
succeeded in apprehending the most daring of these of¬
fenders, who were executed and hung in chains as a ter¬
ror to their associates. The proclamation of a general
amnesty induced others to surrender. But many of these
again escaped into the woods, and renewed their lawless
outrages against the persons and properties of the settlers;
and it was not till the year 1817, that, by great exertions
of the troops, aided by the settlers, this gang of banditti was
rooted out, most of them being apprehended by the activi¬
ty of the troops, and executed.
Aspect of Van Diemen’s Land, seen from the coast, has a more
the coun- agreeable aspect than New Holland. Many fine tracks
tr7- of land are found on the very borders of the sea; and
the interior is almost invariably possessed of a soil admi¬
rably adapted to all the purposes of civilized man. The is¬
land is upon the whole decidedly mountainous. In the in¬
terior it is extremely diversified in its surface ; not so much,
however, by continuous ranges of mountains, as by insulated
peaks, with intervening tracks of table land, and extensive
and fertile valleys. On the south of the island, the country
presents a peculiarly bold and rude aspect, hills being piled
upon hills, all densely covered with trees to the top, and
presenting one impervious forest, except here and there a
rocky eminence towering to a majestic height. Farther in¬
ward the country assumes a less stern and forbidding as¬
pect, and many fine open spots meet the eye, lightly tim¬
bered and extending for miles; the prospect, however, being
still closed by a background of lofty mountains. Between
Hobart-Town and Launceston, towards the north, there is
a fine champaign country intersected by streams, and of great
extent; and towards the north coast the scenery consists of’
every variety of hill and dale, woodland and plain, forest'c
and village, that forms the perfection of a rural landscaoes \
The western parts of the island, though they have been im
perfectly explored, are represented as abounding in bold and
mountainous scenery, although possessing well watered
and fertile plains. Here the ground generally rises to a
great elevation, and has consequently a milder climate in
winter than the inhabited districts towards the east. Of
the mountains there are several which rise to a great
height. Mount Wellington, which is only a few niiles
west from Hobart-Town, is 4000 feet above the level of
the sea. It has a magnificent appearance; and its bold and
rugged hills are diversified with occasional spots of sombre
foliage. During eight months of the year it is covered with
snow ; but so pure is the atmosphere, that its summit is sel¬
dom obscured with clouds. Being so near Hobart-Town it
has frequent visitors in summer. The southern mountains
near Port Davey form a long range, which stretches into
the interior for several miles, and in some places rises 5000
feet above the sea. They are covered with snow during the
greater part of the year. The other principal mountains in
the colony are Benlomond, distant about 100 miles from
Hobart-Town, and rising 4200 feet; the Table mountains
near Jericho, 3800 feet; Peak of Teneriffe, or Wylede’s
Craig, 4500 ; Quamby’s Bluff, 3500; Mount Field, 3000;
St. Paul’s Dome, 2500; with several others, from 1000 to
2000 feet in elevation.
The country is well watered, numerous streams flowing
from the mountains ; and on the summits of many of them
are large lakes, which are the sources of considerable rivers.
The Derwent is a noble and magnificent stream, varying
in breadth, from its entrance up to Hobart-Town, from six
to twelve miles, having everywhere deep water, without
rocks or sand-banks, and navigable at all seasons, even by
strangers, with the most perfect ease and safety. The
mouth of the Dement is formed on the right by Brune
island and D’Entrecasteaux’s channel, and on the left by
Iron Pot island and the South Arm; the latter presenting
for six miles a coast of highly luxuriant appearance, and
then abruptly terminating in the centre of the Derwent,
where the river, uniting with the waters of Double Bay,
extends its width to nearly twelve miles. This river takes
its rise in a lake to the westward, and flows with consider-
able rapidity, receiving numerous tributary streams until it
reaches New Norfolk, where it is almost as wide as the
Thames at Battersea, whence it pursues its course towards
the ocean, widening as it goes, with the finest scenery on
its banks. The water continues fresh for about six miles be¬
low New Norfolk. The Huon is nearly of equal magnitude
with the Derwent, and runs westerly until it falls into the
sea in one of its arms or creeks not many miles from Hobart-
Town. Though it be a navigable river, it is however of little
value to the colony, the land on its banks being so heavily
timbered, that it is neither arable nor fit for pasturage, h
is occasionally resorted to by vessels of considerable bur¬
den for the timber on its shores, which is taken in as bal¬
last. The Tamar, formed by two rivers, the North and
South Esk, is navigable for its whole course, though, on
account of a bar and other intricacies of navigation, it re¬
quires great skill and management on the part of the pnot
to take up or down large vessels with safety. Among the
rivers of the second class that water fine districts, and are
extremely useful, though they are not navigable, may e
enumerated the Shannon, the Clyde, and the Jordan, a o
which fall into the Derwent, either singly, or having pre
viously united above New Norfolk; the Coal river, w ‘c)
falls into the sea near Richmond; and the two Esks, w nc
join and form the Tamar at Launceston. There is st'
numerous class of smaller rivers, which have an abun
supply of water all the year round for mills, cattle, an c
VAN DIEMEN’S LAN
-d- i stic use. There are the Thames or Lachlan at New
and Jwfolk; the Plenty, the Styx, Jones’s river, and Russell’s
Lwhich are also tributaries of the Derwent; the Mac-
c irrie and Elizabeth rivers, more in the interior, and
v ich are tributaries of the Esk; Blackman’s river, also
k the heart of the colony. Farther north is the Lake
r ?r passing through Norfolk plains, the Western river,
t Isis, and several others of less note. More to the
v stward are the Mersey, the Meander, the Forth, the Iris,
t! Leven, the Emu, the Cam, the Inglis, and numerous
oers, which are spread over all parts of the colony.
J mnd the coast of the island many streams fall into the
otan, having spread fertility over the districts through
w ch they have previously flowed. Among these may be
mtioned the Carlton, Prosser’s river, Great Swan Port
ri:r, Piper’s river, &c.; also North-west Bay river, a
ft miles from Hobart-Town. Others again are found in
di ert situations in the country, where cultivation has made
li e progress. There are several lakes, generally in the
ctttre of the island among the mountains, of considerable
epnt, which abound with water-fowl of all descriptions.
G eat Lake is about ninety miles north-west of Hobart-
T vn, and eighty feet above the level of the sea. It is
tv nty miles long and ten broad, with deep bays and in-
di tations, and many promontories and peninsulas extending
ir, < it. It contains five islands, covered with a species of
cur, and numerous shrubs. Its greatest depth is only
tl e fathoms. Around the coast are numerous bays and
hi )ours that afford secure anchorage. The entrance from
tl ocean to the Derwent presents two lines of continuous
bu or anchorage of unrivalled excellence. The one most
a monly used leads through Storm bay, and the other
tl: ugh D’Entrecasteaux’s channel, w'hich is one string of
lil 3 bays or anchorages for nearly forty miles. On the
et ern coast of the island is Oyster bay and Great Swan
1 t; on the north, Port Dairymple, or the mouth of the
riiar, Port Sorell, and Circular Head; westward, Mac-
qi rie harbour and Port Davey. Besides, there are many
of nailer note, capable of affording secure shelter to craft
of ight burden.
he climate of this island is equally healthy, and more
o ,remal to the constitution of Europeans, than that of Port
Jikson, not being subject to any remarkable variations
oi er of heat or cold. Generally speaking, throughout the
su mer, alternate land and sea-breezes prevail every tw^enty-
o liours; the wind blowing from the land from sun-set
i en or eleven o’clock the following day, when it is suc-
ct led by the sea-breeze, which continues till the evening,
influence extends many miles inshore, and diffuses
•restung coolness, even in the hottest days of sum-
, 1 he average thermometer is 70°, although the heat
n ;CJ™y nmch greater, the mercury rising to 100° or
n l . 118 SU(Men heat is occasioned by the north and
tin i"181 ^in^,’ wkich is felt at Port Jackson, and here,
mli’1 n0t •m 1 le saine degree, though its effects are seen
ciif 8rovving crops, producing blight and other injurious
co inUeifCeS’v ^le ra!n which is almost certain to suc-
th ,AeW 10,jrs> again cools the atmosphere, and corrects
an -ar ™eCtS °* tlle Previous sultriness. Thunder-storms
is ?ley ever vio]ent- During spring, which
w. u ■ on ls September, October, and November, the
hi] winlt ^SU ,y bright and clear, with occasional rain and
htwepn mv W 1 j” . e average range of the thermometer is
I) en | y an^ s,xty degrees. The summer, which is in
*1 di the’ veSl’and ^ebruary’is generally dry ; during
D.
553
w .|. th:’"ua7; anu reoruary, is generally dry ; during
m th |.Vegftable productions arrive at maturity one
‘ .tn earlier than thev wm.Ll  i..
earl- i , ai maiuniy one
ctjibpr u.iler,1 lan they would in England, namely, in De-
SP re ’ a" corresponds to June of the northern hemi-
SP re A *  ”tJUUUS June or the nortfiern hemi-
tlL* *Utu‘nn’ wllich is in March, April, and May, is
br it, free fryear; tlle r. being clear and
it trpp f i jtcl1 > air oeiiig ciear ana
o’. xxi rom C Oudsand vapours, and the medium heat
which ^ ’ ^he nights are cool and refreshing, Van Die-
mpr Tl •'! ^eraUytie case in the height of sum-men’s Land
mer. The winter, which is in June, July, and August is —
iallsBbrke‘ tr the hlgi1 and exP°sed situations, the snow
faffs thick, and lies a good part of the year, and the frosts are
severe; but in the low’er valleys and plains, the sun never
loses its power during the day, and under its influence, frost
and snow quickly disappear; so that the winter is not re¬
garded by the inhabitants as the cold and dismal period of
the higher latitudes, but as the season of moderate and
genial rain, which facilitates the labours of the husbandman
mthe ensuing spring. The average range of the thermometer
is from forty to forty-eight degrees, though sometimes it falls
lower, but seldom continues above a day or two.
yanf,Diernfn’s La«d bounds in every variety of soil, Soil and
and with much less of an indifferent quality than is to beproduc-
found in New Holland. Large tracks of land, perfectly free dons,
from timber or underwood, are to be found in all directions,
and covered with luxuriant herbage; where the colonist,
entering on the possession of the best land, incurs no ex¬
pense in clearing his farm, but has only to set fire to the grass,
in order to prepare his land for immediate tillage. There
are other two circumstances which are extremely favourable
to the colonist. The rivers have all a sufficient fall to
prevent any excessive accumulation of water from hea¬
vy and continued rains, and are consequently free from
those violent and destructive inundations to which the rivers
of New Holland are subject; and here the colonist may set¬
tle securely without the dread of having his lands sub¬
merged and his produce swept away by the devouring flood.
The seasons are more regular, and not liable to the same
inequalities, and to those periodical droughts by which New
Holland is visited. In the years 1813, 1814, 1815, and like¬
wise in 1839, when the whole face of the other colony was
burnt up, when vegetation was completely at a stand, and
the cattle were perishing for want of rain, there were abun¬
dant harvests in this more fruitful island, and no want of
rains. Within a period of about forty years since the
country was settled, the crops have sustained no serious de¬
triment from the want of rain, and the harvests have in ge¬
neral been productive ; while the parent colony, since it has
been established, has been repeatedly in the greatest dis¬
tress fiom dearth and from inundation. The agricultural
products, with some differences arising from the climate,
are nearly the same as at Port Jackson. Indian corn
or maize is not cultivated here; but wheat, barley, and
oats are raised of a very superior quality. Nor is there
such a variety or abundance of fruit; the finer fruits
of those latitudes that are nearer the equator, such as the
orange, the lemon, the citron, the pomegranate, &c., which
growin the greatest perfection at Port Jackson,arenotknown
in this island, while the peach, the nectarine, and the grape
arrive at an inferior degree of maturity, and can only be
raised by artificial means. But on the other hand, all thefruits,
such as the apple, the currant, the gooseberry, and all ve¬
getables and herbs that grow in the northern climate of Eu¬
rope, thrive equally well in this congenial climate. The ve¬
getable kingdom is similar to that in New South Wales. The
forests abound in woods that are adapted to all the various
purposes of life. In many places there is no underwood,
the ground being covered with tall ungainly trees, standing
at some distance from each other, and rising up to a great
height, before they shoot out their branches. Much of the
timber is extremely serviceable for the purpose of building;
while there are ornamental w oods, which are highly esteemed
for cabinet work, and for fitting up and embellishing the inte¬
rior of houses ; and others for their hardness and durability.
All the trees are evergreens, and some of them, particularly
the mimosas, put forth very rich blossoms in spring. But
the colour has been remarked to partake more or less of
yellow. The foliage of the trees is generally dark green,
4 A
554
VAN DIEMEN'S LAND,
Minerals.
Van Die- which gives rather a sombre aspect to the forests; the
men’s Land eye wandering over the wide expanse every where pre-
sented, and in vain seeking relief from any variety of hue.
There is a great variety of shrubs, many of which are ex¬
tremely beautiful, and some of them have very elegant
flowers. Among the most valuable plants yet discovered,
may be classed the pepper tree, the trunk of which contains
many medicinal properties. The tea tree is also deserving
of notice, the leaves serving at times as a substitute for those
of the Chinese plant, and though the beverage is not equally
good, it has the recommendation of being much cheaper.
1 The island has not yet been sufficiently explored for the
discovery of its mineral treasures. Its geology is very varied.
Basalt is however supposed to be the principal substratum
of the soil, and all along the coast it presents itself in rocky
precipitous heights, standing on beautiful columnar pedes¬
tals. Among these may be mentioned Fluted Cape at Ad¬
venture Bay. It is so called from the circular columns
standing up close together, in the form of the barrels of an
organ. Circular Head is another singular specimen of the
basaltic formation. It is a curious rock, standing out ot the
sea, exactly like a huge round tower or fortress, the work of
art. Mount Wellington, already mentioned, is composed of
this rock, as well as the rocky banks of many of the moun¬
tain rivers. In some parts, both on the coast and in the in¬
terior, the columns appear in insulated positions, springing
up from the grass or the ocean like obelisks or huge needles.
There are several specimens of this curious formation on
the south side of Brune island; and the rocks on the land
stand erect upon their several blocks, gradually diminishing
as they rise, so that the force of a well-aimed stone would
seem sufficient to drive the uppermost from its precarious
base. Limestone is almost the only mineral that has been
brought into general use. It has been found in abundance
in most parts of the island; and a very fine species of lime,
used in the better sort of plastering and stuccoing, is made
in considerable quantities, by burning the oyster shells that
are found in beds along various parts of the coast. Other
calcareous Subst€ances occur in different parts of the island.
Marble of a white mixed grey colour, susceptible of a good
polish, has frequently been found. Around Hobart-Town,
strata of soft clayey marl occur, which has been found
very useful as a manure. Much of the common limestone
is of a yellowish or reddish colour, derived from the oxide
of iron with which it is mixed, and which is so generally
scattered throughout the island. Of the metallic ores, that
of iron abounds, of a red, brown, and black colour. In one
or two instances in which it has been analyzed, it has been
found to contain eighty per cent, of the pure mineral. It
also occurs, though more rarely, and in smaller quantities,
under the form of red chalk. Specimens of red and
green copper ore, lead, zinc, manganese, and, as some say,
silver and gold, have been occasionally met with. Indi¬
cations of coal have been found all across the island, com¬
mencing at South Cape, and shewing themselves in various
parts; at Satellite island in D’Entrecasteaux’s channel,
on the banks of the Huon, at Hobart-Town, New Norfolk,
the Coal river, Jerusalem, Jericho; and excellent coal and
very rich iron ore have also been discovered in Richmond
district and other places. The stratum of the South Cape
is situated on the north side of the bay, and extends almost
twro miles along the coast. This coal has been analyzed,
and has been found of a superior quality, and well adapted
for the raising of steam. Excellent roof slate appears at a
certain spot betw een Launceston and George-Town; and in
the form of mica in large masses on the rocks round Port
Davey, on the southern corner of the island, where, being
much exposed to the winds and waves of the southern
ocean, they have become so much worn by the weather
as to exhibit the appearance of snow. Excellent sand¬
stone for building is found in almost every part of the
island, and most of the houses in Hobart-Town are now
built with it, instead of badly made bricks as formerly. Ann
quarry has also been recently discovered at Port Arthur v
where the manufacture of filtering-stones is expected to
be commenced. Flints are scattered in great plenty upon
the hills, especially where basalt abounds. Other rarer
stones have been found in different parts of the island,
especially in those which appear to have been washed in
former times by the ocean, and which have been deposited
in certain ranges or linear positions, by the lashing of the
waves and the subsiding of the waters; such as hornstone,
schistus, wood-opal, bloodstone, jasper, and that other sin¬
gular species called the cat’s eye, which reflects different
rays of light according to its position. Petrified remains
of wood and other vegetable productions, entirely converted
into siliceous matter, and capable of the finest polish, are
occasionally met with in different parts of the island, espe¬
cially in the Macquarrie district.
The animals resemble those of New South Wales, com¬
prising the kangaroo, of which there are three different
species, the forest, the brush, and the wallapy, the chiet
difference between them being the size. The hyena, opos¬
sum, or tiger, measures six feet from the snout to the tail,
and is exceedingly destructive among the flocks. It is
beautifully striped with black and white on the back, and
the belly and sides are of a grey colour. The dasyvrusur-
sinus, known by the ordinary name of the devil, is another
animal of the same species, extremely ugly, the head re¬
sembling that of the otter, but quite disproportionate to
its body. It is very destructive to the flocks, issuing at
night from the rocky hills which it frequents, in search of its
prey. The native porcupine resembles the common hedge¬
hog, and is quite harmless. The wombat is a singular animal,
and when full grown weighs nearly forty-three pounds. The
head, which is large and flattish, forms an equilateral triangle.
It has extremely short legs, ears sharp and erect, eyes
small and sunken, but lively, and the feet are formed like
those of a badger; the tail is an inch in length. Thefiesh
is very delicate. The platypus is an animal apparently al¬
lied to the beaver tribe. The body is about ten inches
long, and about as many in circumference. This amim
is very shy, and is only found in unfrequented places. Se¬
veral "species of wild cats are found in the woods. One is
called the tiger-cat, from its resemblance to that animal;
others partake of the character of the weasel, fne kan¬
garoo rat and the kangaroo mouse possess, with the size
of these animals, all the characteristics of the kangaroo.
There are several species of opossums, all perfectly arm
less. The bandicoot is a small animal, which makes grea
havoc in the potato grounds when it visits them.
The feathered tribes are numerous, of every descrip ion
and many of them of the most beautiful plumage.
the birds of prey are eagles, hawks ot all sorts, kites, rave
and the common carrion-crow. Among the water- ^
u.
4,
fill!,
ommon carnon-ciuw. w.v.
many varieties of the gull, pelican, th^king^sier,^ ^
many varieties or me gun, peiu-au, w.*. ‘ B, ) 0 th,
swans of very majestic appearance, wild ducks, a's
musk duck, teal, widgeon, and a variety of others. ^
that class which belong neither to birds 0 .Pre^, t ot
water-fowl, are emus, black and white and satm coc ^
parrots and parroquets in great variety, large ^ . r
pies, the white or the whistling magpie, the laug gj f
ass, so called from its singular noise; with raa'' u,
of smaller size, but of more beautiful appearance,
snipes, and a species of pigeon of a splendid pro ^
in flavour resembling a partridge, are the .c "ef tsmeI
in addition to water-fowl, attract the attention o P
All the inlets and bays of the coast ^ ^
Among those which may be purchased at Hobar -
the salmon, so called in the colony, but in rea i v . ‘art
fish ; perch, rock-cod, bream, mullet, whitmgs, ^ ^
leather-jackets, tailors, parrots, guard-fish, era.
VAN D I E M E N’S L A N D.
^ good as lobsters, oysters, good and plentiful, eels,
.and (ate, and shrimps. Some years ago mackarel, of a very
nail species, were caught, but they have since disappeared,
lack-fish are plentiful in the Mersey, and generally weigh
five to fifteen pounds; they have no scales. The in-
rior rivers and lakes abound with very fine eels, but, ex-
pt the mullet, they are of little value. The toad-fish,
and in the bays and shores of the island, is a strong poison,
his poison is of a powerful sedative nature, producing stupor,
d acting on the nervous system. The black whale re-
rts during the breeding season to the deep estuaries of
/ers, and to the bays and inlets around the island. This
hery is pursued with great activity and success. There
e several kinds of snakes, some of them poisonous ; the
jst common one a large black snake, the diamond
ake, and a smaller brown sort. In the reptile family may
classed the guanas and lizards, said to be harmless; cen-
tedes of two sorts, scorpions and tarantulas, the latter
;en met with in rotten wood. There are many curious
d beautiful varieties of the beetle; three or four sorts,
me of which are an inch long, and sting sharply. The
Id bee is found, and a variety of spiders. All the domes-
: animals of Europe thrive, and increase in size,
tion The population here, as in New South Wales, consists
three classes, the aborigines, the convicts, and the free
labitants. The aborigines, or blacks, more resemble in
eir countenance and appearance the African negro than
ose of New South Wales, though living under a colder
mate. Their hair is woolly and their complexion black, and
ey are said to be inferior in ingenuity, as well as in mus-
lar strength. For several years an inveterate hostility pre-
iled between them and the civilized inhabitants ; and the
fenceless farmers and stock-keepers were often murdered
the natives. These outrages at last roused the spirit
i the whole country; and the troops, and all those that
re capable of bearing arms, formed a cordon round the
■ origines, with the intention of confining them in the
ninsula called Tasman’s Head, where all their wants were
be supplied, and an attempt was to be made to civilize
' 3m. They however broke through this cordon like so
my wild beasts ; but by the humane exertions of some
1 the settlers, aided by a few of the more civilized abori-
ies of Sydney, they have been removed to Flinders Island,
Bass’s straits, where they are clothed and fed, and attempts
; :madetocivilize them. Their numberdoes not exceed300,
; (1, as usually happens with savages when they are brought
thin the bounds of civilization, they are gradually decaying.
Ihe convicts amount to 12,000. Every convict who is
nsported to Van Diemen’s Land, without any reference
previous circumstances, is either placed in the public
vice or is assigned to individuals immediately on landing.
ie first are compelled to devote their whole time to the
vice of the crown, and receive in return food, lodging,
d clothes. Labourers and mechanics reside in barracks
lit for the purpose; clerks employed in the public offices
' permitted to live elsewhere, and receive a small pittance;
>se who are assigned to individuals are still under the
1 'sest surveillance, and can go nowhere without a pass.
>e convict prisoners are divided into classes: 1. Such
>ourers or mechanics as, on account of especial good con-
ct, are permitted to sleep out of the barracks, and to work
themselves the whole of each Saturday. 2. Those
>o still lodge in the barracks, but who are allowed to work
themselves the whole of each Saturday. 3. Those
10 are employed on the public works, and are released
’m work every Saturday at noon. 4. Refractory or dis-
e1 y characters, worked in irons for crimes committed
t country, under a sentence of the magistrate. 5. Men
t h most degraded and incorrigible character, worked in
ircs under the sentence of a magistrate, and kept entirely
555
separate from the other prisoners. 6. Men removed for Van Die-
crimes to penal settlements, which are distant stations underrnen s hand
the governments of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s
Land, where none but prisoners and their guards are allow¬
ed to remain, and where the former are kept to unremitting
labour. The rewards to prisoners for good conduct consist
of tickets of leave, which exempt the holder from compul¬
sory labour, and emancipations, which restore freedom, but
without permission to leave the country.
The free population ranges between 15,000 and 20,000.
The following is an account of the population from a recent
census:—Free persons, 20,886; convict ditto, 11,938; Port
Arthur, 1137; Flinders’ Island (black and white), 183; other
islands, 50; military (with wdves,&c.), 1054. Total, 35,250.
The number of emigrants that embarked from the united
kingdom to this colony in 1839 only amounted to 328;
while those to Sydney amounted to 8455.1
The supreme authority is vested in a lieutenant-governor Govern-
and executive council, consisting of the lieutenant-governor, ment*
chief-justice, colonial secretary, treasurer, chaplain, attorney-
general, and collector of customs, together with eight pri¬
vate gentlemen of the colony, nominated by the crown for
life. The governor, with the concurrence of at least two-
thirds of the council, possesses the power of making laws,
if not repugnant to the laws of England. He, along with
the council, may also impose taxes for local purposes. The
laws are administered by a supreme court, consisting of a
chief-justice and one puisne judge. It is a civil and crimi¬
nal court. Appeals may be made from its decisions in civil
cases, only when the matter exceeds L.1000 in value, and
then direct to the king in council. Either judge may hold
a court of circuit in different parts of the colony, for the
trial of offences, or for civil actions.
Van Diemen’s Land was originally divided into two coun- visions,
ties, those of Buckingham and Cornwall. These indeed con¬
tinue to be its only counties, although in 1826 it was divid¬
ed into nineteen police districts. Orders were then re¬
ceived from the home government for forming this colony
into counties, hundreds, and parishes, in the same manner
as England. Each of these districts is under the charge of
a public magistrate, and a chief and other constables, to
whose exertions the good order of the colony is mainly in¬
debted.
The clergy of the church of England consist of a rural Religion,
dean, one senior, and seven junior chaplains. Van Diemen’s |cducat‘on'
Land is included in the diocese of Australia. There are threeCic'
Presbyterian ministers, one Independent, one Wesleyan;
and one Roman Catholic priest, all paid by the government.
The income of the senior chaplain at Hobart-d own is esti¬
mated at L.1000 a-year, arising from the glebe, fees, &c.
Education is well attended to by the government, which sup¬
ports the King’s Orphan Schools, one for male and another for
female children, and seventeen elementary schools through¬
out the colony. The king’s schools are for those who are en¬
tirely destitute, or who have one parent living, or whose
parents, though both alive, have not the means of giving
their children education ; and, lastly, for those who are
able to contribute annually the sum of'L.12. There are
besides numerous private seminaries throughout the colony,
where all the elementary branches of education are taught.
The press is free, and being neither restrained by stamp
duties nor taxes on the paper, is conducted with ability and
spirit. There are no less than eight newspapers published
at Hobart*Town, and two at Launceston, besides monthly
magazines, annuals, and almanacks. Various religious, be¬
nevolent, and literary institutions are established, which
contribute to the improvement of morals, as well as to the
diffusion of knowledge.
The public revenue is derived from customs, duties, ex- Revenue,
cise, fees, sale of land, quit-rents, &c. A duty of five per commerce.
See Parliamentary Papers for the year 1840; copy of any General Return of Emigration for the year 18^9.
556
VAN
VAN
Van Die- cent, is imposed on the importation of British goods ; of capital, and their European skill and industry. With such V
men’s Land j()St per gallon on foreign spirits ; 7s. 6d. on British gins ; external aids, and the natural vigour that exists within, the1^
  and 6d. per pound on tobacco ; L.25 a-year on a license to internal resources of the colony will be developed; the coun-
distil spirits ; of 5s. on one to bake bread or to slaughter try will rapidly fulfil its destiny, and the time cannot be far V
cattle ; 5s. to keep a dog on a chain, 10s. off a chain ; 5s. distant when we may expect to see a populous and flourish-'"
to keep a cart for hire. An auctioneer’s license costs ing country redeemed from a wilderness, and exhibiting all
L.3, 3s.; marriage license, L.4, 4s.; and there are fees, which the arts and refinements of Europe,
are equivalent to stamp duties, on grants of land, on the re¬
gistering of deeds, &c. The annual revenue amounts to
L.90,000, of which one half arises from the customs. The
expenditure amounts to about the same sum. The staple
products of the colony are wool, whale oil, cattle, and pro¬
visions, the same as in New South Wales. Ihe following
table shows the progress of the trade.
Ships Inwards—From
Years.
1823
1827
1830
1833
Great Britain.!
No.
27
33
66
Tons.
15091
9695
11325
21597
British
Colonies.
No.
40
52
94
Tons.
1639
6615
11203
14307
Foreign
States.
No.
5
16
7
Tons.
1000
4055
1538
Total
Imvards.
No.
72
101
167
Tons.
16730
17310
26582
37442
Van Diemen Cape, a cape on Mornington isle, in the
gulf of Carpentaria. Long. 139 49. E. Lat. 16. 32 S
VANDSHELLING ISLANDS, a cluster of sm’all
islands on the south coast of New Guinea. Long. 136
15. E. Lat 3. 32. S.
VANDYCK, Sir Anthony, a celebrated painter, was
born at Antwerp in the year 1599. After giving early
proofs of his genius, he became the disciple of the illustri¬
ous Rubens. In the church of the Augustines at Antwerp,
at the high altar, is a celebrated picture of Rubens, repre¬
senting, in one part, the Virgin Mary sitting with the child
Jesus in her lap, and in another part several saints, male
and female, standing. The breast of one of these, St.
Sebastian, is said to have been painted by Vandyck when
he was only a disciple of Rubens. This great master being
engaged one day abroad, his disciples went into his paint¬
ing-room, where, after having been some time employed in
admiring his works, they began to romp in such a manner,
that the breast of St. Sebastian, which was not yet dry, was
brushed away by a hat thrown at random. This accident
put an end to their play : they were very anxious to restore
it, fearing that if Rubens discovered it they should all be
discarded. At length it was agreed that Anthony should
undertake to mend the saint’s breast. In short, taking his
master’s pallet and brushes, he succeeded so well that his
companions imagined Rubens would overlook it. They
were mistaken ; for Rubens at his return knew immediately
that some one had touched his performance: calling his
disciples, he asked them why any one had dared to meddle
with his painting. They were some time doubtful whether
Since this period the commerce from Britain does notap- they should confess or deny the fact. Threats at length
pear to have increased. In 1838 and 1839 the number of prevailed; they owned that Vandyck had thrown his hat
Ships Outwards—To
Years.
1823
1827
1830
1833
Great Britain. I
British
Colonies.
No.
4
15
17
Tons.
15092
1395
4884
4978
No.
52
66
133
Tons.
1639
11827
15554
27377
Foreign
States.
No.
5
11
9
Tons.
5203
4607
3895
T otal
Outwards.
No.
61
92
159
Tons.
16730
14425
25045
36250
upon it. Upon this, closeting Vandyck, instead of chiding
him, he told him, that f‘ it was proper and even necessary
for him to travel into Italy, the only school that produced
excellent painters.” By this advice, and with the assistance
of his master, he set out for Italy, about the year 1621,
being then about twenty-one or twenty-two years ot age.
ships that arrived was 41 and 38; the amount of the ton
nage 12,598 and 11,946.'
In 1834 the imports at Hobart-Town amounted in value
to L.355,273, and at Launceston to L.l 15,961. The ex¬
ports for the same year were, from Hobart Town, L.l 17,323,
of which oil amounted to L.45,513; wool, LAS,765 ; and
whale-bone, L.8217 ;—and from Launceston, L.85,919, of Having staid a short time at Rome, he removed to Venice,
which wool was L.59)015. The currency is the same as in where he attained the beautiful colouring of Titian, Paul
the mother country, though dollars, rupees, and other fo- Veronese, and the Venetian school,
reign coins are in circulation. There are three banks at After a few years he returned to Flanders, with so noble,
Hobart-Town, and one at Launceston, which issue notes, so easy, and natural a manner of painting, that Titian him-
and transact all the ordinary business of money dealers, dis- self was hardly his superior; and no other master could
counting bills and remitting money, also collecting debt on equal him in portraits. Soon after his return, he acciden-
commission. They have generally carried on a successful tally met with D. Teniers, who accosted him with great
business, having divided between twelve and fifteen per politeness, and asked him whether he had much business
cent, on their capital stock. since he came from Rome ? “ What business, think you,
The progress of this colony in improvement has hitherto can I have had time to do?” replied Vandyck: “ lam only
been remarkable, and its future prospects are not less pro¬
mising. With a mild climate exactly adapted to the Euro¬
pean constitution, a fruitful soil, and an industrious popula¬
tion, it must continue in its course with increased rapidity       7   ... (i
The fine wool which it produces is a great commercial sta- turn up better, I shall make no long stay at Brussels.’ boon
pie, which must command its price in the chief manufac- after this, he painted those two famous pictures, the Nativity
luring districts of Europe; and this valuable produce will and a dying Christ; the first in the parish church, the
increase as cultivation extends over the interior deserts; as second in that of the Capuchins, at Termond.
well as its surplus produce of grain, which by the introduc- Vandyck, finding he could not make a fortune in !‘s
tion of steam engines, may be easily converted into flour, own country, adopted the resolution of visiting
and thus supply a valuable article of exportation. The na- Accordingly he borrowed some guineas of Teniers, an ^
ture of the country, both in point of climate and soil, pre- out, furnished with letters of recommendation. HlS^
sents every inducement to emigrants, who have of late been perior genius soon brought him into great reputation, ^
drawn thither in great numbers, bringing with them their above all, he excelled in portraits, which he drew
1 See Return to an order of the House of Commons, 24th Febiuary 1840.
just arrived here. Would you believe, that I offered to
draw that fat brewer’s picture who just passed by us for
two pistoles, and that the looby laughed in my face, saying
it was too dear? I assure you, that if the cards do not
VAR
jni nceivable facility, and for which he charged a very
hi price, according to the instructions which had been
■ n him on that head. It is affirmed, that for some of
v[h l) he received 400 guineas a-piece. He soon found
hi df loaded with honours and riches; and as he had
a i ble and generous heart, he lived suitably to his fortune.
H married Maria Ruthven, grand-daughter of the first earl
of owrie; and though she had but little fortune, maintained
he in a style equal to her birth. He generally kept a mag-
ni ent equipage, and a numerous retinue. He died in
bl 'klriars on the 9th of December 1641, at the early age
of trty two, and was buried in St. Paul’s near the tomb of
Joi of Gaunt. He left a daughter, married to Mr. Step-
ne the grandfather of George Stepney the poet. Lady
y. cKck was afterwards married to Richard the son of Sir
Jo i Pryse of Newton-Averbecham, but by her second
In land she had no issue,
ANE, a thin slip of bunting hung to the mast-head, or
so, 2 other conspicuous place in the ship, to show the direc-
tiqof the wind. It is commonly sewed upon a wooden frame
cai d the stock, which contains two holes for slipping over
th ipindle, upon which it turns about as the wind changes.
ANNES, an arrondissement in the department of Mor-
bii n in France, extending over 638 square miles, com-
pr ending eleven cantons, divided into seven communes,
an, containing a population of 125,898 in 1836. The capi¬
ta i the city of the same name, which is connected with the
gi of Morbihan by a canal about turn and a half miles in
It: th. It is well fortified, is the seat of a bishop, has a ca-
th ral and other three churches, 1850 houses, and 11,623
habitants in 1836. The chief trade is in corn, butter, and
ht iy; and a fishery for anchovies affords occupation to
m y of the people. Lat. 47. 39. 14. Long. 2. 52. 16. W.
AR, a department of the south-east of France, formed
oii of the eastern part of ancient Provence. It extends in
m h latitude from 43° 2' to 44° O', and in east longitude
frn 5° 29' to 6° 59' and comprehends 2854 square miles.
It bounded on the north by the department of the Lower
A i, on the north-east by Piedmont, on the south-east
tr. the south by the Mediterranean sea, and on the west
by he mouths of the Rhone. It is divided into four arron-
di ments, which are subdivided into thirty-five cantons,
at those into 210 communes.
he population in 1836 amounted to 323,404 persons,
al f whom adhere to the Romish communion, or, if there
ar my protestants, they are in no place so numerous as to
L i a congregation for public worship. The language of
tl common people is the Provencal, but in the cities
at towns the French is gradually driving out the ancient
jc ;ue. The face of the country presents mountains, rocks,
hi , valleys, and small plains, with some beautiful and even
r< antic prospects. The north and north-east parts are
t' most mountainous, as they contain a portion of the
‘t‘me Alps, proceeding out of Piedmont, which, for the
11 t part, are bare of trees, and, especially on their south
S1. s> exhibit naked perpendicular precipices. These are
a '“pareous, but a range extends from Hieres to Frejus,
" eh are of granite, and more thick of trees, among which
ai cork, chesnut, cestus, myrtle, and firs. In the western
P' is the remarkable mountain Saint Beaume, with a la-
nth in the calcareous substance of it, that extends from
tl
western boundary of the department, the mouths of the
me, to Ollioules, and is well known bv the name of les
1 & d’Ollioules.
In general the soil is far from fertile,
t, '? m0I<T *n^ebted to the labour of the inhabitants than
a f w.ality for ’ts powers of production. It is better
' ec for fruits, such as graces and olives, than for wheat,
ey, or other grain.
st ^L department is watered by numerous mountain
^ ants, fhe river which gives name to the department,
5111 t ie mountain Camelione in Piedmont, receives the
VAR 557
water of the Esteron, forms many small islands, and, after Vardooset-
a course of sixty miles, enters the Mediterranean ; but it is tah>
not navigable in any part. Along the sea-shore are nu-Variations-
merous pools and morasses, some of which communicate
with the sea.
The climate is mild, the great heats of summer being
tempered by the breezes from the sea and the mountains.
Rain is unusual, except when the wind drives the clouds
from the sea. With the exception of about twenty days,
there is a continual spring; and even in those few days
the thermometer seldom sinks to the freezing point. In
January the fields are clothed with fresh green, and in
February the trees put forth their blossoms.
Agriculture is in a neglected state, so that the corn
produced does not supply half the consumption, and in sum¬
mer the grass is so burnt up, that the cattle must be driven
to the mountains for pasture. Neither cows, sheep, nor
horses are abundant, but many swine are bred and fattened.
The chief beasts of burden are asses and mules.
The chief productions are wine, oil, silk, and the bet¬
ter kinds of fruit, oranges, citrons, and lemons, some
dried fruits, a few dates, and abundance of chesnuts and
other kinds of nuts. Honey a al wax are collected in con¬
siderable quantities. There are no minerals raised, except
about 600 tons of fossil coal. On the sea-shore a suffici¬
ency of salt is produced by the natural heat of the sun.
The fishery on the coast yields abundance of tunny, an¬
chovies, sardinias, and mackerel, with a small but delicate
small fish called the monnat. The manufactures are in¬
considerable, and merely for home consumption. The de¬
partment elects three deputies for the legislative chamber.
VARDOOSETTAH, a town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Tinnevelly, twenty-three miles S.S.W. from Ma¬
dura. Long. 78. 11. E. Lat. 9. 36. N.
VARIATIONS, Calculus of. 1. The object of this
calculus is the discovery of the form of a function which
shall fulfil certain conditions, not expressed in direct terms,
but involved in a finite integral. The first instance of a
problem of this kind appears in a scholium to Prop. 34,
b. ii. of the Principia, published in 1687. (See Prob. 2.
below.) Newton gave the correct result; but he supplied
no demonstration, nor do we find any method of solution
applicable to such cases until ten years afterwards. In the
Acta Eruditorum for 1696, John Bernoulli enunciated the
problem of the brachystochrone, (Prob. 1. below), and invited
mathematicians to give a solution. After a considerable
interval, his brother, James Bernoulli, gave in his result,
which was, that the curve required is the cycloid. As
the mode of demonstration which he adopted is very
nearly that which was employed by all the earlier writers
on the subject, it will not be uninteresting to exhibit it here.
2. The problem is the following: “ To find that curve
down which a body falling by the force of gravity will move
from A to B in the shortest possible time.”
The principles employed in the solution are these two:
1 st, that when a
quantity is a maxi- Fig. 1.
mum or minimum, A
a slight change in
the variables will
produce no variation
in the value of the
function; 2d, that
what is true of the
whole quantity is
likewise true of
every portion of it.
The second prin¬
ciple requires that
the time dow n PQR
should be less than the time down any other line, as PSR;
5-58
VARIATIONS.
Variations, and by applying the first principle to this property, we de-
"^'duce the fundamental equation,
time down PQR— time down PSR ultimately.
Hence,
PQ, QR PS SR 7 . ,
vrifQ+iv^rri
PQ—PS SR—QR
VNS
that is,
cos..
' VOR
:SQe cc
Qe
7ns
^QSc
ultimately ;
V ^R
ultimately ;
or
VNS “
1, which curve makes with vertical at Q
VNS
•** Su=y8x +/{N(dxhy—hxdy)-f V{dxhp~hxdp) q., i
=y8x-f./{N(Sy^-jp&r) + P(5p_grSar) +
Also if by—pbx be denoted by co, we have
tp-qU- dSy±M_?«_ dP
d(x 4- bx)
dby
dx
dx dx
dbx dp
bx,
dx dx
do. do. R“VOR’
a well-known property of the cycloid.
3. Of the two principles employed in this solution, the
first is equivalent to the theorem demonstrated in Fluxions,
art. 62, and is the basis of all solutions. The second, al¬
though in the case in question it is actually true, is an as¬
sumption not warranted by the nature of the problem. It
does not appear that any geometrical solution is exempt
from this objection, and we cannot in consequence date the
existence of the Calculus of Variations earlier than 1744,
when Euler published his treatise, entitled Methodus inve-
niendi Lineas Curvas proprietate maximi minimive gau-
dentes. This work was followed by a memoir from the pen
of Lagrange, published in the second volume of the Mis¬
cellanea Taurinensia. By the introduction of the symbol
8 to express that change which is termed a variation, La¬
grange may be said to have perfected the calculus; for al¬
though certain extensions were afterwards made by himself
and others, no change was afterwards introduced into the
general process. We shall therefore conclude our brief
sketch at this point, and refer the reader for further infor¬
mation to the following works: the Acta Eruditorum for 1696
and the following years; the collected works of James and
John Bernoulli; Memoires de VAcad. des Sci. 1706, 1718,
&c.; Brook Taylor's Methodus Incremeniorum; the Pe¬
tersburg Commentaries, vols. vi. and viii.; which, together
with Euler’s tract, quoted above, and his last memoir in
the New Petersburg Com. vol. x. contain Euler’s writings
on the subject: the Turin Miscellanies, vols. ii. and iv. and
the Theorie des Fonctions Analytiques, contain Lagrange’s
perfecting of the calculus. The reader will find in Wood-
house’s Isoperimetrical Problems a complete history of the
calculus, as well as an admirable digest of the different me¬
thods employed.
4. We proceed to the investigation of the theorem which
is the basis of the calculus of variations.
To find the change or variation of a formula compre¬
hended under the integral sign, when the variables x and y,
on which it depends, receive the increments bx and by.
Let u~fydx be the formula under consideration; in
which y involves x, y, &c.
dx dxr
_ dy, <P y ,
Denote — by p, — by q, &c.; the partial differential
coefficients by N, ^by P, &c.; the increment
offydx by bfydx, &c.
Then bu—J\yby) (dx-f dbx)—fydx,
=/bydx -j-fydbx,
—J bydx -j- ybx—-fbxdy.
Now y#a?8y=y&(Md.r+NSy-|-P8/>-{-...),
and fbxdy—fbxQAdx -f Nrfy + P^-f....),
hence putting p for y and .\ q forja, we obtain
- „ (l ^ \ dl d« d~ (a
bq—rbx= — (bp—qbx)— —. — —  ,
y dxyi^ 1 J dx dx dx* ’
&c. — &c.
By substitution,
bu=ybx+Ji{ Na, + P— +Q~ +... jdr.
\fpd£dx=
But
dP
J‘a dx— q d"‘
dx*
&c. — &c.
dx
dx
dQ,
dx
dx,
+
dx~
dQ, <72R
8«=y«x + „(P- ^ —&c.)
do
+ &(Q_
+ &C. &c.
+J t»(N—
dP
dx
+ ...)
d? d2Q „ w
d^ + cTx*-^
The last line of this very elegant expression is due
Euler; the rest of the formula to Lagrange.
Let xa xx, y0 yx, be the values of x and y at the two
mits ; then the whole value of 8m between the limits is,
bu-=.yxbxx—y0bx0 -f-— &c.)—co0(P,— &c.)
„ PXL dP <PQ 0
+ &c. +y»(N_ -&+-^ - Sc.
)dx
5. To satisfy the conditions of a maximum or minimum
value of u, the value of 8m, expressed only as far as to the
first powers of bx0, by0, &c., must be equal to zero.
But this quantity consists of two parts; the one an in¬
tegrated expression, depending only on the values of K
by0, &c.; the other an unintegrated expression, depending
on the general values of 8a:, by. Now it is evidently pos¬
sible to make the latter expression assume an infinity ot
different values, corresponding to an assigned value of the
former. It is therefore impossible to render the whole ex¬
pression equal to zero for all values of o>, without making
the two parts separately zero.
Our conditions are therefore,
dP d2Q \
N — + -j—r- &C. =0. (W
dx dx1
yxbxx y^+co^P! &C.) o0{P0— &c.) =0. (-•)
6. It may be remarked, that the object of our investigm
tion is to discover a mode of satisfying certain conditions
- 8 I a:. To
from the
by means of establishing a relation between y and x
effect this, we seek to separate these quantities fro
quantities bx and by. This will explain why the unin ^
grated part of the expression has been reduced to the or
in which we left it. Had o been implicated with x
r ltinn would have been assigned, not between a; and y,
^tween x, y, and ®. We may add, that if fydx be an
r arable expression, the equation (1) is an identical equa-
VARIATIONS.
tio
In the above investigation it has been assumed that
th( ither quantities which enter into the function y, toge-
tlu with x and y, are absolute constants. If this hypothe-
si. e not correct, our formulae reauire to be modified.
M innose a, b, &c., to enter the function y.
n 8y=M5a; + N8y+PSj»+ &c. H-A5a+ &c....,
tin the addition to be made to the expression for hi is
/( \a + ...)dx. But ha Sc. depend not 6n the general va-
'ri nn, but only on the variation at the limits, (see Prob. 4);
he e they are "independent of 8a-and hy, and consequently
for part of equation (2), which thus becomes
y1f-yo&F0+wi(Pi“&c-)-®0(P<>-&c') ArZr-}-&c.=0.
So
(3.)
Had our object been merely to determine the form of
a action which should satisfy certain conditions, we might
ha: rested content with causing one of the quantities, as
x tly, to vary. By this mean? equation (1) would have
hi) obtained. There are however many problems which
dtend on the relation between hx and by, at least at the
lir ts, (see Prob. 3.) At the commencement of the varia-
tio, for instance, we cannot remove to any point we please,
fr« i the circumstance that we are compelled to begin in a
ctjain manner. Hence equation (2) is a most important
pa of the result; and by assigning a relation between the
thsgs given and sought at the extremities, shews us the
prftion of the extremities of the curve, and thereby re¬
st its the solution from a kmd of curve (as a cycloid) to a
sj: ifc curve, (a cycloid of known dimensions and position).
From equation (1) we might easily deduce a number
orexpressions, for particular cases, easy ot application.
T is, if y contains only y and p, the formula (1) gives
V dV n
N--j- =0.
ax
dT*
1 ice dy—Ndy-h^dp— ~ dy-{-VfJp—dP .pf-Vdp
z=d(Pp)‘, and y=Pj9-pc. (4.)
h as the reader will readily supply such formulae for
h self, we proceed to exhibit the solution of a few prob-
k s.
^rob. 1. To find the curve of quickest descent from one
g m point to another.
^et x and y be the co-ordinates of a point in the curve,
y eing measured vertically downwards from the upper
Fit
^ fhen
ds
But P, in this case, is   _    
fj 1 +/>2 .s/x’ dy C/Jx'
the same result as before, with the exception that x and y
are interchanged. The solution of this equation shews that
the cusp of the cycloid is at the highest point, and its axis
vertical.
Prob. 2. Required the curve which by revolution round
its axis generates the solid on which the resistance pro¬
duced by motion in a fluid shall be less than on any other
curve having the same extreme co-ordinates.
r* yp3
The resistance varies as / ---- --- dx; .\ by formula (4)
J 1 +P
559
Variations.
VV' Jy
responding to y contains only y and p.
; p_ r
Jy ' nA +j»2 -Jv
I -hp 2
Jn
p1 da
’■  ~ 4- c, or
v i ■P/'2 • s!y dx
dV
1 'e dx -0, or ?=c'
yp3 / 3yp9 2yp*
1 *fp2—U-fP2 (1
2yp3
r)p+c'
or 0:
i+c-
(l+P2)2
This equation expresses the same property as that which
Newton, without demonstration, assigned to the curve.
Prob. 3. To find the shortest distance betw een two given
curves.
The expression for y is here V1 ^.p3 where, as the line
on which the distance is measured is a right line, p—c.
But by formula (2)
y, 8aq—y0 hxu -j- P|coj—P^rrO, when hxy, &c. are inde¬
finitely small. Also, if the curves have no connexion, we
may make 8^ hpy assume what values soever wre please,
without affecting 8x0, h/Q; we must therefore have sepa¬
rately
yi &r14.Piw1=0, and y,, 8a:o+Powo=0.
The latter gives 1 -\-p02 hx0 +
Po
J 1 +Po
c
(hyo—pohXa)—0,
when hx0 and
en ;=r ~L~ /v 1 +p2dx. jn quantity
. h/a 1
or 8x„ + p„Sy„=0, or ^
hy0 are indefinitely diminished.
But, since the measurement must begin in the first
curve, the limit of — expresses the tangent of the angle in
dxQ
wdiich the tangent to the first curve cuts the axis. Our
equation, then, shews that the line of shortest distance cuts
the first curve at right angles. For the same reason it
cuts the second curve also at right angles. Its position is
consequently determined.
Prob. 4. To find the curve of quickest descent from one
given curve to another.
Let A be the vertical ordinate of the point at which mo¬
tion begins:
,a/ 1 .pp2
tgj Jy-
it is evident that the curve is a cycloid. To determine the
angles at which the cycloid cuts the given curves, w-e have
the following equation, (3): y, Saq—yo&^-f-Pjw,—P0«0-f-
then
C—1 dx, from which (by Prob. 1.)
^2qJ Jy—h
; and formula (4) gives
__ 1
W5’
'ch is the differential equation to a cycloid. We may
ve the problem by taking x as the vertical co-ordinate,
"liich case y will contain only p, and equation (1) will
8 A
, /AA dx—0. The problem admits of several cases.
J dk
1. If the body starts from a given point in the first curve,
that curve performs no part in the problem. Here hxa, a>;i,
and 8A, are all zero.
.-. y,8a:1-FPi(8?/1—p18a?1)=:0.
But yi—PiPi=c, (see Prob. 1.)
—j==—c, and P, = —. -y==-— pic,
v 1 -\-p2 v ?/)—A d 1 -f-Pi ’d V\—A
cdxl 4- Pi cSy, =: 0 ; or for the second curve, at the
560
Variations.
VAR
point in which the cycloid cuts it, is equal to — which
shews that the curve and cycloid cut each other at right
angles.
2. If the motion is supposed to commence at the same
horizontal line, whatever be the point at which the body
reaches the first curve; we have h—d constant, and the
equation gives
yj&Tj—y0&r0+P,a>,—Powo=0, from which it is evident,
as in Problem 3, that the cycloid cuts both curves at right
angles.
dy
3. If motion begins at the first curve, h—y0, and ^ =
— ^-_N=— ^YvN— ^=o);
dy dx\ dx )
hence our equation becomes
rXxdV ,
•yifiXi—P!«!—p0a>0—§y„J dx—0,
Xc
or yiSaji-l-PiOtfi^rO, yoSa;,,P0a)0-pSy0(Pi Pj,)—0.
From the first of these it follows that the lower curve is
cut at right angles. The second gives
(y—PoPo)&r0 + P,fyo=:0, or c + p1^?=0-
fa/
Also the first equation is c-h-Fi^'^O.
= —; from which it appears that the tangents to
$X0
the two curves at the two points of section are parallel to
one another.
10. We have hitherto solved only problems of absolute
maxima and minima. But a very simple consideration will
enable us to apply the same formulae to the investigation
of relative maxima and minima. The problem of isoperi-
metricals (prob. 5 below) will illustrate this class of ques¬
tions. Here the integrated function is not required to be
a maximum or aminimum absolutely, but only one consistent
with the further condition that another integrated function
shall not change its value. Although, therefore, dfydx is
actually zero, yet dx and 8y are not, as in our previous in¬
vestigations, any quantities whatever, but only such as will
consist with the required condition that dfj \ -\-p2dx shall
also be zero. To Euler we owe the idea of substituting
for the quantity u, which is made to vary, not fydx, as in
other cases, but fydx-\-afvdx-, fvdx being the quantity
which is to remain unchanged. By this substitution we
determine the relation between x and y, which renders
y + a« a maximum or a minimum. But as that relation
involves the arbitrary constant a, we restrict it by assign¬
ing to that quantity such a value as shall render fvdx of the
required magnitude. We have therefore found a relation,
which not only makes the sum of two quantities a maximum
or a minimum, but which likewise reduces one of those quan¬
tities to a specified value. This relation then evidently
makes the other quantity a maximum or a minimum. Thus
the problem is solved in all its generality.
Prob. 5. AB is a given line, PMQ aline perpendicular
Fig. 2.
VAR
to AB at the point M. The points P and Q are sun
to generate two curves by the motion of the line per
dicular to AB, having a relation such, that although E
are unknown, PM is a known function of QM. It ' \
quired to determine both curves, when the length of AOR
is given, and the area APBMA is a maximum.*5 ^
Let QM=y, then PM=/(^), where / is a known fW
tion.
Also length AQB-/V 1 +jfdx, and area APB-//Vw,,
the limits of both integrals being the same.
••• 7=/(^)+a^r+?,
ap*
and by formula(4)/(y)-|-aVl -===.+c,
v 1 4-jo2
or {c—f (y)} J\+p*zza,
the differential equation to the curve AQ.B.
If y=<t>(x) be the solution of this equation,
is the equation to the curve APB.
Cor. If/(y)=y, we get ^(c—y)2+(</—*)*, the equa¬
tion to a circle.
Prob. 6. To find the curve which, with a given length,
contains between its chord and its arc the greatest possible
area.
By cor. to last problem the equation is a^=(c—y),
+i0'—xy2-
Let the origin be at A and AB=2r; then since y=0,
both when x=z0 and x=2r, we get
y3—2cy~2rx—x3.
And from the equation to the limits (yj—P^&r^O, or
yi—Piyi=0 .*. c=0; and the curve required is the semi¬
circle.
Prob. 7. Given the length of the curve contained be¬
tween two points in a horizontal line ; required its nature,
that the centre pf gravity of the arc may be the lowest
possible. Here we have to make fx*] \ -\.p* dx a maxi¬
mum, whilst1 -\-p3 dx is constant.
.dV
y—xf 1 -}-y2-J-a*/1 +p3, and^ =0, P=c,
p(x+a)
or / v ——c.
f 1 -\-p3
the integral of which is yzzc\ov.(x-\-a + »J(x-\-af—<?)
-fc, the equation to the catenary.
The solution of more complicated problems is not con¬
sistent with our limits. For the investigation of formulas
in cases where y involves an integral, or where it is given
by a differential equation, the reader is referred to \V ootl-
house’s Treatise. Considerations on the mode of distin¬
guishing a maximum from a minimum will be found in
Lagrange’s Theorie des Fonctions Analytiques.
Variation See Magnetism.
Variation, in Music, means either the change induced
upon a melody by embellishments given by the vocal or
instrumental performer, or the new forms and more studied
ornaments given by a composer to a theme of his own or
to some popular air. Among instrumental variations, some
of the most beautiful are to be found in Hadyn’s andante
movements, and in Mozart and Beethoven’s variations to
their own andantes, or to popular themes on which t ev
have displayed their skill and genius. , ,,
VARNA, a city of Turkey in Europe in the provinceo
Silistra. It stands on the Black sea, at the mouth of the river
of the same name. It is strongly fortified, and consi ere
as one of the most important defences o- the southern >
vision of Turkey in Europe. The obstinate defence o i
in the late war with Russia, shows both its strength an ^
consequence. The harbour is good, and is the on y o
.
VAR
bonding to Turkey on that side of the Black sea. It is
y tbseat of a Greek bishop, under whom are two churches.
T :re are twelve mosques, 4000 houses, and about 20,000
in ihitants, among whom are a few Franks, and many Ar-
nnians, Greeks, and Jews. Varna has considerable ship-
pitj and fisheries, and much trade in corn, butter, cheese,
ar wine. Lat. 43. 17. 30. Long. 27. 45. E.
ARNISH, a clear limpid fluid, capable of hardening
wkout losing its transparency, used by painters, gilders,
&<.to give a lustre to their works, in order to preserve
th i and defend them from the air.
coat of varnish ought to possess the following proper-
tie 1st, It must exclude the action of the air; because
wed and metals are varnished to defend them from decay
amrust. 2d, It must resist water; for otherwise the effect
of e varnish could not be permanent. 3d, It ought not
to Iter such colours as are intended to be preserved by
thi means. It is necessary therefore that a varnish should
bepasily extended or spread over the surface, without
letjng pores or cavities; that it should not crack or scale ;
anithat it should resist water. Now resins are the only
bofes that possess these properties. Resins consequently
mi be used as the bases of varnish. The question which
of -urse presents itself must then be, how to dispose them
for his use ; and for this purpose they must be dissolved,
as linutely divided as possible, and combined in such a
maner that the imperfections of those which might be
disused to scale may be corrected by others.
isins may be dissolved by three agents. 1st, By fixed
oil, id, By volatile oil. 3d, By alcohol. And accordingly
wo lave three kinds of varnish ; the fat or oily varnish,
ess tial varnish, and spirit varnish. Before a resin is dis-
sol d in a fixed oil, it is necessary to render the oil drying,
o his purpose the oil is boiled with metallic oxides; in
uli i operation the mucilage of the oil combines with the
me I, while the oil itself unites with the oxygen of the
»xi i. To accelerate the drying of this varnish, it is ne-
ces ry to add oil of turpentine. The essential varnishes
const of a solution of resin in oil of turpentine. The
var sh being applied, the essential oil flies off, and leaves
tin 'sin. I his is used only for paintings. When resins
arc hssolyed in alcohol, the varnish dries very speedily,
an( ? Sll*’ject to crack; but this fault is corrected by add¬
ing small quantity of turpentine to the mixture, which
rt'n :rs lf brighter, and less brittle when dry.
e shaH now give the method of preparing a number
oi rushes for different purposes.
Varnish for Toilet-boxes, Cases, Fans, &c Dissolve
unces or gum mastich and eight ounces gum sandar-
i a quart of alcohol; then add four ounces of Venice
lur none.
Gr ^ Wainscots, Cane Chairs, Iron Chairs,
mu ISS? Ve *n a fluart alcohol eight ounces of
ros • H araCh tW0 0unces seed lac, four ounces ot
var 'h ; n• 1dd, Slx 0unces of Venice turpentine. If the
anc ’c1SpWis^j^ t0 Pr°duce a red colour, more of the lac
b,0V hn0 *a"darach Should be used, and a little dragon’s
lav nf > d be ac<,ef ‘ T,lis varnish is so thick that two
‘ jr 1 ai"e equal to four or five of another.
,,for Middles, and other Musical Iristru-
of . t U our nnnees of gum sandarach, two ounces
eld ° 0unces of gum mastich, an ounce of gum
fireun tu a ifuartof alcohol, and hang them over a slow
per le> C' are dissolved; then add two ounces of tur-
pw rt;,'n ^r(^er employ Vermilion for painting Equi-
acli: hrt>e SS° Ve 111 a quart of alcohol six ounces nf sandar-
VAR
alt,. ,ar(|^ 8um l,lc, and four ounces of rosin;
aids a,la • 6 ’ anu I0ur ounces ot rosin
^n< mix u'th *1X 0unces ^le cheapest kind of turpen
uiit n]j • ,    '-"c vucapesi Kinu oi turpen-
to * used * 11 a ProPer fluantity of vermilion when it is
used
'(h XXI
of?,M\COlTed r‘B'"M~Pound separately four onne '
Wood ft,^’of0Ur 0Unfe3 0f *amb,°se. tear ounces of dragon’s
ood, four ounces of anotta, and one ounce of saffron f put
Zit V Tpa,ately int° 3 ‘l‘im “f alcohol, and expose
tJiem for five days in a narrow-mouthed bottle to the sun,
or keep them during that time in a very warm room, shak¬
ing them every no\v and then to hasten the solution. When
ley are melted, mix them together. More or less of each
of these ingredients will give the different tints of gold
according as they are combined. In order to make silver
imitate gold exactly when covered with this varnish, the
quantity of ingredients must be somewhat greater. The
method of gilding silver leaf, &c. with this varnish, is as
follows : The silver leaf being fixed, in the same manner
as gold leaf, by the interposition of proper glutinous
matters, the varnish is spread upon the piece with a brush
or pencil. The first coat being drv, the piece is again
and again washed over with the varnish till the colour ap¬
pears sufficiently deep. What is called gilt leather, and
many picture frames, have no other than this counterfeit
gilding. Washing them with a little rectified spirit of
wine affords a proof of this; the spirit dissolving the var¬
nish, and leaving the silver leaf of its own whiteness. For
plain frames, thick tinfoil may be used instead of silver.
ie tin Jeai, fixed on the piece with glue, is to be burnished,
then polished with emery and a fine linen cloth, and after¬
wards with putty applied in the same manner: being then
lacquered over with the varnish five or six times, it looks
very nearly like burnished gold. The same varnish, made
with a less proportion of the colouring materials, is also ap¬
plied on wrorks of brass ; both for heightening the colour of
the metal to a resemblance with that of gold, and for pre¬
serving it from being tarnished or corroded by the air.
Oil Varnishes.—Gum copal and amber are the substances „
principally employed in oil varnishes. They possess the
properties necessary for varnishes, solidity and transparency.
I he copal being whitest, is used for varnishing light, the
amber for dark colours. It is best to dissolve them before
mixing them with the oil, because by this means they are
in less danger of being scorched, and at the same time the
varnish is more beautiful. They should be melted in a pot
on the fire ; they are in a proper state for receiving the oil
when they give no resistance to the iron spatula, and when
they run off from it drop by drop. The oil employed
should be a drying oil, and perfectly free from grease. It
should be poured into the copal or amber by little and
little, constantly stirring the ingredients at the same time
with the spatula. When the oil is 'well mixed with the
copal or amber, take it off the fire ; and when it is pretty
cool, pour in a greater quantity of the essence of turpentine
than the oil that was used. After the varnish is made, it
should be passed through a linen cloth. Oil varnishes
become thick by keeping; but when they are to be used,
it is only necessary to pour in a little essence of turpentine,
and to put them for a little on the fire. The turpentine is
necessary in oil varnishes to make them dry properly;
generally twice as much of it is used as of oil. Less is
necessary in summer than in winter. Too much oil hinders
the varnish from drying; but when too little is used, it
cracks and does not spread properly. We shall subjoin
the most useful oil varnishes.
White Copal Varnish—On sixteen ounces of melted
copal pour four, six, or eight ounces of linseed oil, boiled
and quite free from grease. When they are well mixed,
take them off the fire (not forgetting to stir them properly) ;
and when pretty cool, pour in sixteen ounces of the essence
of Venice turpentine. Pass the varnish through a cloth.
Amber varnish is made in the same way.
Black Varnish for Coaches and Iron Work This var¬
nish is composed of bitumen of Palestine, rosin, and amber,
melted separately, and afterwards mixed: the oil is then
4 B
561
S Varnish.
-
562
VAR
VAR
Varpa,
Varro.
added, and afterwards the turpentine, as directed above.
The usual proportions are, twelve ounces of amber, two
'ounces of rosin, two ounces of bitumen, six of oil, and
twelve of the essence of turpentine. Golden coloured
varnish may be made also by substituting linseed oil for
akSLm/ Oil Varnishes.—The only essential oil var¬
nishes used are for pictures. Picture varnishes should be
white, light, and quite transparent, which will preserve the
colours without giving them any disagreeable tint; and it
should be possible to take them off the picture without
injuring it. They are usually made of gum mastich and
turpentine dissolved together in some essential oil. I he
varnish is passed through a cloth, and allowed to clarify. It
is applied cold to the picture.
Vornish for Glass in order to preserve it jrom the
rays of the £««.—Pulverize a quantity of gum adragant,
and let it dissolve for twenty-four hours in the white of
eggs well beat up; then rub it gently on the glass with a
br Varnishes, before they are used, should be carefully kept
from dust, which would spoil them; and they should be
kept in a vessel quite clean and dry. When used, they
should be lifted lightly with a brush, and spread upon a
ground altogether free from dirt and moisture. The sub¬
stance, after being varnished, should be exposed to the
heat of the sun, or placed in a warm room covered with a
glass case, to keep out all filth. Oil varnishes require
more heat than alcohol varnishes. The varnish should be
put on very quickly, making great strokes with the penci
or brush, taking care that these strokes never cross one
another; it should be spread equally, and never thicker
than a leaf of paper ; a second coat should never be put on
till tiie first is quite dry. If the varnish, after being put
on, becomes dull and uneven, it must be taken oft entirely,
and new varnish applied. _ .
When wainscot is to be varnished, it is first painted of a
wooden colour. This colour is made by infusing in water
either red or yellow ochre (according to the colour wished
for), terra ombria (a kind of ochre) and white lead, ^into
this as much as necessary is put of parchment paste. Two
thin coats of this are to be put on, and, after they are quite
dry, the varnish.
Varnishes are polished with pumice-stone and 1 npoh earth.
The pumice-stone must be reduced to an impalpable pow¬
der, and put upon a piece of serge moistened with water;
with this the varnished substance is to be rubbed lightly
and equally. The Iripoli must also be reduced to a \ery
fine powder, and put upon a clean woollen cloth moistened
with olive oil, with which the polishing is to be performed.
The varnish is then to be wiped with soft linen, and, when
quite dry, cleaned with starch or Spanish white, and rubbed
with the palm of the hand or with a linen cloth.
To recover colours or varnish, and to take off the dirt
and filth which may adhere to them, a ley is used made of
potash and the ashes of lees of wine. Take forty-eight
ounces of potash, and sixteen of the above mentioned ashes,
put them into six quarts of water, and the ley is made.
Instead of the ashes an equal quantity of potash would
probably do as well. To clean dirty colours, dilute some
of this ley with four times its quantity of water, and rub
the picture with it; then wash it with river water; and
when dry, give it a coat or two of varnish. In order to take
off a varnish, wash it with the above mentioned ley, then
with water, and then lift it off the substance on which it
was with any iron instrument.
VARPA,"an island near the north-east coast of Sumatra,
about thirty miles in circumference. Long. 10.3. 2o. E.
Lat. 0. 36. S.
VARRO, Marcus Terentius, a very learned and very
miscellaneous writer, was born at Rome about the year 116
before the Christian era. He received what was then con-
sidered as the best education that could be obtained. Hav-1
ing studied at Rome under Stilo, he proceeded to Athens,
and became the disciple of Antiochus, an Academic phil0.
sopher. Returning to his native city, he began to tab
some share in the business of the forum, but he does no
appear to have acquired much reputation as an orator. Hi
successively filled the office of triumvir, and tribune o
the people.’ When he was about forty-nine years of age
Pompey entrusted him with the command of a Greek fleet
employed in the war against the pirates. In a naval en
gagement which took place near the coast of Cilicia, h
acquitted himself with so much courage, that he was th
first that boarded one of the enemy’s ships; and in honon
of this exploi t, Pompey presented him with a rostral crowt
For some time he acted as governor of Cilicia, apparent! j
by virtue of an extraordinary appointment.
During the civil war which ensued, Varro adhered 11
Pompey, and was employed as his lieutenant in farth
Spain. He was however advanced in years, and, accon
ing to Caesar’s account, was disposed to follow the tun
of fortune. The affairs of his own party having assume
a more promising aspect, he pursued measures of great
decision; and having embodied two legions, with thir
irregular cohorts, he made vigorous preparations for d
fending the province, but the speedy approach of Css
rendered all his plans abortive. One of his legions revoke
and the inhabitants evinced no disposition to make the qua
rd their own. Varro now adopted the resolution of marc
ing towards Italy; but finding that this attempt wash
practicable, he offered to deliver the remaining legion
any one whom the victorious general should nominal
Having accordingly delivered it to Sextus Caesar, he pi
sented himself to Julius Caesar at Corduba, and made
surrender of all his treasure, ships, and stores. After tl
unfortunate termination of his military services, he appei
to have devoted himself with great ardour and perseverar
to the pursuits of literature; and, as his life was extent
beyond the usual term, he produced a great number
works, and on a great variety of subjects. He cultiva
a particular intimacy with Cicero, who inscribed to nun
Academica, as he inscribed to Cicero a portion ol his tr
tise “ De Lingua Latina.” ,
When Caesar returned to Rome after having subdi
all his enemies, Varro entertained some apprehension
his personal safety, and thought it prudent to vut in
from the city; but his fears were soon removed, and
hostility was" at length converted into friendship. -
committed to him the charge of forming and supermt
ing a public library; a charge for which hewas emin
qualified by his very extensive and variegated Iti
After the death of this ruler of the world, he wa
exposed to danger: hewas included in the same prose p
which proved fatal to his friend Cicero; but, e^cn ®
occasion, his good fortune did not desert him. |S
as well as his political connexions, must have co
to mark him for destruction. He was sheltered an
cealed by Calenus, and his name was at length eras
the list of the proscribed. He was the possessor o
villas; and in the mean time one of these had be
and plundered by Antony. rI he loss of his v ^
brary, including some of his own writings, was
contingencies to which he was exposed at u
crisis. He however survived for many years, ana
his studies with unabated ardour. At the age o
eight, as we learn from Aulus Gellius, he a
490 books. According to Pliny, he still contl™'e , tc
at the age of eighty-eight. His death is re ^
year 27 b.c.; and, according to the computatio
year b.c.; anu, accoruing iu me |)aV
date and the supposed date of his birth, he er'
tained the age of eighty-nine. It is not
pr<
f ye.’
VAR
able that he may have exceeded this age by a few
irro has very frequently been described as the most
Jca ed of the Romans; and it has already been stated
tha he wrote on an immense variety of subjects.1 His
wo s were partly in prose, and partly in verse. One of
tht, a Menippean satire, consisted of an intermixture
of :rse with prose, of Greek with Latin.2 Some of them
relijd to grammar and rhetoric, others to history and phi-
losi.hy, others again to politics and theology. He seems
ind d to have embraced almost every topic of human spe-
cul ion. But of all these treasures of ancient learning, it
is ueply to be regretted that only a very inconsiderable
ren ant has escaped the ravages of time. Of his twenty-
fou books “ De Lingua Latina,” the first three have all
pewed except a few inconsiderable fragments. The fourth,
fiftl and sixth, relating to the origin of Latin words, and
jnsubed to Cicero, and the seventh, eighth, and ninth,
relang to the analogy of the language, are however pre-
gerid, though not without some mutilations. Of the other
bock scarcely a vestige remains. Even in this mutilated
gtai the work is both curious and valuable. His editor
ScHger has however shewn that his etymologies are not un-
freoently erroneous; and another very learned critic, Sal-
mams, has remarked that his reluctance to admit Greek
derations often leads him very far astray.
1 s three books “ De Re Rustica,” have reached us in
a biter condition. It appears from the exordium, that he
unertook the composition of this work at the age of eighty;
ancihat his wife Fundania, to whom it is addressed, had
putjiased a demesne which she wished him to man-
agon the most advantageous manner. Some inconsider-
abbfragments of his other works, in prose and verse,
ha\: been preserved, and have been collected with due
can;1
f the work “ De Lingua Latina,” an edition, con-
sid xl as the first, is in quarto, w'ithout place or date, but
snpised to have been printed at Rome by G. Lauer, about
the ear 1471. The editor was Pomponius Laetus. There
are ther three very early editions, likewise without dates,
but :onjectured to have been printed, the first at Venice
abcii 1472, the second in the same city in 1474, and the
tbilat Rome about the same time. The first two are in
quaip, the third is in folio. After this period, the work was
nisi ed in various collections of the Latin grammarians.
Seval editions of it bear the name of Michael Bentinus.
Bn of them is that of Paris, 1530, 8vo. This edition
like ise contains the spurious Origines ascribed to Cato.
Audition waspublisedby Antonins Augustinus, afterwards
arc tishop of Tarragona, Romae, 1554, 8vo. The same
edi in, which contains marginal emendations, but no com-
me ary, is generally to be found with the date of 1557,
a|m 1 then includes several additions; at the beginning of
mci olume, “ Dubia et Varia,” “ Doctorum Virorum No-
miJ 11U1 hujus libri emendationi operam dederunt,” and
m° Ovo pages of Emendata; and at the end, seventy-
tft.! nn'imbered leaves, occupied with various indices. This
c of Varrowas reprinted among the works of the edi-
or tugustini Opera, tom. vii. p. 425-524. The next edi-
101 that °t Vertranius Maurus, Lugd. 1563, 8vo. It
Y followed by the very elaborate and valuable edition
0 j®eph Scaliger, Paris. 1565, 8vo. And soon afterwards
-‘PI ired “ Adriani Turnebi Commentarii et Emendationes
I' ir°s Varronis de Lingua Latina.” Paris. 1566, 8vo.
j:n v'as a posthumous work, and laboured under the usual
dis]
vantages of such publications. Here we must not over-
V A R 563
look another learned labour, “ Ad M. Ter. Varronis As- Varro.
sertiones ^ Analogiae Sermonis Latini, Appendix Henrici
Stephani.” Exc. H. Stephanus, 1591, 8vo. An edition
of Varro’s work was published by Scioppius, Ingolstadii,
1605, 8vo. Another separate edition appeared after a very
long interval, Biponti, 1788, 2 tom. 8vo. This very use*-
ful edition, which also includes the fragments of Varro’s
works, is illustrated with the notes of Augustinus, Turne-
bus, Scaliger, and Popma. It was followed by the critical
edition of L. Spengel, Berolini, 1826, 8vo. And last of all
appeared “M.Terentii Varronis de Lingua Latina librorum
quae supersunt, emendata et annotata a Carolo Odofredo
Muellero.” Lipsiae, 1833, 8vo. This is an edition of no
small value; and we add, with much regret, that the editor
has been prematurely arrested in the midst of a very dis¬
tinguished career. He died at Athens on the first of August
1840.
Varro’s treatise “ De Re Rustica” has been printed in
the numerous editions of the “ Scriptores Rei Rusticae.”
The earliest edition of this collection is supposed to be that
printed by Jenson, Venet. 1472, fol. Two editions issued
from the Aldine press in 1514 and 1533. A critical edi¬
tion was published by Victorius, Lugd. 1541-2. It consists
of four parts; of which the first three contain the text of
the different writers, and the fourth, dated in 1542, bears
the title of “ Petri Victorii Explicationes suarum in Cato-
nem, Varronem, Columellam Castigationum.” This part,
consisting of 144 pages, is sometimes to be found as a se¬
parate publication. And here we must likewise notice
a learned work of Fulvius Ursinus, “ Notae ad M. Catonem,
M. Varronem, L. Columellam de Re Rustica.” Romae,
1587, 8vo. For a very elaborate and valuable edition of
the “ Scriptores Rei Rusticae,” we are indebted to Ges-
ner, Lipsiae, 1735, 2 tom. 4to. Lips. 1773-4, 2 tom.
4to. And another edition, described as the best, was
more recently published by Schneider, Lips. 1794-7, 4
tom. 8vo. Of Varro’s treatise on agriculture, an English
translation was published by the Rev. T. Owen, Lond.
1800, 8vo.
Of both works of Varro there are several editions, and
the earliest is that of Scaliger. Exc. H. Stephanus, 1569,
8vo. It was reprinted at Paris in 1573, 1581, and 1585.
A collective edition of these two works, and the fragments of
his other works, was published by Ausonius Popma, Lugd.
Bat. 1601, 8vo. The same editor had previously made a
collection of the Fragmenta, Franequerae, 1589, 8vo. An¬
other edition of all his works was published not long after¬
wards, Durdrechti, 1619, 8vo. Some copies of the same
edition exhibit the imprint of Amsterdam, 1623. (x.)
VARRO ATACINUS, Publius Tekentius, a Latin
poet, was born in the province of Narbonne in the year 82
before the Christian era. According to Jerom, he derived
his cognomen from a village named Atace; but as we dis¬
cover no other trace of such a village, the account of
Porphyrion, that he derived it from the river Atace, ap¬
pears more probable. His name indicates a Roman origin.
Jerom likewise informs us that, at the age of thirty-five,
he applied himself with great ardour to the study of Greek
literature. Horace, Sat. i. 10. 46, alludes to him as an un¬
successful writer of satires:
Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino
Atque quibusdam aliis, melius quod scribere possem,
Inventore minor.
Wiillner concludes, that of a living poet Horace would
not have spoken in such terms. Adopting Bentley’s chro-
»j;e >r,cii Bibliotheca Latina, tom i. p.124-132. edit. Ernesti, where very many of his lost works are enumerated.
e l asauboni de Satyrica Graecorum Poesi et Romanorum Satira libri duo, p. 258. Paris. 1605, 8vo.
ttt I'ottieal fragments were very laboriously collected by R. Stephanus, Fragmenta Poetarum Veterum Latinorum. quorum Opera non
>P- 305-304. Excudebat H. Stephanus, 1564, 8vo. These fragments were collected by the father, and digested by the son.
564
VAT
Varshah nology, according to which, the satire that contains this
II passage was written in the year 37 b. c., he infers that
Vuttel. yarro did not exceed the age of forty-five. The conjec-
ture js not devoid of plausibility, but cannot be admitted as
certain.
Varro Atacinus is extolled by several of the ancient
writers. Velleius Paterculus classes him with Lucretius and
Catullus. Quintilian mentions him as a poet who had ac¬
quired a name. He is likewise mentioned by Ovid, Proper¬
tius, and Statius.1 Virgil adopted several of his verses
with little or no alteration. It is however to be regretted
that, with the exception of a few fragments, all his works
have perished. These fragments are to be found in various
collections, and, among the rest, in Wernsdorf’s “ Poetae
Latini Minores.” Altenburgi, 1788-99, 6 tom. 8vo. They
are incorporated in Wiiliner s learned dissertation on the
life and writings of the author.2 One of his works was a
version of the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius; but
from the fragments which remain, it does not appear to
have been a close version. Another of his works, “ Bellum
Sequanicum,” was an epic or historical poem in celebra¬
tion of Caesar’s recent victories. A third was a metri¬
cal Chorographia; of which Ruhnkenius supposes his Eu-
ropa, quoted by Festus, to have formed a part.3 The rest of
his works, so far as they are enumerated, consisted of elegies,
satires, and epigrams. (x.)
VARSHAH, a town in the Affghan territories, in the
province of Lahore, thirty-eight miles east from the Indus.
Long. 71. 40. E. Lat. 31. 47. N.
VASE, a term frequently used for ancient vessels dug
from under ground, or otherwise found, and preserved in
the cabinets of the curious. In architecture, the appellation
vase is also given to those ornaments placed on corniches,
fochles, or pedestals, representing the vessels of the ancients,
particularly those used in sacrifice, as incense-pots, flower¬
pots, &c.
VASSAL, in our ancient customs, signified a tenant or
feudatory; or person who vowed fidelity and homage to a
lord, on account of some land, &c. held of him in fee; also
a slave or servant, and especially a domestic of a prince.
See Feudal System.
VATNA, or Fatsa, a small sea-port of Asia Minor, in
the Black sea, at the end of a fine bay. It is now a poor
village, with an old palace, and a large khan for the ac¬
commodation of merchants trading with the Crimea. It is
ten miles south-east of Unieh.
V ATTEL, Emmerich de, an eminent jurist, was the son
of a protestant minister, and was born at Couret in the prin¬
cipality of Neuchatel, in the month of April 1714. His
academical studies he prosecuted at Basel and Geneva.
During his early years, his favourite pursuit was philosophy;
and having carefully examined the works of Leibnitz and
Wolf, he exhibited a specimen of his talents for metaphysi¬
cal investigation, by publishing a defence of Leibnitz’s sys¬
tem against Crousaz. It was printed in 1741; and in the
course of the same year, he repaired to Berlin in the hope
of obtaining some public employment from the king ; but
this hope was so long deferred, that in 1743 he proceeded
to Dresden with similar views, and experienced a very fa¬
vourable reception from Count Bruhl. Some private affiiirs
required his presence in his native country; but he return¬
ed to the court of Saxony in 1746, and obtained from the
elector, Augustus the Third, the title of counsellor of em¬
bassy, accompanied w ith a pension. He was sent to Berne
in the capacity of the elector’s minister to that republic;
and as his diplomatic functions did not require constant re-
V A U
sidence, he passed some portion of his time with his own
family. Much of his leisure was devoted to literature and1
jurisprudence. Among other works, he published “ Me '
langes de Litterature, de Morale, et de Politique,” anj
“ Loisirs Philosophiques.” But his best efforts were direct¬
ed to a more elaborate work, on which his reputation is
chiefly founded. It appeared under the title of “Droitdes
Gens; ou, Principes de la Loi Naturelle appliques a la Con-
duite etaux Affaires des Nations et des Souverains.” Neucha¬
tel, 1758, 2 tom. 4to. During the same year, having been
recalled from Switzerland, he was employed in the cabinet
of Dresden, and was soon afterwards honoured with the title
of privy-counsellor. Although his constitution had origi-
nally been robust, his labours now became so intense as to
exhaust his strength. Having tried the effects of relaxa¬
tion and of his native air, he thought himself sufficiently
recovered to resume his place in the cabinet. He accord¬
ingly returned to Dresden in 1766; but his renewed exer¬
tions soon produced a relapse, and he made another excur¬
sion to Neuchatel, where he died on the 20th of December
1767, in the fifty-fourth year of his age. He left a son, who
was recently a member of the council of that principality,
The last of his literary labours wras a work entitled, “ Ques¬
tions de Droit Nature!; ou, Observations sur le Traite du
Droit de la Nature, par Wolf.” Vattel’s Droit des Gem
continues to be studied and quoted as a book of authority.
It has passed through many editions, and has been transla¬
ted into various languages. An English translation was
published in the year 1760.
VAUBAN, Sebastien le Prestre de, marshal of
France, and the greatest engineer that country ever pro¬
duced, was born in 1633. He displayed his knowledge of
fortification in the course of many sieges, and his services
were rewarded with the first military honours. He was
made governor of Lisle in 1668, commissary-general of the
fortifications of France in 1678, governor of the maritime
parts of Flanders in 1689, and a marshal of France in 1703.
He died in 1707, after having brought the arts of attacking
and defending fortified places to a degree ot perfection un¬
known before. His writings on these subjects are in great
esteem. _ ,
VAUCLUSE, a department in the south-east division
of France. It has been formed out of the ancient province
of Avignon, of the county of Venassin, ot the principality
of Orange, and of a portion of Upper Provence. It extends
in north latitude from 43° 4F to 44° 26', and in east longi¬
tude from 4° 34' to 5° 38'. It is bounded on the north by
the department of the Drome, on the east by that ot the
Lower Alps, on the south by the mouths of the Rhone, on
the west by that of the Gard, and on a small part ot tie
north-west by the Ardeche. Its extent is 1357 squarennes.
It comprehends four arrondisements, divided into twenty-
two cantons, and those subdivided into 148 communes, n
1836 the population amounted to 246,071 persons, chit ;
adhering to the Catholic church ; hut there are about W
Protestants, who have their own consistory to regulate t ieir
religious affairs. The inhabitants are of dark complexion,
with penetrating eyes, spirited countenances, and nre p-.
and lively in their appearance and manners. The ace
the country in the whole of the eastern division is ,j110U
tainous, and in the west is an extensive plain> ^ p JL
be considered as a prolongation of the valley of tie j1
The mountains in the eastern part may be VI£we ^
part of the Alps, or of spurs projected fr°ra that ra 1
The highest point of these elevations is 6300 feet,
main chain of the mountains can be scarcely esm*
1 With respect to the allusion of Statius, see Vossius de Historicis Latinis. p. 77.
2 Do P. Terenrii Varronis Atacini Vita et Scriptis Conunentatio. Scripsit Dr. Franciscus Wiillner. Motiastfrii, lb29, t0,
3 Ruhukeiiii Epistola Critica, ii. p. *286. Opuscula, tom. li. p. bUli.
V A U V E D 5(55
i, 1 her than from 2400 to 3000 feet. These mountains or parish schools. The annual revenue is derived from a Vaudois
all calcareous, and for the most part sterile ; but the land tax, a tax on patents or licenses to trade, a salt tax, a H
‘ v leys between them have a soil, partly of sand or of clay, stamp tax, and some smaller items. It amounts to about Vedas-
c ored with vegetable mould, which, when cultivated, is one million francs, and the expenditure is nearly equal
1) lily productive. The best soil is in the vicinity of the to it. The contribution to the general confederation is
r ir Durance and of the Rhone, both of which streams 59,280 francs, and the contingent of troops is fixed at 2964
(I l0sit a rich muddy compost in their passage. The dis- men.
i! t between Carpentras and Avignon is almost covered The face of the country in Vaud is generally undulating,
w h a mixture of pebbles. with hills of moderate height and pleasing vales, but in-
Fhe chief river is the Rhone, which enters the depart- closed by chains of mountains, which in the south reach the
nut from the Gard, and in it receives the waters of the highest point among the Alps. The greater part of the can-
I izon, the Aigues, the Meyne, the Lorgues, and the Du- ton is the finest part of Switzerland. It presents to the
r; ce. The Durance, which flows from the Lower Alps, view rich and beautiful plains, valleys varying in extent,
ngives the waters of the Jabron and of the Cavallon gentle acclivities, verdant meadows, and delightful shores
b ore it joins the Rhone. The Rhone is the only around the most wonderful lakes of this romantic division
scam that is navigable ; but there are many small arti- of Europe. It must however be acknowledged, that in these
li al canals, which, though chiefly designed for the pur- plains the soil is generally so heavy and difficult to work,
p e of irrigation, are made available for the transport of and that in the more elevated spots so thinly covered with
h vy goods. vegetable mould, that agriculture is by no means a profitable
The climate is mild and healthy, but subject to great pursuit, and the inhabitants are mostly occupied in the
c ages. The trees in some seasons begin to blossom in Feb- breeding of cattle and the cultivation of the vine. The
r ry, but are often checked by severe cold and showers, best wine, called Vaud wine or Rylf wine, is made between
7e husbandry is in an imperfect state ; green crops and Vevay and Lausanne. Those called Vins de la Cote, made
e a clover are not known, though lucerne is cultivated in between the latter city and Geneva, are all white, while
s parts. The chief grains are wheat, barley, rye, buck the best red wine is that made on the lake of Neuchatel;
v eat, and maize. The whole growth of these is annually but much is made in other districts. The growth of fruit
fi 000 quarters, which is not sufficient for the consumption is vefy extensive, and there are many extensive woods of
o ;he inhabitants. Th^ chief product for sale is wine. The chesnuts. Tobacco is raised of good quality, and in some
o 'e trees yield some oil, which, with dried fruits and saf- parts hemp and flax. The main object of rural husbandry
f a, forms the chief object with which are exchanged the is however the breeding of cattle.
fir foreign luxuries that are consumed. Silk worms are In the mountains of Aigle and Bex is the only salt spring
li >t in some districts. The spinning and weaving of silk is in Switzerland. There is very little manufacturing indus-
t chief occupation of the inhabitants ; and the weaving is try, except for domestic utensils. Some leather is tanned,
s 1 to employ 2600 looms. These goods form a part of and a few cutlery articles are made at Vallorbe; and there
t exports, to which may be added madder, which is raised is a little porcelain and some coarse pottery ware prepared
a I prepared for the dyers. Some springs of saline water in different districts. The commerce consists chiefly of the
i nish culinary salt. This department returns two members transport of French wares to the interior of Switzerland and
t the representative chamber. The capital is the city to Germany, and in the export of wine and cheese, and of
(Avignon, with a population, in 1836, amounting to live cattle. The imports consist of French brandy, snuff,
; 786. sugar, coffee, woollen and cotton cloths, iron, leather.
f AUDorWAADT, a canton of Switzerland, in the wTest- The corn grown is seldom equal to the consumption, and
(;imost part of it, extending in north latitude from 46° \7' in mostfi seasons wheat and barley form a part of the im-
t I7°5',and in east longitude from 5';>54'to70 F. It is bound- port articles.
( on the north by the canton and lake of Neuchatel, on VAUDOIS, or Valdenses. See Waldenses.
t; east by Freyburg, on the south-east by Berne and Va- VAULT, in Architecture, an arched roof, so contrived
1,, on the south by the lake of Geneva, on the south-west that the stones which form it sustain each other. Vaults
1 Geneva, and on the west by the kingdom of France. It are on many occasions to be preferred to soffits or flat ceil-
i 893 square geographical miles in extent, and is divided, ings, as they give a greater height and elevation, and are
i tier a new constitution introduced in 1831, into nineteen besides more firm and durable.
( tricts, and subdivided into sixty circles, each of which VAVAO or Vavon, one of the Friendly islands, in the
«mprehends either one or two, and a few three, communes South Pacific ocean, seen by Perouse in 1787. It is near-
1 parishes. The population in 1838 amounted to 183,582 ly equal to the size of Tongataboo. Lat. of the western
(sons, of whom 175,000 are of French extraction, and point 18. 34. S.
1 ;ak that language; the remainder are of the German race. VAYPEN, a small town in the territories of the Cochin
he prevalent religion is the Calvinistic, which possesses rajah, standing upon a narrow island of the same name,
i parish churches ; but in the district of Eschallans, the which extends along the coast thiiteen miles, and is only
itholic worship is established over seven parishes, and it is one mile in breadth. Long. 76. 7. E.. Lat. 9. 58. N.
crated in all other parts of the canton. By the nevv con- VAZIRABAD, a town of the Seik territoiies, in the
tution a simple democracy has been established. The province of Lahore, situated on the east side of the Chinaub
fislative body consists of 184 deputies, who are chosen river, forty-seven miles N.N.W. from the cit\ of Lahore,
cry fifth year by all the inhabitants. The executive Long. 73. 28. E. Lat. 32. 25. In.
d administrative power is vested in a council of seven VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindus, believer to te
embers, selected from the members of the legislature, revealed by God, and called immortal. Fhey are considei-
d appointed for six years. The judicial power is in a ed as the fountain of all knowledge human and divine, and
de of transition. The military administration is in a are four in number; of which we have the following account
>ard, and it superintends the army, or rather militia, in the first volume of the Asiatic Researches. 1 he Aiv/ec-
bich comprehends horse, foot, and artillery. The force da consists of five sections; the Yajurveda oi eighty-six;
ustered exceeds 24,000 men of all arms; and there are the Samaveda of a thousand ; and the At harvaveda of
Uusanne and at Merges institutions for the education of nine; with eleven hundred sac has, or branches, in various
ilitary students. The civil and moral education is con- divisions and subdivisions. Lie Vedas in truth are infl¬
icted in two academies, seven colleges, and 613 primary nite; but have been long reduced to this number and order;
566
y e g
y e g
Veere, the principal part of them is that which explains the duties
of man in a methodical arrangement; and in the fourth is
Carpio. a SyStem 0f Jivine ordinances.
From these are reduced the four Upavedas, the first of
which was delivered to mankind by Brahma, Indra, Dhan-
wantari, and five other deities; and it comprises the theo¬
ry of disorders and medicines, with the practical methods of
curing diseases. The second consists of music, invented
for the purpose of raising the mind by devotion to the feli¬
city of the Divine nature; the third treats of the fabrication
and use of arms; and the fourth of sixty-four mechanical
arts. Of however little value we may esteem the mecha¬
nical arts of the Hindus, and however despicable their theo¬
logical system may really be, the Upaveda, which treats of
diseases and the method of curing them, surely deserves to
be studied by every European physician practising in India.
There is indeed a great number of medical books in the
Shanscrit language worthyof attention; for though the theo¬
ries of their authors may be groundless and whimsical, they
contain the names and descriptions of many Indian plants
and minerals, wdth their uses, discovered by experience, in
the cure of diseases.
VEERE, or Ter Veere, or by the English Camp-
vere. This is a fortified town of the province of Bra¬
bant, and the kingdom of the Netherlands. It stands on the
north side of the island of Walcheren, on a narrow channel
near the mouth of the Scheldt, where two arms of that river
meet. It has a fine arsenal, a handsome town-hall, and two
churches. It was formerly the staple-town for the trade be¬
tween Scotland and Holland ; but its privileges, and much of
its commerce, have been removed to Rotterdam. It has
some large handsome dwelling-houses, but now not more
than 1750 inhabitants.
VEGA CARPIO, Lope Feeix t>e, a celebrated Spanish
poet, was the son of Felix de Vega and Francisca Fernan¬
dez, who were both descended from honourable families,
and lived in the neighbourhood of Madrid. In that metro¬
polis he was born on the 25th November 1562. He was,
according to his own expression, a poet from his cradle; and
beginning to make verses before he had learned to write, he
used to bribe his elder school-fellows with part of his break¬
fast, to commit to paper the lines which he had composed.
Having lost his father while he wfas yet still a child, he en¬
gaged in a frolic very natural to a lively boy, and wandered
with another lad to various parts of Spain, till, having spent
their money, and being conducted before a magistrate at
Segovia for offering to sell a few trinkets, they were sent
home again to Madrid. Soon after this adventure, the young
poet was taken under the protection of Geronimo Manrique,
bishop of Avila, and began to distinguish himself by his
dramatic compositions, which were received with great ap¬
plause by the public, though their author had not yet com¬
pleted his education; for, after this period, he became a
member of the university of Alcala, where he devoted
himself for four years to the study of philosophy. He was
then engaged as secretary to the duke of Alva, and wrote
his Arcadia in compliment to that patron, who is frequent¬
ly mentioned in his occasional poems. He quitted that em¬
ployment on his marriage with Isabel de Urbina, a lady
(says his friend and biographer Perez de Montalvan) beau¬
tiful without artifice, and virtuous without affectation. His
domestic happiness was soon interrupted by a painful inci »
dent. Having written some lively verses in ridicule of a C
person who had taken some injurious freedom with his chi
racter, he received a challenge in consequence of his wit-
and happening, in the duel which ensued, to give his ad'
versary a dangerous wound, he was obliged to fly from his
family, and shelter himself in Valencia. There he resided
a considerable time; but connubial affection recalled him
to Madrid. His wife died in the year of his return. H,s
affliction at this event led him to relinquish his favourite
studies, and embark on board the Armada which was then
preparing for the invasion of England. He had a brother
who served in that fleet as a lieutenant; and being shot in
an engagement with some Dutch vessels, his virtues were
celebrated by the afflicted poet, whose heart was peculiarly
alive to every generous affection. After the ill success of
the Armada, the disconsolate Lope de Vega returned to
Madrid, and became secretary to the marquis ofMalpica,
to whom he has addressed a grateful sonnet. From the
service of this patron he passed into the household of the
count of Lemos, whom he celebrates as an inimitable poet.
He was once more induced to quit his attendance on the
great, for the more inviting comforts of a married life. His
second choice was Juana de Guardio, of noble birth and
singular beauty. By this lady he had two children, a son
who died in his infancy, and a daughter named Feliciana,
who survived her father. The death of his little boy is'said
to have hastened that of his wife, w hom he had the misfor¬
tune to lose in about seven years after his marriage. Hav¬
ing now experienced the precariousness of all human en¬
joyments, he devoted himself to a religious life, still conti¬
nuing to produce an astonishing variety of poetical compo¬
sitions. He undertook the very unpoetical employment of
secretary to the Inquisition, and shortly afterwards entered
into holy orders. In 1609 he became a kind of honorary
member of the brotherhood of St. Francis. His talents pro¬
cured him many unsolicited honours. Pope Urban Vlll.sent
him the cross of Malta, with a diploma of Doctor in Divinity,
and appointed him to a place of profit in the Apostolic
Chamber. He had dedicated his Corona Tragica (a lonp
poem on the fate of Mary queen of Scots) to that learned
pontiff. In his seventy-third year he felt the approaches
of death, and prepared himself for it with the utmost com¬
posure and devotion. His last hours were attended by many
of his intimate friends, and particularly his chief patron the
duke of Sessa, whom he had made his executor; leaving him
the care of his daughter Feliciana, and of his various ma¬
nuscripts. The manner in which he took leave of those he
loved was most tender and affecting. He remarked to
his friend Montalvan, that true fame consisted in being
good ; and that he would willingly exchange all the ap¬
plauses he had received to add a single deed of virtue to
the actions of his life. Having given his dying benediction
to his daughter, and performed the last ceremonies of his
religion, he expired on the 26th August 1635. The num¬
ber of his works is immense, but there is no complete and
uniform edition. Fr. Cerda y Rico superintended a “ Col-
lecion de las Obras sueltas, assi en prosa como en verso.
Madrid, 1776-9, 21 tom. 4to. This collection does not
include his comedies, which would occupy a much larger
number of volumes.1
'Seethe elegant and tasteful work of Lord Holland, Some Account of the Lives and Writings of Lope Felix de Vega Carpio rii
Guillen de Castro. Lond. 1817, 2 vols. 8vo. This Life of Lope de Vega was separately published in the year 1806.
567
VEGETABLE PHY SIOLOGY.
I the Article on the Anatomy of Vegetables, a view
been given of the organography of plants, or the struc-
't e and forms of vegetables through their several grada-
t ns from the seed to the perfect plant. We now proceed
t consider the functions which the different organs of ve-
< tables perform, the description of which constitutes what
i termed the Physiology of Plants.
In a subject of such extent, and concerning which so
rich diversity of opinion prevails, we must bespeak the
i lul'^ence of'our readers, not only for the imperfections
II for the errors into which we may fall. From the nar-
i v limits within which we are necessarily circumscribed,
i are constrained to give rather the results than the de-
tils of experiments; to avoid all discussion of disputable
j ints; to reject many practical illustrations and much his-
t ical narration. Neither have we room to enlarge on the
pieral distinctions between plants and animals; on the
portance of vegetables in the scale of being; their geo-
- iphical distribution; the nature of their living power or
ality; their sensibility, perceptivity, and many other pro-
’ rties which have been ascribed to them. The Articles
<imal and Physical Geography will however furnish
e necessary information on these particulars. Our pre-
nt aim will be confined to a general view of the leading and
>re important functions of the more perfect vegetables.
{AP. I OF THE GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF VEGETABLES.
Sect. I.— Of the Germination of Seeds.
In the article referred to wre have detailed pretty fully
I; anatomy of seeds, and described particularly their tunics
: d the nucleus contained within them. This nucleus cen¬
ts of the organized parts, or embryo, and the inorganic
itter destined to afford it nourishment. In its more com¬
pete forms, this embryo consists of the radicle, the stem
caulicule, and the plumule. The stem, however, is often
t distinguishable. When present, it connects the ra-
de with the plumule; and the place of its junction with
2 radicle is denominated the neck of the embryo. In the
i Dgress of evolution, the radicle descends to form the root,
d the plumule rises and constitutes the first bud of the
w plant.
Besides the organised parts just mentioned, there are
liers called cotyledons, which derive their origin from the
ibryo. Many seeds have two cotyledons, and some more
an two; others have only one, and some seeds have no
tyledon. When present, the cotyledons exhibit different
Inns; and between them and the embryo, a vascularcom-
unication is established, as may be seen in the dissection
a bean, represented in Plate XXXIX. fig. 12. Besides
ssels, the cotyledons are partly made up of cells, within
ilich the nutrient matter of the seed is contained. In
me seeds, however, this matter is only partially contained
the cotyledons; in others, as that of wheat, it is wholly
mtained in a cellular tissue produced from the inner tunic,
astly, the cotyledons of some seeds rise above the ground
aring germination, and perform the function of leaves:
1 others they continue beneath the soil. In all seeds their
xistence is temporary, for they perish after having yield-
1 their nutrient matter to the embryo,
1 his matter, called albumen by Grew and Gaertner, is a
cretion made by the vessels into the cells during the for-
lation of the seed; and, though itself inorganic, is con¬
tained in an organized tissue. It is of various colour and Vegetable
consistence in different seeds. Its bulk, compared with that Physiology
of the organized parts, is, in some seeds, very small; ins,^V^/
others very large.
Such is a brief notice of the more important parts which
construct the seed, and which it is necessary clearly to
understand before we can properly appreciate the nature
and effects of the actions that go on during its germination.
In considering these actions, we have to inquire into the
circumstances or conditions in which the seed requires to be
placed—the agents which then act upon it—the change of
quality and condition which these agents themselves suffer,
and the effects which, in consequence, they produce in the
seed—and, lastly, the physiological phenomena which thence
arise, and terminate in these alterations of form and struc¬
ture which constitute the evolution of the seed.
In general, seeds, when placed to growr, are buried more
or less deeply in the earth, but this condition is not essen¬
tial; for they readily shoot forth and display their forms, when
confined in vessels of air. In whatever situation their ger¬
mination is attempted, a certain temperature, and a certain
portion of moisture, are necessary to its commencement;
and the access of air is afterwards required to carry on the
process. We have, therefore, to inquire into the operation
of water, heat, and air, in commencing and carrying on the
germination of the seed.
Water, in the first instance, penetrates the tunics of the
seed apparently by simple attraction or imbibition; and the
force with which this attraction is exerted is well illus¬
trated in the experiments of Boyle and Hales. They filled
strong bottles with dry beans and peas, over which water
was poured, and the bottles were then closely stopped. As
the seeds imbibed the water, they readily burst the bottles
asunder; or, if small iron cylinders, closed by a plug, were
employed, the plug was gradually raised by the expanding
seeds, though pressed by a weight of nearly 200 lbs. It
is by the exertion of such a force, that certain seeds, as
those of the peach and apricot, are able, says Du Hamel,
to burst open their stony envelope. This expansion from the
imbibition of water occurs not only in seeds which retain the
faculty of germinating, but in those also which have lost
it. We must, therefore, regard this first step in germina¬
tion as similar to the attraction of waiter by inanimate bo¬
dies. Accordingly, if, after water has been thus imbibed,
air be excluded, the radicle never increases beyond a certain
size; and, if the seed be kept wholly immersed in water at a
temperature of 60°, decomposition of its substance ensues.
To this imbibition of water, a temperature above that of
freezing is necessarily required; and, within a certain range,
the rate of expansion will be more or less influenced by that
of temperature. Cold, however, does not destroy, but only
suspends, the germinating faculty in seeds. Seeds have ger¬
minated after having been exposed for a short time to a tem¬
perature of —39° F.
When, by the combined operation of heat and moisture,
the seed is brought into a condition fit for germination, then
the presence of air is required. Many experiments were made
by Boyle and others, to prove the necessity of air to germina¬
tion ; and since the composition of the atmosphere was made
known, many more have been instituted to ascertain why the
air is thus necessary, the nature of the changes it undergoes,
the extent to which they proceed, and the manner in which
they are accomplished. On all these points much information
has been gained, and the results obtained are, in general, so
568
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable precise, as to leave little doubt as to the nature and extent
Physiology ()f facts, whatever difference of opinion may exist as to
the mode of their occurrence. We must refer those who de¬
sire full details on these subjects to the writings of Scheele,
Cruickshank, Gough, De Saussure, Huber, and Senebier, &c.
The results of their labours are given, more or less com¬
pletely, in most of our chemical works, and are more fully
detailed in Mr. Ellis’s “ Inquiries into the Changes induced
on the Air by the Vegetation of Plants,” &c. parts i. and
ii.
, From these results we learn, that atmospheric air is use¬
ful to germination, from containing oxygen gas; that by the
germinating process, the oxygen gas of the air is changed
into an equal bulk of carbonic acid gas; and that the azotic
portion of the air remains unchanged in composition, and
generally unaltered in volume.
The nature and extent of the change induced on the
air being thus ascertained, we have next to inquire into the
mode in which it is brought about, that is, how the car¬
bonic acid is formed. Now, when the experiment is con¬
ducted in close vessels, no other substance, but the seed,
is present that can afford carbon: and this fact, taken in
connection with the circumstance that the seed actually con¬
tains carbon, and yields it, like other organized substances,
to the atmosphere that surrounds it, authorises the conclu¬
sion, that, while the air supplies the oxygen, the seed yields
the carbon by which the carbonic acid of germination is
formed.
Granting, however, that carbon is afforded by the seed,
and combines with the oxygen of the air, where, it may
be asked, and in what manner, is this combination effected?
A certain degree of moisture in the seed is necessary to
enable it to yield its carbon; for, when perfectly dry, little
or no reciprocal action goes on between the seed and the
air. Neither does the living faculty of the seed seem ne¬
cessary to this combination; for carbon is afforded by seeds
when they are confined by vessels in azote or hydrogen gas,
and even under actual decomposition. We may therefore
regard the formation of carbonic acid, in the first stages of
germination, as purely chemical, and as taking place either
on the surface, or within the substance of the seed. Now,
from the dense structure of the investing tunics, and the
circumstance of the vessels of the seed being already filled
with fluid, we see no way in which air can enter the seed,
so as to act either on its organized or inorganic matter;
and, consequently, we incline to the opinion, that the for¬
mation of carbonic acid takes place exterior to the tu¬
nics of the seed. Such, then, are the changes in compo¬
sition which the air employed in germination suffers, and
such appears to be the mode in which they are accom¬
plished.
While these changes are produced in the air, others not
less remarkable occur in the form and qualities of the seed
itself; for not only are its organized parts gradually evolved,
but its inorganic matter, besides being softened by the im¬
bibed water, acquires, in many seeds, a sweetish taste. These
facts, which had long been observed in the process of malt¬
ing, were more distinctly ascertained by Cruickshank. He
found that seeds of barley, when placed to grow in vessels,
either of atmospheric air or of pure oxygen gas, acquired,
in a few days, a sweetish taste, and were more or less com¬
pletely converted into malt.
In what manner then, or by what agency must we sup¬
pose this change in the inorganic matter of the seed to be
accomplished? This matter, though denominated albumen,
does not resemble the albumen of chemists. In vegetable
physiology, the term comprehends the whole inorganic mat¬
ter of the seed, although that matter may contain no real
albumen, but consist of several distinct substances, or
“ proximate principles,” as they have been called. The
principal ingredients of seeds, which afford nutrient matter
to the embryo, are mucilage, starch, and sugar. For a f
account of the chemical properties of these substances l pH
must refer to the writings of chemists; our limits perm6v
only a very slight notice of them. ^ 11
Mucilage—the soft and liquid state of gum—is inodorous
and insipid; soluble in hot or cold water, but insoluble in al¬
cohol. Starch (fecula) is obtained from the flour (farina) of
the more nutritive seeds. It is also insipid and iqodorous-
insoluble in alcohol, and even in water, unless raised to the
temperature of 160°. If heated to 180°, the solution then
jellies, and, by evaporation, may be reduced to a substance
closely resembling gum. exists abundantly in the juice
and fruits of plants; but in seeds, it is formed chiefly during
their germination. It is soluble both in hot and colcl water
and also in alcohol. Other ingredients, as gluten, albumen!
and oil, are found in particular seeds.
Of the “ proximate principles” which contribute to ve¬
getable nutrition, chemists have attempted to ascertain not
only the elements, but the proportions in which they enter
into the several compounds. All agree in making these
elements to consist chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
and in some instances also of nitrogen; but the proportions
assigned by different analysts for the same substance differ
scarcely less than those allotted for the composition of the
different substances.
From the ultimate analysis of these substances, we derive
little aid in explaining the chemical changes which they un¬
dergo ; and we must therefore recur to other modes of ac¬
counting for those alterations in their sensible qualities
which germinating seeds exhibit. In the germination then
of many seeds, the hard and insipid albumen is gradually
reduced to a milky form, and acquires a sweetish taste;
while the organized parts become, at the same time, soft¬
ened and expanded, and prepared to take on those actions,
and exhibit those specific forms, which constitute the de¬
velopment of the embryo. Now, the only agents which
act simultaneously on the several parts of the seed, when
this development occurs, are water, heat, and air; and, as
far as we have been able to trace their operation, the changes
produced in the seed must therefore arise, more or less,
from the action of heat and moisture ; or from the loss of
carbon ; or from some specific agency exerted directly by
the oxygen gas of the air ; or arising indirectly out of its
conversion into carbonic gas ; or from the combined opera¬
tion of these several agents. Let us then examine their
operation, both separately and conjointly, and try to disco¬
ver the share which each exerts in the production of these
changes.
It has been shown that neither heat alone, nor moisture
alone, nor both united, are able to produce the development
of the seed; but that these agents contribute to bring it
into a proper state for being acted on by the air. In what
manner, then, does the air act on the germinating seed.'
No direct effect can be ascribed to its nitrogen ; for that
gas neither suffers nor produces change in germination, and
the process goes on perfectly well either in pure oxygen
gas, or in gaseous mixtures which contain no portion oi
azote.
But oxygen gas is essential to germination, and by that
process is uniformly converted ipto carbonic acid gas. 1 his
disappearance of oxygen has led to the belief, that while a
part of it was converted into carbonic gas, another portion
actually combined with the seed, and contributed to its de¬
velopment. But it is well ascertained, that oxygen gas,
by its conversion into carbonic acid, suffers no change o
volume ; and as the bulk of that acid gas, produced in ger¬
mination, equals exactly that of the oxygen which has dis¬
appeared, it follows, that no portion of the oxygen, lost by
the air, combines with the seed, but really exists externr
to it in the form of carbonic acid gas. The only ot ier
source from which the seed, in the experiments re
iferred
flible
»|pgy;-t
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
could derive oxygen, is from the decomposition of water;
ut germinating seeds, says M. de Saussure, emit neither
J'drogen nor oxygen, but only convert the oxygen gas of
13 air into an equal bulk of carbonic acid gas. It seems
tarefore, to be quite certain that the changes produced in
t: germinating seed cannot arise from the combination of
569
tygen.
Neither, in conformity to the opinion held by some, that
t ■ mucilage of the seed becomes sugar by losing a part of
i carbon, can we ascribe the change of quality in the seed
t the loss of that substance ; for the portion of the carbon
£ en off by the germinating seed is exceedingly small, and
v have no evidence that it is afforded by its mucilaginous
ntter. The chemical change, by which mucilage is con-
v ted into sugar, takes place also in circumstances where
t re is no reason to ascribe it to the loss of carbon.
That the combined action of heat and moisture will pro-
d ;e on the fecula of seeds changes analogous to those which
o :ur in germination, has been long known. Dr. Irvine
l<jg since remarked, that the farinaceous matter of seeds
chid thus be rendered sweet. Hence, distillers, says he,
c en mix not only grain imperfectly malted, but raw" meal,
vh their malt; and the whole being then mixed with
v ter, and submitted to distillation, becomes sweet, and
f ms wines and spirits. M. Fourcroy and M. Vauquelin
( ained sugar and alcohol from bruised unmalted barley,
l the combined use of water and heat; and Dr. Thomson
1 remarked, that the wort made from raw grain is nearly
a sweet as from that which has been malted. In the ex-
[ fluents of M. Kirchoff and others, starch was converted
i o sugar by thirty-six hours boiling in four times its weight
c water; and, from some later trials, it would seem that
s .-dust and other vegetable matters, as linen rags, may,
1 a similar process, be made to experience a like conver¬
se. I'rom these experiments we learn, that the conver¬
se of t\\Q fecula of seeds into sugar is an operation purely
oiittiical, effected by the combined and continued action of
1 it and water; and since, in germination, the albumen of
t seed is made to undergo a similar chemical change,
t ler the varied operation of the same agents, may we not
| 'some that it is accomplished in a manner somewhat
snilar ?
W hen, by germination, the albumen of the seed has been
t is changed from a solid and tasteless, to a fluid and swreet-
i substance, it is brought into a condition fit for the nu-
t ion of the embryo. For this purpose, it is taken up,
i absorbed from the cells in wrhich it had been deposited,
« conveyed to the neck of the embryo, where a part of
i s carried downward to feed the radicle, and another part
> ‘vard to nourish the plume.
Connected with the structure that determines the course
’ ic i the nutrient matter takes on reaching the neck of
l embryo, appears to be that tendency in the plumule
* radicle to pursue opposite directions, in whatever posi-
ii or circumstances the seed be placed to grow. These
l> encies have been ascribed to the action of light on the
1 mie, and of earth on the radicle : but the radicle equally
* 'Cen(. i’ though no earth be present, and the plumule
I s’, a 1 K,uSll- %ht be excluded. Others have attributed
^ iiescent of the radicle to the greater weight of its sap,
I 1 .l0,ascent °* ^le plumule to the lighter condition of that
^ K • ut there is no evidence that, in these parts respec-
e ), any such difference of sap exists. More lately, it has
(th SU^|J-0?e^ t*lat gravitation acted in causing the descent
^ ^ ic radicle ; and attempts have been made to counteract
y nice, by keeping seeds, during their evolution, in
i nif n?ot‘()n on vertical or horizontal wheels: but the
, n 0 tewed seem only to prove, that, in such circum-
* ecti8, 16 raf‘c^e an^ plumule pursue, as usual, opposite
ions, without affording any reason, why, in natural
'OL. xxi. o j >
growth, the one always rises and the other descends. It is Vegetable
worthy of remark, that this tendency to descend exists only Physiology
in the primary radicleor tap-root: for the lateral shoots which ’ '
it puts forth extend themselves, says Du Hamel, nearly hori¬
zontally. In like manner, the rootlets that spring from the
extremity of a cutting descend perpendicularly, while those
that issue from its sides proceed horizontally. We may
observe a corresponding peculiarity in the plumule anil
its productions. It is very singular, continues this writer,
that a tree vyhich springs from a seed raises its stem very
straight: it is the same with a cutting taken from a straight
stem ; but a cutting taken from a lateral branch, or the
bent shoot of a tree, bends much in its growth, especially
if its wood be of a hard nature.
Both the radicle and plumule, as they receive nutriment,
increase in all their dimensions; that is, both in length and
breadth. The elongation of the radicle, according to Du
Hamel, is produced only by the addition of new matter to
its extremity, an opinion which the observations of Mr.
Knight confirm. In the mo' e succulent plumule, Du Hamel
has shown, by satisfactory experiments, that elongation is
produced by an extension of parts already formed, as well
as by the addition of new particles ; but this extension is not
observed when the new parts have acquired a certain degree
of hardness. In their diametral growth, it is probable that
both the radicle and plumule experience, in their tender
state, some degree of expansion from the motion of their
contained fluids, as well as from the addition of new matter
to their exterior surface.
In this brief account of germination, we have supposed
the process to be carried on in closed glass vessels, in which
the progress of evolution can be observed, the agents con¬
cerned in carrying it on made known, and their action, to
a certain extent, appreciated. In such vessels the de¬
velopment of the seed can be continued until all the nu¬
trient matter is exhausted, and the organized parts assume
their peculiar forms, and execute their appropriate functions.
If indeed water and air be duly supplied, the seeds of
various herbs will grow and produce flowers and fruits with¬
out coming in contact with earth, as M. Bonnet ascertained;
and in other experiments of Du Hamel, the seeds of dif¬
ferent trees, which had been made to germinate on wet
sponges, and had their roots afterwards set in bottles so as to
be in contact with water, continued to vegetate for several
years, and produced annually new leaves, bark, and wood,
by the aid of water alone ; so that, “ without attempting
to explain how the parts of this fluid become solid, it is cer¬
tain,” says this excellent writer, “ that water is able to
furnish the nourishment necessary to plants.” For a de¬
scription of the daily appearances exhibited in the evo¬
lution of several kinds of seeds, we must refer to our former
article.
In ordinary germination, however, by the time the nu¬
trient matter of the seed is exhausted, the radicle has sent
forth rootlets through the soil, which at once serve to fix
the plant in its place, and to draw from the earth fresh
materials to sustain its growth. These materials, as will
afterwards be shown, undergo certain changes in the young
leaves, which have now sprung forth from the plumule, and in
part execute the function of cotyledons. The cotyledons, if
they have risen above the surface, now fade and fall; if they
have remained beneath it, they decay and perish. In addition
to water, heat, and air, the only agents required to carry
on the germination of the seed, light now becomes necessary
to give perfection to the plant; and its operation in be¬
stowing colour and other peculiar properties on plants will
be more particularly noticed hereafter. In this account of
germination, we have given attention chiefly to the physical
phenomena which it exhibits, reserving what we have to
say of the seed, as a living body, to another occasion.
4 c
570
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable
Physiology Sect. II Of the Vegetation of Plants.
Art. I Of Soils, and of the Food of Plants.
The plant, like the seed from which it sprang, is con¬
structed of two elementary systems, denominated vessels
and cells. For a detailed account of these, and ot the opi¬
nions held concerning them, we must refer to our former
article. By these systems, variously blended and combined,
the several textures, denominated Cuticle, Bark, Wood, and
Pith, are composed. The structure of these textures,
as they occur in different varieties of herbs and trees, has
likewise been described in that article.
Though the vessels of plants differ in form and structure,
yet, with regard to use, they appear to be but of two kinds;
those, namely, which receive and convey the common sap
or lymph, and are named, therefore, Sap or Lymphatic
Vessels; and those which contain and convey the juices
proper to each species of plant, and are therefore denomi¬
nated Proper Vessels. In trees, the sap-vessels are found
chiefly in the wood, and the proper vessels in the bark;
but in many herbs and in palms, both kinds of vessels are
associated together through the entire stem. Whether they
occupy distinct places in the vegetable, or are associated to¬
gether, their functions ai-e respectively the same ; the sap-
vessels being always employed in raising the sap upward,
and the proper vessels in conducting its descent.
In all parts of plants, the vessels are in contact with cells,
which serve sometimes the purpose of a connecting medium;
sometimes to fill up vacuities or augment the bulk of parts;
and sometimes as receptacles for various secretions. Be¬
tween the vessels and cells a vascular communication exists,
so that matter deposited at one time in the cells of the plant,
may, at another, be taken up and again mixed with the fluids,
as occurs in the germinating seed; and these functions of in¬
ternal secretion and absorption seem to be performed, in
plants, as well as in seeds, by the alternate exercise of the
same vessels, acting at different times and under different cir¬
cumstances.
Although, as we have seen, plants not only grow, but
produce flow ers and fruits without the aid of soil, yet, in
ordinary circumstances, they draw the materials of their food
from the earth. In an inquiry, therefore, into the nutrition
and growth of plants, we have to consider the nature and pro¬
perties of soils, whiehafford them habitation and nutriment—
the absorption of this nutriment and its conveyance through
the vessels—the changes of quality which it experiences
in its course, so as to fit it for nutrition—the agents requir¬
ed to effect these changes, and the mode in which they act
—and, lastly, the manner in which this nutrient matter, af¬
ter having undergone its destined changes, is applied to
nourish and augment the plant.
The soils in wrhich plants growr are composed of organiz¬
ed and inorganic matters in various proportions. Of inor¬
ganic substances, the earths which prevail most are silica,
alumina, and lime. With these earths, magnesia and cer¬
tain metallic oxides, particiilarly that of iron, are often to be
found. To these we may add alkaline matter, and animal
and vegetable substances in different stages of decomposi¬
tion and mixture. According to the proportions in which
these mineral and organized remains are present and blend¬
ed together, the soil will vary greatly in texture, in its pro¬
perty of retaining heat and moisture, and in its degree of
fertility. To say, however, what mixture of substances con¬
stitutes the most perfect soil would be very difficult: for not
only does climate greatly modify the natural condition of
soils, but plants themselves exhibit the greatest diversity of
choice or liking in this respect. Hence it is, that the soil
and climate best suited to one plant, are ill adapted or un¬
suited to another; and that every part of the earth’s surface,
in which heat and moisture sufficient to sustain vegetation
are present, is more or less clothed with its appropriate sn
cies of plants.
In considerinsr physiologically the uses which the different
ingredients of soils serve in vegetation, w'e must bear in
mind that certain chemical elements seem essential to the
constitution of vegetable matter; while others, though pre
sent and highly useful, are not so indispensably necessary
Thus, the vegetable substances, gum, starch, and sugar, are
composed essentially of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; and
woody fibre, when freed from all adventitious matter is
found to be composed of the same elements, united nearly
in the same proportions. Nowr, considering woody fibreas
the basis of the vegetable organs, and as formed, in germi¬
nation, directly from the fecula of the seed, and probably
the water in which it is dissolved, we may presume, that the
elements which thus compose fecula, water and woody fibre,
are the true constituents of vegetable matter.
In certain kinds of vegetable matter, which approxi-
mate to animal substance, nitrogen is a necessary ingre¬
dient. In other kinds, the vegetable substance partakes
largely of the earthy materials of the soil. Hence lime
and silica are abundant in certain plants; but as such sub¬
stances can enter plants only in a state of solution, the
earths met with in vegetables may not, says De Saussure,
depend so much on those which constitute the basis of the
soil, as on those heldin solution by the waterwhichitcontains.
Some have even supposed that the earths may be formed
or generated in plants by the vegetative process; but the
facts alleged in support of this opinion are not sufficiently
precise. While, therefore, it is admitted, that earths are
carried into plants, and, in certain tribes, enter largely into
the composition of some of their textures, we have no evidence
that they contribute directly to nutrition, or form an essen¬
tial element in the composition of vegetable matter. Their
use in affording station or habitation to vegetables is suffi¬
ciently obvious; and the temperature and moisture of the
soil will also depend much on their kinds, proportions, and
intermixture.
Together with the earths, chemical analysis shows, that
sulphur, phosphorus, some metallic oxides, and particularly
alkaline matter, exist in plants. Certain saline substances
seem indeed necessary to vegetation. Marine plants lan¬
guish in a soil destitute of common salt; and it is well known,
that potash forms a large portion of the incombustible mat¬
ter of land vegetables, and is especially abundant in the
leaves. De Saussure found phosphate of lime in every plant
he analysed. Certain plants throve well only in soils con¬
taining nitrates of lime or potash; and sulphate of lime or
gypsum accelerated much the growth of lucerne and trel'oih
These saline ingredients are highly useful, and the alkalis,
in particular, seem necessary to the due perfection ot the
vegetative process; but, as the elements of these substances
do not form a necessary constituent of the vegetable fibre)
they cannot be considered as an essential part of thefoo
of plants. Perhaps they may be regarded as condiments
which aid in the process of assimilation ; and, as wil ap
pear, they are otherwise highly useful in the vegeta e
economy.
With regard to the organized remains, which form s
large a portion of the most fertile soils, they are not on y
soluble in water, like the other ingredients, but are com
posed of the same elements as vegetable substance. •
de Saussure found pure vegetable mould to y*e'®’'j
filiation, products similar to those ot the undecaye «
from which it had been formed, differing chiefly from
containing a larger proportion of charcoal and some 8
Water dissolved a portion of this mould; and when ‘jP
of this soluble portion, the residue, though unaltere ^
pearance, did not support the growth ot plantsJf , ^
before. The part thus dissolved by water ex i ■ ^
properties of extractive,—a principle found in t e f
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
571
(iccially in the bark of plants. Hence it appears, that de-
(/ed vegetable matter, and the same may be said of ani-
,1 remains, is not only conveyed into plants, but, being
fi med of the same elements as the living plant, may be
t |Ceived to furnish materials necessary to its growth.
(jut in all soils adapted to vegetation, water is a neces-
g y ingredient, whether it be regarded merely as a vehicle
f; the conveyance of other substances, or as itself forming
,, ortion of the food of plants. To the experiments of Van
I Imont, Boyle, Bonnet, Du Hamel, andBraconnot, tending
t prove that water alone affords nutriment to plants, it has
} ;n objected, that the water which they employed, though
a)arently pure, held in solution both earthy and saline
i tiers; but, unless we suppose these matters convertible
i o oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon—the only essential ele-
r nts of vegetables-—the presence of these earths and salts in
t water could not supply the elements required for the pro-
(jtion of vegetable matter. If, on the other hand, with
] i Hamel and De Saussure, we suppose w ater, though not
composed, to lose its fluidity, and become fixed in vege-
t lies, then we have at once two of the elements of woody
f re, combined in that proportion which the experiments
( Gay Lussac and Thenard exhibit them as holding in the
i uposition of vegetable substance.
Of the source of the other element, carbon, it is not less
(ficuit to speak. It is an ingredient of vegetable mould,
i 1 of the carbonic acid carried into plants with the sap,
( her in a free state, or in combination w ith alkaline mat-
1 ; so that, by these means, it is pretty largely supplied
I plants. On the other hand, M. Hassenfratz endeavoured
t show, that plants which vegetated in the open air by the
II of pure w ater, yielded, on analysis, less carbon than the
r ;ds or bulbs from which they had sprung. M. de Saus-
i -e obtained similar results when he analysed plants that
d grow'n in pure water, and in a place weakly illuminat-
; but when they grew' under the direct influence of light,
?n the proportion of carbon in the plant nearly doubled
it in the seed. This carbon he supposes to be de¬
ed from that decomposition of carbonic acid which is
rried on by the leaves of plants growing in sunshine,
limiting this to be the fact, we may perhaps regard the
rhon thus deposited in the leaf as contributing rather to
e formation of the inflammable products of the plant, than
undergoing assimilation, and being applied to the pro-
ction of new vegetable substance. And hence, as will
:erwards be shown, plants which grow in darkness not
ly contain less carbon than those which grow in light, but
e at the same time destitute of those inflammable ingre-
ents which plants growing in light possess.
Beside the earth and water, the air also has been sup-
sed to fiirnish food to plants. That plants obtain mois-
re from the air will not be denied ; and in as far as water
concerned in vegetable nutrition, the moisture thus ob-
lined may contribute to vegetable grow;th. But they have
so been supposed to derive carbon from the atmosphere,
! decomposing its carbonic acid. Since, however, the at-
osphere contains less than yo^th part of carbonic acid
is, the portion of that gas decomposed by plants in the
ten air must, even in sunshine, be necessarily very small,
id the quantity of carbon thus obtained is probably much
tceeded by that continually given off by plants to unite
ith the oxygen gas of the atmosphere, through every pe-
od of active vegetation. M. de Crell, indeed, deeming
ic carbon that could be afforded by the atmosphere insuf-
dent to account for the addition of that substance which
ants receive during their growth, was led to suppose they
'ssessed the power of forming carbon by the aid of water,
r, and light; and M. Braconnot has maintained that vege-
' es find in pure water every thing necessary for them to
Hm late; that mould and manures yield no nutriment;
>d that earths, alkalis, metals, sulphur, phosphorus, and
charcoal, are developed from water, by the organic powers Vegetable
of plants assisted by solar light. Physiology
“ But the experiments,” says Sir Humphry Davy, “ in'
which it is said that alkalies, metallic oxides, and earths,
may be formed from air and water alone in processes of ve¬
getation, have been always made in an inconclusive man¬
ner ; for distilled water may contain both saline and metal¬
lic impregnations; and the free atmosphere almost constantly
holds in mechanical suspension solid substances of various
kinds. The conclusions of M. Braconnot,” he adds, “ are
rendered of little avail in consequence of these circum¬
stances. In the only case of vegetation in which the free
atmosphere, in his experiments, was excluded, the seeds
grew in white sand, which is stated to have been purified
by washing in muriatic acid ; but such a process was insuf¬
ficient to deprive it of substances which might afford carbon,
or various inflammable matters.”
Art. II.—Of the Course of the Sap, and the Causes of its
Motion.
In the warmer regions oi‘ the earth, the sap flow's, in cer¬
tain plants, through the whole year; but in more tempe¬
rate climes the functions of vegetables are suspended dur¬
ing the winter season. Early in spring, however, it begins
to rise in trees, and continues daily to ascend till it reaches
the extremities of the branches. This sap is absorbed from
the soil by the extremities of the capillary rootlets, or the
spongioles, as they are called, and conveyed upwards through
the vessels of the root to the trunk. In its ascent it rises
only through the wood; for, at this early period, no sap is
found in the bark, nor between it and the wood, nor in the
pith. This rise of the sap occurs before the buds have shot
forth into leaves; and as no outlet for its escape by tran¬
spiration then exists, it rises or falls in the vessels in which
it is contained according to the temperature of the atmos¬
phere. If at this period of its flow, its course, in certain
trees, be intercepted, by piercing the vessels of the trunk
in any part, it issues forth, and may be collected for exami¬
nation. In this way the vine, the birch, and sugar-maple,
yield sap, or bleed, as it is called, very abundantly. They
bleed also trom the extremity of a cut branch, if the expe¬
riment be made sufficiently late in the season, but still be¬
fore the appearance of the leaves.
Early in February, before the sap began to flow, Dr. Wal¬
ker made several incisions, at different heights, in a birch
tree, in order to observe its motion. No sap was visible at
the lowest incision in the trunk till the temperature of the
atmosphere rose to 46° in the shade; after which, as the
temperature augmented, the sap continued daily to rise.
When the highest incision in the trunk, at the height of
thirty feet, bled, the thermometer was at 52°; and w hen the
tree bled, not only from the incisions in its trunk, but from
every cut extremity of its branches, it was at 56°. During
the whole experiment, when the temperature was nearly
the same, the sap continued nearly stationary,—rising again,
as the temperature rose, just like the fluid in a thermome¬
ter. To the cut extremity of a vine branch, Dr. Hales, in
the bleeding season, cemented long glass tubes, so that he
could readily observe the movements of the sap. Into these
tubes it would rise many feet through the morning after the
sun was up; but while in this rising state, if there was a
cold wind, or the sun was clouded, the sap would imme¬
diately subside, at the rate of an inch in a minute, for seve¬
ral inches; but as soon as the sunbeams broke out again,
the sap would immediately return to its rising state, just as
any liquor in a thermometer rises and falls with the alterna¬
tions of heat and cold.
To ascertain the force and velocity of the sap’s motion
at this season, Dr. Hales made many experiments. He found
it to rise in glass tubes, at the rate, sometimes, of an inch
in three minutes, and to attain the height of more than
572
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
mosphere, then, as Hales found by experiment, the attrac¬
tion of fluid by the sap-vessels is proportionally diminished.
To find the force and velocity with which the sap moved
in this more advanced stage of vegetation, Dr. Hales ce¬
mented branches of trees, furnished with leaves, in glass
tubes filled with water, and then set the lower end of the
tube in a vessel of mercury. As the water was attracted
by the branch, the mercury rose into the tube, in one in¬
stance, to the height of twelve inches in seven minutes.
When the mercury had reached its greatest height, it would
hold to that height for several hours in a warm sunshine,
which favoured perspiration from the leaves; but as the
sun declined or set, perspiration decreased, and the mercury
Vegetable twenty feet. In other experiments, it exerted a force suf- were furnished with leaves, and set in glass tubes of water, Vi y
Physiology fjc;ent to sustain a column of mercury at the height of attracted from fifteen to thirty ounces of water in the coursefli ^
' ' thirty-eight inches ; a force, says he, five times greater than of the day ; while similar branches, from which the leaves
that of the blood in the crural artery of a horse. In the had been stripped off, imbibed, in the same time and cir.
chief bleeding season, the sap continued to rise by night cumstances, not more than one ounce. In like manner, a
and by day, but more in the day, and most of all in the growing vine, which was perspiring abundantly by its leaves,
greatest heat of the day; and when the sun shone hot upon ceased at once to y ield sap f rom its stem, when cut over be-
the vine, a continued series of air-bubbles rose through the low the leaves. He found also that amputated branches,
sap so as to make a large froth on its top. when plunged in water, imbibed from the small end to the
Such are the phenomena exhibited by the rising sap be- great end as well as in the opposite direction; that they
fore the appearance of the leaves: when they have shot imbibed also when deprived of their bark, but not when
forth a great change is observed in its movements. It still, stripped of their leaves ; and that they would imbibe water
however; continues to rise through the trunk; but if the from their small cut extremity, while still attached to the
wood be now pierced, none of it flows out, as it did in the trunk. Hence it appears, that, after the period of verna-
bleedino- season. In the excellent experiment of Dr. Wal- tion, the flow of the sap is promoted chiefly by perspiration
ker already referred to, the birch tree continued to bleed from the leaves ; and, therefore, if the leaves be removed,
from the 5th of March to the 24th of April, on which day or their perspiration counteracted by a cold and humid at-
it bled from every incision in its trunk, and every cut extre¬
mity of its branches. On the 30th of April, vernation or
budding began, and the young leaves shot forth. As they
advanced, the bleeding gradually lessened, till at length, on
the 10th of May, when the leaves were fully expanded, all
the incisions, says Dr. Walker, which had yielded sap so
freely, were everywhere dry; and this, not from evapora¬
tion by the leaves, but from a general diffusion of the sap
from the wood through the bark at that season. In confor¬
mity wuth these observations, Dr. Hales remarks, that, after
the "appearance of the leaves, the bark, which was before
dry, and adhered to the wood, becomes lubricated with sap,
and easily separates. Even after the bark has thus been
brought to separate from the wood in a young tree full of ceased to rise. So great at this season is the attractive force
sap, all the leaves, says Du Hamel, be stripped off, the of the leaves, that if a notch be cut in the trunk of a tree
bark, in two days, will again adhere to the wood, and con- through which the sap is rapidly flowing, yet will the notch
tinue to do so through the winter. These facts distinctly remain dry ; “ because,” says Hales, “ the attraction of the
prove, that after the leaves have sprung forth, the sap of perspiring leaves is much greater than the force of trusion
plants is no longer confined to the wood, but finds its way from the column of water.” By other experiments he as-
into the bark ; and we have next to trace its route into that certained, that, w hen once the motions of the sap have been
texture.
M. De la Baisse and M. Bonnet traced the sap of plants
from the extremities of the roots into the leaves and flowers;
and when the plants were set in coloured liquors, the fluid
was seen to pass from the vessels of the leaf into its cellular dantly attract fresh supplies of it from the earth,
tissue, and the bark of the petiole afterwards to become In these various motions of the sap, both before and after
tinged. The communication thus established between the the bleeding season, Dr. Hales ascertained that the tree un¬
wood and the bark, M. Bonnet considered to occur in the derwent no variation in its dimensions; yet, whenever it
extreme ramifications of the leaf, where, as he supposed, rained, the stem very sensibly dilated, and when the weather
the ligneous and cortical vessels mutually anastomose. In again became dry, it subsided as much. “ This shows, he
a plant of Euphorbia, set in a coloured liquor, Dr. Darwin adds, “ that the sap, in all stages of vegetation, is coniine
observed the fluid to run along the inner ring of vessels in in its proper vessels, and does not confusedly pervade every
the petiole to the upper surface of the leaf; while on its interstice of the stem, as the rain does, and thereby dilate
under side, a white fluid was seen to return from the extre- it.” Du Hamel also noticed this alternate augmentation
mities of the same leaf, and to descend, by the exterior ring and diminution in the size of trees, under the different states
of vessels in the petiole, into the bark. In similar experi- of a humid and dry atmosphere.
ments on the apple branch, Mr. Knight followTed the return- Beside this perpendicular ascent, there is also, in cerain
ing fluid through the bark, by the vessels of which it seemed circumstances, a lateral motion of the sap. Dr. Ha es cu
to be conveyed to the roots. These facts show that the four large gaps in the branches of different trees, at fcuw
sap, which is observed in the bark, after the leaves have inches distance from each other. 1 he cuts were carne
sprung forth, gets into that texture by passing through those down to the pith, and opposed, in position, to the four pom ^
organs. of the compass. If the cut branches were then amputa e
The leaves, which thus form the organs of communica- and immersed in water, they imbibed that fluid byt e|re
tion between the wood and the bark, not only vary the tremities, but not so abundantly as before, and contljju^
course of the sap, but greatly influence its motion. Before to give it off freely by their leaves; if .reI^aine|)oat|1
their appearance, no natural outlet for its escape existed, tached to the tree, after such gaps were made in fhem’ ^
and it therefore rose, continued stationary, or tell in the the leaves and fruit of the branch flourished as wel as ^ ^
same vessels, chiefly according to variations of temperature, on other branches of the same tree ; proving, says a >
But when the leaves are developed, a large portion of the very free lateral passage of the sap, where the irec I ^
sap, in its passage through them, is thrown off by transpira- sage had been several times intercepted. In these gap,^
tion, and the remainder is conveyed into the bark ; so that, moisture could, at any time, be either seen or fe f n°a|love
by these means, the vessels of the tree are emptied, and put standing much fluid was passing by, because the stem, ^
 . . . .. - 
brought under the dominion of the leaves, the sap-vessels
of the root no longer possess the same pow er of forcingthe
sap upw ard, as they did in the bleeding season ; but so long
as the leaves throw off* the sap, the roots more or lessabun-
into a condition to attract fresh portions of fluid. Hales the
accordingly found that amputated branches of trees, which grea
gaps, was in a strongly attracting state to S’TP.-.
at perspiration of the leaves. Mr. Knight ma t
VEGETABLE
jn ^ions on the opposite sides of apple branches during the
(tv w er season ; yet, through these branches, the sap flowed
♦ ^inpring, and pushed forth the buds as usual.
' rom the facts stated above, it appears, that, before the
pe od of vernation, temperature is the chief agent in pro-
m ing the flow of the sap; and that, after that period, its
nr ress is aided principally by perspiration from the leaves.
Ti re must, however, exist in the plant itself some condi-
tic or structure which favours the operation of these agents.
Adifferent periods, different causes have been assigned for
th ascent of the sap. It has been supposed to exist in the
st;,! of vapour, and its ascent has been ascribed to its levity:
otf rs have attributed its rise to some imagined action of
tlii:spiral vessels; others to fermentation, or to the me-
chiiism of valves; and others to a power of contraction and
dii ation in the vessels, or to capillary attraction. Of these
allied causes, the two last alone deserve particular notice.
TI t a contractile power, derived from a vital source, is not
nec-ssarv to the motion of the sap in plants, seems certain
frcli the fact of the ready transmission of fluids through
de l vegetables. Even the dissevered particles of vege¬
tal is, as the ashes of wood, were found by Hales capable
of tracting water with a force nearly equal to living orga-
ni: 1 structures. From these and other facts, he considered
thii'ise of the sap to be produced by capillary attraction,
aid by temperature, and especially by perspiration from
: th eaves.
he force of capillary attraction, when thus aided by
ev oration, is strikingly illustrated by an experiment of
Pressor Leslie. He found that the attractive force, exerted
byhe very fine pores of a thin hollow ball of earthenware,
fir which water was continually evaporating, was more
th sufficient to support a load of mercury, in a tube attach¬
ed j the ball, equal to that of 400 inches of water, or a co¬
la i of thirty-four feet of that fluid. He estimates the dia-
mcrs of the pores in the ball at the 10,000th part of an
inn , and supposes the pores in the leaves of plants to pos¬
se' nearly the same dimensions.
Ithough capillary attraction, when aided by perspira-
tic from the leaves, may exert great influence over the
mi on of the sap, it is yet probable that some power or
pnerty, inherent in the vessel as a living organ, assists its
ac m. The direct effect of heat in promoting the flow of
th sap in the bleeding season, and of cold in retarding it,
se is to be more connected with some living property in
th /essels, than with their powers as simple capillary tubes.
It lis heat be supposed to dilate the vessels, it ought to
ch k capillary action, and cold, by diminishing their dia-
niiirs, ought to increase it; but the results afforded are
ex tly the reverse of these. “ If a capillary tube,” says
ft Ihomson, “ be taken of such a bore that a fluid will
rh in it six inches; and if, after the fluid has risen to its
gn test height, the tube be broken short three inches from
th )ottom, none of the liquid in the under half flows over—
if we cut a plant, the Euphorbia peplis, for instance,
m vo places, so as to separate a portion of the stem from
t v esb the milky juice of that plant flows out at both ends
80 )mpletely, that if afterwards we cut the portion of the
6tn in the middle, no juice whatever appears. Now, the
11 leter of these vessels is so small, that, if it were to con-
tit^ unaltered, the capillary attraction would be more than
8’>t :ient to retain their contents, and consequently not a
r would flow out. Since, however, the whole liquid
j'fj Pes> it must be driven out forcibly, and consequently
vessels must contract.” From similar experiments, Du
T1e' inferred that the proper juice is forced out by a
i ra(-‘tion of the vessels that contain it.
11 Petit I houars believes that the expansion of the buds
<!!, *'e,extremities of the branches in spring is the first
e. movement in the sap. He ascertained, by
.nment, that the sap begins to move at the extremities
PHYSIOLOGY. 573
of the branches before it stirs at the roots. Dutrochet Vegetable
brings forward his theory of galvanic currents to account Physiology
for the flowr of the sap. The fluids of plants, he says, are
denser than those which surround them, and hence a gal¬
vanic action, or eudosmose, takes place, by means of which
the water of the soil is propelled into their system. These
two theories may be combined, and we may suppose that,
when the buds are developed in spring, the fluid which they
contain increases in density by evaporation ; thus leading
to a flow of the thinner fluids upwards by endosmose, the
motion being propagated through the whole plant down to
the roots which attract the fluid from the soil.
Prom all that has been advanced relative to the flow of
the sap, we may conclude that temperature, the develop¬
ment of buds and leaves, and the exhalation from them,
endosmose, and probably some vital actions, may all con¬
spire to promote this important vegetable function.
In addition to the general circulation of sap, there are
also special motions of it, confined to particular parts, and
partaking more of a vital nature, to which the names of
rotation and cyclosis have been given. The first of these
motions is met with in plants of low organization, but is
not confined entirely to flowerless or cellular plants ; while
the latter occurs only in plants of a higher organization,
although not limited exclusively to flowering species.
Rotation has been noticed chiefly in the genera Chara
and Nitella, and consists of currents setting from joint to
joint, flowing down one side, generally that next the axis,
and returning up the other, without any membrane inter¬
vening to separate the opposing currents, and the motion
in each cellule being independent of that in the cellules
next to it. The motion occasionally intermits, and is ren¬
dered obvious by green granules of starchy or oily matter,
which float in the fluid of the cellules, and are carried about
by the currents. Some interesting observations have been
made on these peculiar vital movements by Treviranus,
Amici, Solly, Varley, and Slack, in the Annales des
Sciences Naturelies, and the Transactions of the Society of
Arts.
Cyclosis was discovered by Professor Schultz of Berlin
in 1820, and consists of the motion o^ a fluid called latex,
analogous, in many respects, to the blood of animals, and
contained in peculiar vessels, to which the name of cinen-
chyma or laticiferous vessels has been given. These vessels
consist of branched anastomosing tubes, lying in no definite
position with respect to the rest of the tissue, and so thin
and capillary in the young state as to be scarcely visible.
They are expanded and contracted at intervals, and their
sides are not parallel as in other vessels. They exist often
in connection with spiral vessels. The latex is sometimes
transparent and colourless, but in many cases it is opaque,
and either milk-white, yellow, red, orange, or brown. Its
colour is due to the presence of numerous minute globules,
which are constantly agitated as if by a spontaneous mo¬
tion, and appear to be alternately attracted and repelled
by each other. The latex is looked upon as the proper
juice of the plant. On exposure to the air it separates into
a tenacious coagulum and a thin serum. The motion of
the latex, or cyclosis, consists of currents, which are ob¬
served traversing the laticiferous vessels, and passing through
the lateral connecting tubes or branches into the principal
channels. These currents, which are rendered visible by
the movement of the globules in the latex, follow no de¬
terminate course, but seem to be very irregular in their
direction, some proceeding up, others down, some to the
right, and others to the left; the motion occasionally stop¬
ping suddenly and then recommencing. The motion is
checked by diminution of temperature, or by a wound in
the vessels, and it is completely arrested by a strong elec¬
tric shock.
Cyclosis has been observed in Ficus elastica, or the In-
574
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vteefable dian rubber plant, Chelidonium majus or Celandine, Alisma sun flower, the area of the surface ot which above ground
Physiology Plantago, Tradescantia, &c.
For full particulars relative to these singular movements,
the reader is referred to M. Schultz’s paper, which will
speedily be published in the Memoires de 1’Academie des
Sciences.
was equal to 5616 square inches, gave off, by perspiration ft
in a warm dry day, about 20 ounces of fluid. In a warm ^
dry night, without dew, it exhaled only three ounces
When the dew was sensible, there was no
perspiration;
and when the dew was abundant, or the night wet, then
the weight of the plant was increased. The more succulent
Art. Ill—Of the Qualities of the Sap, and the Changes ieaves perspired more than those of firmer texture, ami
which it undergoes in the Leaves from the agency of the deciduous more than those of evergreens. In plants of
the same species, and placed in similar circumstances
perspiration is proportional to the extent of perspirin?
surface : but in all plants, cold and humidity more or less
diminish or entirely suspend this function.
The fluid thus perspired was collected by Hales as it
issued from the leaves of various herbs and trees. The
liquor in all was very clear, nor could he distinguish any
difference in its taste. It had nearly the specific gravity
of water, but when exposed to a hot sun it began sooner
to putrify. Senebier evaporated the perspired fluid of a
vine: the residuum consisted of minute portions of resinous
and gummy matter, and of carbonate and sulphate of lime,
which ingredients seemed to augment as vegetation pro¬
ceeded.
By the loss of its more aqueous parts, the proportions of
Air.
Having said so much of the motion of the sap, and of the
powers by which that motion is accomplished, let us next di¬
rect our attention to its qualities. If collected during the
bleeding season, it is almost without taste, but sometimes
a little sweet. It ordinarily yields, by evaporation, only a
little mucilage; but that of the maple of Canada is said, by
Du Hamel, to afford nearly 5 per cent, of sugar. The sap
of the elm (Ulmus campestris) was examined by M.Vau-
quelin at successive periods of vegetation. In his first ana¬
lysis he found 1039 parts of it to consist of
lOiT’OOd water and volatile matter;
9'240 acetate of potass;
1*060 vegetable matter;
0*796 carbonate of lime.
Grew, Malpighi, Du Hamel, and others, have pointed out
the great differences produced in the consistence, colour,
odour, and taste of the sap during its transmission through
the leaves ; differences peculiar to each species of plants,
and which have obtained tor the sap, at this stage of its
movement, the appellation of Proper Juice. It is in this
proper juice, says Du Hamel, that the narcotic power of
the poppy, the corrosive quality of the fig, the diuretic vir¬
tue of the fir, and the purgative property of jalap, resides:
and even the peculiar products obtained from the sugar
cane and maple arise probably from the intermixture of the
proper juice with the common sap: whence we may infer
that the virtue of plants resides principally in their proper
juice.
It is difficult to collect these juices in a pure state.
Those which have been examined differ much in their
chemical properties. In some of them, mucus is the pre¬
dominant ingredient, and such juices are generally mild
and nutritious. Of the milky juices some are mild, others
hot and acrid. From the proper juice of Euphorbia, M.
Chaptal obtained, by the agency of chlorine, a white preci-
At a later period, the vegetable matter was in greater the remaining ingredients of the sap must be much changed,
quantity, and the saline ingredients had diminished; and, ^
at. a period still later, these changes were still more evident.
Other saps were analysed, and found to possess similar in¬
gredients ; and some others in addition. The sap of the
beech contained gallic acid and tannin; and that of the
birch, sugar, and acetates of alumina, and lime. The sap
of the vine, examined by Dr. Front, resembled river water
in appearance and specific gravity, but was sweetish to the
taste. It yielded, by evaporation, a minute portion of resi¬
duum, consisting of a peculiar vegetable matter and car¬
bonate of lime.
The increase of vegetable matter observed in the sap as
the season advances, suggests the idea that it becomes
mixed with matter previously deposited in the tree. This
idea occurred to Malpighi, who considered the sap, as it
rose through the vessels, to be partly deposited in the cells,
where it underwent changes which fitted it for supplying
the first nutriment to the young buds and tender leaves.
A similar opinion was held by Darwfin, who also supposed
the sw^eet juices found in certain roots, and in the knots
and stems of some of the grasses, to serve the same purpose. . . . „ .
From finding the specific gravity of the sap to increase as pitate, consisting of two parts resinous matter and one part
it rose higher in the tree, and the alburnum of a tree, felled woody fibre. The juice of the carica papaya, a tree t at
in winter, to be heavier than in other seasons, Mr. Knight grow's in Peru, yielded M. Vauquelin a substance very i e
also supposed a deposition of nutrient matter to be made the fibrine ot animal matter. From other juice.-', Plims>
in the alburnum, through the latter part of summer and resins, turpentines, balsams, tannin, sugar, and various
autumn; so as to be ready to mix with the sap in the fbl- other products, have been obtained: so tlmt, in then sen
lowing spring, and afford nourishment to the buds and sible qualities, these juices differ as much trom eac ot er
leaves. Hence, we may consider the young bud, like the as they do from the common sap; but all of them appear o
embryo of the seed, to draw its first nutriment from matter contain a substance resembling in character the woo y re-
previously secreted, and in part deposited in cells, and That the difference ot quality observed in the tomin“
afterw ards reabsorbed and applied to its destined use. sap and proper juices is effected chiefly in the leaves, see
The bud, thus nourished in its early growth by the now to be generally admitted. Some part of this di ere
ascending sap, is more or less rapidly developed, and the is doubtless attributable to the concentration "'h'C
tree soon becomes clothed with leaves. Of the changes juices experience from the exhalation of so muc
in the motion of the sap when vernation occurs, we have but a much larger part is to be ascribed to the eflects
already spoken, and have now to describe others which are result from the combined agency of light and air.
effected in the qualities of the fluid. The first action of air is essential to the vegetative process, an
the leaves upon the sap is to throw off a large portion of it. leaves of plants more especially act on the air, are
The insensible perspiration of plants has been particular- long since established by decisive evidence; hut P
ly investigated by Woodward and Hales, and by Bon- gists are not yet agreed as to the nature and exten^
net and Guettard. Dr. Woodward found that a sprig of action, nor, consequently, as to the mode an e^.t|ance
mint, weighing only 27 grains, imbibed, in seventy-seven which it affects the vegetable fluids. This isc
days, 2558 grains of water: yet its weight was increased appears to us to have arisen partly from imperec ^ ^
only 15 grains; and it must therefore have given off in ment, and partly also from blending togetier ^
that time 2513 grains of fluid. Hales calculated that a tions performed by the leaves, which, in their na >
V E G E T A B L E
e qn; distinct, and which, though they commonly go on to-
:yge er, may be easily separated, and the peculiar and spe-
» cj( results of each better observed and estimated.
the ordinary circumstances of growth, plants are ex-
pod at the same time to both light and air ; and each
a,r( t exerts on them peculiar and specific effects. If de-
pri d of air, when in a state of active vegetation, plants not
onl cease to grow, but soon die; but the exclusion of light
is i t followed by suspension of growth, and still less by
de&i. Hence, in favourable circumstances as to heat and
moiure, plants continue to vegetate even through the
nig,;; and are frequently seen to grow in situations from
wh li light is wholly excluded. They then lose, however,
ma; of their peculiar and more active properties ; but they
sapient in size, and display their specific forms. Air,
tin fore, is essential to vegetation ; but light, though ne-
cesjry to the development of certain properties, is not
essetial to the growth of plants. It will be convenient to
cm der the functions of the leaves, first, in relation to air;
anusecondly, in relation to light.
jie late Dr. Priestley led the way in pointing out the
nat e of the changes which the air suffers in vegetation ;
but fom not clearly ascertaining, at that early period, the
cor osition of the air he employed, nor the extent of change
it slfered, nor being fully aware of all the circumstances
whn might vary his results, he arrived at contradictory
conusions as to the effects which vegetation ultimately
prcuces in the air. On the whole, however, he considered
thermosphere, when vitiated by other processes, to be pu-
rifii by the growth of plants. His illustrious contemporary,
Sclele, by previously removing the carbonic acid from the
fouiiir he employed, found that plants, by their vegetation,
eitl • in sunshine or in shade, constantly deteriorated the
air. Similar results, as to the deterioration of the air, in
ordary vegetation, were obtained in many of the experi-
tncu of Ingenhousz, Senebier, Woodhouse, and De Saus-
sur and they have since been extended and confirmed
by r. Ellis in the work already referred to. By these ex-
pements, it is proved that plants, like the seeds from which
the have sprung, require, in the atmosphere in which they
arc :t to grow, the presence of oxygen gas ; that, by their
vi‘ration, thmy convert this gas into an equal bulk of car-
boi acid gas; and that the azotic portion of the air, as
"el n volume as in composition, remains unaltered.
j the seed, in its germination, supplied carbon to unite
"it he oxygen of the atmosphere, so does the pilant yield
t m dement for the same purpose, during its vegetation.
<> vegetable substances, either dead or living, solid or
>11 when placed in suitable circumstances as to heat
fnt m)isture, deteriorate the atmosphere by forming car-
01 \aci^ ^as ’ ant^ ^le experiments of Huber, Senebier,
h" e Saussure, show, also, that, when all the oxygen of
;r las been consumed, they still yield carbon to unite
"it its other ingredient, so as to form carburetted azotic
j?as or, if hydrogen gas has been employed instead of
. 't ien carburetted hydrogen is formed. Neither the
1V1 state of a plant, nor the presence of oxygen gas, is
^ tia to the separation of carbon from vegetable mat¬
er an we may, therefore, presume that its separation is
1' n°t 80 much to any attractive force exerted by the
as mp oyed, as to some spontaneous change in the vege.-
bin C0™P°un^ itself, whereby its carbon is enabled to com-
nit, ^111t ie §ases that surround it, in the order of its affi-
verl l°r t-leir’ *-n *ow temperatures, or when the plant is
ami ^V118 un.ctaon8 are more or less completely suspended,
red g orniatlon °i carbonic acid is then proportionately
Vel^ . ’ w“l e’ on the contrary, a vigorous exercise of the
cE at,Ve P0^ers gives rise to a corresponding production
the m fn. state or form the carbon exists, at
yet n rCnt u *f.8 ,com^'nation 'v'ti1 elastic fluids, is not
°"n, but it is probably held in solution by w'ater,
physiology.
575
and acquires and retains its elastic state, only while in union Ve~„bl.
with a permanently elastic body. It may further be asked, Physiology
in what part of the plant does this union of its carbon with
the oxygen gas of the air take place, and in what manner
is !t accomphshed? In the living plant, it is chiefly by
the leaf that carbonic acid is formed. To discover the mode
and place in which it occurs, we must take into view not
merdy the change produced in the air, but the structure
of the living organ by which that change is effected; for
it is only by combining a strict regard to anatomy with our
chemical knowledge, that, we can ever hope to arrive at true
physiological conclusions, and avoid the crude and fanciful
notions that have too often usurped their name.
The leaf, then, is formed of a vascular system, of cellular
tissue, and of a cuticular covering that invests it on all sides.
To this organ the sap is brought by vessels which spring
from the alburnum or wmod, and which, after forming seve¬
ral fasciculi in the petiole, proceed to the base of the leaf,
and there, by their expansion and distribution, produce a
minutely reticulated structure. With these sap-vessels,
proper vessels are every where associated, which appear to
communicate with the sap-vessels, and to convey into the
inner bark the sap which they receive. Grew considered
the vessels, which form the reticulations of the leaf, to be
of the same size in every part, and never to inosculate or an¬
astomose, except end to end, or mouth to mouth, alter they
have come to their final distribution. Malpighi, on the
other hand, believed them to anastomose in every part:
and, in regard to the minuter transverse fasciculi, given off
from the longitudinal bundles, he has been followed by Dr.
Todd Thomson, who, however, though he considers them
as “ distinct vessels, uniting with the longitudinal bundles
in a singular manner,” has never been able to determine
“ whether there is any opening directly into the longitudi¬
nal vessel on which the extremity of the transverse vessel
is applied.” It is during the course of the sap, through the
two orders of vessels in the leaf, that it undergoes those
changes in its properties which fit it for nutrition ; but
whether these changes are effected in the sap-vessels, or
the proper vessels, or partly in both, has not yet been de¬
termined.
The minute network formed by the vessels is everywhere
filled up with cellular tissue, constituting the parenchyma
of the leaf. The cells of this tissue contain fluids derived
from the neighbouring vessels, and are likewise the seat of
the green colouring matter. There must, therelore, be a
ready communication between the vessels and cells; and
this many have supposed to be accomplished by the medium
of pores in the sides both of the cells and vessels. But the
best observers represent the cells as close cavities, having
no visible communication with each other. Were we even
to admit the existence of pores, we should find it difficult
to conceive how the contents of the cells could be set in
motion and transmitted through their own sides, and those
of the vessels also, so as to be conveyed and deposited in
the several parts where growth takes place, with all the re¬
gularity we actually observe. To us no other means occur
of accomplishing these operations, consistently with the in¬
tegrity of the cellular structure, than the exercise of those
alternate functions of secretion and absorption, which, from
so many other considerations, we have supposed to be car¬
ried on in every vegetating part of the plant.
The cuticular .covering of the leaf is the organ through
which, under different circumstances, the fluids that are
exhaled and absorbed must pass; and through which also
both light and air exert their peculiar action on the vege¬
table juices. The structure of this organ has excited parti¬
cular attention, and the opinions held concerning it have
been detailed in our former article. It is there described
as being composed of a proper cuticle, beneath which is a
vascular network, the vessels of which, springing from the
576
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable larger fasciculi) form at various points an oval ring, from
Physiology whence go off two or more radiating filaments, which ter-
' minate at the cuticle in an oval pore, more or less elongated.
It is by the vascular filaments, which thus terminate at the
pores of the cuticle, that the exhalation of fluids is held to
be performed ; and hence it is, that, in different plants, this
function is more or less abundantly carried on, in propor¬
tion to the number of cuticular pores or stomata; and that
plants, and parts of plants, which have but few pores, Per*
spire little, and those that are destitute of pores not at all.
Precisely the same coincidence between the number of sto¬
mata in leaves, and their power of absorbing fluids, has also
been remarked ; and IM. Decandolle believes that the vas¬
cular pores, on the surfaces of the leaves and of porous stems,
are the organs by which the functions both of exhalation
and absorption are alternately carried on, according to the
existing condition of dryness or humidity in the surround¬
ing atmosphere.
Beside the function of exhalation, it has lately been
maintained by Dr. Todd Thomson, who has bestowed great
attention on the structure of the leaf, that the stomata are
the organs by which the function of respiration in plants is
performed. According to him, the pore is not a superficial
aperture, but “ a short cylindrical tube, penetrating com¬
pletely through the cutis, and terminating in a cul de sac,
which is impressed into a vesicle that appears to communi¬
cate with the oblong cells immediately beneath the cutis.
But although the aperture penetrates the cutis, there is no
opening through the epidermis, which, on the conti aiy, enters
into the tubular part of the pore, and lines it throughout.”’
In different leaves, the form of the pore, of its short tube, and
of the vesicle beneath, are said to vary; but the cuticle or epi¬
dermis dips down and lines the cavity in all. By the funnel-
shaped pore above described, the air is said to be admitted
into the vesicle situated beneath it: and as this vesicle
probably communicates with the cuticular cells, which are
in general filled with air, the aqueous contents of the cells
that form the parenchyme of the leaf, are thus brought into
immediate contact with the atmosphere.2
It can hardly, however, be admitted that the existence
of stomata is indispensable to the production of that che¬
mical change in the air which constitutes respiration ;
for, according to Decandolle and Rudolphi, the petals of
flowers, the cuticle of fleshy fruits, the tunics of seeds, the
stems and leaves of etiolated plants, most of the lower tribes
of vegetables, and all roots and bulbs that grow beneath
the soil, are alike destitute of stomata ; and yet the united
experience of Priestley, Scheele, Ingenhousz, and De Saus-
sure, bears testimony that all these parts are capable of
acting on the air like porous leaves. Dr. Thomson indeed
states that some of the lower tribes of vegetables, and cer¬
tain etiolated leaves, are really furnished with stomata: but
even granting this to be the case, there still remain other
parts of plants, which grow beneath the soil, and yet act
upon the air, like porous parts that vegetate on the surface.
Without denying, therefore, the probability that stomata
may favour the exercise of the respiratory function, we are
compelled to admit that surfaces, not yet discovered to have
stomata, are capable of producing similar changes in the air.
But whether the air enter the stomata in order to be
changed, or is merely changed at the surface of the plant;
or whether, by some unknown means, it permeate the cu¬
ticle, cells, and vessels, so as to act directly on the fluids
they contain ; it seems certain that these fluids acquire the
properties, which fit them for nutrition and growth, directly
through the agency of the air. How, then, does the air act
in producing such effects ? No specific action can be as¬
cribed to its azotic portion, since that gas is not essential in
vegetable respiration ; and when present, it neither suffers
nor produces any known change. Neither can we suppose
the effects produced to arise from the loss of carbon, for V
were it proved that this carbon is extracted directly from h
the juices contained in the vessels, rather than afforded bv*
the fluids which they exhale, still the quantity given off is too
minute to be considered as the cause of such remarkable
     - -  * filial
changes ; and it is more reasonable to believe that they
proceed rather from something derived from the air, than
from anything given off from the plant. They have ac¬
cordingly been very generally ascribed to the combination
of oxygen with the juices of the plant; this oxygen beine
partly supplied by the external air, and partly by the air con¬
tained in the spiral vessels of the plant.
IV.—Of the mode in which the Proper Juice is
applied to the Purposes of Growth.
Art.
It is only after the common sap has been duly changed
in the leaf by the agency of the air that it is rendered fit
for the formation of vegetable matter. For this purpose, it
descends in the proper vessels,” which in trees are com-
monly situate in the bark. If at this period, therefore, a
circular portion of that texture be cut away, the proper juice
is seen to issue from the upper lip of the wound; but this
soon ceases, and its accumulation in the vessels then forms
an enlargement around that part. Sometimes the proper
juices exude, and form concretions of a gummy, saccharine,
or resinous nature on the surface of the bark, and some¬
times they are effused into the sap-vessels or cells. Where
the bark is young and succulent, the juices probably re¬
ceive some further change in their descent; for such stems
act on the air like leaves, and, in some species of plants,
which are destitute of leaves, the functions of the leaves
are performed by the stem alone. In ordinary trees, how¬
ever, the bark is unable to form nutrient matter without the
aid of the leaves, as an experiment of Hales distinctly shows.
He removed circular portions of bark, half an inch in breadth,
from a thriving branch of a pear tree, so as to leave several
ringlets of bark, three quarters of an inch distant from each
other. All these ringlets, except one, had a leaf-bearing
bud on them, and all but this one swelled at their bottoms
and grew; and the more leaves the bud produced, so much
more did the bark on which it grew swell at the bottom,
while the leafless ringlet did not swell or increase at all.
From facts before stated, it also appears, that a portion of
the nutrient matter that descends from the leaves is found
in the alburnum, as well as in the bark; and this will be
still more clearly shown when we come to treat of the re¬
generating powers of the alburnum.
In discoursing on the trunk of trees, it was stated that a
layer of bark, called liber, and a circle of wood, name
alburnum, are annually formed; and that between this liber
and alburnum the new matter that adds to the bulk o
the tree is deposited, and becomes organised. Malpigw
believed the liber to form the new parts, and that these
parts were afterw ards converted into wood. Grew a so con
sidered the new wood to be formed by the bark, but not
liber to be converted into wood. Hales,on the otherhan ,sup
posed the new7 wood to be formed by the old; while o e.
have held that both bark and wood contribute t0’”rm]n,
matter. Are, then, the new layers which are annuaD?i a;
matter. jArej tiieiij tue new iayci& wuiui y^nth'
to the tree formed by the bark, by the wood, or j
By various experiments, which we have not room to ,
M. du Hamel endeavoured to shew, first, that the a ^
able to form new wood, and that this power resi es
its outer layers, but in the part called liber; secon
the alburnum is also able to produce new wood an ^ ^
but that this power is not possessed by the older an
hardened vessels of the wood. . f jii
The process by which new vegetable matter is ^
trees is thus described by the same excellent writer,
a portion of bark has been removed from a tree, ^—
1 Thomson’s Elements of Botany, vol. i. p. 614.
2 Ibid. p. 622, 623.
—
577
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
ncilaginous fluid is first seen to flow from beneath the re-
n ning bark, or, in certain circumstances, from the alburnum.
I liffers in appearance from the proper juice, and was nam-
e cambium by Grew. To observe the process more com-
p tely, Du Hamel enclosed the stems of young elms and
c rry trees, from which portions of bark had been removed,
ii,dass tubes, closed at each end by cement. For a few
(I s, the glass was obscured by vapour, which gradually
dappeared; so that it was then easy to see what passed
whin. At first, a small tubercle appeared beneath the
U| er lip of the wound, and one still smaller at the lower
fii After this, granules of gelatinous matter issued from
tl alburnum: they were isolated, and had no connection
w i the tubercles just mentioned; their colour was at first
giyish, but, in about twelve days, passed to a greenish tint.
A these new parts continued to extend through the sum-
m ; the tubercle from the upper lip of the wound enlarged
gt.itly, but that below, very little; so that it was princi-
p;.y by the growth from above that the wound was healed.
T ‘ bark of the cicatrice having been formed by the union
ot lew productions from the upper and middle part of the
w nd, was very rough, and in some places entirely wanting;
bi all the regenerated parts duly performed their appro-
pi te functions, and the stems augmented so much as, in
sc e instances, to burst asunder the glass tubes that en-
cl ed them.
Vhile Du Hamel’s experiments showed that new wood
w not produced from the old, they did not prove that it
w produced hy liber. Accordingly, with the view of clear-
in up this matter, Mr. Knight instituted new experiments,
b; vhich he was led to adopt the idea, that wood is not the
pi luce of bark, but is formed by matter sent down from
tli leaves, this matter forming both new wood and new bark.
)u Petit Thouars, from observing, in the Isle of France,
w t takes place in the formation of the branches of Dra¬
co a, and other monocotyledonous plants, has come to the
exclusion, that woody fibres are the prolongation of the
hi s or germs which are developed. He looks upon buds
as i fact fixed embryos, which send roots downwards to
fo i new wood and bark, and shoots upwards to form new
bunches. According to this theory, the young shoot may
lx egarded as the plumule, the pith as the cotyledon, and
tli fibres of the wood and bark as the roots. The cam-
bi a he considers as useful in nourishing the bud roots.
A important feature in this ingenious theory is, that it is
apicable both to exogenous and endogenous plants. Va-
ri< s objections, however, have been urged against it by De-
ea lolle and others, and farther observations are still re-
<p sd to confirm it.
ecandolle does not deny that buds, or the leaves which they
P' uce, have some influence in the formation of wood, but
11 action, he says, is entirely physiological, and depends
oil ieir elaborating the descending sap by which the young
is nourished. While Du Petit Thouars attributes to
1 Juds the origin of woody fibres, and to alburnum and
I their nutrition, Decandolle thinks that leaves pro-
jp 1 >e nourishment, and that the fibres are developed by
II 1 er and alburnum. These opinions embrace the chief
po ts under dispute, and further elucidation of them is
. *lfL ueforewe can come to a decided conclusion relative
le origin of wood. Physiologists seem at all events
to be agreed on this, that the formation of wood de-
^7’111 !jome measure, on the action of leaves freely ex-
tlu ,le sun or bright light. We have before remarked
c " ien the parts ot plants have been once formed, they
tl, IUUe Peruianent, unless removed by accident or disease;
1 ugetables possess no power of removing decayed or-
Ux f lntcrnal absorption, as occurs in the animal sys-
tht ^ t^'e*r Povvers 0f’ regeneration are confined to
Pr° action of parts or organs which have been removed
ecay, by accident, or disease.
a.. \xi.
Art. V—Of the Changes which the Sap undergoes in the
Leaves from the agency of Light.
In what has hitherto been said, we have supposed the
functions of nutrition and growth in plants to be carried
on, as in seeds, by the combined agency of water, heat, and
air, without the access of light. Light is injurious to the
growth of seeds, by impeding the change of feeula into
sugar, which is so favourable to germination; and that it
also retards the formation of saccharine matter in plants,
is proved by many facts familiar to every one in the culti¬
vation of celery and other plants, which, when secluded
from light, not only lose their colour, but acquire a mild,
and even sweetish taste. If a plant, says M. Acliard, be
covered with a glass vessel, it is observed sometimes to change
from a sweet to a bitter taste; but if the vessel be opaque, the
same plant, in its subsequent growth, will retain its sweet¬
ness. In the year 1774, the late Professor Robison ob¬
served, that tansy, mint, and other plants, which had grown
in a dark coal mine, although they throve well in darkness,
lost their colour, their odour, and their taste. But w hen
they were brought up and set to grow in day-light, their
white parts died down, and the stocks then produced the
proper plants in their usual dress, and having all their dis¬
tinguishing properties. When deprived of light, says Dr.
Irvine, all plants nearly agree in the qualities of their juices.
The most pungent vegetables then grow insipid; the highest
flavoured, inodorous; and those of the most variegated co¬
lours are of a uniform whiteness. Vegetables w hich grow^
in a natural situation, he adds, readily burn when dry; but
a vegetable, bred in a dark box, contains nothing inflam¬
mable. The results of analysis perfectly accord with these
observations; for etiolated plants are ibund to yield more
saccharine matter, carbonic acid and water, and le.^s inflam¬
mable matter than those wrhich are green.
From the facts above stated, it appears, that, when de¬
prived of light, plants continue to grow; that the juices
which support this growth are then nearly alike in all; and
that they acquire their peculiar properties as to colour, odour,
taste, and inflammability, only when vegetation proceeds
under the direct influence of light. To the agency of the
air, therefore, we may ascribe those changes in the vegetable
juices, which render them fit for nutrition and growth;
while light bestows on them those more obvious and active
qualities, on which their colour, odour, savour, and combus¬
tibility more immediately depend. The first series of effects
resembles those which w^ere exhibited in the germination
of seeds, from which process light is excluded; the second
series is superadded to the former, and is directly attribu¬
table to light. It is on the leaves and succulent stems of
plants that light chiefly acts; and it is in those parts that
the proper juices, which give colour and peculiar charac¬
ter to plants, more especially reside. Are we then able
to trace out the mode in which it produces any of these
singular effects?
In all periods of active vegetation, plants uniformly con¬
vert the oxygen gas of the atmosphere into an equal bulk
of carbonic acid gas; and if, at the same time, they grow
in obscurity, they soon lose their green colour and become
white. On the other hand, if they be made to grow in
impure air under exposure to sunshine, they not only resume
their green colour, but occasion a production of oxygen
gas. This curious discovery was first made by Priestley.
It has since been extended and confirmed by the experi¬
ments of Ingenhousz, Senebier, Woodhouse, and Davy; and
more lately the subject has been treated w ith still greater
precision by De Saussure. From the united labour of
these writers we learn, that air, which has been depraved
by animal respiration or combustion, is again, in certain
circumstances, rendered pure by the aid of plants; that the
4 D
Vegetable
Physiology
578
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable air, which experiences this purification, must contain a por-
Pbysiology tjon 0f carbonic acid, either in an elastic form, or held in
solution by water, and that it must be exposed, with the
plant confined in it, to the influence of the solar rays; that
neither the plant alone, nor light alone, will effect the de¬
composition of carbonic acid gas, which is accomplished only
by their united agency; that only the leaves and other
green parts of plants are able, by this decomposition of
carbonic acid, to produce oxygen gas; and that the bulk of
oxygen produced in these circumstances is exactly equal to
that of carbonic gas which has disappeared. Hence, if plants
be made to vegetate in a given bulk of atmospheric air, and
placed alternately in obscurity and sunshine, carbonic acid
is successively formed and decomposed; so that, as De
Saussure ascertained, the air suffers no permanent change
either in its bulk or composition.
This operation of plants in purifying air was deemed by
Priestley a vegetative function carried on by the aid of light;
and by Ingenhousz it was ascribed not to vegetation, but to
the influence of light combined with a certain state of ve¬
getable structure. As plants grow in obscurity, where they
produce no oxygen gas, this operation cannot be deemed
essential to vegetation ; and, on the other hand, the decom¬
position of carbonic acid is effected by the combined agency
of plants and solar light, in situations and under circum¬
stances where vegetation cannot exist. Thus, if plants be
placed in sunshine, they produce oxygen gas either when
immersed in vessels of water saturated with carbonic acid,
or when confined in pure carbonic gas. So likewise a si¬
milar decomposition of this gas is accomplished by plants,
with the aid of light, in temperatures many degrees below
freezing, and in such a state of mutilation as is incompatible
with the proper exercise of their vegetative powers. Hence,
in these different instances, the decomposition of carbonic
acid is effected by plants without the aid of that oxygen gas,
or that degree of heat, or that condition of structure, which
are essential to vegetation; while, on the contrary, it occurs
only under exposure to light, which, as we have seen, is not
necessary to vegetable nutrition and growth.
But the operation of light, which is thus necessary to the
decomposition of carbonic acid, is required also to produce
the green colour in plants; and exclusion of light, which
prevents this decomposition, prevents also the appearance
of that colour. The two effects, indeed, are not only ac¬
complished by the same agents, acting in the same circum¬
stances, but, as far as observation extends, are simultane¬
ously performed ; whence it may be inferred, that some ne¬
cessary connection subsists between them; and, could we
discover this, it might lead us to an explanation of the green
colour of plants.
Senebier observed, with great care, the operation of light
in rendering white leaves green. At first, in different
places are seen yellow spots, which gradually become deeper,
and at length green. These spots multiply, extend, and
meet on the face of the leaf, till at last it is rendered entire¬
ly green. If part of a white leaf be secluded from light, by
covering it with tinfoil, that portion continues white, while
the other parts become green; or, if a green portion be
similarly covered, so as to exclude the light, it gradually
loses its green colour, while the neighbouring parts retain
it. From these and similar facts, Senebier considered the
green colour in plants to be effected by the direct agency
of light, independently of vegetation. He remarked, that
a singular relation subsists between the parts of green
leaves that furnish most oxygen, and those parts of white
leaves which first become green: and from the circumstance
of carbonic acid being decomposed and its oxygen expelled
only when these parts became green, he was led to ascribe
the green colour to the retention of the carbon of the de¬
composed gas, and its deposition in the cellular tissue of the
leaf.
Mr. Ellis considers that the deposition of carbon in t]
manner above stated is not sufficient to change the colour hi
less juice of the leaf to a green hue, and supposes that tlies">W,
colours are owing to the predominance of acid or alkaline nial
ter. In support of this theory, he states that alkaline matter
is an abundant ingredient in leaves ; and the observation,
of Hales, Du Hamel, Coulomb, Knight, and others, show
that carbonic acid is largely carried in with the sap,' either
in solution or in combination with alkaline matter. With
the alkali already present in the leaf, the excess of acid in
the sap will readily combine ; and according to the propor¬
tion in which acid and alkali are present, the leaf will be
variously coloured. If the acid abound, as in etiolated
leaves, the leaf will be white ; but if means can be found
to withdraw this acid, and fender the alkali predominant,
then the green colour will appear. “ Now, the decomposi¬
tion of carbonic acid in plants, by the agency of solar li^ht,
seems to be the mean employed by nature to accomplish
this purpose; for by this mean,” says Mr. Ellis, “ the acid
is not only withdrawn from its. combination, and its oxygen
expelled, but the alkali at the same instant becomes predo¬
minant, and exists, therefore, in a state fitted to exert its
specific action on the colourless juices of the plant, which,
in consequence, are rendered green. The coloration of the
leaf, therefore, is not owing immediately to the decomposi¬
tion of carbonic acid and expulsion of oxygen, but to the
predominance of alkali which that decomposition occasions.
Hence, in the earlier stages of the process, we cannot so
properly say that the green leaf affords oxygen, as that it
becomes green when that gas is expelled; and thus it is
that the decomposition of carbonic acid in leaves, by the
agency of solar light, gives rise at once to the production
of oxygen gas, and the formation of the green colour in
plants.”
But though light thus appears to be the active cause of
colour in plants, yet, as it acts only by rendering alkali pre¬
dominant in their juices, it follows, that if, from the soil, or
in any other manner, a similar predominance of alkali arise,
these juices will be rendered green. Hence certain buds
and the germs of some seeds, and parts which lie within the
bark of certain herbs, exhibit a greenish hue, though per¬
fectly secluded from light; so that it is not to be doubted,
as Senebier remarks, that plants, and parts of plants, may
become green, although light should not act immediately
upon them.
If thus the predominance of alkali occasion a green co¬
lour, then deficiency of it, and, still more, excess of acid,
should have a contrary effect. Accordingly, when light is
excluded from plants, no carbonic acid is decomposed in the
leaf, and then its retention and accumulation, by saturating
the alkali, subdue the green colour, and give rise to the
white appearance observed in etiolated plants. So, like¬
wise, the changes of colour which leaves exhibit in autumn
seem to arise from the abundance of acid matter, not, how¬
ever, occasioned by the absence of light, but developed
under the various conditions of decay and decomposition
in which they are then placed.
From the facts stated above, with regard to the alter¬
nate consumption and production of oxygen gas by grow¬
ing plants, a question has arisen, whether, on the"106'
vegetables purify or deteriorate the atmosphere. We canno
enter further into this question than to observe, that it is n°
to be decided altogether by experiments made in close ve^
sels of artificial mixtures of air, but demands a compre160
sive survey of vegetation in different climes, and a 'n0^
ledge of the times and circumstances in which the one
other process prevails, or is variously accelerated or re a ^
ed. Since the production of oxygen arises sole)
the decomposition of carbonic acid in the plant, "e
also know the modes and quantities in which that g r ^
supplied to plants; for the power of plants to proto
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
579
j.i’mrj excess of oxygen, when confined in artificial atmos-
J; nlu:s that contain from 7 to 10 per cent, of carbonic acid,
♦■'doenot at all apply to the natural condition of the atmos-
phei, which contains less than a thousandth part of that
gHS We have already remarked, that carbonic acid is
]al n y carried into plants with the rising sap ; and various
factsseem also to prove, that, when plants are confined in
do? vessels containing carbonic acid, that gas enters the
leaf i an elastic form. Other gases, as oxygen, hydrogen,
amhzote, under similar circumstances, also obtain admis-
gjon: and fleshy leaves, in particular, take up, through the
njgl. a volume of oxygen greater in bulk than themselves,
wlnii, according to De Saussure, they again give out when
exp;ed to a bright sunshine. It is not yet determined in
vyhaway elastic fluids thus obtain admission into leaves,
and re again expelled from them ; but the indiscriminate
mo( of their entrance and expulsion, at times, too, and
und circumstances, in which vegetation is completely sus-
pen d; their long retention in a bulk greater than the
con ining body, and other circumstances, which we have
not >om to detail, lead to the belief that the phenomena
are rite distinct from those which properly constitute ve-
getaon, and are attributable to the conjoined operation of
rpeuanical and chemical causes, aided by a certain condi¬
tion.f structure in the vegetable organs.
^ len, in the experiments of M. de Saussure, plants
wer made to vegetate in atmospheric air, and placed alter-
nattv in sunshine and in darkness, the decomposition of
J carl nic acid in the former case so exactly balanced its pre-
vioi formation in the latter, that the air suffered no per-
toaint change either in purity or in volume. Even in
sun ine,asthe same author remarks, plants growing in close
Vosses continue to produce carbonic acid, and it is only
l)ec»se they then also decompose it, that they do not per-
mamtly vitiate the air: hence, if a substance that attracts
the irbonic acid as fast as it is formed be placed in the ves¬
sel, e air of the vessel no longer preserves its volume, nor
its | (portion of oxygen gas.
1 (lessor Burnett recently made some experiments on
the langes which growing plants produce on the air, and
can to the conclusion, that the production of oxygen and
its (i werse, the formation of carbonic acid, are the unvary¬
ing suits of two different functions ; the former being the
Pro"('t ol digestion, the latter of respiration, and both
beii vegetative functions dependent on vitality. The
fori tion of carbonic acid, he states, is constant by day
and ,y night during the life of the vegetable ; it is equal¬
ly cried on whether the plant is healthy or unhealthy;
is ssential to its existence, and for the sustentation of its
nin hlity; for, if deprived of oxygen, and confined in car-
on acid gas, plants, like animals, quickly die. This
on on, which is performed chiefly by the leaves and pe-
Ls hough also in a less degree by the stems and roots,
is. tlie respiration of animals, attended w ith and marked
> i conversion of oxygen into carbonic acid, and is in
tact ie respiration of plants.
- rin, vegetables at certain times, and under certain
'rc ’stances, decompose carbonic acid, and renovate the
r >n 'here, by the restoration of its oxygen. This resto-
ii o, lowever, is dependent not on the respiratory, but on
sit' "?'St*Ve system* It in part arises from the decompo-
bon ° Tater’ ^Ut chiefly frorn the decomposition of ear-
nati 8 • i a^sor^e^ either in the form of gas or in combi-
anil h water' Wnd here again there is a marked
in n tTeen. t^le *lincti°ns of respiration and digestion
r .ui an< aninials 5 for to both is carbonic acid delete-
dig,.'.l,Cn ^reatbed, and in both it is invigorating to the
n ( system when absorbed as food.
^ puscnce or absence of light appears to have little
ver. 'icnoe on vegetable respiration; but it produces
-> e effects in the assimilating powers of vegetables,
by enabling them to separate from the air and water those Vegetable
principles which are necessary for their support, and to Physi°logy
liberate such others as may be too abundant in the crude
aliment which they absorb. Thus digestion or assimilation
tends to increase, respiration to decrease the solid materials
of plants.
Mr. Ellis, w-ho has written most ably on the influence
which plants exert on the air, agrees w ith Burnett in think¬
ing that the function of nutrition is entirely distinct from
that of respiration ; the former process being primarily car¬
ried on by the roots, and the matters ultimately rendered
fit for assimilation in the leaves. The leaves themselves,
he says, apparently exert two opposite actions in the differ¬
ent circumstances of shade and sunshine, or night and day.
In the shade and through the night they convert oxygen
gas into carbonic acid gas, which is easily detected, "be¬
cause little or no purification of the air is then carried
on. Even in sunshine, as De Saussure has shown, plants
exert the same power in deteriorating the air; but it
is not then so readily discoverable, because the acid gas
which is formed is at once decomposed by the direct agency
of solar light, and the purity of the air is restored. The
former process, by wdiich oxygen gas is converted into car¬
bonic acid gas, he regards as the true respiratory process,
essential to nutrition and growth ; the latter, as a chemical
operation effected by the agency of light, and contributing
immediately to the colour, odour, and certain other sensible
properties of the plant.
Professor Liebig, who has recently made some observa¬
tions on this subject, maintains that plants derive their
carbon exclusively from the decomposition of carbonic acid,
chiefly, or often entirely, supplied by the atmosphere ; that
they at the same time restore oxygen to the atmosphere;
that the decomposition of carbonic acid is arrested by the
absence of the light, and then plants appear to produce
and evolve carbonic acid; that at night a true chemical
process commences in consequence of the action of the
oxygen in the air upon the organic substances composing
the leaves, blossoms, and fruit; that this is not connected
with the life of the vegetable, but is in fact a pi’ocess of
oxidation. He also states, that the humus or fertile ingre¬
dient of the soil nourishes plants only by being a lasting
source of carbonic acid, which it emits very slow ly. The
hydrogen which enters into the constitution of plants he
thinks is derived from water, and the nitrogen from the de¬
composition of the ammoniacal salts contained in the soil.
Recent experiments have proved, that the quantity of
carbon fixed by a plant exceeds that given off by the pro¬
cess of respiration; and Dr. Daubeny has shown, that if a
plant w ith leaves and stem be confined in the same portion
of air, day and night, and duly supplied with carbonic acid
during sunshine, it will go on adding to the proportion of
oxygen present, so long as it continues healthy; the slight
diminution of oxygen and increase of carbonic acid during
the night, bearing no considerable ratio to the degree in
which the opposite effect occurs during the day. Plants,
then, must be regarded as the chief provision employed by
nature to maintain the purity of the atmosphere of our
globe.
Beside contributing to their colour, light, as wre have
.seen, exerts a direct action on the substances which impart
odour, taste, and combustibility to vegetables. These seve¬
ral qualities depend immediately on the oils, volatile and
fixed, the resins, gum-resins, balsams, and turpentines,
the alkalis and acids, the earthy and saline compounds,
and the tannin, extractive, and other principles met with in
the proper juices. It is probable that these substances are
formed in the leaves and other corresponding structures,
chiefly by peculiar secreting organs; but either the functions
of the organs, or the products which they yield, appear to
experience great modifications and changes from the direct
580
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable action of light; and hence, if this agent be wholly excluded,
Physiology these vegetable products are either sparingly formed, or not
at all produced. When formed, they become mixed with
the sap in its course through the leaves, and variously
change its sensible properties, so as to constitute juices
proper to each species of plant. Thus blended with the sap,
they are conveyed, more or less abundantly, through the
organized parts, and impart to them those properties of
colour, odour, taste, &c. observed in the several textures.
Sometimes the gummy and resinous matters exude on the
surface of the tree, or stagnate in the vessels or cells of the
bark and wood, forming those collections and concretions
to be found in different parts of those textures. All these
ingredients of the proper juice serve, in vegetation, purposes
different from those of the mucilage, starch, and sugar, from
which the secretion called cambium is derived, and which
is more immediately employed in the production or nourish¬
ment of new vegetable matter.
In these operations of light on plants, it is probable that
the several species of rays that compose the solar beam ex¬
ert specific but varied actions. The violet rays, or rather
the invisible rays aosociated with them, were observed by
Senebier to act most powerfully in producing the green
colour of plants; and he likewise ascertained that they act
by their own peculiar quality, and not by their heating or
illuminating powder. This agrees with the acknowledged
power of this portion of the solar beam in producing decom¬
position, since it is through the decomposition of carbonic
acid in plants that their green colour is obtained. The ex¬
periments of De Saussure also shew, that by this decom¬
position of that acid gas, not only is oxygen gas expelled
from the plant, but the proportion of its carbon increased;
but whether this carbon contributes to the formation of any
of the more active ingredients of the proper juices, or of
those which impart colour, or whether the calorific power
of the solar beam acts in their production, nothing yet known
enables us to determine.
CHAP. II. OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL MEM¬
BERS AND ORGANS OF VEGETABLES.
Sect. I—Of Buds, and of the Members and Organs
produced from them.
branches. These buds continue to enlarge throusrh th v
autumn, and in part through the winter; so as to be read-Pi
on the return of spring, to shoot forth, and supply the plac’*
of those that annually decay. Some buds chiefly pj
duce wood, others leaves, others flowers, and others both
leaves and flowers; and this variety of production mayh
so modified by culture as to enable us often to substitute
one species of bud for another. The wood and leaf buds
are the result of vigorous growth, and are primarily of the
same structure. As the plant approaches to maturity or
when the vigour of its growth abates, then flower-buds
augment in number.
Buds naturally remain attached to the parent tree and
there execute their allotted functions; but they may also
be made to grow as individuals, or be transferred, in vari¬
ous modes, to another stock, and perform the same func¬
tions on it, as on their proper parent. Though supplied
then with sap from a different tree, they retain the power
of effecting in that fluid the same changes, and forming
with it the same products as they would have produced on
their native stock. The bud of the tree, therefore, like the
embryo of the seed, must be held to possess individuality
of character, and to be capable of producing new indivi¬
duals perfectly similar to itself. To the embryo of the
seed, however, as to every organised body, is assigned
certain periods of infancy, maturity, and decay, which
may be varied in duration from accidental causes, but can
never, beyond certain limits, be changed. What is true of
the primary embryo of the seed, is true also of all the buds
propagated from it, whether they remain on the parent
stock, or are transferred to another. Hence, when the
period arrives in which the function of reproduction natu¬
rally ceases in the buds of the parent tree, all the buds,
growing on foreign stocks, indicate the same character of
age, and cease to bear fruit; and for the permanent con¬
tinuance of the species recourse must then be had to a
seminal progeny. Mr. Knight has very ingeniously applied
these principles to account for that failure in bearing fruit
w hich the oldest and best varieties of trees in the cyder
districts exhibit. Although grafts from these trees still
grow on foreign stocks, yet they do not now yield fruit as
formerly, because the trees, from which they have been
taken, have outlived the fruit bearing period.
Art. I.—Of Buds.
Having thus exhibited a brief outline of the leading facts
which constitute vegetation, as exemplified in the nutrition
and growth of plants, we have now to notice, in a manner
still more brief, the functions of certain parts and organs
w hich serve different uses, and afford various products;
and more especially those by which the continuance of
their race is maintained. Some plants pass rapidly through
the several stages of their existence, and having produced
their seeds, fade and die; others continue for one or more
years; and many prolong their existence to very distant
periods. Even in these latter, the more active organs of
vegetation, after producing their fruits and seeds, fade and
fall like plants of shorter duration; and when the season
adapted to the growth of annuals returns, then also peren¬
nials reproduce all the organs necessary to growth and
fructification. In ordinary cases, reproduction in annuals
is continued only by seeds; in perennials, both by seeds
and buds. For an account of the species of buds, and of
their formation and structure, we must refer to our former
article: at present we can only afford space for a few ob¬
servations on those varieties of buds w hich produce branches,
leaves, and flowers.
During summer and autumn, when perennial plants add
to their bulk by the formation of new* layers, they also form
netv buds on the sides and at the extremities of their
Art. II—Functions of Branches, Thorns, and Tendrils.
In its progressive growth, the bud, under its various forms,
gives origin to branches, with their various appendages of
thorns and tendrils, of leaves and flowers. The functions
of the branch may be considered as similar to those of the
trunk; which indeed it so nearly resembles in structure
and growth, that, if cut off and planted, it readily, in many
species, puts forth rootlets and buds, and becomes a perfect
tree.
The thorns of trees may be regarded generally as
abortive branches, which assume their form chiefly fr0™
defective nutrition; and hence, as Malpighi observed,
they often disappear under higher culture. Sometimes,
however, they derive their origin from the degeneration or
other organs, as from the stalks of leaves and flowers. Ihey
serve as a defence to plants, and protect them from the
ravages of animals.
The several varieties of fulcra called claspers and ten¬
drils have the same structure as branches; and, > e
thorns, sometimes originate from abortive leaves and flowers-
Their obvious use is to connect the different parts o a
plant with one another for mutual support, or to attac
themselves, for the same purpose, to the bodies near t cm.
Sometimes this purpose is assisted by means of a viscous
secretion which they yield, and which glues them to neig1
bouring bodies with much force.
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
581
Art. Ill .—Functions of Leaves.
’ The leaves spring from the buds chiefly of young
briches, and by their number, forms, and colour, consti-
tu the chief ornament of trees. If they exhibit less
fp,odour than flowers, they enjoy a longer existence. They
fu ish to animals a large part of their subsistence, afford
tlni shade and shelter, and spread everywhere beneath
a, around us, that “ all-refreshing green,” on which the
c) fatigued and distracted by the glare of other colours,
a] iys loves to repose.
\’e have already discoursed largely of the functions of
th leaves as organs of respiration and of transpiration,
b ides this transpiring power, the leaves exercise also an
al >rbent function. From the experiments of Bonnet
it ppears, that the leaves of many herbs, when laid upon
w er, absorb equally well by both surfaces, but those of
tr s only by the under surface : and these facts correspond
u i the observations of Decandolle and Rudolphi, as to
tl existence of stomata on these surfaces respectively.
T 3 power of the leaves to'absorb moisture from the air
w also abundantly proved in many of the experiments of
f es and Du Hamel, and more recently by those of
Kight. This absorption appears to be carried on by the
a ute vascular terminations which open at the pores ; and
is pparently performed by the same vessels, which, at a
d rent time, and under different circumstances of tem-
p, iture and humidity, execute the function of exhalation.
ieside the aqueous fluids given off by leaves, others are
sc etimes afforded, which seem to be secreted by peculiar
oi ins. On the leaves of different plants, mucilaginous,
gf diarine, resinous, or oily fluids are sometimes seen ; or
if ivisible by the eye, they are often sensible to taste and
si 11. In some leaves, these secretions appear to proceed
fr n minute glandular organs, seated in the cellular tissue;
ir ithers, small follicles in the cuticular texture seem to
A lish them. Of the structure of these minute organs
li e is known, and still less of the mode in which they
e: cute their functions. Of the influence of light on the
sreted fluids of the leaf we have already spoken ; and also
o he mode in which it contributes to the production of its
g|2n colour. Bonnet has likewise shown that light ex-
e a great power over the motion or direction of leaves,
o vhich some notice will be hereafter taken.
Art. IV.—Functions of Roots.
lo nearly does the root agree in structure with the trunk,
tl t, as Malpighi observes, we may consider it as a produc-
ti i of the trunk beneath the soil. From the principal
n t or stock proceed the buds that give origin to the pri¬
ll y rootlets; and these give off finer ramifications, at the
e remities of which are formed the spongioles or spon-
g[ ?ts, which are the true absorbents of the root. These
ft: absorbents take up the nutrient matter from the
d th, and convey it to the root, from whence it is sent to
t trunk. Where these absorbents extend, the earth is
e lausted of its nutrient matter, and not in the neigb-
b irhood of the larger roots. In a severe winter, Du
I mel found these fine rootlets to die, and to be abun-
* itly replaced by others, when the temperature became
1 der. Not only the root, but the branch of a tree,
r dily produces rootlets, if it be amputated, and set to
f w in water or in soil. The form of the root is much
1 uenced by the texture of the soil. If the soil be easily
ictrable, the root descends in the form of a long tap-
t; but it it be hard and resisting, then the root re¬
ins shorter, and divides into lateral branches. Du Ha-
1 1 remarks that roots extend into that portion of soil
' 'ch is richest, while the barren parts are nearly destitute
( t 'em; so that the qualities of the soil, as well as its tex-
e* exert the greatest influence on their direction and
growth. In regard, however, both to composition and tex- Vegetable
ture, different soils are best suited to different kinds of Physiology
roots. We have before remarked, that the elongation ofv
roots and rootlets is made by the addition of new matter
to their extremities, not, as in succulent branches, by the
simple extension of paLis already formed. The diametral
grow th of roots is effected, like that of the trunk, by the
formation of new layers between the bark and wood.
Art. V.—Functions of Flowers.
Flowers may be regarded not only as the last, but the
most elaborated organs of the vegetable system. Whether
we contemplate the beauty of their forms, the splendour of
their colours, or the delicious fragrance which they breathe
around us; or whether, with a physiological eye, we sur¬
vey the delicacy of their structure, and investigate the pe¬
culiar functions which they perform, we cannot but feel the
greatest admiration of the skill with which, in a compass so
small, and by means apparently so simple, such a series of
actions, terminating in results so varied and important, can
at once be combined and n gulated.
The flower is attached to the plant that bears it by the
peduncle, on the extremity of which is placed the cup or
calyx, which, in its turn, supports the corolla, and the
organs of reproduction. Of these organs, the male parts
consist of one or more stamens, formed by the filament,
bearing on its top the anther, which contains the fecunda¬
ting particles, named pollen. The female organs consist of
one or more pistils, the style of which bears on its top the
stigma, and terminates below in the ovary that contains the
rudiments of the seeds. For an account of the structure
of these several parts, we refer to our former article.
Various as are the forms, colours, and functions of the
several parts of the flower, yet, in structure, they are so
similar, that, under a change of circumstances! almost any
one part or organ can be made to assume the character of
any other. Thus, not only are the petals of the corolla, or
the stamens and pistils, sometimes abortive, but, at other
times, the stamens become simple filaments or petals, or
the petals take the form of stamens. Sometimes, again,
the stvle of the pistil changes into a petal: in other in¬
stances, the petal becomes a floral leaf, or the calyx is
changed into real leaves. In like manner, as leaves, or
their petioles, are sometimes transformed into claspers
and tendrils, so the peduncles and petals of the flower now
and then exhibit similar transformations. Nor are these
transformations confined to leaves and flowers ; they extend
to the more solid and permament members of the plant.
Thorns, we before remarked, were but abortive branches;
and as a branch, by surrounding it w ith earth, may be made
to throw out rootlets instead of buds, so a root, when
brought into light and air, will, on the contrary, put forth
buds. Even an entire tree may be inverted, and the roots
and branches, by being placed in circumstances respectively
opposite to their nature, may be made gradually to assume
each other’s character, and execute each other’s functions.
These facts demonstrate a great uniformity of structure in
all parts of vegetables, and show with what facility modifi¬
cations of form and of function are induced, by varying the
application of those external agents and conditions, con¬
cerned in the development of vegetable organization.
1. Colours of Flowers The colours of flowers are not less
diversified than their forms. They present every variety
of tint and every shade of intermixture; and not unfre-
quently the same flower, at different times, or even at the
same time, exhibits great diversity of colour. Grew re¬
marked that no flower has its proper colour in the bud;
that many of them are then pale or white; and that the
full and proper colour is formed only when they expand.
Even after their expansion, the colour of some flowers, as
that of the rose, may be made to disappear by secluding it
582
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable from light, as Sir Humphry Davy remarked; and the flower
Physiology 0f honeysuckle, which continues white while the light is
excluded, acquires its red hue on exposure to light and air.
It has not however as yet been ascertained what influence
air and light exert on the colour of flowers. Ellis believes
that, as in the case of leaves, the predominance of air and
alkali may be the cause of the different colours of the petals.
It is, however, probable that the chemical condition of
the juices themselves, or the textures by or through which
their colours are reflected or transmitted, are modified by
variations of structure in the organs, which altogether escape
detection, and become known only in their effects. Du
Hamel considered many varieties of colour in the flower to
arise from the intermixture of different species and varieties
of plants, at the period of fecundation. Poppies and prim¬
roses, which grow wild in our fields, are respectively red
and yellow; but the same plants, transferred to our gardens,
furnish a prodigious number of varieties. If the wild variety
of primrose be removed from its natural place, and set to
grow among cultivated varieties of the same kind which
possess different colours, the seeds obtained will produce
many yellow flowers, because the parent plant will have
been fecundated by some of its own stamens; but it will
also afford other varieties, because some of the seeds will
have been produced by fecundation of neighbouring plants.
Many of the fine varieties of flowers which florists procure
by means of seeds, seem to be thus obtained. They in¬
deed attribute them to some particular infusion with which
they have watered their seeds, or to some colouring matter
which they have mixed with their soil, or even to some differ¬
ently coloured bodies which they have presented to their
plants, or to a singular good fortune peculiar to themselves.
“ I have tried without success,” says Du Hamel, “ these
infusions and these mixtures of colours; and I deem it un¬
necessary to resort to experiment to destroy the other two
means.” In the ultimate production of colour, modifica¬
tions may also proceed not only from the texture of the parts,
but the configuration of their external surface, as exempli¬
fied in the prismatic tints of “ mother-of-pearl,” which, ac¬
cording to the observations of Sir David Brewster, owe
their existence to the configuration of the surface alone.
Schubler and Funk, in a memoir published at Tubingen in
1825, have made some interesting observations on the
colour of plants. They have divided flowers, in reference
to their colours, into two series: 1st, the Xanthic series,
or those having yellow for their type, or which are capable
of passing into red or white, but never into blue; 2d, the
Cyanic series, or those having blue for their type, and
capable of passing into red and white, but never into
yellow. For an account of these observations, as well
as those of Kohler, on the colours prevalent in different
natural orders, &c. we must refer the reader to the memoirs
themselves, as it is impossible, in the space allotted to us, to
give any thing like a correct view of the subject. From
numerous experiments made on various leaves and flowers,
Dr. Hope was led to the conclusion, that chronogen, or the
colourable principle, is not an individual substance, as
hitherto supposed, but that there are two distinct principles,
one which forms a red compound with acids, which he
names erythrogen, and another, which affords a yellow
compound with alkalies, which he calls xanthogen. These
principles exist sometimes separately, and sometimes to¬
gether in different plants, or in different parts of the same
plant. All green leaves, all white, and all yellow flowers,
ami white fruits, contain xanthogen alone ; while in red
and blue flowers, and in the leaves of a few plants which
exhibit the former of these tints, the two principles oc¬
cur together. Light, says Dr. Hope, is indispensable for
the production of the green chromule of leaves, but not for
the formation of some of the finest tints of flowers and
fruits, if essential for any; differences probably connected
with the fact, that the formation of the green colour ini
is always accompanied, or rather preceded, by the evolm' ^PK
of oxygen gas.
2. Odour of Flowers—Next to colour, the property ' *
flowers that most strikes our senses is their odour. Otl ^
parts of plants, indeed, possess odour; but the finer ' i
more diffusible fragrance that emanates from them procta |’
commonly from the flower. Of the peculiar organs^
flowers which form and emit odorous particles, but little'
known. Their ordinary seat is probably in the corolk
since many flowers, which are wholly destitute of sexual
organs, emit their peculiar odours. Of the nature of the
odorous matter, all we at present know is, that it is inflam
mable; and this property, M. de Saussure considers to
depend rather on the presence of an essential oil, than on
any variety of hydrogen gas. That light is more especially
concerned in its production seems probable from the fact
already stated, that the most pungent odours cease to be
formed in plants which are kept secluded from light; but
are speedily produced in them when restored to its pre¬
sence. In climates and situations where the sun exerts the
greatest influence, plants possess the most exalted odours
and the most active inflammable ingredients; but of the
mode in which the solar rays act in thus contributing to pro¬
duce odour and inflammability in plants, little is at present
knowrn. Schubler and Kohler have also made observa¬
tions on the odour of plants, as connected with colour;
for which we must refer to the memoirs already mentioned.
3. Savour of Flowers.—Connected with the odour of
plants, at least in the mode of its production, is the property
which they possess ofimparting sensations of taste. This pro¬
perty is more generally distributed through the vegetable,
and is of a much less fleeting and diffusive nature than that
of odour. Tastes have been regarded either as simple or
compound ; and of each a great diversity is to be found in
plants. Tastes differ also in quality, degree, and duration
are more or less fixed or diffusible ; and, in some instances
affect variously the different parts of the organ which re
ceives the impression. Of all these, and some other varic'
ties, Grew has given examples, taken from the savours of
the juices found in the wood, bark, and root, or in the leaves,
flowers, and fruits of various plants.
In general, however, the roots, and all those parts that
are secluded from light, have a taste milder and less intense
than others; and, as we before remarked, plants, possessing
naturally a hot or bitter taste, become mild, or even
sweet, by the exclusion of light, and resume their pungent
and acrid qualities if brought into day. Light, therefore,
exerts a direct action in the formation of the savours as
w'ell as of the odours and colours of plants. The odour
and savour are commonly more concentrated in some parts
than in others; and when formed in the leaves, they are
frequently mixed with the proper juices, and more or less
pervade every part of the plant. Although, therefore,
the action of light, in the production of colour, odour, and
savour, be, in the first instance, local, or confined to those
plants, and parts of plants, exposed directly to its influence,
yet these properties may afterwards be diffused, by the
motions of the fluids, through all parts of the vegetable,
including even those buried beneath the soil, and thereby
protected from the action of light. From the whole it
appears probable, that all the effects, simultaneously pro¬
duced in plants by the direct agency of light, are in pos'-
tion local, in operation chemical, and in nature entire!)
distinct from that series of actions accomplished by the air,
and which contribute to their evolution, nutrition, an
growth.
4. Fecundation of Floicers Although in appearance
the flower differs so much from the leaf, yet in structure
it is very similar; and, for the due performance of its p10*
per functions, not only requires the presence of the same
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
58 &
ta<nts, but acts in the same manner upon them. The
rutessity of air to the growth of plants, and the conversion
oits pure part into carbonic acid by the leaves, in every
.ye of that growth, have already been noticed ; and
P >stley, Scheele, and Ingenhousz, showed that flow'ers,
in ike manner, require air, and convert its oxygen into
c; >onic acid. De Saussure has since ascertained that
flyers do not develope in atmospheres destitute of oxygen
,r:; that, in proportion to their bulk, they consume more
(» gen than leaves; and that the oxygen which disappears
is eplaced by an equal volume of carbonic acid gas; so
tli little or no variation of bulk occurs in the air employed.
U ike leaves, however, flowers do not produce oxygen gas
in unshine. Under such an increase of temperature, they
c< same even more oxygen than before ; but no trace of
tl production, either of hydrogen or azote, is discoverable
in :he atmosphere in which flowers have been made to
giw.
Connected immediately with the great consumption of
oijgen by flowers, is the high temperature which some of
tl n manifest at the period of fecundation. Lamarck
ai Senebier observed the flower of Arum eordifolmm to
in art the sensation of heat to the touch; and to possess,
a tie after midday, a temperature 12° higher than that of
tl surrounding atmosphere. In the Isle of Madagascar,
ft lubert found that the same plant raised the thermometer
st higher; that the male parts of the flower possessed, in
tl respect, greater power than the female, so that twelve
st nens, placed round the bulb of a thermometer, raised
it t the moment of bursting, from 70° to 121Q; that this
pi er resided in the exterior surface, not within the sub-
sfcice of the organs; and, lastly, that air was necessary to
t! elevation of temperature, and was rapidly depraved in
tl process. In confirmation of these facts, De Saussure
hi since found that double or imperfect flowers consume
le oxygen than those which are simple and perfect; that
tl greatest portion of this gas is consumed at the period of
11 indation; and that the stamens, adhering by their base
t( he receptacle, consumed more than other parts. He
h her ascertained that the temperature of many flowers
ri s in proportion to the quantity of oxygen consumed;
ait, to the rapid combination of oxygen gas with the car-
b of the flower, he ascribes, with Senebier, the great
ri ot temperature which occurs, in certain flowers, at the
p :od of fecundation,
his necessity of air to the development of flowers,
ta >n >n connection with the chemical changes which it suf-
h , and the high temperature thence arising at the period of
k indation, points to some peculiar action which it exerts
h he exercise of the generative function. Not long after
tl true nature and use of the sexual organs had been
n le known by Grew, Dr. Blair, in a learned essay on tbe
ti leration of Plants, maintained, that, while the greater
P ot the ascending sap passed on to the leaf, a portion
"1 also carried to the petals of the flower, and, in its
Cr rsc through them, underwent that change and elabora-
t| which fitted it for forming the pollen, and rendering
tl. matter the proper means of fecundation. A similar
'' non of the use of the corolla was held by Du Hamel,
-* petals, says he, are organs necessary to fructification.
-7 n°f only protect the stamens and pistils, but per-
‘ n the office of leaves, in acting on the fluids of the sexual
o ms, and perhaps effect in them some important prepar-
tl n' ^r* . rvv'n likew ise considered the petals to act, by
i a8ency °f the air, in elaborating the juices destined to
J ris l an(l develope the sexual organs. These opinions as-
fl'o less important parts of the flower functions es-
■1 -ia to the pertection of the whole, and corresponding
^ nature with those executed by the leaves, only that
] Ure’ ,asGrew observes, “hath lapped up the virtue in
os as in brown paper, but in the flowers as in leaf-gold.”
M hen the organs of reproduction have attained their Vegetable
perfect state, and a suitable condition of the atmosphere Physiology
prevails, the process of fecundation is accomplished by
various modes in different plants. By the agency of the
solar rays, aided probably by that high temperature which
at this period they derive from the decomposition of the
air, the anthers burst and discharge the pollen in the form
of a fine dust. This dust, in some instances, falls directly on
the stigma of the pistil previously prepared, by the secre¬
tion of a viscid matter on its surface, to receive and detain
it. In other instances, the pollen is conveyed to the stig¬
ma by insects, or by the wind ; and in others, its convey¬
ance is accomplished in different modes. When the pollen
has been shed, the stamens and petals soon begin to fade
and fall; the filament of the pistil likewise fades; but the
ovary at its base augments in size, and the pulpy globules,
or vesicles, previously formed within it, enlarge, and gra¬
dually assume the form and character of the perfect fruit
or seed.
The pollen, which occasions these extraordinary changes
in the ovarian vesicles, is composed of small particles,
enclosed in tw7o coverings, ,md possessing a different colour,
size, and figure, in different plants. These particles are
organized, and, when observed in a bright sunshine with a
microscope, may, in some plants, be seen to burst"; and then
a liquor like saliva escapes, in which, says Du Hamel, small
particles are obscurely visible. Of the chemical nature of
the pollen little further is known, than that it yields a pecu¬
liar matter, called polleum, which is described as being of
a yellow colour, without taste or smell, insoluble in water
and alcohol, but highly inflammable, and yielding, by dis¬
tillation, a good deal of ammonia, which approximates, in
composition, to animal matter; but this knowledge gives
us no insight into the nature of its peculiar action.
When the grains of pollen have lain for a short time on
the stigma, they open at their angles, or in certain definite
points of their surface, and emit long slender tubes called
pollen tubes, which, according to Brongniart and Brown,
are formed of the inner lining of the pollen grains. These
pollen tubes, which are not above the 1500th or 2000th
part of an inch in diameter, pierce the stigmatic tissue, and
find their way down to the region of the placenta, convey¬
ing the matter contained in the grains into the interior of
the style. The active molecules of the pollen are thus
brought into communication with the foramen of the ovule,
and are the means by which impregnation is effected.
Although tubes enter the ovarium, and run along the pla¬
centa, it has not been proved that the true pollen tubes
come in contact with the ovule. What is the nature of the
communication made by the pollen to the ovule, through
the medium of the pollen tubes, and the result of which is
fertilization, we have no means of knowing. Some consider
it a peculiar stimulus, which is required to call into exis¬
tence an embryo germ of life, residing in the point of the
nucleus ; others say that it is the act of conveying such a
germ to the nucleus from the pollen grains. The latter
idea has been supported by Schleiden, whose ingenious
views on the subject are published in the Nova Acta Aca¬
demic Nature Curiosorum, &c., vol. xix.
On this subject, Brown remarks, that our knowledge
appears not yet sufficient to warrant even conjectures as to
the form of the immediate agent derived from the male
organ, and the manner of its application to the ovule, in the
production of that series of changes constituting fecundation;
and he at the same time remarks, that in investigating the
obscure subject of generation, additional light is perhaps
more likely to be derived from a further minute and patient
examination of the structure and action of the several organs
in asclepiadacece and orchidece, than from that ot any other
department either of the vegetable or animal kingdom.
But whether the pollen act directly or indirectly on the
584
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable ovarian vesicle, there is little doubt but its influence is
Physiology necessary to the perfection of the seed : for though, as Ray
observed, some fruits may be produced without the concur¬
rence of the male parts of the plant, just as some birds will
produce eggs without the concurrence of the cock, yet such
fruits, like such eggs, are altogether barren and unproduc¬
tive.
To the impregnation of one species of flower by another
of a kindred nature, through the agency of winds and in¬
sects, Du Hamel ascribed most of the varieties of fruits
denominated new. In some fruits, the species, in the hybrid
production, are kept so distinct, that we are able to distin¬
guish one part from another, with which it had been asso¬
ciated at the period of fecundation. Thus, there is a species
of orange, which, on the same tree, says he, produces “ des
bigarades, des citrons, et des balotins separes, ou meme
rassembles par quartiers dans le meme fruit.” In like
manner, a certain species of vine produces, on the same
shoot, bunches both of red and white varieties; or on the
same bunch both red and white grapes ; or bunches on
which the grapes are red and white by halves, or even by
quarters. These diversities in fruits he attributed to the
impregnation of one species by the pollen of another ; and
to a similar cause, as we before stated, he ascribed many
of those diversities in the colours of flowers, where different
varieties grow and blossom together. Others have made
many direct experiments on the reproductive function in
plants by crossing different species with each other; and,
by ajudicious extension of the same methods, Mr. Knight
has been able to present us with several new and improved
varieties both of seeds and fruits.
Art. VI—Maturation of Fruits.
The period that intervenes between fecundation and that
in which the ripening of the fruit or seed is completed,
varies in different plants, and even in the same plant, is
much modified by climate, season, habit, &c. Whatever,
to a certain extent, diminishes the vigour of vegetation,
favours the production and accelerates the maturation of
the fruit. So long as trees continue to shoot and abound
in sap, says Du Hamel, their fruits do not arrive at maturity.
By stripping them of their leaves, we hasten this period, not
so much, however, by exposing the fruit to the sun, as by
weakening the flow of the sap. But if the tree be stripped
before the fruit has reached its proper size, both its size and
quality are bad. As the powers of vegetation decline, the
fruit advances towards maturity ; and then exposure to the
sun, by promoting transpiration, and concentrating the juices
of the fruit, hastens the ripening process. At an earlier
period, however, the same degree of exposure, by exciting
too great transpiration, might cause the fruit to languish and
wither. When fruits are enclosed in bags to protect them
from wasps, transpiration is checked, and the fruit enlarges;
but has not so good a flavour as usual. The present taste
for what are called “ fine fruits,” seems directed chiefly to
size, and is content to resign the rich and racy flavour,
found only in fruits of a moderate bulk, for the pampered
and bloated produce of a too luxuriant vegetation.
Ingenhousz formerly maintained that fleshy fruits, whe¬
ther ripe or unripe, and whether growing in sunshine or
in shade, always vitiated the air in which they were con¬
fined : and in a late Memoir on the Maturation of Fruits,
M. Berard has adopted the same opinion, and maintained
that green fruits do not decompose carbonic acid and dis¬
engage oxygen gas in sunshine, but that, through every
period of their growth, they uniformly convert the oxygen
of the air into carbonic acid gas. To this Memoir, M. de
Saussure, who had formerly combated the opinion of Ingen¬
housz, has replied by new experiments; and has satisfactorily
proved, that although, during the night, green fruits convert
the oxygen gas of the air into carbonic acid gas, yet that,
when exposed to sunshine, they again reconvert this carbon' v
acid into oxygen gas ; so that, if they be placed alternated!
in sunshine and in obscurity, for two entire days, the air *
the vessel undergoes successive changes which "nearly rn ° '
terbalance each other, and at the close of the experimUDt
no other degree of change exists in it, than may be attributed
to errors of observation. Hence it is inferred, that, both
in the shade and in sunshine, green fruits act upon the air
like green leaves; but this action is carried on to a smaller
extent, and diminishes as they approach maturity.
As thus the air, under similar circumstances, suffers the
same changes from green fruits as from leaves, it may be
presumed that the fruit owes its green colour to the same
action of light upon it. Light seems also to act in the
production of the other colours which fruits exhibit. M
Bonnet shut up, in cases of white tin, grapesof a black colour
which did not then acquire their natural hue. Pears, says
Du Hamel, which grow in the shade, are often green, while
others, exposed to the sun, are beautifully coloured; and
the same things are observed in peaches. Neither peaches,
pears, nor cherries, assume their proper colours, if, at the
period of ripening, says Senebier, they are secluded from
light; and if a portion of fruit be covered with tin-foil,
that part will continue pale or yellow, while the uncovered
portions of the same fruit become perfectly red. If the red
juices of fruits be extracted by water or alcohol, they are
affected by acids and alkalis like those of flowers; and
similar changes are produced by these agents on the coloured
infusions obtained from their skins. These facts show that
the same chemical actions, which occasion the colour of i
leaves and flowers, are employed in the coloration of fruits:
but in these latter, they are probably much modified by the
chemical changes that go on in the fruit itself during the
process of maturation.
To discover the chemical changes that take place in the
fruit during its maturation, M. Berard analyzed several
fleshy fruits at different periods of their growth. With this
view, three apricots of the same size were selected, and
being plucked in succession, one of them was analyzed at
three different stages of growth, namely, in its green state,
in a state more advanced, and in a ripe state. The several
results are given in the following table.
In the interval between the first and last analysis, the
fruit had so much increased in size, as nearly to double its
weight. It will be seen that, with the exception ot the
green colouring matter, which had become yellow, ao the
ingredients found in the unripe fruit were present in the
ripe one, but some were in greater proportion. Sugar in
particular had greatly increased, and water had diminishes
From these results it is inferred, that the different flavours
of green and ripe fruits are not owing so much to the is
appearance of any primary ingredient, or its transformation
into another substance, as to the production of new su ^
stances, and especially of sugar, made in the progressi .
stages of growth. Similar analyses of cherries, goose
berries, plums, and peaches, afforded the same results.
There are some fruits, however, as those of appks ®
pears, which ripen very well after they are detache
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
i th, ;ree; and in these, sugar seems to be formed out of the
fotl *' ingredients, as it is formed from fecula in the germi-
rna >n of the seed. M. Berard plucked a pear from the tree
’ wi n firm and green, and shut it, up in a close vessel of at-
iTuoheric air from the 12th to the 29th of August. Its
cohr had then become yellow, and it was perfectly ripe.
Di ng this period, its total weight had diminished very lit¬
tle and this was due to the loss of a little w-ater, and a
nii ite portion of carbon ; but the proportions of its ingre-
(He:s were much changed, for the quantity of sugar was
ne; y doubled, and that of gum, of water, and of woody
fib:: had decreased. The united loss of the gum and woody
fib was not, however, equal to more than half the gain
of: gar; and therefore M. Berard supposes that water may
ha', become fixed, and augmented the proportion of this
latlf substance. If water be thus held to have contributed
to e production of sugar in the pear, we may suppose it
to i.ve served a similar purpose in the ripening of the apri¬
cot- for the loss of water in the ripe apricot, as compared
win the green one, comes near to the gain of sugar; and
no lange in the relative proportions of the other ingredients
caroe deemed sufficient to account for the great increase
of sccharine matter.
’le external agents required to effect these chemical
chtges in the maturating fruit appear to be heat and air.
In le above experiment with the pear, the vessel was kept
in (temperature of about 82° Fahrenheit; and the air, as
weias the fruit, underwent a change of composition. It
int.xl remained unchanged in volume; but 100 parts of
it idded, on analysis, 13’52 carbonic acid, 7‘51 oxygen,
an(:'8-97 azote ; so that, as in other cases, the loss of oxy-
geiwas supplied by an equal bulk of carbonic acid, since
tlumited volumesof the acid gas and oxygen made together
alnfet exactly the T20L of oxygen gas which the air at first
coi,uined. Hence no oxygen can have combined with the
fru ; nor can the azote of the air be deemed to haveunder-
goitany necessary change, since the very minute portion
of it gas unaccounted for may fairly be set down to error
in periment. That this conversion of oxygen gas into
car »nic acid is necessary to the maturation of fruits, M.
Be: -d inferred from the fact that the process is arrested if
fru be kept in an atmosphere destitute of oxygen; yet,
afti being kept for some weeks in such an atmosphere, the
profss recommences if oxygen be supplied.
1 this process of maturation, light, though ordinarily
P>e nt, and acting on the colours of fruits, does not seem
netsary; for fruits will ripen in dark places; and, to
?s n maturation, it is not uncommon to enclose bunches
0 ; ipe* in black bags, which must, at the same time, ex-
c 11 ight and accumulate heat. Whether light be actually
'ourable to the formation of sugar in fruits, as it appears
o in seeds, remains to be ascertained ; but certainly,
10i, i it should retard, it does not prevent maturation : and
J esence f® ordinarily accompanied with such an increase
i iperatureas may more than compensate for its supposed
('r ' <>I|I|S ^P6^*011, Since, also, the vegetating process
s a i } diminishes as the fruit approaches maturity, and
not - t0KaCV,p°n w*len *ts growth is completed, we can-
scribe the changes that constitute maturation to vege-
bv ’ ' ^ musf regard it as a chemical change, effected
oil)" rea.ctl01J ^le several ingredients of the fruit on each
un(er me operation of those external agents neces-
sar. o its occurrence.
585
Art. VII—Fecundity of Vegetables.
cha r0 P^r'ot| required for the accomplishment of those
* le ovariar» vesicles, which terminate in the
fori] firm of c .v.0.v.»to, LciuuiiitLC in uic
of I Perfect seeds, varies much in different species
hnts.and a so in    . •
1 ntc J i iuuvii in viiiiui t'lil bpcuica
cun a ’fn ,> S?. *n ^ie sarne species, under different cir-
xxf ° c“mate> so^> habit, &c. When they are
SinS?’ ?6 0Va7 °r Pericarl,, in whkh the " ere Vpge.alile
contained, is opened, in various modes, for their discharge : Physiology
or the fleshy pulp that invested them decays ; or the stony
covering in which they were imprisoned is rent asunder • so
that, in one way or other, they are set free, and by various
means are disseminated over the surface of the earth des¬
tined either to reproduce new beings similar to themselves
lifet0 rmmSter t0 the gratification and sustenance of animal
Of the seeds thus produced, the number, size, figure
texture, and other properties, are infinitely diversified’.
With respect to their number, we have already, in our for-
mei article, given examples of the productiveness of wheat
and barley, and described the peculiar structure by which,
in the family of the grasses, this productive power may be
almost indefinitely augmented. M. Dodart prosecuted the
same inquiry on trees. He selected an elm, which, in the
fifteenth year of its growth, he calculated to produce, in
one season, 329,000 seeds. Supposing this tree to live 100
years, and its mean fecundity, for its whole life, to be taken
at 329,000, this number, multiplied by 100, will give
32,900,000 as the number of seeds produced, through its
whole life, by the single seed of an elm. But suppose fur¬
ther, says Du Hamel, all these seeds to be planted, and
each to produce a tree as fruitful as its parent, and so on
from generation to generation ; then, calculating the pro¬
duce of each of these trees during 100 years, we shall have
an increasing geometrical progression, of which the first
term will be one ; the second, thirty-three millions ; the
third, the square of that number ; the fourth, its cube; and
so on to infinity ; a fecundity which, in the revolution of
ages, would be sufficient to cover the whole surface of the
earth with one species of plant.
But propagation by seeds is not the only mode by which
plants are multiplied. With the exception of some trees,
as the pine and fir, which do not shoot afresh when they
have been lopped, except when very young, most vegeta¬
bles, continues the same author, contain in all parts of their
branches, their trunk, and even roots, germs which do not
develope unless rendered necessary by the-retrenchment of
their boughs. Thus, if an elm be headed, and its smaller
branches removed, its trunk and larger branches will, in
the following spring, be covered with new productions,
which never would have appeared if the first branches had
not been removed. At whatever part or height the tree is
headed, new shoots spring forth. The whole tree, there¬
fore, from the root to the extremities of the branches, is
filled with germs (or rather, we would say, endowed with a
capacity of producing them), when the parts previously ex¬
isting receive such injury as to render these new produc¬
tions necessary to supply the place of the former.
Roots also possess this capacity of producing shoots as
well as the branches. If the root of the elm be exposed,
with certain precautions, to the air, it puts forth young
branches; and many creeping roots, when they come into
light and air, produce branches, which, by transplantation,
form individual trees. A sprig of willow, when both its ends
are thrust into the earth, yields rootlets from both, while the
intermediate portion pushes forth leaves into the air; and
the leaves of certain vegetables, as those of Bryophyllum
calycinum, are capable, in proper circumstances, of produ¬
cing entire plants. We may therefore say, adds Du Hamel,
that there is perhaps no point of the surface either of the
branches, the stem, or the root, which does not contain a
germ, ready to develope itself when circumstances shall arise
wherein this development may be useful to the parent tree.
Nay, moie, continues the same author, there is not per¬
haps any point on the branches, the stem, or the root, from
which rootlets may not spring, when the conditions required
for their development shall be fulfilled. If the root of a
species of campanula be cut into pieces, and these pieces
* 4 E
586
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable be put into the earth, each piece will produce both roots
Physiology an(j stems. Of these concealed germs, dissection indicates
1 no trace, until they become sensible in the progress of their
development. From whence do they proceed ? From the
vessels or the cells ? Or are they formed by the sap . Do
they exist in a form invisible to us before the tree was
headed ? This, says he, is pure conjecture, although it is
true, that if this operation had not been performed, the sap
would have continued its coui'se in the parts already foi me ,
and would not have aided in developing the germs of which
we speak. But not to abandon ourselves to imagination, it
is sufficient, he adds, to have shown the immense fertility of
vegetables, first, by seeds, and, secondly, by invisible germs,
of which but a small number of analogous facts are to be
found in the animal kingdom. In these remarks, Du Hamel,
the Haller of vegetable physiology, evidently leans to the
doctrine of pre-existing germs, which at one time so much
occupied the attention of naturalists ; but of which he ulti¬
mately disposes, with that good sense and real candour,
which are not less admirable in all his writings than the ta¬
lent and information which they every where display.
have been given to a supposed correspondence in effects Vt
than to a real agreement in the structure and functions of Pi
organs. Neither has any very nice distinction been taken*
between what may be due to physical agents, acting on ve¬
getable organization, and what, from our present inability
to explain on physical principles, we are too apt at once to
attribute to what are called vital principles or causes. It
is only, however, where physical explanations altogether
fail, that it is allowable to resort to the mysterious aid of
vital causes: and as the natural philosopher, in treating of
inanimate matter, assumes gravitation as a fact, and, with-
out investigating its nature, proceeds to describe the laws
of its action ; -so the physiologist, in studying living bodies,
may regard life, and direct his inquiries rather to the laws
by which it acts, than to the nature or principle of its action.
CHAP. Ill OF THE VITAE POWERS, SECRETIONS, SPON¬
TANEOUS MOTIONS, SLEEP, DECAY, AND DEATH OF
PLANTS.
Art. I.— Of the Vital Powers.
Such is a brief outline of those vegetable functions which
comprehend the evolution, growth, and reproduction of
plants. In the description of these functions, we have en¬
deavoured to keep within the limits of observation and ex¬
periment ; and, in reasoning from the facts derived from
these sources, we have adhered strictly to explanations,
which apply only to the physical constitution of plants.
But we are aware, that, to accomplish these physical changes,
not only is a particular structure required, but that structure
must be endowed with the property or principle that dis¬
tinguishes living organized beings from dead and inorganic
master. Without embarrassing ourselves with inquiries
into the nature and origin of life, we are content, on the
present occasion, to seek it only in its effects ; to regard it
as a power or property not less essential to the constitution
of living matter, than gravitation is to that of dead matter;
and, rejecting all speculation about its nature, to study only
the physical conditions required for the display of its opera¬
tions, and, as far as we are able, trace the laws by which
those operations are regulated. “ It is not,” says Dr. k rank-
lin, “of much importance to us to know the manner in which
Nature executes her laws; it is enough, if we know the
laws themselves. It is of real use to us to know that china, left
in the air unsupported, will fall and break ; but how it comes
to fall, and why it breaks, are matters of speculation. It is
a pleasure indeed to know them, but we can preserve our
china without it.”
Beside the evidences of a living power in plants, derived
from the ordinary phenomena of growth and reproduction,
the function of secretion by which growth is sustained, and
various new products formed, deserves more particular no¬
tice. Other evidences of this power have been drawn from
the various motions exhibited by the roots, leaves, flowers,
and fruits of plants ; and also from the phenomena of in¬
fancy, maturity, and old age, which they exhibit in the suc¬
cessive periods of their existence. To enable them to ex¬
ecute these different functions, and exhibit these phenome¬
na, some physiologists have pushed the analogies between
plants and animals to an unwarrantable extent; and, in
addition to all the attributes connected with growth and re¬
production, have endowed plants not only with irritability
but with sensibility, instinct, perception, and volition. In
ascribing to them these attributes, more attention seems to
Art. II.— Of Secretion.
By secretion is understood the separation of a peculiar
matter from the general mass of fluids by some particular
structure, and which may either retain its primary condi¬
tion, or pass into a solid state. Though the mass of fluid
from which secretions are produced be one and the same,
and the secreting organ, as to external conditions, be often
in the same circumstances, yet the matters secreted differ
greatly from each other, which difference probably arises
from variety of structure in the secreting organs. Thus, an
essential oil is found only in the rind of the orange, a fat
oil only* in the kernel of the almond, and so with regard to
other secretions which exist only in particular parts. Be¬
sides the acids, alkalis, earths, and metals, which, though
of a mineral nature, are more or less constantly found in
plants, chemists enumerate about forty products of vegeta¬
tion, which possess distinct chemical characters; and of
many of these products numerous varieties exist. As none
of these substances can be detected in the common sap,
they must have been elaborated by the specific organs of
vegetables, under a process of secretion. By what pecu¬
liarity of structure, or of function, these organs are enabled
to produce such remarkable chemical changes in the com¬
mon sap, is quite unknown ; neither do we know how much
is to be attributed to the action of the organ itself, or to the
reaction of the several ingredients on each other, or to the
influence of external agents.
Of these secretions, the most important is the cambium,
the fluid employed directly in vegetable nutrition and
growth. By the changes which the common sap undergoes
in the leaves, the proper juices of plants are formed'
These juices differ greatly from each other both in t eir
sensible and chemical qualities. It is from them that t e
cambium is directly formed by a process of secretion, an
in all plants is said to possess nearly the same characters.
It is a mucilaginous fluid, without colour, odour, or tase,
while the proper juices themselves exhibit all those pro
TV line tut J    ^ ,
perties. The proper juices also are contained m
vessels, and flow out when they are divided ; but the ca
bium transudes rather than flows, and that only in P
where new parts are to be formed. 1 hus, in the pine, 5
Mirbel, while the proper or resinous juice flows in
large vessels, the cambium transudes beneath the t>
and similar observations on the fig show that the ca®
is entirely distinct from the proper juice, fhe cam ^
then, we must regard as a secretion, separated fr0 ^ ^
proper juice by the vascular structure of the hber ^
burnum, when and wheresoever it is required tosuppor|a
nerimentof DuHaf*
trition and growth. Hence, in an experiment of - - ^
when a piece of the bark of a peach tree was engra ^
the wood of the plum, the new wood, formed oe"ea , t0
bark, was white like that of the peach, not red b e ^
the plum. Of the other secretions of plants,
reasons already assigned, are found chiefly on the c ^
parts, as the leaves, flowers, fruits, &c., the num
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
587
t |e (]j rgity are very great. They are probably formed in each
<!;f inonce, by peculiar and appropriate organs, but in what
‘*,''nn;ner is quite unknown.
\RT, HI Of the Spontaneous Motions of Plants.
Ithough plants, as is well known, possess no locomotive
po-er, yet, in different parts, they often exhibit what are
detned spontaneous movements. In cloudy weather
tli ugh the day, and always towards evening, many plants,
atjTtain hours, close their leaves and flowers. Bonnet
rei irked, that the leaves of certain plants approached by
tli ■ superior surface when the sun shone ; but as he de-
cli,;d or set, they fell down, and, even in some instances,
ap oached by their inferior surface. If heat was applied
to aves thus closed, they would open and fold back in a
corrary direction : and, on the other hand, if moisture was
apded to leaves that had been folded by the sun’s heat,
thi also would open and fold back as from dew. In these
exinples, the different conditions of heat and moisture seem
vel much to influence the movements of the leaves. In
lik manner, the stalks of many fruits change their office
un;:r the different conditions, with respect to moisture, that
ac.mpany the ripening process: for under the desiccation
wkh then occurs, many of them, says Du Hamel, exercise
rncements not unlike those of muscular action, and are
th eby enabled, in some instances, to scatter their seeds.
,7e have already described many important effects pro-
dued in plants by the direct action of light, and have now
to iticethe influence which it exerts on their movements. If
pi ts be confined in a chamber, where there is but one
widow, all the younger shoots will forsake their perpendi-
cu r direction and make towards the light. In like manner,
a uing tree, when growing in the midst of older ones,
pi ics rapidly upwards, till it reaches the height of those
th surround it, when it ceases to grow in height, but aug-
m ts in size : or, if a young plant be made to grow in an
opine vessel pierced with holes which admit the light, the
sht ts which it puts forth will be directed towards the holes.
So e plants appear to follow the sun more or less distinctly
intis course from east to west. Over these movements,
Bi net ascertained that neither heat, nor humidity, nor
aii had much influence; so that the sun, says Du Hamel,
in msing these motions, acts more by his light than by his
ht.
ut there are other movements, proper to certain plants,
or) particular parts of them, over which light exerts little
or o power. Many observations have been made on the
m ions of the sensitive plant by Hooke, Du Hamel, and
ot rs. The latter author remarks, that the movements of
jh plant do not depend essentially on light or heat; for if
jo in a green-house, it closes its leaves early in the even-
in before the sun has withdrawn, and while the tempera-
tllj i® >’et high; or if placed in perfect obscurity, it still
o< inues to open in the morning, and close in the evening
as| etbre. If, during its expansion in the early part of the
1: it be gently touched, its leaves partially close, but soon
re ver their former state. Mere touch, however, without
ition, does not produce motion ; for the leaves may be
pt sed between the fingers, without causing motion, if no
•l- ition be given. With proper address, it is possible,
831 Pu Hamel, to divide the mid-rib of a leaflet, without
ting motion in the other leaflets, or even in its own
|es ’ n<)r does motion follow the puncture of a needle,
tl ]^’tatl0n avo'ded. The time required for a branch,
ias been touched, to resume its former state, depends
('i ie vigour of the plant, the hour of the day, the season,
’ a.1., ^'e order in which the parts re-establish them-
1 es likewise varies.
Cl I3 niod°ns of this plant seem to depend much on pe-
1 l?t- p structure. From a branch proceed the branch-
ut ‘)ear the leaves. These leaves are formed of a
common petiole, which at its extremity terminates in four Vegetable
conjugate leaflets, each of which has a mid-rib, furnished Physiology
with a certain number of tolioles. In the movements of
this plant, the branchlets are so articulated with the branch,
that they move on it in the manner of a hinge. The com¬
mon petiole of the leaves has a like movement; and lastly,
each foliole moves on its proper stalk to apply itself to the
opposite foliole. This peculiarity of structure explains why
agitation is so necessary to the movements of this plant ;
and why it bears such great violence w ithout moving, if no
agitation be employed to excite motion in its several arti¬
culations ; so that it is principally in the articulations, says
Du Hamel, that the sensibility of this plant resides. He
adds, that, when this plant closes, it is not through weak¬
ness, but by a sensible contraction, which resists any at¬
tempt to replace it in its former state. Dutrochet accounts
for the motions of the sensitive plant by the distension and
contraction of the upper and lower portions of the swell¬
ings which are met with at the base of the petiole and of
the leaflets.
In certain flowers spontaneous movements take place at
the period of fecundation. The stamens of the barberry
approach towards the pistil on the slightest irritation, as do
those of the sun-flower and other plants. During the night,
the petals of may-flou'ers close, and thereby protect the
stamens and pistils ; but they cease to do so after fecunda¬
tion is effected. The water-lily is said to bear its flowers
on a foot-stalk under water; and when the flowering season
arrives, the stalk rises through the water, till the flowers
reach above the surface. The flowers then expand, and
the anthers burst and discharge their pollen on the stigma
in the usual way. About four o’clock in the afternoon, the
expanded flowers close, and the stalk then lies down either
upon or under the water. The next day it rises, as before,
and continues to do so daily until fecundation is completed,
when it sinks beneath the surface, and there remains to
ripen its seeds. Other spontaneous movements are exhi¬
bited by claspers and tendrils in seeking support from neigh¬
bouring bodies, and by roots in the directions which they
take in search of food.
Unable to assign physical reasons for these and similar
phenomena, some naturalists, guided by vague analogies
drawm from the animal kingdom, ascribe such movements
in vegetables to sensation and perception, by which they
not only feel their wants, but perceive the best modes of
gratifying them; and in the performance of the actions ne¬
cessary to accomplish their objects, they are, according to
some, directed by Instinct, and, according to others, by Vo¬
lition. Such modes of reasoning not only afford no expla¬
nation of the phenomena described, but supersede all ne¬
cessity for it; and are apt, therefore, to beget a conceit of
knowledge where ignorance alone prevails. In reference to
such attempts at explanation, Du Hamel well observes, that
“ every peasant has remarked the fact, that the radicle of
the seed tends always towards the earth, and that the plume
rises in the air. If we ask of them why one part thus strikes
into the earth, and the other seeks the air, they give the
fact for a reason, by replying that the one part strikes down
because it is the root, and the other ascends because
it is the stem. And let us not smile too complacently
at these modes of expression; for we ourselves use them
every day when we raise questions about things which are
unknown to us. Do we not say that a stone tails because
of its gravity ? And those wdio give for a reason that it is
attracted by the earth, do not satisfy the real philosopher,
who never is content with simple terms void of meaning.
To me it seems both more simple and more honest to make
at once a confession of our ignorance.”
Akt. IV Of the supposed Sleep of Plants.
Some writers, deeming plants to possess voluntary power,
588
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
Vegetable have from thence inferred that they require sleep. We
Physiologyjjave no proof, however, that they possess any such power;
nor that, in the exercise of their ordinary functions, they
experience that fatigue and exhaustion which renders sleep
necessary to their restoration. All the spontaneous move¬
ments of vegetables previously described, seem to arise from
the operation of physical agents, conjoined with those in¬
herent properties which belong to them as living beings.
These agents act variously on different plants; and hence
some close their leaves and flowers from the abstraction of
heat or moisture, and others from the exclusion of light;
and this at various periods of the day, as well as through
the night. Other plants exhibit spontaneous movements only
in the flower, and at the season of fecundation, when suit¬
able conditions of the atmosphere prevail; and though, in
some instances, these motions continue for a time after the
conditions required for their display may have been with¬
drawn, yet we must ascribe such motions rather to habit
than to any thing that partakes of the nature of volition.
The diminution or suspension of action through the
night which occurs to plants that inhabit temperate climes,
cannot be received as a proof of sleep, induced by the
exhaustion of the vegetative powers; for even in such climes,
vegetation, in favourable seasons, proceeds often by night
as well as by day. In climates still more favourable, the
same plants which with us produce fruits only once a -year,
yield two or more crops; and in Norway and Lapland,
where the sun, at certain periods, continues almost con¬
stantly above the horizon, the whole period between seed¬
time and harvest sometimes occupies only about fifty days.
In such cases, little or no suspension of the vegetative func¬
tions can have taken place; nor have we the smallest reason
to believe that the continued exercise of them is followed
by fatigue or exhaustion sufficient to require sleep. What,
therefore, has commonly been denominated the “ sleep of
plants,” we can regard only as a diminution or suspension of
the vegetative functions, arising from the abstraction, more
or less complete, of those external agents, whose presence
is essential to their full operation and display.
Art. Y—Of the Decay and Death of Plants.
But whether the functions of vegetables unceasingly con¬
tinue or be occasionally suspended by the abstraction of the
conditions necessary to their exercise, all plants submit at
length to the same general law, and die, either in whole or
in part, when the great purposes of their existence—those,
namely, of growth and reproduction—have been accom¬
plished. Some plants speedily arrive at maturity, and having
produced their seeds, die altogether; others flourish for one
or two seasons, and then decay and perish; and others
again die only in part, after having produced their seeds,
and also a new series of buds to continue their growth
and fructification. In the progress of our inquiry, we have
seen that, in every stage of vegetation, certain organs fall
into decay after having fulfilled their allotted functions.
Thus the tunics of the seed perish beneath the soil, after
having yielded their nutrient matter to carry on the evolu¬
tion ot the embryo; and those cotyledons which rise into the
air, decay also, when the radicle has taken its proper hold
ot the soil, and the leaves are sufficiently developed to
execute their appropriate functions. So likewise the pe¬
tals, the stamens, and pistils of the flower, rapidly fade and
fall as soon as the important function of fecundation is ef¬
fected; the fruits next drop when they have reached ma¬
turity; and lastly, the leaves, even of perennials, when their
allotted functions have ceased, decay and fall like those of
annual plants. *.
To account for this fall of the leaves, many hypotheses
have been proposed. Some have ascribed it to defective
transpiration, and consequent accumulation of juices in the
vessels; others to an inequality of grow th between the stem
and the petiole of the leaf, during the progress of ve^eta V
tion; others to the desiccation of cellular tissue, supposed^
to exist at the insertion of the petiole with the stem; other
to a simple sloughing of w^orn-out parts; and by others, thS 1
fall of the old leaf has been attributed to the growth of the
new bud. In all the examples enumerated above, of the
decay and fall of cotyledons, flowers, and fruits, the organs
ceased to execute their functions, when the purposes of their
existence were accomplished; and such w'e must regard as
the general law that determines the death of the leaves
In some instances, the death of parts seems to be hastened
by the diversion of nutrient matter from the older organs
to the new parts which are subsequently developed, as is
exemplified in the decline and fall of the stamens and pis¬
tils from the growth of the ovary after fecundation; but
in other instances, as in the death of annual plants, no such
acting cause is apparent, and nothing remains to account
for the event that occurs, except the character of duration
more or less extended, which was impressed on the plant
at the era of its formation.
But from whatever cause the deciduous organs of plants
cease to perform their functions, the immediate cause of
their fall seems to vary in different vegetables, and to de¬
pend often on accidental circumstances of climate, &c. In
some instances, the growth of the young bud seems to oc¬
casion the fall of the leaf. Thus, though the leaves of the
oak die and become dry in autumn, they do not, says Du
Hamel, fall till spring, when the buds begin to open, and
the new leaves to appear. In other instances, the fall of
the leaf seems to be connected with the exercise of the
transpiratory function; for plants which transpire largely,
soonest lose their leaves, and hence evergreens, which tran¬
spire little, retain their leaves longest. Even if an ever¬
green be engrafted on a deciduous tree, it still retains its
leaves after those of the stock have fallen. Sudden changes
of temperature and humidity in the atmosphere, frequently
promote the fall of leaves. Thus, in autumn, when rain suc¬
ceeds to a white frost, the leaves sometimes rapidly fall. So,
likewise, it sometimes happens, that the too great heats of
summer dry up the leaves; and then also, if warm rains
follow, the dried leaves fall and new ones succeed, which
continue longer than those of spring. On the other hand,
leaves equally fall, though not so speedily, when the winter
is mild; and in conservatories, where a regular temperature
is kept up, deciduous plants lose their leaves in spring, when
the new ones shoot forth. Certain accidents or diseases,
however, as lightning, or the eruption of the proper juice
from its vessels, or a peculiar disease which separates the
bark from the wood, sometimes kill a tree suddenly; and
then, says Du Hamel, though the leaves become dry, they
adhere strongly to the branches. These facts show, that,
while the natural death of the leaf is to be sought in the
specific nature and constitution of the plant to which it
belongs, its fall sometimes depends on the growth of new
buds; or on variations in the motion of its fluids; or on
sudden changes in the temperature and humidity of the
atmosphere; and sometimes, probably, the period of the
fall is determined by a difference of texture in the fibre ol
the plant itself.
The duration of the stem or trunk, after the leaves have
fallen, is very different in different plants. In many her s
the stem dies at the same time, or shortly after the lea,
but in some trees, the life of the trunk is prolonged throug
many ages. The Gentleman’s Magazine for 17fi2 contains
an account of the age of a chesnut tree, then growing a
Tam worth in Staffordshire. This tree, it is said,was, a
that period, probably the oldest, if not the largest, in nf?
land, being fifty-two feet in circumference. Its Peri°
rising from the nut may be fixed at the year 800, m
reign of King Egbert. From that date to the rel£n ^
Stephen is 335 years, at which time it was fixed on as
V E G
ko.idary or landmark, and called by way of distinction,
i th( Great Chesnut Tree of Tamworth. From the first
i, vc;? of Stephen, anno 1135, to 1762, is 627 years; so that
* 'j vitire age, at that period, was 962 years. It bore nuts
in '59) fr°m which young trees were raised. In this tree,
i theffore, the faculty of producing seeds remained at the
i agofmore than 950 years; but whether this faculty con-
; tin s through the entire life of such trees is not known. In
» 'annals, we know that life ceases in the whole plant soon
ii aft, reproduction has been accomplished; but the obser-
v E L 589
vations of Mr. Knight seem to show that, in certain trees, Veil
as those of the apple and pear, the reproductive powers II
cease before those of vegetation. The death of plants at Vellore,
such various ages, yet occurring at the same age in plants' ^
of the same species, suggests the belief that a period,
beyond which life cannot extend, was assigned to each
species at the era of its creation, and that this character of
duration, like the others peculiar to the species, is trans¬
mitted through all succeeding generations. (q.)
EGETIUS RENATUS, Flavius, a Latin writer,
: flo ished towards the close of the fourth century. His
ti trc ise “ De Re Militari,” he inscribed to the emperor Va-
leriinian the Second, who was assassinated in the year 393.
■ Happears to have been a man of rank. Raphael Volater-
rarp styles him “ Comes Constantinopolitanus,” and some
’ maiscripts of his own work describe him in a similar man-
nci: In the older editions, his treatise is divided into four
bocis; but Scriverius, on the authority of certain manu-
i: scnts, divided it into five. The authors whom Vegetius
presses to follow are Cato, Celsus, Frontinus, and Pater-
' nu [together with Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian, in their
couitutions, or legal enactments. He has thus collected
i a iluable mass of materials; but Lipsius has remarked
thdhe confounds the customs and practices of his own
Wit;i those of former ages.
n edition of his work, supposed to be the first, appear¬
ed mder the title of “ Epitoma de Re Militari.” It is in
fol without place or date, but, according to conjecture,
watprinted at Utrecht about the year 1473. There is an-
otl • undated edition in quarto, and a third in folio. After
varus intermediate editions appeared that of F. Modius,
■ Cfl n. 1580, 8vo. It was followed by two editions con-
tahng the elaborate commentary of Stewechius, Antwerp.
15 ', 4to., Lugd. Bat. 1592, 8vo. His commentary, to-
ge er with that of Modius, is to be found in the edition of
Severius, Lugd. Bat. 1607, 4to. These three, like most
of ,ie editions, include Frontinus and other ancient writers
on nilitary affairs. The text of these authors, with the
no:s of Scriverius, was reprinted in 12mo. at the same place
ln 'Hand 1644. An edition of Vegetius, containing select
no s of Stewechius and Scriverius, with those of the editor,
ana French translation, was published by N. Schwebelius,
. mbergae, 1767, 4to. Another, containing the annota-
t'o. of various critics, appeared long afterwards, Argent.
U8vo. I he work has been translated into several
nu >rn languages. There is an early English version by
• o i Sadler, Lond. 1572, 4to. And a more recent trans-
at a was published by Lieutenant John Clarke, Lond.
17r, 8vo.
| FGETIUS RENATUS, Publius, is sometimes con-
}0'[ Ll w*6i the w’riter noticed in the preceding article.
1 »the author of a work on the veterinary art; “ Artis
H Tinariae, Sive Mulo-medicinae, libri IV.” Basil. 1528,
ti _This is the editio princeps; and it wTas followed by
1 - it ion of Sambucus, Basil. 1574, 4to. Vegetius was
in. ted by Gesner among the “ Scriptores Rei Rusticae
jres jt'ni.’ Lipsiae, 1735, 2 tom. 4to. There is a
M ^ '6°n, of which the title bears, “ curante Jo.
cJ I .u‘l ^iesne^0, ’ Mannhemii, 1781, 8vo. But it merely
^ i|in» a reprint of Gesner’s text, without his annotations,
an 'IS r u an ^ng'hs!i version was published “by the
1 FTT t a translation of Columella.” Lond. 1748, 8vo.
Dr' . £•'ha.n ’s^an6 in 6le Adriatic part of the Austrian
in th'16 ° . . este’ 'n the bay of Quarnaro. It is, includ¬
es nf0 8101 ls^an.6 Plaunich, about ninety square miles in
> and contains a city, three market towns, and four¬
teen villages, with 10,414 inhabitants. The island is moun¬
tainous and rocky, and on the north and east sides very bar¬
ren, but in the other parts has a fertile soil, yielding abun¬
dance of fruit and of wine, but not sufficient corn. Some
good oil is made, and the fishing is an important source of
wealth. The capital, of the same name, is the seat of a
bishop, who has a palace and a cathedral. The export of
wine is the chief trade. The harbour is both small and
shallow. The inhabitants do not exceed 1400. Lat. 45.
3. 20. Long. 14. 32. 40.
VEII, a city of ancient Etruria, and long the powerful
rival of Rome; distant about 100 stadia, or twelve miles, to
the north-west, and situated on a high and steep rock. It
was taken after a siege of ten years by Camillus, six years
before the taking of Rome by the Gauls. The spot on which
it stood lies near Isola in St.Peter's patrimony.
VELARIUS, an officer in the court of the Roman em¬
perors, being a kind of usher, whose post was behind the
curtain in the prince’s apartment, as that of the chancellor’s
was at the entry of the ballustrade, and that of the ostiarii
at the door. The velarii had a superior of the same deno¬
mination, who commanded them.
VELE RETE, a cluster of rocks in the eastern seas, to
the south of the island of Formosa. Long. 121. 30. E. Lat.
21. 55. N.
VELITES, in the Roman army, a kind of ancient sol¬
diery, who were armed lightly with a javelin, a casque, cuir¬
ass, and shield.
VELLETRI, a city of Italy, in the papal territory, and
the district of Tivoli. It stands on the declivity of the Al¬
banian hills, has decayed walls and dilapidated towers, but
is the seat of a bishop. It is ill built, but has a fine market
place, a cathedral, with several other churches, nine mo¬
nasteries, and two nunneries. Here is a fine museum be¬
longing to the family of Borgia. The inhabitants are 9740,
chiefly employed in agriculture and in making oil. Lat.
41.41.16. Long. 12. 39. 25. E.
VELLORE, a celebrated town and fortress of the south
of India, province of the Carnatic, formerly the capital of a
small district of the same name. It was once a port of
great importance, as it commanded the main road leading
to the Upper Carnatic, from the valley of Peniambady,
which is the most direct route to and from the Mysore.
It is strongly fortified, the walls being built of very large
stones, with bastions and round towers at short distances.
A fausse bras lines the wall between them, and, with its
embattled rampart and small overhanging square towers,
produces a very handsome effect. The w hole fort is sur¬
rounded by a deep and wade ditch, cut chiefly out of the
solid rock, except atone entrance, where there was a cause¬
way. Besides the usual defence, the ditch contains curio¬
sities of rather an extraordinary character, namely, alliga¬
tors of a very large size. The fortress, though strong, is
commanded by the surrounding hills. It was first taken
by the Mahometans in 1646, and afterwards by Sevajee in
1677. Subsequently it came into the possession of the
nabob of Arcot: and in 1782 wras besieged by the w hole
590
V E L
YEN
Vellum army of Hyder, when it was relieved by Sir Eyre Coote.
II / After the capture of Seringapatam in 1799, it was fixed upon
Vendee. ag state-prison of Tippoo’s family, consisting, besides his
brother, of twelve sons and eight daughters, with a nume¬
rous progeny, and an innumerable crowd of women. On
the 10th July 1806, a serious mutiny took place among
the garrison, principally composed of native troops, who
endeavoured to murder all the Europeans they could find.
The ostensible cause of the mutiny was a change of dress ;
but it was strongly suspected that it was instigated by the
sons of Tippoo, who were in consequence removed to Ben¬
gal, where they remain under a liberal restraint. Since
the conquest of Mysore, this fortress has lost much of its
consequence, and its fortifications will probably be allowed
to tall to decay. The district is included in the collector-
ship of Arcot. Travelling distance from Madras 88 miles
west by south; from Seringapatam 202 miles. Long. 79-
13. E. Lat. 12. 55. N.
VELLUM, a town in the Southern Carnatic, seven
miles south-west from Tanjore. Long. 79. 7. E. Lat. 10.
40. N.
VELLUM, is a kind of parchment, that is finer, evener,
and more white than the common parchment. The word
is formed from the French velin, of the Latin vitulinus,
“ belonging to a calf.”
VELOCITY, in Mechanics, swdftness; that affection of
motion whereby a moveable is disposed to run over a cer¬
tain space in a certain time. It is also called celerity, and
is always proportional to the space moved.
VELVET, a rich kind of stuff, all silk, covered on the
outside with a close, short, fine, soft shag, the other side
being a very strong close tissue. The nap or shag, called
also the velveting, of this stuff, is formed of part of the
threads of the warp, which the workman puts on a long nar¬
row-channelled ruler or needle, which he afterwards cuts,
by drawing a sharp steel tool along the channel of the needle
to the ends of the warp.
VENCATIGHERRY, a town in the province of the
Carnatic, eighty-two miles north-west from Madras. Long.
79- 32. E. ; Lat. 13. 56. N.
VENDEE, a department of the south-west of France,
formed out of the western part of the ancient Lower Poitou.
It extends in north latitude from 46° 19' to 47° 7', and in
east longitude from 0° 44' to 2° 32'. It is bounded on the
north by the departments of the Lower Loire and Mayenne-
Loire, on the east by that of the two Sevres, on the south
by the Lower Charente, and on the west and south-west by
the ocean. Its shape is nearly a square, and it extends over
2662 square miles. It is divided into three arrondissements;
and those into thirty cantons, comprehending 294 communes,
and contained in 1836 a population of 341,312 persons, who,
with the exception of a few scattered families, adhere to
the Catholic church. They have been commonly described
as hospitable, good tempered, faithful to their engagements,
simple and antique in their manners, averse to any changes
in their customs, and attached almost to superstition to the
doctrines and observances of the Romish religion. The
noble families, the ancient chief proprietors of the land,
were only distinguished from the rest of the inhabitants,
their feudal tenants, by a greater degree of cleanliness in
their dwellings, their clothing, and their food ; but were
equally resolute in their opposition to the changes operated
by the Revolution, and the whole were alike distinguished
by their bravery, their perseverance, and their endurance of
those hardships which they brought on themselves by the
political party they embraced. The civil war whose name
was derived from this department, extended to all the dis¬
trict round it, in a greater or less degree ; and its long con¬
tinuation may be attributed to the peculiarities of the coun¬
try, and its capabilities for defensive warfare, as much as
to the resolute courage of the population.
The surface of this department is an extensive plain v
interrupted by any hills except by two chains in the eastern ‘
part, separated from each other by a valley about twomifeW
in breadth, none of the points of which exceed 4Q0 feet ^
height. This more hilly part is distinguished by the name 11
the Boccage, on account of the great number of trees and
bushes with which it is covered, and it was the chief theatre
of the long and bloody civil war, whose traces are even now
far from extinct. The western and southern parts consist
of the Marais or marsh land, which contains excellent nas-
tore land, protected by embankments and drained by arti-
ficial canals. Another part along the coast, including the
islands Bouen, Dieu, and Noirmoutier, contains much fer-
tile soil, of which about two-thirds are used as pasture, and
one-third produces corn.
The rivers are of no great importance. The chief of them
from which the department takes its name, is a moderate
stream issuing from the Sevres, and falling into the Mor-
taise. It supplies water to several small canals, and is
navigable for barges carrying sixteen or eighteen tons
from Fontenoy, where it is about 120 feet in breadth. The
Mortaise is navigable through its whole extent for small
vessels, and enters the sea through several marshes near to
the city of Aiguillon, in the bay of that name. The other
streams, the Lay, the Isle, the Ausance, and the Pairay,with
some others, are navigable but a short distance from their
respective mouths.
The agriculture is in a low state. Little of the land
is cultivated by the proprietors, but chiefly by metayers,
who divide the gross product in equal parts with their
lords. Except in the lands on the three principal streams,
the common rotation of grain is, two corn crops after a
year’s clear fallow. The ploughing is performed almost
exclusively by oxen. The wheat is good, and much of
it is converted into flour for exportation to the French
West India islands. The other kinds of corn produce good
crops, and of late years the cultivation of potatoes has been
introduced and extended. The breed of horses is of an
indifferent kind, but many of them are used to mount the
hussar troops. The black cattle are numerous, but the
sheep very few and not good, though of late years attempts
have been made to improve the race, as regards the fineness
of the wool, by crosses with Spanish rams. Silk was once
a part of the agricultural pursuits; but during the disturbed
state of the country, the planting of mulberry trees was
neglected, and some years must pass before the produce
can amount to its former quantity. Wine is extensively
made, the quality is good, and much of it will bear to be
kept a long time without the aid of brandy. The manufac¬
tures are few. The most considerable are those of linen, but
some woollen cloths for home use are made. The depart¬
ment furnishes two deputies to the Chamber of Represen¬
tatives. It is included in the tenth military division, and is
in the diocese of Montauban.
VENDOLA, the most eastern of the Admiralty Islands,
about three miles in circuit, covered with cocoa trees, and
very populous. It is so surrounded by rocks, that it is
almost inaccessible to boats. Long 148. 9> E. Lat. -
14. S.
VENDOME, an arrondissement of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Loire and Cher. It is 655^ square miles in
extent, comprehends eight cantons divided into HOco™'
munes, and in 1836 contained 77,760 inhabitants. ie
capital, a city of the same name, stands on two islands m
the river Loire. In 1836 it contained 8206 inhabitan s,
employed in making gloves, hosiery, cotton goods, PaPe'’
and the several kinds of leather. Lat. 47. 47. 19- LoV
L 1.38. E. •
VENEERING, Vaneexung, or Fineering, a kmiM»
marquetry, or inlaying, by which several thin slices or c ^
of fine wood, of different kinds, are applied andfastene
YEN
ch mdofsome common wood. There are two kinds of
f the one, which is the more ordinary, goes no far-
thci lian the making of compartments of different woods;
the her requires much more art, and represents flowers,
hire and the like figures. The first kind is what we pro¬
per! call veneering; the latter we have already described
uml Marquetry. . . - , .
'j e wood intended for veneering is first sawed out into
s]iC( or leaves, about a line thick. In order to saw them,
the .locks or planks are placed upright in a kind of vice or
gaw g press, the description of which may be seen under
the .-tide just referred to. These slices are afterwards cut
intalips, and fashioned divers ways, according to the de-
si«-i imposed; then the joints being carefully adjusted, and
theieces brought down to their proper thickness, with seve¬
ral .anes for the purpose, they are glued down on a ground
or l ick of dry wood, with good strong English glue. The
pieus being thus joined and glued, the work, if small, is put
in mress; if large, it is laid on the bench, covered with a
boJ, and pressed down with poles, or pieces of wood, one
endiif which reaches to the ceiling of the room, and the
oth bears on the boards. When the glue is quite dry, they
takiit out of the press and finish it; first with little planes,
the, with divers scrapers, some of which resemble rasps,
who take off dents left by the planes. Wiien sufficiently
scried, the work is polished with the skin of a sea-dog,
wa i and a brush and polisher of shave-grass.
; SNEZUELA, one of the provinces which composed
the republic of Colombia, but which has recently been
erejed into an independent republic, is situated between
‘2° hd 12° north lat. and 60° and 73° west long. It is
bonded on the north by the Caribbean sea, on the east
by British Guiana, on the west by New Granada, and
on fie south by Brazil. This country was named Venez-
ue iby the Spaniards, from the towns of the Indians, built
omlie small islands in the lake Maracaibo, having a re-
semlance to Venice.
lie mountains of Venezuela, which form a part of the
gret branch extending from the west to the gulph of Paria,
divle the lands of the coast from the plains of the valley
of e Orinoco. It is on these rivers that there is such a
dh -sity of climate, that a traveller may observe the fruits
of e tropics luxuriating at a short distance from those of
Eufipe. The surface of the ground is rent in every direc-
tic by the force- of subterraneous convulsions. To the
solh of this chain, the llanos, or plains, which stretch to
th Orinoco, are inhabited solely by herds of cattle tended
bynulattoes. The climate of Venezuela is modified ac-
co ing to the situation of its districts. On the coast and
in lie plains a scorching heat prevails, accompanied in
th latter with deluges of rain. In the mountain valleys
th nr is in general pure and mild, and in some of the more
eh ited parts even cold.
he soil of Venezuela is fertile, and yields in abundance
alJ he products of the West Indies, besides many which
th e islands do not possess. Its chief commercial article is
cc .a, which is inferior to none in the Americas. The other
°1- of cultivation are vanilla, maize, indigo, cotton, sugar,
toi eco, and coffee. Here also wild cochineal, dyewoods,
in icinai drugs, gums, and resins, find that climate which
i-'j ost favourable to their growth. The immense plains in
'h interior feed multitudes of cattle, horses, and mules;
ai ‘n the valleys and mountains sheep and deer are nu-
nfous. All kinds of game are ibund in this country; and
rivers abound with fish.
he forests produce every species of timber fit for the
P loses oi the joiner or the shipwright. Cedar is used for
1 r door-posts, window-frames, tables, &c.; black, red, and
^ ow ebony are common; mahogany, brasiletto, and all
b( s of ornamental woods, are to be found in the greatest
a ‘'dance and of the finest quality. The immense forests
YEN
591
which overspread the chain of mountains remain unexnlor- Venezuela,
ed.
For about a century after this country was subdued by
the Spaniards, their attention was almost wholly directed
towards its mineral productions, and the pearl fishery on its
coasts. But being disappointed in their expectations of
immense riches from these sources, they at last began to
cultivate the soil. They first planted cocoa trees; and
so large were the profits from this source, that cocoa alone
occupied their fields till a very late period. About the year
1774, indigo began to be cultivated; and immense plains,
hitherto desert, were soon covered with this plant, which
was speedily followed by cotton, sugar, tobacco, coffee, &c.
But notwithstanding the aptitude of the soil, and the genial
nature of the climate, agriculture still languishes in these fine
regions, partly from want of enterprise and industry, and
partly from too great a confidence in the prolific nature of
the soil.
On the plains of Venezuela the rainy season commences
in April and continues till November. The rains fall oftener
in the morning than in the evening, and on an average oc¬
cupy three hours of each day. During this period, the
plains nearest the rivers are converted into lakes of immense
extent.
The rivers of Venezuela are more numerous than in any
other part of Spanish America. Every valley has its stream;
and though many of them are not of sufficient size to be
navigable, yet all afford ample supplies of water to irrigate
the plantations on their banks. The principal of those
which run from the mountains of Caraccas and Coro into
the Caribbean sea, are the Guiges, Tocuyo, Aroa, Ya-
racuy, and the Tuy. The Guiges falls into that sea six¬
teen leagues west of the city of Coro. The Tocuyo dis¬
charges its waters twenty-five leagues east of the Gauges,
or Gaigues: its source is fifteen leagues south of the town
of Curora, at the distance of nearly one hundred miles
from the ocean; and it is navigable as far as the village
of Banagua, at the distanceof forty leagues from its mouth,
its banks furnishing abundance of timber of the largest
size, and fit for every kind of building. The Aroa rises
in the mountains west of the town of St. Felipe, and en¬
ters the ocean at Burburata bay. The Yaracuy enters
the Caribbean sea near the latter. The Tuy discharges it¬
self into the sea thirty leagues east of La Guayra; it rises
in the mountains of St. Pedro, ten leagues from the capital,
and being joined by the Guayra, becomes navigable, and
serves to transport the produce of the cultivated plains or
valleys of Aragoa, Tacata, Cua, Sabana, Ocumare, Santa
Lucia, and Santa Teresa, through which it passes, and which
particularly abound in cocoa of the best quality. The fol¬
lowing are the more important rivers which rise on the
southern side of the chain, and flow to the Orinoco: the
Guarico, which receives some of the branches of the Apure,
and then following a course parallel to that river, enters
the Orinoco by the Rio Mancapra, which flows through the
plains of Calaboso ; the Portuguesa, which is formed by
the union of the two rivers Pao and Barquisimeto, flows
through the greater part of Venezuela, and joins the Apure
forty miles north-west of its mouth. For an account of the
Orinoco, see Orinoco.
Besides Caraccas, the capital of Venezuela, (see Carac¬
cas), the principal towms are La Guayra, the port of Caraccas,
one of the hottest places in the world; Caro, the principal
town of the province of that name, with a population of
about 10,000; Porto Cavello, thirty leagues north-east of
Caraccas, with a population of 9000 ; Guanara, ninety-three
leagues south-west of Caraccas, with a population of above
12,000; Barquisimeto, 120 miles west-south west of Carac¬
cas. with a population of more than 11,000 ; Tocuyo, twenty
leagues north of Truxillo, with above 10,000 inhabitants;
San Carlos, situate on the small river Aguare, with about
592
YEN
YEN
Verezue'rt 9000 inhabitants; Araura, situate between' two branches
'of the river Aricagua, with a population of 11,000 ; Mara-
cay, situate in the rich vale of Aragua, a beautiful and
flourishing town, with 10,000 inhabitants; Victoria, on the
road leading from Caraccas to Porto Cavello, in the midst of
a most productive country ; Tulmero, two leagues from
Maracay, with 8000 inhabitants; Valencia, sixteen miles
south-west of Caraccas, with 15,000 inhabitants: Barcelona,
at the mouth of the river Neveri, with 14,000 inhabitants;
Cumana, the capital of the province of the same name, with
about 20,000 inhabitants ; Angostura, on the Orinoco, with
3000 inhabitants.
Population of the Republic of Venezuela.
Province of Orinoco 175,000
Venezuela 430,000
Sulia 162,000
Total 767,000
The amount of the imports and exports of Venezuela
were,
Imports. Exports.
In 1837 L.779,906 L.824,630
In 1838 509,239 709,792
In the year 1831, by one of those revolutions which have
followed each other in too rapid succession in Spanish
America, the extensive country, then called Colombia, w as
dissevered into three independent republics under the names
of Venezuela, New Granada, and Equator. The last of
these has already been described under the article Quito ;
it only remains that we shortly notice the republic of New
Granada. It extends from the equator to 12° north lat., and
from 68° to 83° west long.; having Venezuela on the east,
Brazil and Equator on the south, the Pacific ocean on the
west, and the Caribbean sea on the north.
The cordillera of the Andes crosses the country from
north to south, and insensibly decreases in elevation towards
the province of Panama. Between 2° 30' and 5° 15' of north
lat., the main chain separates into three parallel ridges.
The eastern, some of whose summits are covered with snow,
divides the great river Magdalena from the plains of the
Meta. The central ridge separates the Magdalena from
the Rio Cauca: this is the most lofty of the three, and rises
into the region of eternal snow. The western ridge sepa¬
rates the Rio Cauca from the province of Choco: it scarce¬
ly attains an elevation of 4500 feet, and is nearly lost in
the province of Panama. For a more particular description,
see Andes.
The rivers are very numerous. The chief of these is the
Rio Grande de la Magdalena, a majestic navigable river, of
which, however, little is known. It is said to rise about
thirty miles east of Popayan, near the sources of the Cauca, in
8° south lat., and after a northerly course of immense length
the two rivers unite, after having flowed in nearly a paral¬
lel line on the opposite side of the same chain of moun¬
tains. Its chief tributaries are the Suarez, the Gallinazo or
Sogamozo, the Rio Negro, and the Bogota orFunza. The
Meta is a noble river, which rises in the mountain ridge
opposite to Bogota, and flowing eastward joins the Ori¬
noco thirty leagues below the cataracts of Atures. Its
banks are inhabited chiefly by Indians. The Apure is also
a large river, which rises in one of the ridges which diverge
from the eastern branch of the Andes, and joins the Orino¬
co twelve leagues below Santiago. The river Atrato flows
into the gulph of Darien, and by it much of the internal
produce is exported. But the whole country abounds with
rivers and streams to an extent which it would be ^
to enumerate. Every valley has its rivers, large or??!
and, if not navigable, at least sufficient to fertilise the 3 '
The principal cities have been already described^'
Bogota, Santa Marta, Carthagena, Panama/1
'Porto
Beelo, Veragua, Popayan, Mompox, Ilonda/tv
and Pasto, which was destroyed by an earthquake in lS
The vegetable productions of the country are nearly t'
same as those of Venezuela. The soil is exceedingly fertil!
the fruits are produced in great luxuriance, and the tree'
attain an immense bulk.
Its vast forests are infested by numerous tribes of wild
animals. Among these the jaguar or tiger, and the American
leopard, are very destructive to the cattle. Wild boars,foxes
armadilloes, squirrels, deer, rabbits, and monkeys are’abun¬
dant, and are eaten by the Indians and Negroes.
The feathered tribes are numerous and beautiful. Amonn
these the toucan with its large bill, the gallinazo vulture
which clears the country of dead carcases, and the macaw'
with its beautiful plumage and disagreeable voice, are the
most singular.
Providence has dealt out his gifts to this quarter with a
lavish hand; but to compensate for this preference over
more sterile lands and less genial climates, he has mingled
with them evils of the most serious kind,—noxious animals,
oppressive heat, furious thunder storms and earthquakes,
The insects and reptiles are as numerous as the birds and
beasts. Among the insects may be mentioned the centi¬
pede, the scorpion, the spider, the pique or jigger of the
West Indies ; among the reptiles, the rattlesnake, the dart,
and the still more venomous coral snake. While the feet
of the pedestrian are insecure from the attacks of these
creatures, his face is exposed to the venom of the mus-
quitoes. The bed may be surrounded with gauze curtains,
to protect the sleeper, but it is of no avail, for another
and almost imperceptible enemy finds access through the
threads: these are called mantas blancas, from their re¬
sembling white cloaks while flying in clouds in the air.
In some places bats are so numerous that they cover the
street in an evening in clouds, and infest the houses.
The hills and rivers are supposed to have formerly sup¬
plied considerable quantities of gold. The gold washings
of most consequence are those of the Novita, Zitara, and
the river Andegada, in the province of Choco. All the
ground between this river and the San Augustin is aurifer¬
ous. 10,800 marks of gold is the utmost annual produce
of the washings of Choco. i Here a piece of gold was once
found by a negro which weighed twenty-five pounds. Fla-
tina is also found in this and the neighbouring province of
Antioquia. This valuable metal is discovered in grains in the
alluvious grounds between the second and sixth degrees of
north latitude. The ravine of Oro, between the villages of
Novita and Tado, yields the greatest quantity.
New Granada is divided into twenty provinces, and 110
cantons. The total population, as taken in the first quarter
of 1835, was 1,686,038.
On the 31st of August 1835 there were three universi¬
ties, nineteen colleges, and seven public schools in the re¬
public, attended by 2307 pupils ; of Lancasterian schools
there were 125, attended by 6741 boys, and five attendee
by 220 girls ; of schools upon the old system, 419, attende
by 11,557 boys, and 141 attended by 1605 girls; thus pro'-
ing that female education must be very much neglecte >
for while 20,605 young men and boys are attending tne
schools and colleges, only 1825 girls are receiving instruc
tion in the schools.
tempt
YEN
YEN
of the Population of the Republic of New Granada, distinguishing Males from Females, Marri
free from Slaves, with the n umber of Ecclesiastics in each Province, in the First Quartef- of the
593
Married from Unmarried,
Fear 1835.
I 0VI CES.
ficquij 
f ota.  
navotura..
pm 
f'jinarii 
#ca... 
I; co.;  
ifiquito  
fnpoH 
^••1 
;iploi| 
ama  
5- ayat; 
i lach*  
i amna 
' (jrro.i 
I  
Hgu;
Toil.
MALES.
Ecclesiastics.
SecularJRegular.
101
161
28
102
6
55
9
34
54
49
55
47
65
62
9
41
51
105
34
18
1086
3
215
18
23
5
12
2
8
3
5
6
6
29
13
4
3
81
18
2
456
Married.
23,238
36,389
2,864
17,524
2,388
5,108
2,272
9,474
5,309
9,726
15,656
7,157
9,324
6,683
1,279
5,215
17,538
40,638
12,643
4,563
234,988
Unmarried.
51,956
83,874
9,912
43,797
5,546
15,854
6,745
27,339
16,827
26,910
31,821
26,418
17,600
14,004
5,581
16,249
38,055
71,066
28,166
17,364
555,084
Slaves.
Married. Unmarried
566
186
987
342
1
739
489
91
79
164
81
170
558
989
9
111
67
8
87
18
5,742
846
358
1,299
1,565
16
1,526
1,132
186
366
280
458
542
662
1,779
240
641
210
28
238
80
12,452
Total Males 809,808
FEMALES.
Nuns
Married.
18
161
77
38
14
4
27
33
77
449
23,579
36.581
2,923
17,985
2,372
5,125
2,324
9,503
5,326
9,767
15,726
7,930
9,338
6,683
1,276
5,246
17.581
39,893
11,741
4,562
235,461
Unmarried.
55,167
96,943
11,181
47,012
5,604
19,172
6,582
32,757
19,014
30,097
35,071
29,810
19,772
14,865
6,126
18,402
40,594
84,989
30,179
15,837
619,174
Slaves.
Married.
555
169
971
215
629
416
74
78
96
60
153
530
986
8
125
84
24
50
18
5,241
Unmarried.
1,488
532
1,660
1,721
10
2,200
1,223
255
501
358
662
428
684
2,139
273
553
330
74
262
52
15,405
Total Females 875,730
TOTAL.
158,017
255,569
31,920
130,324
15,948
50,420
21,194
79,721
47,557
77,452
99,610
72,665
58,589
48,236
14,801
46,587
114,513
236,983
83,418
42,514
1,686,038
The Population in 1825 was 1,228,259) shewing an increase in the year of 457,779.
A itement of the Number of Convents, Priests, and Nuns belonging to each Order, in New Granada, in the First
Quarter of the Year 1835.
ORDERS.
CONVENTS.
Number !
of 1 Priests.
Convents. \
Franciscans....
Dominicans....
Augustines 
Of Mercy 
Hospitallers...
Philippines 
8
4
4
1
10
1
84
56
81
4
21
5
Readers,
Choristers,
&c.
Total.
28
251
43
15
23
19
1
101
Servants.
45
58
10
4
117
ORDERS.
Carmelites 
Of Mercy 
Of the Conception
Of the Incarnation
St. Clara  
St. Theresa  
St. Ines 
St. Gertrude 
St. Thomas 
Total...
NUNNERIES.
Number
of
Nunneries.
17
Professed
Nuns.
70
14
89
24
90
8
24
20
4
343
Associates
and
Servants.
76
31
154
40
138
6
107
19
571
iNIAMBADY, a small village of Hindustan, in the
na imahal province, fortified with a mud wall, 120 miles
"e south-west from Madras. Long. 78. 42. E. Lat. 12.
'i- It stands on the banks of the Palar, and contains
t" temples ot note, the one dedicated to Mahadeva or
and the other to Vishnu.
12
ENICE is situated in north lat. 45° 25' and east long.
0 , in the midst of a lagune, or shallow lake, which ex-
er ’ about twrenty miles in length from north to south,
i1'' l',out; six in breadth, divided from the sea by the two
15 • b, or sand-banks, of Malamocco and Palestrina, each
a 1 nine miles long, but only half a mile in breadth. The
3L. XXI.
city occupies a tract of dry ground about seven miles in
circumference, but divided into a great number of islands
by canals, the principal of which, the Canale Grande, ex¬
tends in a great curve through the heart of the town, with
a width of 200 feet, and is crossed near its middle by the
Rialto bridge, a magnificent structure of marble, consisting
of a single arch overtopped by two ranges of shops, which
form three roadways. The principal part of the city is,
moreover, divided by a still wider canal, that of Giudeca,
(which varies in width from about 1200 feet to 2160,) from a
long and narrow series of islands, the most easterly of which
contains the fine church of San Giorgio Maggiore, built by
4 F
594
YEN
YEN
Venice. Palladio. Venice is considered to be one of the finest
' cities of Europe, though its streets are very narrow and
winding, and most of them only calculated for foot pas¬
sengers, the great thoroughfares being the canals. But in
the midst of its labyrinth of canals and streets there are
several large piazzas, or open areas, almost every one of
which is adorned with a fine church or palace. I he prin¬
cipal of these areas is the Piazza di San Marco, a large o
long measuring 562 feet by 232, surrounded with elegant
buildings on a regular plan, and terminated at its eastern
extremity by the metropolitan church of St. Mark, a singu¬
lar but splendid combination of the gothic and the oriental
styles of architecture. The Piazza likewise contains the
campanile or belfry of St. Mark’s, a lofty square tower, 31b
feet high and forty-two on each side, terminated by a pyra¬
midal top, to which the ascent is formed by an easy inclined
plane instead of a stair. Adjoining the church is the
Dole’s palace, a marble edifice in the Saracenic style; the
prisons and other public offices of the late republic of
Venice; and in front of the palace is the Piazzetta, which
forms the communication between the great piazza and the
lagune, and is as it were the state entrance to Venice. On
the quay of the Piazzetta are placed two magnificent mono¬
lithic granite columns, one crowned with the winged lion
of St. Mark, and the other with the statue of St. Theodore,
the first patron of the republic. Between these columns
is the place for public execution.
Venice is said to contain one hundred and twenty churches,
and seven synagogues. It is divided into six quarters, which
are subdivided into thirty parishes 5 each of the smallei
islands in the lagune has also its church, generally that of a
convent, some houses, and a few trees. There are seven
theatres. The principal scientific and literary institutions are,
the lyceum, which possesses a rich physical cabinet, and a
botanical garden ; the two royal and the patriarchal gym¬
nasia ; the college of the Salesiane for young ladies; the
college for marine cadets ; the principal normal school; the
section of the Imperial and Royal Institute of arts and
sciences, and the Venetian Atheneum, a union of the old
learned societies of Venice; the academy or school of
the fine arts, whose rooms may be ranked among the
finest in Europe, containing a choice collection of casts, a
superb picture gallery adorned with the works of the great¬
est masters of the Venetian school, and a considerable
library formed of the most important w'orks relative to the
fine arts, and the celebrated collection of original designs
of the ancient schools formed by the chevalier Bossi. Al¬
though entirely re-organized in 1807, this academy may be
regarded as the oldest establishment of the kind, for the
statutes of the fraternity of artists which it represents, are
of a date anterior to the year 1345. Lastly, we may notice
the library of St. Mark, one of the richest in Italy, with a
fine cabinet of antiquities and medals, now placed in the
great council-hall of the ducal palace. There is, besides,
the Cornarian museum, an immense collection of pictures,
medals, books, and curiosities of every kind, bequeathed to
the city by a, noble Venetian of the Cornaro family. The
principal public walks of Venice are the Piazza of San
Marco, the Piazzetta, and the Riva degli Schiavoni, a long
quay leading to the public gardens, which are finely situate
at the south-eastern extremity of the city. The great
number of bridges, which all have steps, and the narrow¬
ness of the streets, render the use of wheeled carriages im¬
possible ; but in their stead there is a great number of
boats, named gondolas, which form one of the orincipal
characteristics of this singular city.
The most important public institution now at Venice is
the arsenal, which is very spacious, being about two miles
in compass, and containing workshops of all kinds, large
stores of every article requisite for the outfit of ships of war,
and a series of halls in which immense quantities of arms and
munitions of war are grouped in a tasteful manner. The Ve
hall of models contains a large collection of models of all
sorts of ships; and in an adjoining chamber there are busts by
Canova of Emo, a naval hero celebrated in Venetian history
and of General Galtamelta, a commander of high repute.
The same apartment likewise contains a fine model of the
Adriat ic, with its rocks, cliffs, and islands. The arsenal con¬
tains thirty-two covered slips for ships of the line, fifty-four
slips for smaller vessels, four large basins, five cannon found¬
ries, a ropewalk 910 feet long, extensive workshops for
carpenters, ship-builders, &c. The number of people em¬
ployed is from 1000 to 1200. Only a few fragments of the
celebrated Bucentaur remain. The arsenal, however, is in¬
accessible to line-of-battle ships, or even frigates with their
guns on board ; and even when the bulwark of Malamoceo,
now in progress, is completed, it will only have twenty-four
feet water. Venice is the head-quarters’ of the Austrian
imperial navy.
For a number of years after the downfall of the republic,
Venice exhibited such symptoms of rapid decay, that many
were induced to prognosticate that ere long it would be
abandoned, and its foundations again buried in the waters.
In 1815, many Venetians entertained a natural and laud¬
able wish for the regeneration of their country; but the three
of circumstances prevailed, and Venice continued to be an
appendage of the Austrian empire. By commerce Venice
had become great; and by new commercial regulations, the
people believed that she could again be raised to prosperity.
The wish for the establishment of a free port was express¬
ed so generally and so loudly, that the government at length
consented ; and in 1830, the wished-for object was attain¬
ed. But though there has been a decided increase in the
maritime traffic, yet the magnificent expectations ol the ci¬
tizens have not been realised. Neither have manutactures
on an extended scale been yet introduced, though the abun¬
dance of low-rented houses and cheap labour seem to oiler
many advantages. Mirrors, straw-hats, wax candles, cat¬
gut, which are the staple productions of Venice, and the
like, are articles of trifling importance compared with ob¬
jects of universal consumption. It is however already a
great point gained, that a stop has been put to the diminu¬
tion of trade and population, which were rapidly melting
away. During the last fifteen years, the progress ot decay
has been arrested, and things are again improving, tiougi
but slowly. The Venetians are recovering their ancien
habits of prudence and activity ; but much yet remains to
be done before they can be relieved of the general reproaci
of indolence. Scarcely any kind of labour in Venice is per¬
formed by natives ; and many strangers find emp oy men
water-carriers, servants, &c. Even the patricians eem
less disgraceful to enrol their names as paupers than 0 p
ply themselves to labour ; and, according to Raumer, wo
idle people are to be seen in St. Mark’s Piazza in one 0)1
than in England during a whole year. ,,
All Italy is distinguished for the number of its chanta
institutions, and in this respect Venice holds a promm
place. In the city there is one house with aCCOm
tion for 700 poor people ; while many more have tree a
ings elsewhere, and receive pecuniary assistance ou
establishment. There is an orphan-house ‘or aa^eaittiy
children, a lying-in hospital for thirty-six women,
institution for the reception of penitent women, a- -
for 1000 patients, a house of education for 90 Pu"e , ^
a foundling hospital, &c. And the revenues 0 a.gQ0Q(]
arising chiefly from endowments, amount to aooti ’
florins, or L.60,000 sterling a-year. The French g»«
ment united all these institutions and endow men ^
without respect for their origin, their object, or ^
tions of their founders; but in 1826, each lo,?nc .jgbe-
again placed under a separate administration, t j,
ing still subjected to the inspection of gow
YEN
IP daily relief was afforded to 3200 permanent pau-
peiVaml occasional relief to 4000. The number of those
[vi, e names were enrolled as paupers, and who in the
coise of one year received occasional assistance in the
of money, medicine, &c., amounted to 41,300 per-
g0P ; in another year to 40,782. If to these be added the
sev al institutions for lunatics, sick, orphans, foundlings,
£c it will appear that no fewer than 52,443 persons, or
mo! than one-half of the population of the city, receive
chatable assistance. The population of Venice is about
K):)00, without including the garrison, which is incon-
gidjable. Eight hundred patricians receive a kind of daily
Wiu*s from the government. The number of foundlings
novmaintained in the city is stated to be 3338; and for the
cov-try districts of Venice, 10,625. There is no want of
elc entary schools for reading, writing, and arithmetic ;
anninfant schools have recently been introduced.
railroad has been projected, and is now in progress, to
coi ect Venice with Milan, passing through Padua, Vi-
ceia, Verona, Mantua, and Brescia, a distance of 166
mil;, nearly upon one level. The greatest, and indeed
alnst the only serious obstacle to the execution of the
wot, is the carrying of the road across the lagune, ex¬
celling two miles ot mud and water.
o the north of the city is the small town of Murano,
wise glass-works were in great repute for several centu-
riei though their productions are now inferior to those of
Fr ice, England, and Bohemia; and to the eastward is
8(j Lazzaro degli Armeni, an island with a convent inha¬
bit! by Armenian monks, who devote themselves to the
ediation of their countrymen, and the cultivation of their
naimul literature. They have published several useful
we s in their national language, and they issue a wreekly
jot lal, which is circulated throughout the East. For an
ac.unt of the Venetian territory, see Lombakdy. (c.h.)
ENLOO, a city of the Netherlands, in the province of
Li burg and circle of Roermund. It is situated on the
rig bank of the Meuse, over which is a flying bridge.
It strongly fortified, and is protected by Fort St. Michael
on te opposite side of the river. It contains 5740 inhabi¬
tat:. Its chief trade is by the river, but it has manufac-
toi s of needles. Eat. 51. 22. 17. Long. 5. 4. 26. E.
ENTILATION is the art of providing any confined
an or apartment with an adequate supply of air, in a
co ition suitable to the purposes for which it may be re-
qu ?d. The air is usually introduced in a stream which
ni: itains a freshness and purity of atmosphere in the place
th us ventilated, any contaminated air being withdrawn
as ie pure air enters.
i numerous operations of nature and of art, and more
es cially during combustion, respiration, and the decay
th attends the putrefaction of animal and vegetable mat¬
te: unwholesome products are evolved; and so deleterious
an hese to animal life, that death is the necessary conse-
qni ce when they accumulate in a more concentrated form
annd the person. In a smaller proportion, they produce
an adless variety of discomfort or disease, from the most
tri| ng sense of languor or debility to the more violent
ap lectic headache, for the time suppressing all attempts
at xertion either of mind or body, while on other oc-
ca ms a slow and insidious action gradually undermines
11 constitution, and induces a permanent loss of health,
o xtrenae cases death is induced, more or less rapidly,
aL uling as the oxygen of the atmosphere is withdrawn,
01 o impregnation ot poisonous gases communicated to it.
he air of respiration is the great pabulum vitae: we
I r l,pon it no less than twelve hundred times an hour,
01 jn average, for nourishment and support, during the
e period of our existence; we consume oxygen, and
rt ‘lce ^ l)y carbonic acid ; and were it withdrawn from
II or changed in its qualities, death would inevitably ensue.
v E N 595'
The air acts incessantly, not only on the blood as it passes Ventiia-
through the lungs, but also on the surface of the body; t'011-
and disease and death may ensue from an unwholesome
atmosphere in contact with the skin, even when the lungs
are supplied with pure air. Well attested cases are re¬
corded where severe oppression has attended the action of
an amount of impurity so small as from l-15000th to
1-5000th part of sulphureted hydrogen gas; while the ab¬
solute amount of impurity in air tainted by miasma is so
excessively minute, that its precise nature, as well as the
minuteness of its weight in the most pestilential atmos¬
phere, is unknown.
A supply of a fresh and wholesome atmosphere may ac¬
cordingly be ranked among the first and most essential ne¬
cessaries of life. In the atmospheric ocean which rests on
the surface of the terraqueous globe, a perpetual move¬
ment, or natural ventilation, is sustained on a great scale
by numerous causes, more especially however by the un¬
equal action of the rays of the sun on the equator and at
the poles; the colder air moving along the surface from the
poles to the equator, while the warmer air from the equa¬
tor ascends and proceeds in a contrary direction towards
the poles. These great and primary currents are modi¬
fied in endless variety by the attraction of the sun and
moon, the rotation of the earth upon its axis, the relative
effect of the land and water, the ever-varying influence of
local temperature, volcanic action, meteoric phenomena,
more especially the evaporation and deposition of moisture,
the electrical condition of the air and of the surface of the
earth, and the innumerable changes that attend chemical
action in the mineral kingdom, as well as in those that oc¬
cur in the organic world. The animal and vegetable
kingdoms not only contribute to the movement of the air,
but are at once the great causes of the most important
changes induced upon it, and of its restoration to its for¬
mer composition; the animal kingdom consuming its oxy¬
gen and producing carbonic acid, while in the vegetable
kingdom, the great tendency is to absorb carbonic acid
and replace oxygen. But where these great movements
are interrupted by local causes, or an undue accumulation
of vegetable and animal debris takes place, there the due
balance is not sustained, pestilential effluvia contaminate
the air, and were it not for the wind, the rain, and the im¬
petuous storms which from time to time visit such locali¬
ties, and the operation of a peculiar diffusive power, in con¬
sequence of which no gas can accumulate permanently on
the surface of the earth, whatever may be its specific gra¬
vity, they would in general become at last as fatal as the
valley of death in Java, or the carbonic acid springs in
Bavaria, in the grotto del Cano, and other places, which
are so notorious for their destructive atmosphere.
In selecting a site either for a house, a city, or any es¬
tablishment w here persons are crowded together, too much
attention cannot be paid to its natural ventilation ; an as¬
pect. towards the south, a dry gravelly soil and moderate
elevation, securing efficient drainage and freedom of access
to the air, with protection from offensive currents, and an
immunity from local impurities, are the great desiderata.
In the open air the temperature is generally under that
of the body; and the air expired from the lungs, and also
that in contact with the surface of the body, being ex¬
panded by the heat which it receives, escapes, from its levity,
and a fresh stream is immediately supplied ; but w hen the
body is confined within a limited space, special means
must be employed to sustain a constant renewal of fresh air.
This artificial ventilation, it is obvious, must be modi¬
fied and adapted to the peculiar circumstances of each in¬
dividual case, and the state of the external air which is
supplied. It is a subject therefore of great extent, and as
various in its details, as the climate in which man lives,
the habitations in which he dwells, the occupations in
596 VENTILATION.
Ventila- which he is engaged, the food upon which he lives, the weather to one apartment alone, or about 60 feet per v ,
tion. means of protection against heat and cold which he can minute to each individual in a crowded house. Thisquej. t
' command, and the peculiarity of constitution which he may tion, however, ot the amount ot air necessary for ventila-^
present. We shall therefore content ourselves, in the re- tion, taking the deterioration produced by the human frame
maining space allotted to this article, by pointing out the alone into account, is exceedingly complicated, and is influ.
leading facts connected with the more prominent objects enced by a vast variety of circumstances, of which tne fol-
which it includes in reference to the frame of man. It lowing are the most important. In the preceding and
must not however be forgotten that this branch of science following remarks, a temperature of 65° may be considered
is as yet in its infancy, that the history of numerous points as the average most generally desired when there is a steady
connected with the motion of aerial fluid, is only begin- but gentle movement in the air. It is not so much the amount
ning to be minutely investigated; and that, in a practical of supply with which life can be sustained, which is here in-
point of view, it is as yet so imperfectly attended to, that vestigated, as that which it may be desirable to afford, so as
it is impossible to turn to any city without seeing discom- to maintain the system in its highest vigour and perfection,
fort, disease, and even death, from time to time induced 1. The purity of the air supplied.—In general, the less
by ignorance of the laws of ventilation ; and in assemblies pure the air, the greater the amount necessary for ver tila-
of every variety, the whole audience is not only too fre- tion, especially if it be loaded with moisture, and charged
quently subjected to extreme uneasiness, but the tone of with offensive exhalations from the lungs and skin. But
the mental faculties, and the capacity for exertion and atten- cases do occur, when an atmosphere is so largely charged
tion are often affected by the state of the atmosphere. with poisonous effluvine, that it becomes an object to use :
L Source of Air This cannot be too particularly as little as possible to avoid this source of contamination, if
examined. Many of the public buildings in this country it be not removed by special arrangements,
are supplied with air from the lowest levels, principally 2. The temperature—This is much the most important
with the view of facilitating the movement of the air circumstance affecting the supply necessary for ventilation,
through the flues. Hence at night, in clear weather espe- When the air is very cold, and the moisture of the breath is
cially, when the cold produced by radiation from the condensed in hoar-frost as fast as it escapes from the lungs,
ground is great, and more or less at all times, cold air is a proportion of air, extremely small compared with the
supplied from the surface of the ground, or the public usual desirable allowance, will be sufficient for ventilation,
streets, loaded with the offensive emanations which they Air, under ordinary circumstances, is below the tempera-
evolve, and which become much more disagreeable when ture of the body in most parts ot the globe. It therefore
subjected to the action of heat in a warming apparatus. By acts as a cooling power. But the higher its temperature,
taking air from the highest attainable point, avoiding mere- and the more nearly it approaches that of the body, the
ly the immediate vicinity of chimneys, and any ingress of larger is the quantity required to produce an equivalent cool-
air at the same level, a much purer atmosphere is secured; ing power. Further, in warm weather the air is charged
and it may be conducted downwards to any required depth with more moisture than in the cold season, while the body
with a flue. In extensive public buildings situated in lo- is at the same time more exhalent of moisture. These and
calities noted for the inferiority of their atmosphere, the other circumstances tend to render the supply of air, desir-
erection of air towers to draw down a comparatively whole- able in warm weather, far greater than the mere arithmetical
some atmosphere from a height of two or three hundred feet, increase in the temperature would at first sight appear to in-
would be an object of great importance. In large towns, dicate. But here we must advert to the popular error that
such as London and Manchester, where local impurities the temperature, as indicated by the thermometer, is a pro-
abound, and particularly when fog and frost are observed per guide to the quality of air, in respect to the warmth
at the same time, special means may be adopted for re- that may be most agreeable. The temperature, as a mo-
moving those that are most offensive. Filter beds may be ment’s reflection will show, is no indication, unless the velo-
constructed for air on the same principle as for water; but city of movement and chemical qualities of the air, especi-
few of the more simple arrangements of this kind that have ally in reference to moisture, be also taken into considera-
been sustained for any length of time, have been found tion. A small quantity of air stagnant, and at 32“, may
more desirable than filtration through any porous texture not cool the body more than a larger supply at 40°, 50°, oU°,
to exclude suspended blacks (soot), and in some cases 80°, or 90°, and, indeed, at any temperature below that o
also washing with water (particularly lime water), to con- the living system. A large quantity ot air not so cold may
dense sulphurous acid and other gases. be made to produce the same amount of cooling effect as
II. Amount of Air necessary for Ventilation a less quantity of the colder air. It is equally obvious that
Few subjects present a greater diversity of practice than this, a large quantity of air charged with much moisture, but not
From two to four cubic feet per minute for each person saturated, may produce the same amount of evaporation
have usually been considered a large supply, but this is far from the system as a less quantity of air containing htt e
beyond the amount usually allowed. A very slight ex- moisture associated with it.
amination will however show that even this amount is ‘too 3. Idiosyncracy—A very wide range of expenmen s
small; for if the process of respiration be accurately ex- has shewn that the constitutional peculiarities ol dirferen
amined, it will be observed that a cubic foot of air or more individuals vary as much in respect to the amount ot air
is involved or mixed and contaminated with the air dis- desired, and the temperature at which it is preferred, as in
charged from the lungs at each expiration, independently of respect to food or drink, In the houses of parliament, n
that affected by the skin. Such a supply, therefore, is at temperature below 52°, or above 76°, has been deman
least desirable, were the air always at a mild and genial for several years. It is often very difficult to determm,
temperature. According to Dr D. B. Reid’s experiments, however, how much is due to absolute peculiarity of co^
where the effects of variable quantities of air were tried stitution, and what is dependent on the circumstances ^
upon numbers included in an experimental apartment, not the moment, more especially, the state of oCCUPatlJ!n£]1
less than ten cubic feet of air per minute should always be excitement, the time that has elapsed since anyre re.st
allowed when it is at an agreeable temperature ; and to sus- ment was taken, and the nature and quality of the rep _>
tain the atmosphere in all its freshness and purity, even a the clothing in use, the previous exposure, the temp ^
much larger quantity is at times desirable. In the pre- ture, moisture, and other circumstances affecting the ff
sent Houses of Parhament, from 36,000 to 50,000 cubic lity of the air. The brilliancy of the illutninatiM ^
feet per minute have occasionally been given in warm affects the supply of air required by some consti u i
VENTILATION.
597
T1 force of habit is nowhere exemplified in a more
manner, than in the amount of contamination
■Svf h different individuals can bear. Some miners pass
jm tuaiiy much of their time in air in which a candle does
,10 >urn, though a lamp may be maintained in combustion
in fe same air.
, Moisture in the air—Air, in winter, usually requires
theaddition of moisture when introduced into any apart-
e and warmed, as at this season it has deposited a large
prcortion of the moisture associated with it in summer.
Wi e it warmed by the approach of summer, it would, in
thi country, gain moisture from the surface of the earth or
theicean, and thus acquire more of the pleasing and agree-
abl qualities which a summer atmosphere presents; but,
if \ rmed and introduced into any apartment without the
preous addition of moisture, then, having had its power
of tion upon moisture increased without receiving a cor-
res-inding supply, it absorbs moisture with extreme rapidity
fro- the surface of the body and the lungs, and, taking away
an idue proportion, produces a harsh and disagreeable im-
prfsion. The injection of steam into the air, or the eva-
po tion of water from shallow metallic pans, placed over
thneating apparatus, removes the defect.
n the other hand, moisture is frequently communicated
to ie air with the view of cooling it, by the reduction of
tenerature attending Evaporation.
i some climates, again, a redundancy of moisture forms
omof the greatest sources of oppression to the European
co titution, and is regarded as one of the most powerful
canes in developing the activity of miasmatous influence.
lie influence of different degrees of moisture in the air
is i> various upon different constitutions as that of differ-
eneemperatures. Further, some individuals exhale mois-
tu almost solely by the lungs, while, in others, the skin
is |ually active. According to the relative conditions of
th living system, the air, in reference to moisture, may
ei ssr exhale, or absorb moisture from it.
I. Equalization Air entering by doors and win-
dc s, and rushing in a well-defined stream, so as to pro-
diai local currents, may be exceedingly offensive; while, if
di led into innumerable streams, by causing it to pass
the ugh a porous texture, having the most extensive pos-
sil; surface, it may escape so insensibly as not to be per-
ce ed. Air ought always to be admitted in this manner,
or t such a distance from those upon whom it is to act,
th its movement may be greatly moderated before it
re hes the person. Wherever a proper supply of air is
a< itted, this equalization of movement is essential, more
pf icularly in crowded apartments; and the greater degree
to Inch it is carried, the larger is the quantity of air which
th system can bear. Nothing is more common than to
sc apartments ventilated effectually, so far as may be
nrassary for removing the foul air; but this very ventila-
ti' induces a most offensive series of chilling draughts, if
ip ns be withheld for warming the larger supply now ren-
df -’d necessary, and for introducing an effective equaliza-
ti . In rooms for invalids, this subject becomes of great
cc sequence, especially in diseases of the chest. And,
grerally speaking, to a great number of constitutions, un-
ecal currents are more dangerous and offensive than an
nl ressive atmosphere.
V. Nature of Heating Power Few circumstances
rf lire more care and attention in connection with ventila-
h , than the nature of the heating power employed. The
01 n fire, so much prized in this country from its lively
a cheerful appearance, exerts also an agreeable effect
" n the animal system, by the light radiated along with
d heat which it evolves, and the movement of air which it
f "ains, as it draws off the air and ventilates the apartment
vhich it is placed ; but, in point of economy of fuel, or
‘ 'dy of regulation, so as to maintain an equal tempera¬
ture, it is perhaps the least desirable of all kinds of heat-
ing apparatus. The great beauty, therefore, which its ap¬
pearance presents, the absolute purity of the heat whichv
it conveys by radiation, and the extreme facility of access
which it affords, so important for a variety of different
purposes, ought to be contrasted with the attendance
which it requires, the dust and ashes which it leaves,
and the tendency, when neglected, to produce back-smoke,
if the circulation be not maintained in proper force. In
connection wdth ventilation, the following points require
especial attention in the construction of the common fire¬
place. 1. It should be provided with an independent sup¬
ply of air entering in its immediate vicinity, to be employ¬
ed when heat is required in any apartment without chang¬
ing the air there, as in warming the apartment before it is
occupied, or moderating offensive currents near the fire¬
place. 2. An open fire-place, unless the air enters from
the ceiling, often produces little or no ventilation above the
level of the chimney-piece, and, even then, it does not
afford the best and purest atmosphere. 3. The air above
may be comparatively stagnant, and offensive in the ex¬
treme, from lamps and the products of respiration, while a
fresh current moves along the floor to the fire-place.
Of other arrangements for heating apartments, the mild
hot-water apparatus, when the water is always under a boil¬
ing temperature, affords the most perfect and equal diffu¬
sion, wdien properly arranged ; a point of great importance
in producing equality of ventilation. Stoves of low com¬
bustion, presenting an extensive surface at a moderate tem¬
perature, varying from 100° to 200°, according to their
size, as the Russian, Prussian, and Swedish porcelain stoves,
or Dr Arnott’s stove, come next in order. Those varieties
should be preferred which are provided with chimneys, both
for the ingress and egress of air, having no communication
with the apartment in which they are placed, otherwise,
when worked most economically, they are all liable, occa¬
sionally, to evole carbonic acid, if they are not adjusted to
the smoke chimney by persons who thoroughly understand
their operation. Stoves and other apparatus, where the
iron is heated to a high temperature, may be in many cases
more economical than the preceding; but from the manner
in which they affect the air, they are not so conducive to
health, and greatly impede all regularity of ventilation, the
hot air from them ascending rapidly to the ceiling, while
a cold atmosphere, almost unaltered, is often left below.
In public assemblies, subject to great and sudden fluctua¬
tion of attendance, hot and cold air chambers are provided,
from which any supply of warm or cold air may be obtained;
and a mixing chamber, for mingling the various proportions
that may be supplied, must also be constructed.
V. Source of Movement—An alteration of specific
gravity in the air, dependent on an alteration of tempeia-
ture, produced by expired air and the warmth of the body,
is the great, the more natural, and the most economical
source of movement under all ordinary circumstances. When
the openings for ingress and egress are arranged on the
best footing, any ventilated apartment may be compared to
a piece of apparatus in which the current of air, entering
rapidly by a narrow channel, expands with the greatest
possible diffusion into a slow moving stream, occupying the
entire area of the place to be ventilated, and gathering to¬
gether again in a smaller channel, by which it escapes,
w'here the velocity of movement increases *s the area
diminishes. In ordinary apartments, where nothing more
can be afforded, two openings, at different levels, will
always give much relief; the one usually admitting cold,
and the other, which should be as high as possible, dis¬
charging hot and foul air.
A movement in the air may be induced by mechanical
means, more especially by pumps and fanners, or the im
petus communicated to it by high-pressure steam.
Ventila¬
tion.
All
598
YEN
Ventila- these means may be seen advantageously employed where
tion. peculiar facilities are presented, as in manufactories.
The moving power of air itself is constantly taken ad¬
vantage of, both for forcing and exhausting air. The wind-
sail and the cowl are familiar illustrations where this power
is resorted to; but the continuity of its action cannot be
depended on, and it is perpetually varying in intensity.
A large shaft or chimney, with a good fire, is more gene¬
rally employed at present than mechanical means, though
both may occasionally be introduced in the same place with
advantage. In ships, Captain Warrington has proposed
the introduction of a fanner; and a number of experi¬
ments was made on board the Benbow a few years ago
by Dr Reid, who proposed the use of the same instru¬
ment, but who did not consider that it would attain all
the purposes desired, unless conjoined with a system of dif¬
fusion and equalization, which has been partially introduced
in the steam boats Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan, con¬
structed for the African expedition. There, arrangements
have also been proposed for purifying the air, as the
expedition traverses the most unwholesome districts.
VI. Ingress and Egress op Air—Doors and windows,
the only sources for the ingress of air in ordinary apart¬
ments, should be avoided as a means of introducing air in
all new buildings, and independent apertures and flues
provided, entirely under the control of valves, by whose
action the amount of ingress can be regulated with preci¬
sion. Further, in every apartment foul air should be led
from the greatest altitude by similar independent flues.
The ordinary construction often interferes seriously with
ventilation, foul air descending sometimes in one and
escaping in another. An alteration in the structure' of houses,
introducing one principal chimney, in which the flues from
all the apartments ultimately join, would be a great improve¬
ment in this respect; and even for whole streets and dis¬
tricts one large shaft would be sufficient. To any who
studies attentively the movement of currents of air, nu¬
merous other changes will present themselves as being
equally desirable in the habitations of the rich and of the
poor. In public buildings, the foul air, from hundreds of
apartments, will be removed by a single shaft.
The reader who is anxious to extend his knowledge of
this subject, will find much information in the Parliamen¬
tary Reports, particularly on the Ventilating and Acoustic
arrangements of the present House of Commons, on the
Ventilation of Mines, in many of the Reports on Education
and on Manufactures, in which the health of the children
has more particularly engaged attention ; in the Reports
on Improving the Health of Large Towns, and in some
Statistical Reports on the Health of the Army and Navy.
Tredgold on Warming and Ventilating, is a work of great
value, and the different memoirs and treatises of D’Arcet,
present numerous important details. In Dr Arnott’s work
on Warming and Ventilating, a full description of his stove
is given ; and in Hood’s, and also Richardson’s treatise on
the same subjects, the different varieties of hot water appa¬
ratus are explained. In Dr Reid’s Chemistry of the
Atmosphere, and Illustrations of Warming and Ventilating,
the result of numerous experiments is given on the ventila¬
tion of public buildings and private dwelling-houses, and the
ventilation of ships, manufactories, &c.
The laws of the communication of heat, the electrical
condition of the atmosphere, the diffusion of gases, the
fluctuations of the barometer, the indications of the hygro¬
meter ; the plenum movement, when the pressure of the air
within, from mechanical means, exceeds that without the
apartment ventilated ; the vacuum movement, when the re¬
verse is induced ; the downward and lateral current, espe¬
cially the former, which is so important in protecting works
of art exposed in public assemblies ; the precautions neces¬
sary where it may be introduced, the influence of different
YEN
varieties of clothing, of medicated atmospheres, of moi«tV ■
and dry air baths at different temperatures, and offumiw- i
tion, are all objects of inquiry that bear practically on ven- hi
tilation. The peculiar arrangements in various mines ^
hospitals, and manufactories, especially where offensive
vapours are condensed or destroyed, likewise afford man;
valuable illustrations of its practice. (d.g.)
VENTILATOR, a machine by which the noxious air of
any close place may be discharged, and replaced by fresh.
VENTIVALUM, a town in the Southern Carnatic,
forty miles west-north-west from Pondicherry. Lone 7q'
25. E. Lat. 12. 10. N.
VENTRICLE properly denotes any little cavity; but
is more particularly used by physicians and anatomists for
the stomach and certain cavities of the heart and brain.
VENTRILOQUISM, an art by which some individuals
can so modify their voice, as to make it appear to proceed
from any distance, and in any direction.
VENUS, in Pagan worship, the goddess of love and beau¬
ty. Cicero mentions other two deities of this name, Ve¬
nus, styled Urania and Ccelestis, and the Venus Pandemos
or Popularis, the wife of Vulcan, and the goddess of wan¬
ton and effeminate love. To the first the Pagans ascribed
no attributes but such as were agreeable to the strictest
chastity and virtue; and of this deity they admitted no cor¬
poreal resemblance, she being only represented by the form
of a globe, ending conically. Her sacrifices were termed
nephalia, on account of their sobriety. To her honey and
wine were offered, and no animal except the heifer; and on
her altars the wood of figs, vines, or mulberries, was not
suffered to be burnt. The Romans dedicated a temple to
this goddess, to whom they gave the name of Verticordia;
because she turned the hearts of lewd women, and inspired
them with modesty and virtue.
But the most famous of these goddesses is the wife of
Vulcan; who is represented as springing from the froth of
the sea. As soon as she was formed, she was laid in a beau¬
tiful shell embellished with pearl, and wafted by gentle ze¬
phyrs to the isle of Cythera, whence she sailed to Cyprus.
At her landing, flowers rose beneath her feet; she was re¬
ceived bytheHourSjwhobraidedherhairwithgoldenfillets;
and then wafted her to heaven, where her charms appeared
so attractive, that most of the gods desired her in marriage;
but Vulcan, by the advice of Jupiter, gained possession by
putting poppies into her nectar. As Venus was the god¬
dess of love and pleasure, the poets have been lavish in the
description of her beauties; and the painters and statuaries
have endeavoured to give her the most lovely form. Some¬
times she is represented clothed in purple, glittering wit
gems, her head crowned with roses, anti drawn in an ivory
car by swans, doves, or sparrows; at others she stands at
tended by the Graces; but in all positions, her son Cupid is
her inseparable companion. She was honoured as tie mo
ther of Hymenteus, Cupid, Tineas, and the Graces, an was
passionately fond of Adonis and Anchises. Ibis go t’Ss
was principally worshipped at Paphos in Cyprus; an '
sacrifices oflered to her were white goats and swine, wi
libations of wine, milk, and honey. Her victims were crow
ed with flowers, or wreaths of myrtle.
VERA CRUZ, one of the nineteen states which compo-
the republic of Mexico : also the capital city of t lat s a
Sgg Mexico. •
VERAMALLY, a town in the Southern Carnatic, twen¬
ty-three miles south-west from Trinchinopoly- onD
35. E. Lat. 10. 26. N. c-rdinia,
VERCELLI, a province of the kingdom o bara
in the principality of Piedmont. A part of i ^ ^
tainous, but the other portions are fertile, especia ) ^
valleys, where much rice is produced. It con.iJ‘ ()Qgoo
cities, and seventy-three towns and villages, wi js
inhabitants. The capital is a city of the same nam •
V E R
V E R
599
situ ed on the canal of Santhia, not far from the river to long slender pieces like worms, by forcing it with a pis- Vermilion,
. It is the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral of modern ton through a number of little holes. Vennin.
. ,|. ancl contains nine parish churches, ten monasteries, VERMILION, a bright and beautiful red colour com-
rid even nunneries, some of the first remarkable for their posed of quicksilver and sulphur, in great esteem among the
arcl ecture. There is also an episcopal seminary, and a ancients, under the name of minium.
VERMIN is a general term, denoting those animals
which are either directly or indirectly injurious to mankind,
the inferior animals, or the fruits of the earth; as fleas, ca¬
terpillars, flies, worms, &c.
As we propose in this article to point out the means of
destroying some of those animals, we shall employ the term
vermin in a more extended sense, including also under it,
irainar school. It contains a population of 16,500 per-
^n. who are chiefly occupied in raising silk, and in culti¬
vate rice and other grain. Among the inhabitants are
m ignoble families, who, though poor, still retain magnifi-
"^alaces. Lat. 46. 20. Long. 7. 43. E. _
VRCHAIRALSK, a small town of Asiatic Russia, in
the rovince of Onla on the Oural, 120 miles S.E. of Onfa.
VRCHATURIA, a town on the western frontier of mice, rats, moles, &c.
gibi ia, where is established the custom-house of Siberia,
wlii-i levies a duty of 10 per cent, on all goods passing
thrcgh it. This town is situated near extensive mines, and
con iiis 450 houses, four churches, and two convents. It is
l'20iiiles north of Catherinenburg. Long. 60. 14. E.
53J.N,
Lat.
am Delong to Port ugal. The principal is San Jago, the
harm and melancholy appearance of which is in unison
win the wretchedness of the inhabitants. The island of
Mali produces cattle and cotton ; the island of Fuego (or
Fill I, so called from its active volcano, is abundant in
Rats and Mice.—Various methods have been proposed
for the destruction of these vermin. The following prepar¬
ation has been recommended as very effectual. Take of
the seeds of stavesacre (delphinium staphisagria), or of
lousewort (pedicularis palustris), powdered, more or less as
the occasion requires, one part; of oatmeal, three parts;
tRCHOLENSK, a small town of Asiatic Russia, in mix them well, and make them up into a paste with honey,
the government of Irkoutsk, on the Lena, 120 miles north Lay pieces of this paste in the holes, and on the places
of Itoutsk. where mice and rats frequent ; and it will effectually kill or
''RID, CAPE, a promontory on the west coast of rid the places of those vermin by their eating it.
Afrja, forty miles north-west of the mouth of the river The Society for Encouraging Arts proposed a premium
Gabia, in 14° 45' north lat., and 14° 40' west long. The of L.50 for a preparation capable of alluring or fascinating
(a] Verd islands are situate about 400 miles west of the rats, so that they might be taken alive. In consequence of
Ca:j; they consist of ten islands beside islets and rocks, this, a great number of new traps, &c.were inven ted, and the
” ’ • . , • t following methods of alluring the rats to a certain place were
divulged. One of the methods which is most easily and ef¬
ficaciously practised, is the trailing of some pieces of their
most favourite food, which should be of the kind that has
the strongest scent, such as toasted cheese or boiled red
fhili. Brava, or St.John’s, produces excellent wine and herrings, from the holes or entrances of the closet to their
lal fctre. These four islands form a chain, running from recesses in every part of the house or contiguous buikling.
eakito west. The island Boa-Vista, which is fertile in cot- At the extremities, and at different parts of the course of
tor iind indigo, forms, with the island Sel, or Do Sal, a line this trailed track, small quantities of meal, or any other kind
no (i and south. The four remaining islands form part of of their food, should be laid, to bring the greater number in-
a min in the direction of south-east to north-west, and to the tracks, and to encourage them to pursue it to the
sui ;ed each other in the following order : St. Nicholas, place where they are intended to be taken. At that place,
on at’the largest and best governed of the archipelago; when time admits of it, a more plentiful repast is laid for
Sana Lucia, high and wooded, with only brackish water; them, and the trailing is repeated for two or three nights.
SalVincente, wooded and abounding in tortoises ; and San Besides this trailing and way-baiting, some ot the most expert
Atonia, the mountains of which are said to equal the peak of the rat-catchers have a shorter, and perhaps more effectual
of eneriffe in height. All these islands are subject to de- method of bringing them together ; which is the calling
stictive droughts ; but their natural produce might render them, by making such a whistling noise as resembles their
th i of considerable value under an intelligent government, own call; and by this means, with the assistance of the way-
1 ir population is reckoned at about 42,000. baits, they bring them out of their holes, and lead them to the
ERDUN, a city of France, the capital of the arron- repast previously prepared for them at the places designed
di ;mentofthe same name, in the department of the Meuse, for taking them. But this is much more difficult to be piac-
ar standing on that river. It is strongly fortified, and has tised than the art of trailing; for the learning ot the exact
a )st powerful citadel, and is considered one of the most notes or cries of any kind of beasts or birds, so as to deceive
inrortant defences on that side of the kingdom. In 1836 it them, is a peculiar talent which is attained only by few.
cosained 9978 inhabitants, exclusive of the military. It In practising either of these methods of trailing or ca
M woollen manufactories, and tanneries, and is celebrated ing, great caution must be used by the operator to suppress
fo ts liqueurs. Lat. 40. 9. Lon<>-. 5. 12. E. and prevent the scent of his feet and body from being per-
EIIEJA, a city of Russia, the capital of a circle of the ceived ; which is done by overpowering that scent by
s*e name, in the government of Moscow, 513 miles from others of a stronger nature. In order to do this, the feet
F jrsburg. It stands on the river Protwa, whose water are to be covered with cloths rubbed over with assafcetida,
ca be used to fill the trenches that surround the walls. The or other strong smelling substances; and even oil of rhodium
ERGE, in Law, signifies the compass of the king’s of the operator’s feet, near the track, and in the place
cj rb which bounds the jurisdiction of the lord steward of the rats are proposed to be collected, be not properly ob-
1 household. It issupposed to have been twelvemiles round, served, it will very much obstruct t le success o t ic a cmp
1ERGERS, officers of the courts of queen’s bench and to take them ; for they are very s ly o comm w mre e
c nnon pleas, whose business it is to carry white wands be- scent ot human feet lies very fes i, as i m nna es o 1Lir
1 the judges. There are also vergers of cathedrals, who sagacious instinct the presence o ntman cieatures, \> lom
cfy a rod tipped with silver before the bishop, dean, &c. they naturally dread. To the above-mentioned means of al-
'ERMICELLI, a composition of flour, cheese, yolks of luring by trailing, way-baiting, and calling, is added another
ei s> sugar, and saffron, reduced to a paste, and formed in- of very material efficacy, which is the use ot oil ot rhodium.
600
VERMIN.
Vermin. Like the tnarum Syriacum and valerian in the case of cats,
^"V^^it has a very extraordinary fascinating power on these
animals. This oil, as it is extremely dear, is therefore spa¬
ringly used. It is exalted in a small quantity in the place,
and at the entrance of it, where the rats are intended to be
taken, particularly at the time when they are to be last
brought together, in order to their destruction: and it is
used also by smearing it on the surface of some of the im¬
plements used in taking by the method described below.
Its effect in removing their caution and dread, by the
delight which they appear to have in it, is very extraordi¬
nary. It is likewise usual for the operator to disguise his
figure as well as scent. This is done by putting on a sort of
gown or cloak, of one colour, that hides the natural form,
and makes him appear like a post, or some such inanimate
thing, which habit must likewise be scented as above, to
overpower the smell of his person; and besides this, he is
to avoid all motion till he has secured his point of having
the rats in his power.
When the rats are thus enticed and collected, where time
is afforded, and the whole in any house and out-buildings are
to be cleared away, they are suffered to regale on what they
most like, which is ready prepared for them, and then to go
away quietly for two or three nights; by which means those
that are not allured the first night, are brought afterwards,
either by their fellows, or the effects of the trailing, &c., and
will not fail to come duly again, if they are not disturbed or
molested. Many of the rat-catchers make shorter work, and
content themselves with what can be brought together in
one night; but this is never effectual, unless where the
building is smal1 and entire, and the rats but few in num¬
ber.
The means of taking them when brought together are
various. Some entice them into a very large bag, the
mouth of which is sufficiently capacious to cover nearly the
whole floor of the place where they are collected. This is
done by smearing some vessel, placed in the middle of the
bag, with oil of rhodium, and laying in the bag baits of
food. The bag, which before lay flat on the ground with
the mouth spread open, is to be suddenly closed when the
rats are all in. Others drive or frighten them, by slight
noises or motions, into a bag of a long form, the mouth of
which, after all the rats are come in, is drawn up to the
opening of the place by which they entered, all other ways
of retreat being secured. Others, again, intoxicate or poi¬
son them, by mixing with the repast prepared for them, the
coculus Indians, or the nux vomica. They direct four ounces
of coculus Indicus, with twelve ounces of oatmeal, and two
ounces of treacle or honey, made into a moist paste with
strong beer; but if the nux vomica be used, a much less
proportion will serve than is here given of the coculus. Any
similar composition of these drugs, with that kind of food
which rats are most fond of, and which has a strong flavour to
hide that of the drugs, will equally answer the end. If in¬
deed coculusIjidicus he well powdered, and infused in strong
beer for some time, at least half the quantity here directed
will serve as well as the quantity before mentioned. When
the rats appear to be thoroughly intoxicated with the cocu¬
lus, or sick with the nux vomica, they may be taken with
the hand and put into a bag or cage, the door of the place
being first shut, lest those which have strength remaining
should make their escape.
In destroying rats, advantage may be taken of that re¬
markable degree of instinct which they possess of deserting
one place, where they find themselves disturbed or harass¬
ed, and retiring to new haunts. It is well known, that af¬
ter one or two rats are poisoned, or taken in traps, or won I v
ed or otherwise injured, and afterwards permitted to esca ' ^
the whole colony immediately disappears. The practic ^
however, of destroying by poison rats that frequent dwelt
ing-houses, should be as much as possible avoided; for th "
retire to places behind the wainscot, &c. from which, after
death, their putrid bodies, emitting a most offensive 'smell
cannot be removed. But it is far less difficult than is Ge¬
nerally imagined to secure the different apartments of a
dwelling-house, and even the cellars, from the inroads of
rats and mice, and thus to prevent their unwelcome visits
by shutting up the passages through which they enter!
Stone and lime, when they can be applied, are effectual*
but common plaster, by introducing pieces of broken pot!
tery ware or glass along with it, will also answer the pur¬
pose ; and even a piece of cork, with a pin or two stuck
through it to prevent them from eating it away, is a com¬
plete barrier to mice entering through a hole in wood, and
may even prevent the entrance of rats. We have seen
this method of shutting up the holes, as soon as they were
opened by the industry of the enemy, steadily pursued for
some time, attended with the fullest success, even in an
old house of considerable extent, and finished from top to
bottom with wood, some of which was much decayed.
For the sake of food, rats and mice often frequent gar¬
dens, fields, and woods, in the summer season; but, on the
approach of winter, they return to their former haunts in
the habitations of man; and accordingly it is observed
that houses which are free from those vermin during the
summer, swarm with them about the end of autumn. At¬
tention to this circumstance in the habits of these animals,
may be the means of securing us from their visits and de¬
predations ; for if, at the time alluded to, every hole and
cranny through which mouse or rat can enter, be shut up,
and carefully kept close and secure, the perseverance of the
foe is exhausted and overcome by repeated and constant
resistance, and thus he is forced to abandon the unequal
contest, and to retire to other haunts where his motions
are less interrupted.
Various other methods have been proposed for the de¬
struction of rats ; and although we have thrown out a hint
against the use of arsenic for this purpose in dwelling-
houses, yet where it can be employed with perfect safety,
and without risk of the nuisance alluded to, as in cellars
and outhouses, it is undoubtedly one of the most effectual
to which we can have recourse.
Suffocating these vermin by means of the fumes of sul¬
phur, as on board of ships, in granaries, and other buildings,
which can be shut up, is sometimes successfully prac¬
tised. Rats and other vermin have also been effectually
destroyed by burning w ood in close apartments, thus pro¬
ducing fixed air or carbonic acid gas, by which they are
suffocated. , , I
Moles.1—The mole is found in all parts of Great Britain-
It is seldom or never seen above the surface of the ground,
except when forced out of its subterraneous abode by ex¬
cessive drought and heat, by inundations, or by very har
frost. In size it is a little larger than the dormouse, an
smaller than the common rat, measuring from five to six
inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The male is
siderably larger than the female. The body is complete y
covered with very fine glossy black hair or fur, softer an
finer than silk, or the fur of the beaver, inclining *
brownish hue on the abdomen.2 * Its nose is long, an re^
sembles that of the hog ; its eyes are very quick an pe
ceptible wdien the animal is alive. Instead of externa ea i
1
1 The observations on the structure and habits of the mole, and on the mode of trapping it, have been communicated by Mr- ^i0
Yeadell of Pieston, for many years practically engaged in the art of mole-catching.
2 Whole families of fine cream-coloured moles have sometimes been taken; and Mr Yeadell once took a whole litter of ]
he never took or saw a perfectly white one.
V E R
< jt is openings protected by the fur, which are admirably
• fitt l for their purpose, as the hearing of few animals is
f rno acute. Its neck is very short, and its body is thick,
r01 J, and muscular, terminated by a tail about an inch
• Jon The fore-legs have more the appearance of hands
f grcing out of the body, turned outwards and backwards,
>' likche hands of a man when swimming. These legs are
• ver strong, and are each furnished with five claws. The
1; hin legs are longer and weaker than the fore ones, being
r onl used in progressive motions ; whereas the others are
comantly employed in digging and boring the ground, or
in ‘ -aping and throwing back the earth when loosened; for
r whi the mole is excavating, it is always obliged to draw
the wsened earth backwards, and to lift or shove it above
the urface of the ground in the same way. Its teeth are
: bea ifully white, and consist of forty-four in all, viz. six
upf • and eight under incisors, two upper and two under
t cames, and seven molars on each side above, and six on
; eacjside below. Its food consists almost entirely of earth-
s woes and a few insects.
i je male and female go together about the end of March
• or pginning of April, and most of them produce their
1 yot g in the beginning of June, a few so early as the last
if wen in May.1 The female brings forth her young only
onoa-year, the number varying from one to nine at a
bin and five or six being the average number. She
' fares her young about nine weeks, that is, from the last
wee in March or the first in April, till the last week in
Malor beginning of June. When the season arrives for
theuale and female going together, if their domiciles are
nnttonnected by old workings, the solitary mole will leave
! bis ace of abode in the night, and travel a considerable
dislhce above ground to meet with a companion.2
e season for trapping moles in Scotland commences
on le 20th of August, and ends on the 31st of May in
eaciyear, or occasionally a week or two later if the winter
be severe one.
/ out forty years ago, when steps were taken to clear
thenoles from the estates of his grace Henry duke of
f Buc euch in Scotland, a man was appointed to each five
tho and or six thousand acres of land, for two or three of
the tst years of a twenty years’ lease ; and so much success
attuled the plan, that two men were sufficient to keep
fitty'housand Scotish acres of land pretty clear of moles
din g the remainder of the lease. And had it not been
thal here were several intervening patches of land, where
the! oles were not trapped at all, and where their propa-
gatiu was kept up, one man would probably have sufficed
for c purpose.
I e most common way of taking moles, is by traps set
in t ir walks or runs ; and the best for this purpose are the
1 wm >n ones made by the bobbin turners in the neighbour-
noo of Kendal and elsewhere, and sold at about twopence
ear Sixty of these traps, with as much mole-twine as
niMbe bought for eighteenpence, a few sticks, a small
hod n, and a mole-spade, equip the mole-catcher, and will
sorv liim for a year without any additional outlay. With
thd materials, in good ground, where the moles have not
M I N.
601
before been disturbed, he will capture three hundred dozens
the first season. Before commencing operations, the traps
should be steeped in water, and covered in the ground for
a day or two, to remove any peculiar smell which may be¬
long to them. J
In the subterraneous runs of the mole, as among the
streets of towns and villages, there are certain walks^more
frequented than others, and hence entitled to the name
of thoroughfares.
Vermin.
B
A.
The dots in the above diagram represent the mole-hills,
and the lines the walks or streets communicating between
them, which serve the double purpose of a dwelling and a
trap for worms, upon which the mole feeds. It is probable
that all these streets, or at all events a large proportion of
them, are traversed every twenty-four hours, more especi¬
ally when food is scarce. It is also obvious that certain
parts of these walks must be more frequently passed than
others.
A may be supposed to be a hedge near which the mole
will spend much of its time in wet, cold, or stormy wea¬
ther ; B and D are two ridges adjoining to the hedge, where
it is much engaged in fine weather; and C the furrow be¬
tween those ridges. Let fig. 1 represent the walk conduct¬
ing from the hedge to the first ridge, and fig. 2 a con¬
tinuation of the same walk between the first and second
ridges. Figs. 3 and 4 are mainwalks on the ridges.
Nos. 1 and 2 are the walks that will be most used, and
therefore are the places where the mole-catcher would
place his traps. Nos. 3 and 4 are the next best, in conse¬
quence of there being only a single road or passage in each,
place, and not, as to the right and left of them, a variety of
byeways. In many cases the inexperienced may be un¬
able to determine which is a main run, in consequence ot
the ground being apparently all worked up together. In
such a case he should endeavour to find a walk in a hedge
bottom, or in crossing the ditch to the hedge, or where the
mole goes to water, or in the crossing of a gapstead or
gateway, or in a footpath, or furrow, or sheepwalk, or along
the side of a drain. In such places as these, the ground is
generally pretty solid, and it may be assumed as a general
rule, that the mole never likes to make a great number of
walks where the ground is hard, or where it is frequently
trodden on. When the mole-catcher has surveyed the
ground, and made up his mind where to place his trap, as
at Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, he may strike his spade into the
ground in a right line, between the hillocks, and if he finds
the ground hollow, he has discovered the walk, and he may
there make a hole to set his trap in. Care must be taken
not to make this hole too large, and it ought to be about a
quarter of an inch lower than the bottom of the walk, so
r. Veadell comes to this conclusion from his observation of the state of the female about this time, and from frequently having taken
Ijie iole litter of young in the nest, which is easily found, from its being made in the centre of an unusually large hillock. Although
hf’ 'le is here stated to breed only once a-year, it is the recorded belief of some observers, that two broods are annually produced,
onpi spring or early in summer, and another in autumn. The more usual and characteristic period, however, we believe to be the
6l)rj| and this accords with the practical observations of continental naturalists on the subject.
"s is a circumstance which Mr. Yeadell conceives to be proved in various ways; first, by his frequently having found the workings
'"'J y abandoned in particular places in the months of March and April; secondly, by finding unusually large numbers of moles together
'I tune; and, thirdly, by incidental circumstances, such as taking a mole which had lost his tail, or had been deprived of a hind leg.
j" 1 '9 Mr; Yeadell took a mole without a tail, and the following year he took one wanting a hind leg, both of which had been twisted off,
e(] r s of his own, at the distance of a mile or more from the place where they were at last taken. The most frequent cause of the mole
m,; 'ff 'Is ground arises from inundations. When the rivers rise rapidly and cover his workings, he is obliged to abandon his subterra-
1 J0<k> and swim for his life, which he can do with the buoyancy ot a water-rat.
^ ^ XXI. 4 G
602
VERMIN.
Vermin, that the mole may have a gentle descent into it. The earth
ought also to be well filled in upon all sides, so as to ex¬
clude the light, and at the same time not to interrupt the
mole in its passage ; for upon discovering any interruption,
it will be apt to make a new road by the side ol it, and after
having its suspicion excited, it will be very difficult to ta e
it afterwards.1
The destruction occasioned by the mole is by no means
generally understood. It might be worthy of the conside¬
ration of proprietors whether a great system of co-operation
might not successfully be formed for its extermination. At
all events, the number of this animal might be very much
diminished, if noblemen, gentlemen, and farmers would em¬
ploy some one of their servants in the practice of an art so
easily acquired, and so highly useful.
Insects.—Many insects, in the different states of exis¬
tence through which they pass, are exceedingly trouble¬
some and destructive. Sometimes they spread their de¬
vastations in the state of larva or grub, and sometimes in
that of perfect insect.
Of the coleopterous insects, the grub of the cock-chafer,
which is a brownish or chesnut-coloured beetle, commits the
greatest ravages. This beetle appears during great part of
the summer, the most plentiful in May or June, and hence
is called the May bug. It flies only in the evening, and
lodges during the day under the leaves of trees, which it
devours, and is sometimes in such numbers, as to defoliate
whole woods. The beetle deposits its eggs in the earth,
and from these are hatched white or bluish grubs, that feed
on the roots of grass, corn, and other vegetables, during the
whole summer. In the winter they lie deep in the earth ;
but in the spring, as vegetation advances, they rise to the
surface, and renew their work of destruction. In this state
they continue for four, five, or six years, before they change
to the chrysalis state, in which they remain till the month
of May, when the perfect insect appears. As these insects
require so many years to assume the perfect form, they
only appear occasionally in sufficient numbers to be exten¬
sively destructive to the crops of grain, or vegetables in
general. Their numbers, however, have often produced
great alarm, and even excited the attention of govern¬
ments to offer rewards for an effectual method of destroying
them.
In the spring season, if the weather prove warm, when
the land is ploughed up, these grubs are generally so near
the surface as to be turned up with the plough; and being
thus exposed, they are picked up and devoured by various
birds, which, it is suggested, should not be disturbed or
driven away in this salutary labour. When these grubs
infest meadow land, it has been proposed to drown them
in their holes by overflowing it; but it is supposed that
this plan would not be successful, even where it is practica¬
ble, unless there is a bed of clay immediately under the
soil, to retain the water for a sufficient length of time. A
more efficacious way is recommended to prevent the in¬
crease of the grubs, by destroying the flies in May or June,
before they have deposited their eggs. This may be done
by shaking and beating the trees and hedges in the middle
of the day ; and, as this is a work which may be performed
by children, it is a less difficult task than would at first sight
be imagined. Domestic fowls are remarkably fond of these
beetles, so that a double object is thus gained, the de¬
struction of the beetles and the procuring of food for tliP
poultry. ^
Some species of the dermestes, and also of the genus
ptinus, are exceedingly destructive in the cabinets of na¬
turalists, and also to furniture. Various methods have been
recommended to stop their ravages. We believe the most
effectual is spirit of turpentine, when it can be properly ap¬
plied. A solution of corrosive sublimate is sometimes em-
HiB.
ployed, but it should be recollected that it seldom fails in
i—j—>   .  in
time to produce some chemical change on animal and vege¬
table matter. Objects of natural history, as birds, animals
&c., are sometimes exposed to the moderate heat of an oven
or before a fire, for several hours ; but this method will also
be attended wnth injurious effects, unless practised with
great care. Insects which infest furniture have been de¬
stroyed by the application of oil, and allowing it to remain
for a day or two, before the furniture is rubbed up. Japan¬
ned or varnished furniture may be secured from the effects
of these insects, by re-coating it, when they are in the
larva state, by which they are deprived of air. Railing, and
other works out of doors, which are exposed to the weather,
are sometimes eaten with insects, and particularly by some
of the larvae of the genus curculio. The wood thus attack¬
ed may be prevented from farther ravages, by a fresh coat
of paint.
The earwig is a destructive insect in the flower, kitchen,
and fruit garden. To prevent their depredations, it has
been recommended to take them with the hand, when they
come out during the night in search of food. They may
be taken also by rolling up a piece of paper, and hanging
it up on the plants which they infest; for in these places
they take shelter through the day. Another method of
destroying them has been mentioned, and that is to watch
them towards morning with the view of discovering the
haunt to which they resort during the day. This may per¬
haps be a melon frame, dunghill, or heap of rubbish; and
the removing of it will destroy the greater number of those
troublesome insects.
The small insect which commits such depredations
among turnips, by eating the seedling leaves as soon as
they appear, as frequently to destroy whole crops, is sup¬
posed to be a small black polished beetle, belonging to the
genus Altica. It does not seem to be well ascertainei
whether this small beetle, which is better known by tin
name of turnip-fly, commits its ravages in the larva or u
the beetle state. It is said to prefer the leaves of tin
common radish to those of the turnip; and it is thereon
recommended to sow radishes along with the turnips, to pre
vent the destruction of the latter.
Of the insects belonging to the order hemiptera, t >on
are some which are exceedingly destructive. 1 he coc
roach, a native of the warmer parts of America am ti
West Indies, is a very troublesome, and a very voraciou
insect. It has been introduced into this country, an par
ticularly into the sea-port towns, in consequence o cmn
mercial intercourse. It comes out to feed in t ic iiin
time, and eats of almost every thing that comes in 1 s .
Cockroaches are easily taken by the following n1^
Cover the outside of a deep glass or bason witi pape >
troduce some bits of bread or sugar into the bason or
and set it in a place frequented by the cockroaches,
creep up by means of the paper on the outside, ant
1 Sometimes, when Mr. Yeadell has met with a mole which had been rendered cunning from the string of a trap avi g viirjous 6tri
its having been caught by the tail or by a hind leg, which it had twisted off, and escaped, he has successfully rcsorte o ^ S(M
tagems. The first of these is to form a cake of softish earth about half an inch thick, to be plastered over both en s ^ s0()Iier has
effectually to interrupt the passage. The mole, upon reaching this obstacle, immediately sets to work to remove R. an ^ bewi
rl»irr wnv thmurrh fhp p^rfli. and against the fritre'er. than the tran strikes, and it is taken. When this stra agei
eueciuaiiy ID imrilupL lnc jmonngc. x nc muic. uputi ic-acinng lino —
dug its way through the earth, and against the trigger, than the trap strikes, and it is taken. vynen mis [, t|ie trig?el
accustomed to set a dead mole upright upon its hinder part, with its head standing up into the centre of the trap, so as ^ displaces tl
and whether from the combative propensity of the mole, or from its desire to relieve a companion, it rushes at the ea ddlicu t n“tlir
trigger, and is taken. The last stratagem he never found to fail. In all cases, but more especially in those o ^ ^ [jrnliy secuK
care ought to he taken to have the trap and strings in perfect order, using a strong stick for a spring, so that the amma s ia
V E U
I -n fa vessel; but in consequence of its smooth polished
^ s face, they cannot effect their escape. In the same way
c ancl beetles may be taken and destroyed. It is
n te unnecessary to speak of the means of destroying the
ii riads of locusts which not unfrequently infest eastern
c ntries, and particularly Egypt and Syria ; for no means
a lively to be devised, which promise to resist the effects
o uch an host of foes, by whose ravages every green thing
if ;onsume(l; but the insect itself becomes, among the
rer inhabitants of those countries, a partial substitute
t'( the fruits of the earth which it has destroyed. The in-
s( s are taken, and reduced to powder, and converted into
a nd of meal.
'he common or the bed-bug is a very troublesome and
a ery common inmate in the crowded houses of large
n ns. Its usual haunts are the crevices of wood, and particu-
p yi those pieces of furniture which are usually kept in the
w mest corners of the apartment. Cleanliness will per¬
il, s be found the best preservative against the introduc-
ti and increase of these insects ; but sometimes even the
g Uest care and attention are ineffectual in keeping
1) ses entirely free from them. When it can be conveni-
ei y done, they are completely destroyed by immersing
tl furniture in boiling water, or by baking it in an oven;
a by filling up the crevices or holes which were their
h nts, with glaziers’ putty, their return and increase will
tl 5 he prevented. But a very effectual method of destroy-
ii bugs, is to wash the places which they frequent with
s it of turpentine, and then to fill up the holes as already
n itioned. It is a curious circumstance in the history of
die insects, that some persons entirely escape from their
a cks, while to others they are exceedingly troublesome
a distressing. It is said that lavender-water, sprinkled
o r the bed-clothes, often prevents their approach.
The small moth which, in the caterpillar state, commits
r ages on woollen cloths, furs, and other animal sub-
s aces, that remain for any length of time in dark un¬
til urbed places, may be destroyed with the greatest cer-
t ity and facility, by exposing the substances on which
t y are suspected to make their depredations, to the vapour
o pint of turpentine, or brushing them with a brush dip-
| I into the same fluid. This should be done about the
r nths of September or October; but their effects may be
1 jvented by placing the cloths, furs, See., which are likely
t become their residence, in an airy situation, about the
mths of July and August.
1 he different kinds of lice are very numerous. Every
a nal has its peculiar species, and even mankind are not
1 ' from this pest. It is often the consequence of indo-
1 ce and nastiness; and it is observed that the lice which
i :st any animal increase prodigiously when that animal
I omes languid and sickly. We believe that the applica-
II of spirits of turpentine, already so often recommended,
v ild also be effectual in this case ; but mercurial prepar-
£| >ns afford a certain remedy against these insects. For
1 > purpose a very small quantity of what is called mercu-
I ointment may be employed. At the same time it
II bit to be recollected, that cleanliness is the best preser-
\ ive.
h is perhaps more difficult for mankind to secure them-
| •'es and their habitations from the visits of the common
u j Cleanliness may however do much even in effect-
j tl's; and, in particular, it appears to us that it would
] pfreroely useful, frequently to rub up with a piece of
|11 fl'e more inaccessible parts of furniture or apartments,
I l,t:r 1aPs it would answer better to employ a small hard
Jls ’• By the less accessible places, we mean the corners
crevices of rooms and furniture where dust is apt to
ect! and especially the canvass part of a bed. We are
j ,uju od that spirits of turpentine might also be found
’ 01 ^le destruction of these very troublesome insects.
V E R 603
1 he Scotish myrtle ymynca gale, Lin.) a plant very com- Vermont,
mon in low and moist moorish places in this country, is
said to be an excellent remedy, in consequence of its power¬
ful aromatic odour, against the attacks of these animals.
Foi this purpose, the plant is strewed about the apartment
or bed which is infested with fleas.
VERMONT, one of the United States of America.
It lies between the river Connecticut and the long taper¬
ing basin of Lake Champlain ; stretching from 42° 44' to
45° north lat., a distance of nearly 160 miles, and from
71° 30' to 73° 20' west long., with a breadth expand¬
ing pretty regularly from forty-five miles in the south
to ninety in the north. It has'an area of 10,200 square
miles.
The most striking natural feature of this tract is the Mountains,
mountainous range called the Green Mountains, which
traverse the state from north to south, and, passing into
Massachusetts, there take the name of the Hoosic Moun¬
tains. In the centre of the state this ridge is divided into
two, of which the one called the Height of Land runs
north-east to Canada, and the other, taking.a north-west¬
erly direction, sinks down in the northern part of the state.
The Green Mountains, from whose verdure this state de¬
rives its name, are from ten to fifteen miles wide, and are much
intersected by valleys; they are watered by numerous springs
and brooks, and are covered with evergreen trees and shrubs
nearly to their summits. There are many good farms among
the mountains, and much of the land upon them is suitable for
grazing. The highest points are Mansfield Mountain, ris¬
ing to 4280 feet; Camel’s Rump, 4190 feet, both in the
north-western ridge; and Killington Peak, further south,
3675 feet in height. Ascutney, a detached elevation near
Windsor, rises to the height of 3320 feet above the level
of the sea.
The Connecticut forms the eastern boundary of the Rivers,
state. Oniou river passes through Montpellier, the capi¬
tal, into Lake Champlain at Burlington. Otter creek is
a principal branch of Oniou river. Lamoile and Missique
are considerable streams north of the Oniou. In the Green
Mountains rise many smaller rivers, which at once beautify
the country by the picturesque scenery of their banks,
and promote its manufactures by the mills which they turn
in their course. Those which run towards the east are tri¬
butaries to the Connecticut, and those whose course is
towards the west discharge their waters into Lake Cham¬
plain.
Lake Champlain, between the west shore of this state Lakes,
and New York, is a beautiful sheet of water, 128 miles long,
and from one to twenty wide. It discharges at its northern
extremity by the river Sorel into the St. Lawrence, and
contains upwards of sixty islands, of which Motte, and
North and South Hero, are of considerable size. Besides
the rivers which flow into it from the Green Mountains,
it receives the Chazy, Sarauac, Sable, Bouquet, and Wood
rivers, from New York, on the western shore. The Cham¬
plain canal connects it with Hudson river and the New
York and Erie canal. Lying extremely convenient to facili¬
tate the commerce of the state both with New York and
Montreal,-it is navigated by a number of steam-boats and
lake vessels. Mcmphremagog is a considerable lake, twenty-
five miles long and three broad, lying partly in Vermont
and partly in Canada, receiving a number of streams from
this state, and communicating by the St. Francis with the
St. Lawrence.
The prevailing rocks belong to the stratified primary Minerals,
group, embracing mica and talcose slates, gneiss, primary
limestone, argillite, &c. On the western border there
is a narrow strip of transition limestone. These rocks af¬
ford good building materials, and marble is quarried and
carried out of the state. The magnetic oxide of iron
abounds at Somerset, and the brown hematite, associated
604
V E R
V E R
Vernier
scale
II
Verona.
Forests.
Political
divisions.
with oxide of manganese, occurs at Bennington, Pittsford,
and Manleton. Pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, is found in
Strafford and Shrewsbury ; and about three million pounds
of copperas, of the value of 70,000 to 75,000 dollars, are
made here annually.
Vermont was originally covered with a dense forest, a
large part of which still remains, although considerable
encroachments have been made on it in clearing land for
cultivation, and in felling trees for timber. The moun¬
tains produce hemlock, spruce, and fir ; the lower grounds,
various species of oak, pine, maple, elm, hickory, beech,
birch, ash, buttonwood or sycamore, and lime or basswood,
and the cedar grows in wet places. Ginseng, sarsaparilla,
sassafras, snakeroot, lobelias, &c., are also among the pro¬
ducts of the forest. Maple-sugar is made in large quantities
for domestic use and exportation, and pot and pearl ashes,
and lumber, are also exported.
Vermont is divided into fourteen counties, which are
subdivided into townships. There are no large towns in
the state, but Vergennes has the name of a city.
Population in 1830.
Counties.
Addison, 
Bennington, 
Caledonia, 
Chittenden, 
Essex, 
Franklin, 
Grand Isle, 
La Moelle, esta¬
blished in 1837,
Orange, 
Orleans, 
Rutland, 
Washington, 
Windham, 
Windsor,  
Population.
County Towns.
Popula¬
tion.
24,940
17,468
20,967
21,765
3981
24,525
3696
Middleburgh,..
J Bennington,
\ Manchester,
Danville, 
Burlington,....
Guildhall, 
St. Albans, 
North Hero,...
3468
3419
1525
2631
3526
481
2375
638
}
Hydepark,
823
27,285
13,890
31,294
21,378
28,746
40,625
Chelsea, 
Irasburgh, 
Rutland, 
Montpelier,....
Newfane, 
f Windsor,....
| Woodstock,.
1958
860
2753
1792
1441
3134
3044
Vermont is not a slave-holding state. The number of
newspapers published in this state in 1839 was thirty-one.
The senate established in 1836 consists of thirty mem¬
bers, each county being entitled to at least one, and the
rest apportioned according to population ; and the House
of Representatives is composed of one member from each
town.
VERNIER Scale, a scale excellently adapted for the
graduation of mathematical instruments, thus called from
its inventor Peter Vernier.
VERNON, a city of France, in the department of the
Eure, and the arrondissement of Evreux. It stands in a fine
valley situated on the banks of the Seine; and in 1836 it
contained 710 houses, with 4485 inhabitants. They carry on
considerable trade in corn and flour, and have some large
tanneries. Near to it are some valuable stone quarries,
which supply the builders of Havre. Lat. 49. 6. Long.
1. 22. E.
VERONA, a delegation or province of Austrian Lombardy,
within the government of Venice. It is bounded on the
north by the Tyrol, on the north-east by Vicenza, on the
east by Padua, on the south-east by Polesina, on the south
by Mantua, and on the west by the lake of Garda, which
divides it from Brescia. It extends over 1320 square miles,
and contains 277,849 inhabitants, all Catholics, and all, ex¬
cepting those in thirteen mountain communes, who speak a
corrupt German, being of the Italian race. On the north,
this province is partly occupied by the Tridentine Alps,
which extend in a circular form to the river Adige. Th( j
vicinity of the lake of Garda is also mountainous; but tlJnE
other portions of the province, between the Adige and tlJ2
Mincio, belong to the extended plains of Lombardy. Be
sides the rivers now mentioned, it is watered by the Tartaro
the Castagnaro, and the Polesina, whicli all finally empt
themselves into the Po. Much of the land is sterile; butii
the south-west a part of it is moderately fertile, producin'
wheat, maize, rice, rye, flax, hemp, wine, and fruits of variou
kinds. A large quantity of silk is produced, and that pro
duct has been and still is increasing with the new mulberr
trees planted from year to year. The woods provide tim
ber, and the lakes and rivers abundance offish. Some cop
per and some coal mines are worked, though not extensive
ly. Of the wealth of this province, a very considerablj
portion is drawn from the quarries of marble and alabaster
of which a great variety is raised, especially some of a gree
colour, very highly estimated.
Verona, a city, the capital of the delegation of ths
name. It stands on the river Adige or Etsch, by whic
it is divided into two unequal parts, and over which is
fine stone bridge of three arches, as well as three other
It is surrounded with walls defended by bastions, and one
had three castles, St. Felice and St. Pietro in the valle'
and Castello-vecchio on a hill, all now neglected. Tl
streets are generally narrow and crooked, and the squan
or plazas are rather small. The houses are, many of the
at least, of vast size, and the best of them, as well as tl
most eminent public buildings, are the work of the celebrati
Palladio. The city contains 8964 houses, with 55,500 ii
habitants. Besides the cathedral there are fourteen pan
chial, and forty-eight other churches. Many of them a
ornamented with the best paintings. The celebran
Ascension of the Virgin by Titian, is in the cathedn
This city abounds with Roman antiquities; and amor
the most remarkable of them is the amphitheatre. Itwi
constructed under the reign of the emperor Domitiar
but an Italian antiquary, named Giuliari, maintains th
the original foundation was an Etruscan work of veryr
mote date. The exterior has at present rather a ruino
appearance, but the interior is in excellent preservatic
though the place is disfigured by the erection of a smi
wooden theatre on the arena. It is of an oval form, ai
the arena or stage is 225 feet long, and 135 feet broa
From it arises, over each other, forty-eight rows of sea
with passages by steps between these at intervals, f
seats and steps are of marble. According to one writer,
can seat 22,000 spectators, but others have calculated spa
for a greater number, and one of them, Krickel, makes
capable of seating 32,824. The access to the seats is eas
and the passages leading to them are spacious. It is ke
in good repair, and when any part is broken or damage
it is replaced.
VERSAILLES, a city of France, the capital of an arro
dissement of the same name, in the department of the Sei
and Oise, which extends over 331 square miles, is divid
into eight cantons, and those into 114 communes, contai
ing, in 1836, 133,551 inhabitants. This city is extensive,
divided into the new and the old town, is splendidly bui
and, by the magnificence of its appearance, must have be
very appropriate for the circumstances of France, when
state of society was different from what now exists; w
there were nobles to occupy the splendid mansions, a
more than 80,000 inhabitants of all classes. The pals
was built by Louis XIV., between the years Ibd a
1680. It is a most magnificent and extensive pile of U1
ing, decorated with the remains of that correct and c a.
style of architecture which was the prevailing taste o
time in which it was erected. It is however in a J al
dated condition, and its noble apartments destitute o |
niture, and almost of occupants. The gardens are m ot
V E R
I preservation, and especially the water-works, the ex-
L tion of which on Sundays and holidays, still draws to
V iailles a large proportion of the more vulgar of the
I*']' [gians. In 1836, the inhabitants of Versailles amounted
to 9,209, among whom are many English and other foreign
j i lies, drawn to it by the cheapness with which the orna-
m ta| ’parts of education can be obtained. Some manu-
fa ares have been introduced, especially for fire-arms of
ti most luxurious kind; besides which many watches are
m e some cotton goods, and many smaller articles. It is
th place where, in 1783, was signed the peace with Eng-
] , ,by which the independence of America was established.
L 48. 48. 21. Long. 2. 1. 17. E.
ERSE, in Poetry, a line consisting of a number of
10 • and short syllables, which run with an agreeable ca-
(kce.
ERSETZ, a city of Hungary, the capital of a circle of
tl same name in the province of Hither Theiss. It is the
se, of a Greek bishop, and a place of great industry, having
laL silk mills, and an extensive trade in wine, corn, rice,
si and other commodities. Here are extensive barracks
fc cavalry. It contains many churches, 2600 houses, and
P »00 inhabitants. I .at. 45. 4.6. Long. 21. 13.40. E.
/ERT, in Heraldry, the term for a green colour. It is
c: ed vert in the blazon of the coats of all under the de-
g e of nobles ; but in coats of nobility it is called emerald;
a in those of kings venus. In engraving it is expressed
b diagonals, or lines drawn athwart from right to left, from
tl dexter chief corner to the sinister base.
VERTEX denotes the crown of the head. Hence ver-
t( is also used figuratively for the top of other things;
tl s we say, the vertex of a cone, pyramid, &c.
Vertex is also used in Astronomy for the point of the
h ven directly over our heads, properly called the zenith.
/ERTICILLUS, a mode of flowering, in which the
ft /ers are produced in rings at each joint of the stem, with
v y short foot-stalks. The term is exemplified in mint,
h ehound, and other plants.
/ERTICITY, is that property of the loadstone whereby
11 irns or directs itself to one particular point.
/ERTOT, Rene Aubert De, a lively and elegant,
t ugh not a very profound or accurate historian, was born
a he castle of Benetot in Normandy, on the 25th of No-
vaber 1655. He was the second son of a gentleman al-
II to several distinguished families, but possessed of little
c io fortune. He was educated in the College of the Je-
s s at Rouen ; and having made choice of the ecclesiasti-
i profession, he secretly withdrew from this seminary, and,
£ :r an interval of ten months, his family ascertained that
1 had betaken himself to the convent of the Capuchins, at
1 }entan. He was not however to be diverted from his
1 ign; and having made his profession, he assumed the
il ne of Brother Zachary. But the austerities of this or-
I were so prejudicial to his health, that he was induced
II exchange it for one of milder rules. Having obtained a
1 et from the pope, he entered the abbey of the Praemon-
: itenses at Valsery in 1677. He became secretary to Col-
h general of the order, who nominated him prior of
Jyenval. The canon law prohibits a person who has
1 tied one order, from obtaining any office or benefice in
!)ther; and although he had procured a dispensation in
1 e jorm> he yet encountered so much opposition, that he
s induced to exchange his priory for a cure, depending
the order, at Croissy-la-Garenne, near Marly. Here, at
: age ot thirty-four, he produced his earliest work, “ His-
re des Revolutions de Portugal.” Paris, 1689, 12mo. He
erwards obtained another cure in his native district of
,ux ’ an(I this he exchanged for a third, in' the immediate
jl'ity ot Rouen. His last benefice was amply endowed,
rendered him very easy in his circumstances. He con-
lUt d his historical labours with new ardour, and produced
V E R
605
various other works. His next work bears the title of “ His- Vertum-
toire des Revolutions de Suede.” 1696, 2 tom. 12mo. In IIUS>
1710, he published his “ Traite de la Mouvance de Bre- Verulam.
tagne.” A more elaborate work is his “ Histoire des Re-
volutions arrives dans le Gouvernment de laRepublique Ro-
maine.” 1719, 3 tom. 12mo. The grand-master of Malta
had appointed him historiographer of the order, with the
privilege of wearing its cross. In order to evince himself
Worthy of the honour which had thus been conferred upon
him,he produced a copious work, entitled “Histoire des Che¬
valiers Hospitaliers de S. Jean de Jerusalem, appellez depuis
les Chevaliers de Rhodes, et anjourd’hui les Chevaliers de
Make.” 1726, 4 tom. 4to. Other honours had likewise been
bestowed upon him. He became an associate of the Aca¬
demic des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. He was appointed
“Secretaire-interprete/’and afterwards “ Secretaire des com-
mandements,” to the duchess of Orleans. He had apart¬
ments in the royal palace, and received a considerable sa¬
lary. But these honours and emoluments could not secure
the enjoyment of good health, and the latter years of his
life were passed in much bodily infirmity. He died on the
15th of June 1735, in the eightieih year ofhis age. Some of
his dissertations are to be found among the Me moires of the
Academy. A posthumous publication of Vertot appeared
under the title of “ Origine de la Grandeur de la Cour de
Rome ; et de la Nomination aux Eveches et aux Abbaies.”
Lausanne, 1745, 12mo. On the constitution of the Roman
senate, he had been consulted by Lord Stanhope ; and in
1758 his answer was published by Hooke, who added his
own observations.
YERTUMNUS, in Mythology, a god who presided over
gardens and orchards, honoured among the Etruscans, from
whom the worship of this deity was transmitted to the Ro¬
mans. Vertumnus had a temple near the market-place at
Rome, being represented as one of the tutelary deities of the
merchants. The commentators on Ovid say, that he was
an ancient king of Hetruria, who, by his diligent and suc¬
cessful cultivation of fruit and gardens, obtained the honour
of being ranked among the gods.
VERULAM. Francis Bacon, Viscount St. Albans,
and Baron Verulam. This illustrious man was born in
London, on the 22d day of January 1561. His father, Sir
Nicholas Bacon, a courtier, a lawyer, and a man of erudition,
stood high in the favour of Queen Elizabeth, and was lord-
keeper during twenty years of her reign. Anne, the second
wife of Sir Nicholas, and the philosopher’s mother, was the
daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, Edward the Sixth’s tutor,
and was herself distinguished among the learned females of
the time. One of her sisters became the wife of Eliza¬
beth’s celebrated treasurer, Lord Burleigh. Delicate in
health, and devoted to sedentary employment, Francis Ba¬
con exhibited in early boyhood the dawning of those powers
whose versatility afterwards became not less remarkable than
their strength. As a child he delighted the queen with his
precocious gravity and readiness of speech; and before he
had completed his twelfth year we see him investigating the
cause of a singular echo in a conduit, and endeavouring to
penetrate the mystery of a juggler who performed in his
father’s house. At the age of thirteen he was matriculated
at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which Whitgift was then
master; but his residence at the university lasted scarcely
three years, and his writings contain many expressions ot
dissatisfaction with the current system of academical edu¬
cation. In his sixteenth year he was sent abroad, and lived
for some time at Paris, under the charge of the English
ambassador, Sir Amias Paulett; after which he visited the
French provinces, and added to his literary and philosophi¬
cal studies an acquaintance with foreign policy and statis¬
tics, the fruit of which soon appeared in his tract upon the
State of Europe. In February 1580, his father died, and
he immediately returned to England.
606
V E II U L A M.
Venilam. Sir Nicholas left but a scanty fortune ; and his son Fran-
cis, the youngest of a large family, found himself obliged,
in his twentieth year, to devise the means of earning a
livelihood. One would have thought powerful friends
could not have been wanting to one who, besides his own
acknowledged merit, had it in his power to urge the long
and honourable services of ins father, while his uncle was the
prime minister of the kingdom. Of the patronage which
thus seemed to be at his command, Bacon attempted to
avail himself, desiring to obtain such a public employment
as might enable him to unite political activity in some de¬
gree with literary study. But his suit was received neglect¬
fully by the queen, and harshly repulsed by his kinsman.
Although all the causes of this conduct may not be dis¬
coverable, a few lie at the surface. The lord-keeper had,
in the later years of his life, lost the royal favour. Burleigh,
besides his notorious contempt for men of letters, had to pro¬
vide for sons of his own, to whom their accomplished cou¬
sin might have proved a dangerous rival. From the Cecils,
indeed, Bacon never derived any efficient aid, till he had
forced his way upwards in spite of them ; and there are evi¬
dent traces of jealousy and dislike in the mode in which he
was treated both by the old treasurer, and by his second
son, Robert.
Obliged therefore to betake himself to the law, Bacon
was admitted at Gray’s Inn, where he spent several years ob¬
scurely in the study of his profession, but with increasing
practice at the bar. The friendship of his fellow lawyers,
earned by his amiable disposition and his activity in the
affairs of the society, bestowed on him offices in his inn of
court; but his kinsmen were still cold and haughty. Lord
Burleigh continued to write him letters of reproof; and
Robert Cecil, already a rising statesman, sneered at spe¬
culative intellects, and insinuated their unfitness for the
• business of life. In 1590, when Bacon was in his thirtieth
year, he was visited for the first time with court-favour, re¬
ceiving then an honorary appointment as queen’s counsel
extraordinary; and to this was added a grant of the re¬
version of a clerkship in the star-chamber, which did not
become vacant for eighteen years. But the lawyer’s heart
was not in his task. His brilliant professional success, and
the awakening friendship of his relations, merely suggested
to him renewed attempts to escape from the drudgery of
the bar. His views are nobly expressed in a letter which
he addressed to the lord-treasurer the year after his ap¬
pointment.1 We linger with melancholy pleasure over
these abortive efforts made by one of the finest and most
capacious of intellects to extricate itself from that labyrinth
of worldly turmoil, in which its owner was destined to pur¬
chase rank and splendour at the expense of moral degrada¬
tion and final ruin.
We are henceforth to behold Bacon actively engaged in
political life, as well as in the duties of his profession. Two
parties then divided the court, equally remarkable in dif¬
ferent ways on account of those who headed them. Bur¬
leigh was the chief of the queen’s old counsellors, on whom,
amidst all her caprices, she always had the prudence to rely
mlati.
for the real business of the state: the young and gav ti
who aspired to be ranked as the personal friends or a<!
of the withered sovereign of hearts, were led by the i v'S ^
spirited and imprudent Earl of Essex. To the party of'fp'
nobleman Bacon decidedly attached himself, and soon '1S
deed shared with his own elder brother Anthony T
earl’s most private confidence. Valuable advisers
they to their rash patron ; and a valuable servant of die
nation did Francis Bacon bid fair to become, when, in N0
vember 1592, he entered parliament as one of the 'knights
of the shire for Middlesex. His first speech, in February
following, contained an urgent pleading for improvements
in the law ; in another address, delivered in March, he re¬
sisted, with exceeding boldness as well as force of reason
the immediate levying of an unpopular subsidy to which I
the House had already consented. The young lawyer’s i
exposition of unpleasant truths gave deep offence to the
queen. Flis uncle and the lord-keeper were both commis¬
sioned to convey to him the assurance of the royal displea¬
sure ; and the two humble, nay, crouching letters of apo¬
logy, still extant, in which he entreated those ministers to
procure his pardon, did not forebode much independence
in his subsequent conduct. We do not, indeed, again hear
Bacon named as a champion of popular rights.
In the year 1594, Sir Edward Coke being made attorney-
general, the solicitorship became vacant; and Bacon’s ap¬
plication for the office was strenuously supported by Essex.
But all efforts were in vain. The powerful kinsmen were
colder than ever towards one who bad chosen another pa¬
tron. The lord-keeper, Puckering, acted in a manner
which drew on him a spirited rebuke from the candidate.
The queen hesitated, coquetted, told Essex that his friend,
though witty, eloquent, and in some branches learned, was
a showy lawyer rather than a profound one. After a de¬
lay of many months, the place was given to a plodding
serjeant; and Bacon’s generous patron, vexed at the disap¬
pointment of his hopes, sought to console both him and
himself by a gift equally munificent and delicate. Bacon
received from him an estate at Twickenham, worth about
eighteen hundred pounds. The present, in all likelihood,
came very seasonably ; for he appears to have been already
involved in those pecuniary embarrassments from which
he was never afterwards completely able to extricate him¬
self. He was obliged to sell the land which Essex had given
him; two years later he was arrested in the street for a
debt of three hundred pounds ; and among the Lord Chan¬
cellor Ellesmere’s papers, recently published, there is a cu¬
rious acknowledgment, granted in 1604, for a pledge in se¬
curity of an advance of fifty pounds to him. lliese rea¬
sons offer the only apology for the addresses which, about
the time of his arrest, he paid to a wealthy and shrewish
widow, who, fortunately for him, preferred his professional
brother and personal enemy, Sir Edward Coke. In tne
meantime, his legal reputation continued to increase, an
his parliamentary exertions were unremitted, though alto¬
gether free from that independence which had once c ia-
racterized them. We thus trace Bacon down to his thirty-
1 “ I wax now somewhat ancient: one-and-thirty years is a great deal of sand in the hour-glass. My health, I thank God, 1,1
confirmed, and I do not fear that action shall impair it; because I account my ordinary course of study and meditation to be inoit p<un
ful than most parts of action are- I ever bear a mind, in some middle place that I could discharge, to serve her majesty; not as a man
born under Sol that loveth honour, nor under Jupiter that loveth business, for the contemplative planet carrieth me away wholly, nit as
a man born under an excellent sovereign, that deserveth the dedication of all mens abilities. . . . Again, the meanness of my esta
doth somewhat move me ; for, though I cannot accuse myself that I am either prodigal or slothful, yet my health is not to sPem'''l0^ J
course to get. Lastly, I confess that I have as vast contemplative ends, as I have moderate civil ends ; for I have taken all know </■
my province ; and, if I could purge it of two sorts of rovers,—whereof the one with frivolous disputations, confutations, and vetboMtits.
 VV UVsl V- Wl «V_ Willi Alltvsil/ua V VU M  7 — • • J trlOllS
other with blind experiments, and auricular traditions and impostures, have committed so many spoils,—I hope J should bring in tm liS
tions and discoveries ; the best state of that province. This, whether it be cum h
observations, grounded conclusions, and profitable inventions ,   
or vain-glory, or nature, or (if one take it more favourably) philanthropia, is so fixed in my mind, as it cannot be removed. ^
if your lordship will not carry me on, I will not do as Anaxagoras did, who reduced himself with contemplation into voluntary P0V®rJ' ^
this I will do,—I will sell the inheritance that I have, and purchase some lease of quick revenue, or some office of gain, that shall be exet > ^
puty; and so give over all care of service, and become some sorry bookmaker, or a true pioneer in that mine of tr uth, which, he said, lay sv e P
(Cabala, p. 18. Bacon’s Works, vol xii. p. 6, 7. Montagu’s edit.)
V E R U L A M.
607
li year, pausing only to remark, that two years earlier, mitted to custody-at-large, Bacon incurred, by his appear- Verulam
n’ "u jg in 1597, his celebrated Essays were first published, ance against him, an obloquy of which his letters show him
^Vlou'di merely the skeleton of what they afterwards be- to have been painfully sensible. In a few months the
*. these compositions gained high reputation for their earl’s open rebellion took place; he was seized, and put
' ior not only at home, but also on the continent. upon his trial in February 1601, along with Lord South-
1 \fter this, the first step in Bacon’s literary career, we ampton ; and on this occasion, when his life was at stake,
rmch what is the most painful task of his biographer, Bacon again appeared as one of the counsel for the prose-
1 irk page of his history, over which no ingenuity has cution, and delivered a speech of which there is extant an
a r j)een a5]e to throw a veil thick enough to disguise imperfect account. The language is harsh, but less so than
^foulness. We have seen him the friend, the adviser, addresses of the kind used to be in those days. The topics
t] grateful vassal of Essex ; we are now to behold him are oratorical, and, as it has been justly remarked, are less
,! (rtiiv his benefactor, assisting to destroy him, standing calculated for ensuring conviction (which indeed was cer-
f, h in the face of the world as his enemy and accuser. The tain) than for placing the conduct of the prisoner in an
, bsopher’s latest biographer has pronounced his conduct odious light, and hardening the queen’s heart against him;
bis matter to be honourable and praiseworthy ; and to his and, although it would be rash to judge of the real temper
wp must refer those who are curious to canvass ar- of the harangue without knowing more of its contents, yet
g nents of which we are ourselves unable to discover the
tl Bacon, unfortunately for himself, had lately risen
n ch in royal favour, and been greatly trusted and employed,
icordingly, in the first stages of Essex’s decline, he had to
a a double part,—now offering to his patron advices which
v -e but seldom followed, now seeking excuses to pacify
t queen’s rising displeasure. His natural inclination for
t iporizing, the success which had hitherto attended his
c itious policy,the honest wish toservehis generous friend,—
£ these reasons may have concurred in tempting him to
( bark in the dangerous channel. But the sunken rocks
mi encompassed him, and shipwreck was unavoidable.
. ienation either from Elizabeth or from Essex speedily
. reared to be the necessary result of the position into
(ich the parties were coming. Bacon had not the courage
i take the nobler part, and place himself by the side of
1 falling friend, at the probable expense of all his worldly
jspects. Suspicion and estrangement soon took the place
affectionate confidence; and the trust reposed in him by
; queen was purchased by the bitter consciousness that Es-
< regarded him as treacherous and hostile. A more de¬
nting task was yet to come The first trial of the earl, in
erence to his conduct in Ireland, was determined upon ;
d Bacon’s enemies asserted that he offered himself to act
one of the counsel for the prosecution. In that memoir
defence of his conduct which he wrote in the next reign,
d which proves satisfactorily nothing but his own humi-
ting consciousness of guilt, he states as to this matter
lat was doubtless the truth. It had been resolved that
e proceedings against the rash earl should not be carried
it to his destruction, but should only disarm and dis-
urage him ; and, a hint being conveyed to Bacon that
e queen had not determined whether he should be em-
oyed professionally in the affair or not, he thought proper
address to her “ two or three words of compliment,” in-
oating that if she would dispense with his services he
ould consider it as one of her greatest favours, but that
herwise he knew his duty, and would not allow any pri-
lite obligations to interfere with what he owed to her
ajesty. All this was, he adds, “ a respect no man that
id his wits could have omitted.” Bacon, in short, still
idled to serve two masters ; but he had now placed him-
lt at the mercy of those from whom he had no forbearance
expect. The queen, suspicious and moody, was jealous
his attachment to Essex, and bent on compelling him to
> her service unreservedly : her advisers, or some of them,
ere glad to have the odium of the earl’s destruction shared
ith them by one so distinguished, who had, likewise, been
'e victim’s friend. It was intimated that Bacon’s services
mid not be dispensed with ; but he tells us, (and he pro-
ddy repeats only what his masters tried to make him
clieve), that it was resolved his share in the prosecu-
l)'J should be confined to matters which could not do his
''fortunate patron any serious harm. Essex’s private cen-
me by the privy-counyil followed; and, while he was com-
what we possess contains much that cannot possibly be
explained so as to do credit to the speaker. We know, like¬
wise, how the object of the attack received it. At one
place Essex interrupted his treacherous friend, and called
upon him to say, as a witness, whether he had not, in their
confidential intercourse, admitted the truth of those excuses
which he now affected to treat as frivolous and false.
Essex was convicted ; and between his sentence and exe¬
cution, Bacon admits in his exculpatory memoir that he made
no attempt to save him; seeing the queen but once, as he
says, and on that occasion venturing to do nothing further
than pronouncing a few common-places on the blessed uses
of mercy. But not even here was the disgrace to end, in
which the timid man of the world had steeped himself.
The act which had cost Elizabeth’s own heart so much, had
also made her unpopular ; a defence of the royal policy in
regard to Essex was thought necessary, and the pen that
drew it up, under the direction of the queen’s advisers, was,
we are grieved to find, no other than Bacon’s. The “ De¬
claration of the Practices and Treasons attempted and com¬
mitted by Robert Earl of Essex,” was printed, and is ex¬
tant : “ a performance,” says a late writer, “ in defence of
which, in the succeeding reign, Bacon had not a word to
say; a performance abounding in expressions which no
generous enemy would have employed respecting a man
who had so dearly expiated his offences.” With this hu¬
miliating act of service we may consider Bacon’s public life
under Elizabeth as closed.
The reign of her successor was, from its commencement,
a more auspicious era for men of letters and philosophy,
with whom James, amidst all his imbecility and cold-heart-
edness, was not by any means ill fitted to sympathise. Ba¬
con’s learning was no longer open to sneers and contempt; his
uncle was dead; his hunchback cousin, Robert Cecil, who
soon became Earl of Salisbury, was kept in check by his
hereditary prudence; and Coke, who had insulted our phi¬
losophic lawyer grossly, as he insulted every one who was de¬
fenceless and within his reach, was in a few years removed to
the head of the court of common pleas. From the first hour
of James’s reign, Bacon lost no opportunityof recommending
himself to favour; but the first mark of it which he received,
was one of which he neither was nor could have been proud,
and which, nevertheless, he thought proper to solicit. When
the king called upon all persons possessing forty pounds a
year in land to be knighted, or to compound for a dispensa¬
tion from the honour, one effect of this scheme for filling the
roval coffers was, that three members of Bacon’s mess at
Gray’s Inn appeared among the new knights. That love
of external distinctions which was the fatal weakness of his
nature, wras called into play, and the philosopher was dis¬
concerted by the titles of his companions, beside whom lie
sat untitled. At the same time, likewise, he had, in his own
words, u found out an alderman’s daughter, a handsome
maiden, to his likingand the alderman’s daughter was
likely to be more easily won if her admirer could ofi’er her
f>08
V E R U L A M.
Verulan. a showy accession of rank. Accordingly, Bacon wrote to
his cousin Cecil, stating his desire to obtain, for these rea¬
sons, “ this divulged and almost prostituted title of knight¬
hood.” The request was granted, but was immediately
followed by another. Bacon, heartily ashamed of the
company in wdiich he was to appear, entreated that he
might be knighted alone ; “ that,” as he says, “ the man¬
ner might be such as might grace one, since the matter
will not.” This petition was refused ; and, on the day of
the coronation, Francis Bacon was one of three hundred
who received the empty honour. Soon afterwards, being
forty-two years old, he was married to the alderman’s daugh¬
ter, Alice Barnham, who brought him a considerable fortune,
but seems, in the latter part of his life at all events, to have
contributed little to his domestic happiness.
These details are in themselves trifles; but they are strange
illustrations of the mixed character of one who, while thus
soliciting honours of which he was half-ashamed, and eager
for public distinctions, which, though more solid, were like¬
wise more dangerous, was not only respected and distinguish¬
ed as a lawyer and a statesman, as an orator, a scholar, and
an author, but was occupied, during his few hours of leisure,
in completing the most valuable system of philosophy that
has ever been expounded in modern Europe. Smaller com¬
positions, submitted to his friends, showed from time to time
the progress of the great work which he had marked out as
the business of his life; and among these w'as the treatise on
the Advancement of Learning, published in 1605, in its au¬
thor's forty-fifth year. Political tracts alternated with these
philosophical speculations.
In the mean time his public reputation, and his favour
with the king, increased and kept pace with each other. In
parliament he was actively useful in forwarding favourite
and really good measures of the court, such as the union of
England and Scotland, and the proposed consolidation of
the laws of the two countries; nor was he less usefully em¬
ployed in taking a prominent part in the select committee of
the house upon grievances. In his skilful hands, the report
became all that the rulers could have wished, without ex¬
citing any general feeling against the framers. In 1604, he
was made king’s counsel in ordinary, with a salary of forty
pounds, to which was added a pension of sixty pounds. In
1607, upon Coke’s promotion to the bench, Bacon was ap¬
pointed solicitor-general; and he became attorney-general
in 1612. His treatises concerning improvements in the law,
and the principles of legislation, are more creditable testi¬
monies to the value of his official services than some others of
his acts; such as the scheme, first tried in the session of 1614,
for securing majorities in the House of Commons by or¬
ganised corruption, the invention of which has been recently
traced to him, although in his place in parliament he ridiculed
those who asserted that such a project had ever been form¬
ed. Bacon was likewise officially the prosecutor of Oliver
St. John, of Owen and Talbot, and of the old clergyman
Peacham, who w as examined in the Tower under torture,
the founder of modern philosophy being present, and put¬
ting the questions. In Peacham’s case there was even an
attempt, actively promoted by Bacon, for securing a convic¬
tion by previous conference with the judges; a plot which,
though at length successful, was defeated for a time by the
sturdy resistance of Coke, a tyrant to his inferiors, but a
staunch opponent of encroachments upon judicial indepen¬
dence. Bacon’s last remarkable appearance as attorney-
general, was in the noted trial of the earl and countess of
Somerset and their accomplices, for the murder of Sir Tho¬
mas Overbury ; and, whatever the foul secret may have
been, which was involved in that fiendish intrigue, Bacon’s
letters to the king leave little reason for doubting that he
at least was in possession of it. His conduct in this matter
however gained him great and deserved credit.
The fall of Somerset was followed by the rise of the new
favourite Villiers, who had already profited by his intirna •
with the attorney-general, and by the sound advices with fl
which the cautious statesman endeavoured to fortify 1 - ^
youth and inexperience. The worthless Buckingham, det
lined in a few years to be the instrument of retribution for
Bacon’s past desertion of Essex, did not for some time for-
get obligations, of which he was probably wise enough to
desire a continuance. In 1616 Bacon having been sworn of
the privy council, relinquished the bar, but retained his cham¬
ber practice. In the spring of 1617, the Lord Chancellor El.
lesmere resigned the seals, which were immediately delivered
to Bacon, with the title of lord-keeper. In January of the
succeeding year he w^as made lord high chancellor of Eng¬
land, and in July was raised to the peerage as Baron oi
Verulam. His higher title of Viscount St. Albans was not
conferred on him till 1621. Without neglecting his politi¬
cal duties, he proceeded zealously to the judicial functions
of his office, in which arrears of business had accumulated
through the infirmities of his aged predecessor. “ This day,”
wrote he to Buckingham in June 1617, “I have made
even with the business of the kingdom for common justice;
not one cause unheard ; the lawyers drawn dry of all the
motions they wrere to make; not one petition unanswered.
And this, I think, could not be said in our age before. Thus
I speak, not out of ostentation, but out of gladness, when
have done my duty. I know men think I cannot continue
if I should thus oppress myself with business ; but that ac¬
count is made. The duties of life are more than life: am
if I die now, I shall die before the world be weary of me.’
And the man wdio wrote in this solemn moral strain, tfu
man whose writings throughout are an echo of the sameh
expression of the sense of duty, was also the man who, in less
than four years after his elevation to the seat of justice, was
to be hurled from it in disgrace, branded as a bribed and
dishonest man. “ At York House,” says Mr. Montagu, “ on
the 22d of January 1621, he celebrated his sixtieth birth¬
day, surrounded by his admirers and friends, among whom
was Ben Jonson, who composed a poem in honour of the day
Hail, happy genius of this ancient pile !
How comes it all things so about thee smile—
The fire, the wine, the men—and in the midst
Thou stand’st, as if some mystery thou didst?
“ Had the poet been a prophet, he would have describe:
the good genius of the mansion not exulting, but dejected
humble, and about to depart for ever.”
He had now arrived at the conviction that his worship o
the powers of this world had made it impossible for him t<
consummate the great sacrifice, which, during his lifetime, hi
had hoped to lay upon the altar of philosophy. Aged sixt]
years, and immersed in difficult and anxious business, hi
felt that his great Restoration of Science, his Instauratii
Magna, could not be completed; and he therefore hastenw
to give to the world an outline of its plan, coupled with a hi
ing up of one section of the outline. “ I number my (hys,
wrote he, “ and would have it saved.” The Novum Orga
num, the result of this determination, was published n
October 1620 ; and the fame which it earned for its autho
throughout Europe, was in its rising splendour when his a
took place.
The tempest which was soon to overturn the throne m
already lowering on the horizon ; and its earliest mutteun-
were heard in the important parliament which met on i'
30th of January 1621. With most of the complamb
whose investigation the king and Buckingham feme
much, we have here little to do : but two gross abuses ie
were, in which the lord chancellor was personally imp ica
He had passed the infamous patents of monopoly, o " 1
the worst were those held by Sir Giles Mompesson, (a a _
ger’s Overreach,) and by Sir Francis Michell, and s ari- •
Buckingham’s brothers and dependents: and he ha a ^
ed himself to be influenced in his judicial sentences y
V E R U L A M.
609
iramendations of the favourite. The first of these faults
m ilmitted of palliation, the second was susceptible of none;
'it both were real and heavy offences. Yet neither of them
as made an article of charge against Bacon. He was at-
cked upon a different ground. Buckingham,by the advice
his new counsellor Williams, then dean of Westminster,
jandoned the monopolists to their fate, contenting himself
ith sending his own brothers out of the country, and with
forwards publicly denying that he had any hand in assist-
<r their escape. But the storm was not allayed. In March,
e parliamentary committee appointed to inquire into the
dstence of abuses in the courts of justice, reported that
mses did exist, and that the person against whom they were
leged, was the lord chancellor himself. Two cases were
lecified, of suitors named Aubrey and Egerton, of whom
ie one had given the chancellor L.100, the other L.400,
id against whom he had decided, notwithstanding these
•esents. Two days after this report was presented, Lord
t. Albans presided in the House of Lords for the last time,
few accusations accumulated against him; and, alarmed in
find, and sick in body, he retired from the house, and ad-
ressed to the peers a letter, praying for a suspension of
icir opinion, until he should have undergone a fair trial. In
o long time the charges against him amounted to twenty-
iree; and Williams, again called to the councils of Bucking-
am and his master, advised that no risks should be incurred
pon his account. A prorogation of parliament ensued, dur-
ig which an interview took place between the king and the
hancellor; and James, instead of encouraging his accused
srvant in the resolution he had expressed of defending
imself, recommended “ that he should submit himself to
lie House of Peers, and that upon his princely word he
•ould then restore him again, if they in their honours should
ot be sensible of his merits.” On the 24th of April there
ras presented to the Lords, by the Prince of Wales, a sup-
lication and submission of the lord chancellor, in which
he most important passage is the following : “ It resteth,
nerefore, that, without fig-leaves, I do ingenuously confess
nd acknowledge that, having understood the particulars of
le charge, not formally from the house, but enough to in-
irm my conscience and memory, I find matter sufficient
ndfull, both to move me to desert my defence, and to move
our lordships to condemn and censure me. Neither will
trouble your lordships by singling those particulars, which
think may fall off.
Quid te exempta juvat spinis de pluribus una ?
Neither will I prompt your lordships to observe upon the
roofs, where they come not home, or the scruples touching
he credits of the witnesses : neither will I represent unto
'our lordships how far a defence might, in diverse things,
xtenuate the offence, in respect of the time or manner of
he gift, or the like circumstances; but only leave these
hings to spring out of your own noble thoughts, and obser-
’ations of the evidence and examinations themselves, and
:haritably to wind about the particulars of the charge here
ind there, as God shall put in your minds; and so submit
uyself wholly to your piety and grace And, there-
bre, my humble suit to your lordships is, that my penitent
submission may be my sentence, and the loss of the seal my
Punishment; and that your lordships will spare any further
sentence, but recommend me to his majesty's grace and par-
ion for all that is past.” But not even thus was the humilia-
-ion complete. The house resolved that the submission was
sot specific, nor unequivocal enough to be satisfactory; and
hat he should be required to furnish categorical answers to
he several articles of charge, which, accordingly, were sent
to h™' being numbered under twenty-three heads. The
jpecific answers which he returned were prefaced and fol¬
lowed by these declarations : “Upon advised consideration
°f the charge, descending into my ow n conscience, and call-
vol. XXI.
ing my memory to account, so far as I am able, I do plainly Verulam.
and ingenuously confess that I am guilty of corruption, and
do renounce all defence, and put myself upon the grace and
mercy of your lordships This declaration I have
made to your lordships with a sincere mind ; humbly crav¬
ing that, if there should be any mistakes, your lordships
would impute it to want of memory, and not to any desire
of mine to obscure truth, or palliate anything. For I do
again confess, that in the points charged upon me, although
they should be taken as myself have declared them, there
is a great deal of corruption and neglect, for which I am
heartily and penitently sorrow, and submit myself to the
judgment, grace, and mercy of the court.—For extenuation,
I will use none, concerning the matters themselves: only it
may please your lordships, out of your nobleness, to cast
your eyes of compassion upon my person and estate. I
was never noted for an avaricious man, and the apostle saith,
that covetousness is the root of all evil. I hope also that
your lordships do the rather find me in the state of grace ;
for that, in all these particulars, there are few or none that
are not almost two years old, whereas those that have an
habit of corruption do commonly wax worse and worse ; so
that it hath pleased God to prepare me, by precedent de¬
grees of amendment, to my present penitency. And for
my estate, it is so mean and poor, as my care is now chiefly
to satisfy my debts.”
This declaration being read, a deputation of the lords was
appointed to wait on the unfortunate man in the chamber
where he sat deserted and alone, and to demand whether it
were his own hand that was subscribed to it. Among them
was Shakspeare’s friend Lord Southampton, who had been
condemned to death along with Essex. Bacon replied to
them, “ It is my act, my hand, my heart. I beseech your
lordships, be merciful unto a broken reed.” Again the fal¬
len judge prayed the king to intercede for him ; and again
the king, his haughty son, and their thankless favourite,
refused to interfere. On the 3d of May 1621, the lords
pronounced a sentence which, stamping him at all events
with indelible disgrace, was terrible even in the punish¬
ment which it actually inflicted. Bacon, found guilty upon
his own confession, was sentenced to a fine of forty thou¬
sand pounds, and to confinement in the Tower during the
king’s pleasure; he was pronounced incapable of public
employments, and of sitting in parliament; and prohibited
from coming within the verge of the court. His judges in¬
deed knew that the harsher part of the sentence would not
be executed. Accordingly, though committed immediately
to the Tower, he was released after two days’ imprison¬
ment ; and the fine was remitted in the course of the au¬
tumn, although it is a fact dishonourable (in the circum¬
stances) to his enemy and successor Bishop Williams, that
the pardon was stayed at the seal, till the king in person
ordered it to be passed.
From the whole tenor of this afflicting history, it is plain
that Bacon’s memory cannot be cleared from very heavy
imputations. Indeed, the case against him may be stated,
if we push it to the utmost, in an alternative form which
admits of no honourable solution. Convicted of corruption,
as he was, upon his own confession, we must either believe
the confession, and pronounce him a corrupt judge, or we
must disbelieve it, and pronounce him a liar. Most of his bio¬
graphers adopt the former alternative. Mr. Montagu’s ela¬
borate defence is really founded on something which is not
very far distant from the latter. And, humiliating as either
supposition is, we have, for our own part, no hesitation in be¬
lieving that the truth lies nearest to that theory which im¬
putes to the unhappy chancellor insincerity and cowardice
rather than wilful corruption. We cannot indeed go so
far as his enthusiastic biographer, who insists that the acts
charged and confessed, were in themselves, if not quite free
from moral blame, yet palliated, not only by general usage,
4 H
J
610
V E R U L A M.
Verulam. but by intentions strictly honest;—that he was sacrificed by
’ the king and the king’s minion, although, if he had stood a
trial, he could have obtained a full acquittal. This, we must
venture to think, is a position which, if maintained to its
whole extent, cannot be even plausibly defended. Neither,
as we must also believe, is justice done by that other view,
which has been stated more recently with such force and
eloquence, that the case was one of gross bribery, gross and
glaring even when compared with the ordinary course of
corruption in these times; a case so bad, that the court,
anxious, for their own sakes, to save the culprit, dared not
to utter a word in extenuation.1
The fact which possesses the greatest importance for the
elucidation of this unfortunate story, is that which has been
founded on so elaborately by Mr. Montagu, and lately il¬
lustrated further by another writer for a different purpose.2
The custom of giving presents was then general, not to say
universal, in England. It extended much farther than the
epices of the French parliaments ; for the gifts were not fix¬
ed in amount, nor, though always expected, were they re¬
cognised as lawful perquisites. The advisers of the crown
received presents from those who asked for favours: the
sovereign received presents from those who approached the
throne on occasions of pomp and festivity. Both these im¬
proprieties were not only universal but unchallenged. Fur¬
ther, judges received presents; and under certain condi¬
tions,—when, for instance, the giver had not been, and was
not likely to be, a suitor in the judge’s court, or even when,
though he had been a suitor, the cause was ended,—this
dangerous abuse was scarcely less common than the other,
and scarcely regarded in a more unfavourable light. That
it was wrong, all men felt; but we fear there were few in¬
deed, who, like Sir Thomas More, refused absolutely to
profit by it. High as Coke himself stood for honesty, and
well as he deserved praise for this (almost his only redeem¬
ing virtue), we doubt whether his judicial character could
have emerged quite untainted from a scrutiny led by com¬
mon informers, discarded servants, and disappointed liti¬
gants, like that to which his unfortunate rival was subject¬
ed. Pure Bacon was not; purer than he, several of his con¬
temporaries probably were; but we believe him to have
been merely one of the offenders, and very far indeed from
being the worst, in an age when corruption and profligacy,
senatorial, judicial, and administrative, were almost at the
acme of that excess which an indignant nation speedily rose
to exterminate and to avenge.
A comparison of the charges in detail, and of the evidence
adduced, with Bacon’s articulate answers, as to the candour
of which there is no reason to doubt, would really exhibit
little or nothing which, after fair allowances are made for
imperfect information and other causes of obscurity, would
afford a distinct contradiction to the chancellor’s own so¬
lemn averment, made in a letter to the king at an early
stage of the investigation. “ For the briberies and gifts
wherewith I am charged, when the book of hearts shall be
opened, I hope I shall not be found to have the troubled
fountain of a corrupt heart, in a depraved habit of taking
rewards to pervert justice; howsoever I may be frail, and
partake of the abuses of the times. ’ AVhile he lay in the
Tower, he addressed to Buckingham a letter containing
these expressions: “ However I have acknowledged that
the sentence is just, and for reformation sake fit; I have
been a trusty, and honest, and Christ-loving friend to your
lordship, and the justest chancellor that hath been in the
five changes since my father’s time.” This last sentence,
indeed, when carefully weighed, will be found to contain
more of truth than the writer himself perhaps intended.
A judge not altogether unjust he may have been, if we
compare him with his contemporaries ; but he was 1
trusty, and trusting, and servile friend of the royal favn l3 ^
TT  1 untefM
and of other men in power. He was a lover of the pnn^
of the world, to an extent highly dangerous for one whn
had but little private fortune, insufficient official remunpr!
tion, and habits which disqualified him for exercising
strict superintendence over the expenses of his household3
or the conduct of his dependents generally. His emol ’
ments as chancellor did not amount to three thousand
pounds a-year; and, immediately on his appointment ho
had used vain endeavours to have the office put on a more
independent footing. His servants habitually betrayed both
him and the suitors; but there can be no doubt that, con¬
tinually embarrassed in circumstances, he himself was only
too glad to receive the customary gifts when they could be
taken with any semblance of propriety. As to his confession
while we believe it to be true in every particular instance’
we believe it also in its general admission of corruption ■
but we likewise believe that the general admission ought
to have been qualified by certain references, which would
have established the truth of a remark made by Bacon in
his hour of deepest suffering, that “ they upon whom the
wall fell were not the greatest offenders in Israel.” And
this, as we conceive it, was the danger which the court were
so eager to avert, the danger which filled the king and
Buckingham with such dismay. This was their reason for
insisting that Bacon should sacrifice his own character, and
abandon that line of defence which might not improbably
have precipitated the revolution. Upon this assumption,
their conduct throughout is intelligible and consistent; and,
although one is reluctant to believe it, the assumption is
not contradicted by any thing in the chancellor’s character.
Lofty as may still have been his abstract notions of morality,
his practical views were darkened and debased by his long
servitude to public office in a corrupt age. The stain
which, as he well knew, the sentence of the parliament
would affix upon his name, may have seemed a light thing
to one who was aware how the same brand might have been
justly imprinted on almost every eminent name in the king¬
dom. And again, neither Bacon nor his master, nor those
others who were the royal advisers, were able to compre¬
hend, in this instance, any more than elsewhere, the spirit
which had already gone abroad. They did not anticipate
the severity of the sentence pronounced by the House of
Lords; still less did they anticipate (Bacon at least did not,
nor perhaps did Williams) the universal indignation which
was aroused by the fact that the highest judge in the realm
had been displaced for bribery. The court gained its im¬
mediate purpose, in removing to a subsequent time the
fatal struggle; but there soon arrived the fulfilment of
Bacon’s prophecy, that the successful attack on him would
be but an encouragement and strengthening to those who
aimed at the throne itself.
After his release from the Tower, Bacon, although strange¬
ly anxious to continue in London, was obliged to retire to
his paternal seat of Gorhambury, near St. Albans. There he
immediately commenced his History of Henry the Seventh,
a work displaying but too unequivocal proofs of the deject¬
ed lassitude which had crept upon his mind. Early in next
year he offered himself unsuccessfully for the provostship of
Eton College, and proceeded with other literary undertakings*
These included the completion of the celebrated treatise,
„ ta » .... ^ . ..i— t]ie
De Augmentis,” an improvement of the older work on
j t . —. ... ,
Advancement of Learning. This was the last philosopl
treatise which he published; although the few remaining
years of his life were incessantly devoted to study and com¬
position, and gave birth to the New Atlantis, the Syl'a
Sylvarum, and other works of less consequence.
1 Montagu’s Life of Bacon, Works, vol. xvi. part 1. pp. 313 377 »0/e
* Edinburgh Review', No. 143, p. 38, 39. Life of Raleigh.
Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixv. p. 50—63.
V E R
Shortly before the king’s death, he remitted the whole of
,3 sentence on Bacon, who, however, did not again sit in
irliament. His health was already broken ; and in De-
Imber of that year, 1625, he made his will, in which, al-
uugh his affairs were really in extreme confusion, he writes
. if he considered himself a wealthy man. In the spring
11626, on his way from Gray’s Inn to Gorhambury, he ex-
I ;ed himself to a sudden chill, by performing in a cottage
. experiment which had suggested itself to him, regarding
t: fitness of snow or ice as a substitute for salt in preserv-
i r dead flesh. Unable to travel home, he was carried to the
i -1 of Arundel’s house at Highgate, where, after seven
(ys’ illness, he died early in the morning of Easter Sunday,
t; 9th of April, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. In obe-
(mce to his will, he was buried in the same grave with his
i ither, in St. Michael's church, near St. Albans.
It is sad beyond expression to turn to those reflections
i ieh are suggested by the life of this great man, however
liently one may be disposed to regard his weaknesses.
: who founded the philosophy of modern Europe, he who
ihught down philosophy from heaven to earth, disentang-
lg it from airy abstractions, and anchoring it on practical
tiths,—he who aided science alike by his improvements
i its procedure, and his enlarged views of its end and aim,
i heating observation of individual truths as the only sure
I ide to universal conclusions, and practical utility as the
ly quality which makes such conclusions worth the la-
1 ur they cost,—he who did all this, was destined to furnish
1 his own pitiable example, a pregnant illustration of the
3at principles which his writings taught. A slave to the
rid and its vanities, he was betrayed by the evil genius
icm he served. Unable to subject reason, and passion,
J imagination, to the stern control of the moral sense,
expiated, by a life of discomfort and dependence, ending
an old age of sorrow and disgrace, the sin of having mis-
wehended the mighty rule, which alone can save the em-
e of the mind from becoming a scene like ancient chaos.
Bacon’s philosophy has been analysed in other parts of
s work, and on his literary character we have left cur¬
ves no space to enlarge. We can only remark the power-
effect which his singular versatility of talents exercised
lifer the dissemination of his scientific views. “ The re¬
lation w'hich Bacon had acquired from his Essays,” says
ate writer, “ a work early translated into various foreign
tguages,—his splendid talents as an orator,—and his pro-
nent place in public life,—were circumstances strongly
dilated to attract the curiosity of the learned world to
1 philosophical writings.” And these writings in themselves
flake admirably of the character belonging to their au-
)r s works of a different class. Philosophy has seldom made
rselfmore attractive; never has she made herself equally
in communicating lessons of such sterling value. If the
'rks of this wonderful man were worthless as repositories
^ scientific thought and knowledge, they would still demand
1 crential study. A masterly eloquence, a union of diver-
ed qualities of style in the highest sense of the word, dis-
guished even the earlier among them, and entitled those
Pen were produced in the writer’s maturer years, to rank,
^withstanding the faults they share with all orose com-
^itions of their time, as monuments nowhere excelled in
^literature.1 (b. l.)
I bRVEIERS, a circle of the province of Liege, in the
lerlands, containing six cantons, divided into twenty-
'c* communes. The capital is the city of the same name,
e y situated on the river Besdre, partly in a valley, and
1 ' on the declivity of some hills. It is well built, and
1 ace most active industry in the kingdom. The
V E s
611
chief trade is that of making fine woollen cloths, which are Vesalius
celebrated m every part of the continent, especially from II
the brilliant colours, to which the quality of the water is said ^esPuccl-
greatly to contribute. There are also some chemical ma-
nufactures, producing aquafortis, vitriol, and soaps. The
wealth and number of the inhabitants have rapidly increased
since the peace of 1814. The population then was 9960
and in 1831 was 19,592.
VESALIUS, Andreas, a celebrated physician and ana¬
tomist, was born at Brussels in the year 1514. He studied
physic at Paris under Sylvius, but applied himself chiefly to
anatomy, which was then very little known, dissections be¬
ing esteemed unlawful and impious; and it appears from his
work “ De Humani Corporis Fabrica,” that he perfected
himself in this useful knowledge very early. About the
year 1537, the republic of Venice made him professor in
the university of Padua, where he taught anatomy for
seven years. Charles V. called him to be his physician, as he
was afterwards to Philip IL, king of Spain. Vesalius was
now at the height of his glory, when all of a sudden he
formed the design of taking a journey to Palestine; con¬
cerning which journey we are told the following story. A
young Spanish nobleman whom he had attended was sup¬
posed to be dead. Vesalius obtained leave to open him, in
order to explore the true cause of his illness ; but when he
opened the breast, he perceived symptoms of life, and saw
the heart beat. The parent, not satisfied with prosecuting
him for murder, accused him of impiety to the inquisition,
in hopes that tribunal would punish him with greater ri¬
gour ; but the king interposing, saved him on condition of
his making a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He was ship¬
wrecked on his return, and thrown upon the island of Zante,
where he perished on the 15th of October 1564. He was
the author of several works, the principal of which is en¬
titled “De Humani Corporis Fabrica, libri vn.” Basil. 1543,
fob This first edition contains excellent wood-cuts.
VESOUL, a city of France, the capital of an arrondisse-
ment of the same name in the department of the Saone. It
stands on the river Drugeon, is well built, and is surrounded
with hills, whose sides are covered with vineyards yielding
very good wine. Around it are some beautiful promenades.
In 1836 it contained 5583 inhabitants. Lat. 47.37.50.
Long. 7. 4. 31. E.
VESPER, a small island in the Pacific ocean, thirty-six
miles in circumference, discovered by Roggewin in 1722.
VESPERS, in the church of Rome, denote the afternoon
service ; answering in some measure to the evening prayers
of the church of England.
VESPUCCI, AMERIGO, was born at Florence, 9th
March, 1451, of a distinguished family, and was educated
by his uncle, a man of great scientific reputation, and
made great proficiency, especially in astronomy and geo¬
graphy, and the sciences connected with navigation. He
was destined by his family to commercial pursuits, which
had at this time contributed so greatly to the prosperity of
the republic. In 1493 he left Florence, and arrived at Se¬
ville at the time that Columbus was preparing to set out on
his first voyage of discovery; the success of which awaken¬
ed the emulation of Amerigo, and determined him to ex¬
change the pursuits of commerce for the fascinating pros¬
pects of discoveries in the New World.
On the 10th of May, 1497, (according to the account of
Bandini, but Spanish writers place the date two years later, ‘
he commenced his first voyage, and left Cadiz with fiveves
sels under the orders of D’Ojead. He reached America af¬
ter thirty-seven days’ sailing, and coasted along the conti¬
nent more than 400 leagues. After a voyage of thirteen
ontagu’s Life of Bacon, Works, vol. xvi. parts ] and 2/1834. Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixv. No. 132. article I. Stewart and
ln Preliminary Dissertations to this Encyclopaedia. Napier on the Scope and Influence of the Philosophical Writings of Lord
’ln t le transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii. part 2, 1818.
612
YES
Vesta months, he returned to Spain, and anchored at Cadiz the 15th
U. October 1498.
V estibule. year f0p0w;ng revisited America, and after sail¬
ing along the coast under the tropics, he returned by the
island of St. Domingo, where Ojeda had some encounters
with the Europeans who six years before had come to the
island with Columbus. The fleet then steered northwards
and discovered several islands, which Amerigo, by a poeti¬
cal exaggeration, raised to the number of a thousand. In
1501 he entered the service of Emmanuel, king of Portugal,
and again visited America, sailing along the coast of Brazil to
Patagonia. He made a fourth voyage to America in 1503,
with the view of attempting the discovery of a western pas¬
sage to Malacca; in this, however, he was unsuccessful, and
returned with the loss of one of his ships. About this time
the vast continent discovered by Columbus began to be
called America, from his Latinized name Americus; and
he lived to enjoy the usurped honour for several years. His
death took place in 1516, while he was in the service of Em¬
manuel, king of Portugal, who caused the remains of his ves¬
sels to be preserved in the cathedral of Lisbon, and heaped
honours on his family. He left a journal of four of his voya¬
ges, which was printed at Paris in Latin, in 1552, and from
which translations were afterwards published in the Italian
and French languages.
VESTA, in pagan worship, the same with Cybele. See
Cybeius.
Vesta the Younger, in pagan worship, the goddess of
fire, was the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and the sister
of Ceres. She was so much in love with chastity, that on
Jupiter’s ascending the throne, and offering to grant what¬
ever she asked, she only desired the preservation of her
virginity, which she obtained. Vesta was not represented
in her temple by any image.
Vesta, one of the lately discovered planets. See Astro¬
nomy.
VESTALIA, in Roman antiquity, a festival celebrated
in honour of the goddess Vesta, on the 5th of the ides of
June ; that is, on the 9th of the month.
VESTALS, among the ancient Romans, were priestesses
of the goddess Vesta, and had the perpetual fire committed
to their charge. They were at first only four in number,
but afterwards increased to six ; and it does not appear that
their number ever exceeded six, among whom was one su¬
perior to the rest, and called vestalis maxima. The vestals
were chosen from six to ten years of age, and obliged to
strict continency for thirty years ; the first ten of which were
employed in learning the ceremonies of religion, the next
ten in the performance of them, and the last ten in teaching
them to the younger vestals. The habit of the vestals con¬
sisted of a head-dress, called infula, which sat close to the
head, and from whence hung certain laces called vitta; a
kind of surplice made of white linen, and over it a purple
mantle with a long train to it.
VESTIBULE, in Architecture, a kind of entrance into a
large building; being an open place before the hall or
the bottom of the staircase. ’ a
VESTRY, a place adjoining to a church, where th
vestments of the minister are kept; and also a meetin-
at such place, consisting of the minister, church-wardens
and chief men of most parishes, who make a parish vestn
or meeting. By custom there are select vestries, being ■
certain number of persons chosen to have the governmen
of the parish, make rates, and take the account of church
wardens, &c.
uriM,
'W
VESUVIUS, a celebrated volcano of Italy, six miles eas
from the city of Naples. This mountain has two tops; om
of which only goes by the name of Vesuvius, the other be
ing now called Somma; but Sir William Hamilton is o
opinion, that the latter is what the ancients called Vesuvim
The perpendicular height of Vesuvius is only 3700 feet
though the ascent from the foot to the top is three Italiai
miles. One side of the mountain is well cultivated and fer
tile, producing great plenty of vines, but the south am
west sides are entirely covered with cinders and ashes
while a sulphureous smoke constantly issues from the top
sometimes attended with the most violent explosions o
stones, the emission of great streams of lava, and all thj
other attendants of a most formidable volcano. The firs
of these eruptions recorded in history took place in the yeal
79 ; at which time the two cities of Pompeii and Hercula
neum were entirely buried under the stones and ashe
thrown out. Incredible mischief was also done to thi
neighbouring country, and numbers of people lost thei
lives, among whom was the elder Pliny.
It is the opinion of the best judges, however, that tlii
eruption was by no means the first that had ever happenec
The very streets of those cities which were at that tim
overwhelmed, are said to be partly paved with lava. Sine]
that time thirty different eruptions have been recorded
some of which have been extremely violent. In the yea
1538, a mountain, three miles in circumference, andaquar
ter of a mile in perpendicular height, was thrown up in th
course of one night.
The first great eruption taken notice of by Sir Williar
Hamilton was that of 1767, which, though very violent, wa
mild in comparison with that of 1538. From this tim
Vesuvius never ceased for ten years to send forth smoke
nor were there many months in which it did not throv
out stones, scoriae, and cinders; which, increasing ti
a certain degree, were usually followed by lava; so tha
from the year 1767 to 1779 there were nine eruptions
some of them very considerable. In the month of An
gust that year, an eruption took place, which, for its exj
traordinary and terrible appearance, has been generall;
reckoned among the most remarkable of any recorded con
cerning this or any other volcano. We cannot, however
afford room for any description of it here, or of thi
various eruptions which have since taken place. See Geo
bogy.
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
The knowledge and the enlightened treatment of the dis¬
eases of domestic animals have, in this country, been elevated
to the rank of a science only within the last fifty years.
Previously to that time, the art of Farriery consisted in the
traditionary lore of the worker in iron, Jhber ferrarius, or
smith; and in later times, in the professional skill of a few
medical practitioners, who were not, however, sufficiently
careful to ascertain the many striking differences which
exist between the economy of man, and that of the lower
animals. The modern term veterinary, derives its origin
from the Latin veterinarius, an adjective denoting relatioi
to beasts of burden. The same word, used as a substan
tive, signifies a person who has the care of such beasts. [11
etymology is, however, involved in considerable obscun \
The first veterinary school was founded at Lyons in the yeal
1761, and another was founded at Alfort, near Pans, if
1766. In the year 1792 the Veterinary College of Lon oi
was established, and it is to this date that the origin o »
science in this country may be correctly assigned,
recently a school of veterinary medicine has been fount
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
61,
the northern metropolis, under the patronage of the
iT'Lhland and Agricultural Society, so that the art no
^Hiubt will continue, as it lately has done, to make steady
nd rapid progress. ,
The science of veterinary medicine must evidently be
ised upon a minute and accurate knowledge of the struc-
,re and functions of all those animals which may require
. as alSo of the disorders and accidents to which these
"e exposed, and the various resources, whether natural or
•tificial, available for their cure. This opens a wide
qd and shows the value of the light which may be
'rrowed from collateral sciences. From the paramount
inortance which man attaches to every thing which con-
ms himself, human anatomy, and the sciences of medicine
id surgery, have from time immemorial been prosecuted
ith the keenest assiduity. Natural history has long
id its numerous and enthusiastic votaries, and hence so
mch knowledge on the subjects of comparative anatomy
id physiology. If there be analogies of structure between
nan, and “ the humbler partners of his mortal pilgrimage,”
hen both are in health and strength, sure we are these are
ot fewer or less striking, when they are labouring under
ie many ills to which they alike are heirs. From these
arious sciences much valuable information has undoubt-
dly been gleaned in aid of that which is now to engage
ur attention; and we cannot too strongly impress upon
ie veterinary student, that before he is competent to learn
ie art of healing, he must have an accurate knowledge
f the anatomical structure, and the physiology, of the
omestic animals. For the acquisition of this primary
ranch of the science, we must refer him to the several
rticles concerning them in our previous volumes,1 * 3 and to
he approved elementary treatises, of which a list is supplied
t the close of this article; confining ourselves to such gene-
al allusions concerning these matters, as may be unavoid-
.ble in the course of the following observations. Our space
teing very limited, we must endeavour to instruct, more by
i useful classification and nomenclature, and the exposition
)f correct principles, than by entering into matters of detail,
i We commence with a few general remarks on Inflam¬
mation. When a part, like the white of the eye, be¬
comes red, hot, pained, and swollen, it is said to be in
i state of inflammation, and the symptoms are chiefly
iscribed to a morbid state of the blood-vessels, there be¬
ing an increased determination of blood to the part. This
disease may be excited in any part of the surface, by a
wound or other irritation; and there is no internal organ
which is not liable to attack, and often without any very
apparent cause. Hence inflammation, in one form or
other, is the most common disorder which is encoun¬
tered, and withal the most fatal. It is most apt to occur
where there is a plethora, or general fulness from over-feed¬
ing and insufficient exercise; and is excited by over-exer¬
tion, by sudden changes of temperature, and by checked
perspiration. It has several modes of termination, of which
resolution, or the gradual subsidence of the disease, is the Veterinary
most favourable: another mode is effusion of the serum, Science,
or watery portion of the blood, where temporary swellings
and dropsies are occasioned; or of coagulable lymph, by
which morbid adhesions and growths are produced; another
termination is suppuration, or the formation of matter, and
finally, there is gangrene or mortification. It is sometimes
very rapid in its progress, or acute, at others it is slower,
and is then styled chronic. When the inflammation is local,
limited in extent, and somewhat external, warm fomenta¬
tions? or poultices? which are a kind of fomentations, or
cold applications,4 may each be applied with advantage
according to circumstances. Fomentations open the pores
of the skin, promote perspiration, and so lessen swelling
and tension, and assuage pain and inflammation; while
cold applications promote evaporation, subdue inordinate
action, and so assist in restoring health. When the symp¬
toms are acute, and the disease spreads, as it is prone to
do, the whole frame more or less participates, and sympto¬
matic fever is the result.
Concerning the occurrence, in the domestic animals, of Fever,
Symptomatic Fever, produced by accident and disease, as sympto-
injury of the foot, or inflammation of the eye, there can hematic,
no doubt whatever. This complaint corresponds in every
respect, except its exciting cause, with the Simple In- simp|e
flammatory Fever, a disease whose existence has been inflamma-
denied by some, but on very insufficient grounds. “ In so tory.
plain a point of practice as this,” says Mr Percivall, “ we
might as well attempt to deny the existence of inflam¬
mation in horses as of fever.” Its first symptoms, which
may not be always easily detected, are dulness and heavi¬
ness, hanging down the head, and disinclination to move.
This will probably be followed by chilliness, marked by a
staring coat, coldness of the surface and extremities, and
sometimes an actual rigor or shivering fit: to this succeeds
a warm skin, a hot and dry mouth, redness of the eyes and
lining membrane of the nose, a quick, full, and hard pulse,5 6
rapid respiration, with apparent labour rather than pain ;
there is also loss of appetite, costiveness, high-coloured and
diminished flow of urine, and increased sensibility. 1 he
causes most frequently apparent are over-exertion, sudden
increase of temperature, and plethora ; they are often ob¬
scure. The disease appears sometimes as an epidemic, as
stated by Mr Gibson : “ I have frequently had several cases
of this fever at the same time, and in different places, where
no visible cause could be assigned for it.” The indications
of cure are the same as in symptomatic fever, venesection
usually not requiring to be carried far, or often repeat¬
ed. Returning to symptomatic fever, we remark, that the
treatment consists in the vigorous employment of what is
called the antiphlogistic regimen. Of this the most
important item is blood-letting, general and local, the for¬
mer being infinitely the most important.® With this must
be combined purging, or rather the administration of laxa¬
tives, with the object of removing irritation, and diminish-
1 Anatomy, and Comparative Anatomy, in vol. ii. and iii. ; Physiology, vol. xvii.; Horse, vol. xi. . . T
! Clean water is the best fomentation. It should be as hot as the hand can bear it, yet not hot enoug o pain eamma . n
ing the horse, the groom rarely has enough of water, and he does not continue the bathing long enoug i to o any goo . e eg s )
fomented, get a pailful of water as hot as the hand can bear it; put the horse’s foot into it, and with a large spunge lave the water well above
the affected part, and keep it constantly running down the whole limb. Foment for about half an hour, an eep e wa e j g
more.
3 Poultices should be formed of those materials which best maintain heat and moisture, and they should be applied as w^m as possib e,
and can be safely borne. They are usually made of bran mash, turnips, or oatmeal porridge. Linseed meal alone makes the best of poultices,
and some of it should always be added to the other ingredients. Wet bandages act as pou tices. _ B!,l nmmnniar and
,4 Of cooling lotions cold water is the menstruum. It may be made colder by the introduction of almesalt orce »^U“acand
vinegar may be added for the same purpose. The object is to reduce heat, and promote evaporation. The addition of a little spirits is made
with this obicct .
‘ Of«b. h„„;, the natural PULrrrt is from 35 to 45 beats in the minute ; under fere, it rises to 80, 90, and 100 The most eonvemen,
sP°t to examine it is at the edge of the lower jaw, a little before the angle, where the maxillary comes from the neck, to be distributed
ovf the face. The pulse is one of the most important indications in all serious disoi ers. .. r j • tv ;UCT1iar
6 Bleeding. In the horse, and cattle, sheep, and dog, bleeding, from its greater facihty and rapidity, is best performed
orn«k vein, though it may also be satisfactorily performed in the plate and sap/tena veins, the former coming from the inside ot arm,
614
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinary ing the watery part of the blood.1 Large warm injections
science, should at once be resorted to, and they are often of signal
benefit :2 the food must be regulated and restricted,3 and
the temperature attended to. Diaphoretics may often be
employed with advantage,4 and associated with them smart
friction over the whole body, by wisping and hand-rubbing.5
When the inflammation is local, counter-irritation should
be employed ; in acute cases most effectually by blisters.6
As there are no good grounds for denying the evic*
of Simple Fever, so we are persuaded there^re as fe T
denying the occasional visitation of low fever hn °r
much it may be generally overlooked. It has beenT6'
founded with other grave complaints, but was verv^n,
rallV fllP PCCPPfiol rlicckoo*-* 4 k ^   • . J
rally the essential disease in those murrains which w
so common in former days, and which acquired other ^
most unsatisfactory appellations. It is well observedb
and running up directly in front of it to the jugular; the latter, or thigh vein, running across the inside of that limb. Either the fle* ,
may be used. When blood is to be drawn, the animal is blindfolded on the side to be operated upon, and the head helH m .? mLorlancet
the hair is smoothed along the course of the vein by the moistened finger, the point selected being about two inches below 0,7 0t^‘' Sjdei
, The Pr°gless of die blood towards the heart is to be obstructed, and the vein thus made sufficiently permanent and tent 8 a ?fthe
bladed fleam, and a good-sized lancet are preferable, as the benefit of the operation is much increased bv the raniditv with i. L , r8e'
is drawn. From 8 to 12 pints is a moderate bleeding for the horse and ox, regulated in some degree the ^
pints is a large one ; and sometimes, in skilful hands, it is expedient to bleed till fainting is induced, and the animal dm™ ‘6 or e;en 20
operation. The vessel in which the blood is received should be such that the quantity^ readily be ascerJained Then Th" tlle
cient, the edges of the wound are to be brought accurately together, and kept so, by a small sharp pin being passed through th ^ 18
tamed by a little tow. It is of importance, in closing the wound, to see it is quite close, and tha/no hair! or other forelmA ^ ^
pose. For a time the head should be tied up, and care taken that the horse does not injure the part. 8 “ d‘eS Inter-
Local bleeding may be performed in the pa/atme vein, in a line backwards between the middle or central cutting- tooth and tU
a little more than an inch within the teeth. The division is made by means of the bistoury, and the artery as S
wounded ; hemorrhage, however may here he readily commanded. In the foot it may be performed at the union of the ctu" andTnl 7
CUi P8 W 7 rarCh7i?r ^ 7lfe- f'01 popping it, a pledgit of tow may be applied, and the shoe tacked over ft ^ 7
I hysicing, which in stable language is the term used for purging, is employed for improving the condition when in indiff * i i u
and as a remedy for disease. The medicines chiefly used are, for Horses, BaVbadoes aloesf dose from 3 Jo 9 draThms Z n Z bn ’
scruple to half a drachm or cafe, from half a drachm to a drachm, to which may be occasionally added, calomel, from one drachm 7
drachm and a half; for Catt/e aloes, in a dose somewhat larger than for the horse, Epsom salts (very uncertain in horses) or co—1 V
dose from a pound to a pound and a half, with some stimulus, as ginger, anise, or carraway seed ; also Linseed oil dose 1 noiind and 7’
oil, lo to ^0 drops, or the bean and cake, the same as in the horse. For ZW aloes prove uncertain and i dan Hucp 1 Hr 7 ^ Cr0 0n|
better when combined with calomel, 2 grains; croton oil, dose 2 drops, also valuaWeflnd Jhe beLn o l f , ’ cl7 SU7’and
ounce. These, it will be observed, are average doses for full-grown^nimals ; in the young and ^rthr sKS t
they may require to be greater ; but much injury has often been done by too large doses, too frequently repeated To the HoJp 71
high ; sometimes he holds the mouth, and grooms generally need such aid. The onerator seizes the Imrco’ t’ • n- i r u F 00
?" t ‘eft Side- 'Vh<!" '»*th “ ‘ w»er may be ok'eT 1“' wiil c“ ry S b.11 tftit
a thin slice of meat: the svriiD of buckthorn he will nff-pn link
a thin slice of meat; the syrup'oTbuckthomh'; ^Toften“li^ s^nCS.0 ^ 0,8 ^ ^ 8 8P°0n’ 01 he be t0 bolt “ in
be Testricteffi to bran ^nashes^^ouarter^ffi^ wblc^ by gently relaxing the bowels. During the day previous, his food should
be Shdd andTav resfric;edq He 1 Sufficient for a feed- aild with his drink, should be given warm ; corn should
inach early in the morninc-• immeHi t ,a^f,lave v'a ln^ 01 trott>ng exercise morning and evening. The physic is given on an empty sto-
is waiered when he re o ns ’ The ‘ 7 177 " bran-rna7 ls.^lven 1 lhal over, the horse goes to exeicise, for perhaps an hour,and
day b an mash should be .ive^ asnft " ^ 77 W,U take k’ and he shoidd »*aye as much as he pleases Lughout the
and ^uUittTe hav S^etfr^entfl e" “ C°rn 7 1S’ and bet7r r™' tban Cold’ if both are lefused. bran may be tried, but no corn,
next morning though it rarelv tak xercise may e given in the afternoon, and also next day. The physic usually begins to operate
stand in the stable fill it setts' which b^wd^hours reqUel,t 7 n0t f°r thirty- When the Physic beSins t0 °Perate- the borse should
laxativeE clysters forThe hS na7iniStfered b7 ^lo" °ld 7 bladder and P^6’ are Sti11 more conveniently given with a syringe. For
fuffs of saU or two ounces of «nfr ’ " gall0n t0 ' °f Warm water> or grucl, at the temperature of 9ti», with a couple of hand-
ture. Ir cases of diaXa 7 Z SOap’.pr°7 m°!t usefu]: ^ronger ones may be obtained, by adding a few ounces of aloes to the mix-
dec nary f from ha f a dXm t r ^ec}'onA should consist of a few pints of warm gruel, to which is added an ounce of catechu
bungling^'and even iniurv^lvvToiinH^ X °f P0W.dered , Tb.e only art in administering a clyster, where, however, there is often
fore the fluid is forced up ^ ' 118 e rec um>18 t0 avoid frightening the animal, anointing the pipe well, and gently insinuating it, be-
I Diaphoretics” re ^hote' ZT*' ^7 TF and ba7; f°rm the sick horse’s diet’ gruel and tePid water his drink,
lating quality and these must h ^'^h'h f a tendency to produce perspiration and sweating. Some of these are of a hot andstimu-
fromgoSe Shm to twf drachm" X f ‘"i^”16 d,S°7erS: The °tbers are neither very numerous nor powerful. Emetic tartar, dose
of.™ combined with these. Suipbnr, in m0S‘ P0"'e'f“'' Nitre’in d0SeS °f 3“ * “
“ Bhs™nr”eT.»';.?P'0yed °n ?de-uthe elr« »™‘ benefit are often surprising,
part to be blistered while Hie ^ .v/0 .■:0rses' ointment is always used, of which rather more than half is well rubbed into the
mXL7running acti?/, r Z Fl Z! Spread 0Ver the Pai t tbat bas been rubbed. When there is any danger of the
bee’s wax or ken't wet with^i Ibrlp L p6* rU jj"0t be blistered, they must be covered with a stiff ointment made of hog’s lard and
stones may be covered with a litrlp h Tpp 6 beddinfl must be removed when the leg is blistered, aud to prevent the horse slipping, the
blister with his teeth Put him int * 01 1 ^ 7 sawjdaSt‘ • ^be borse’s bead must be secured in such a way that he cannot reach the
may be freed and the iX tTZ and tie his head firmIy to the rack. When the blister has become quite dry, the head
ge/very S a d h -Xf P pp 77 STet'meS 7 remainS itchy’ and the borse rubs it; in that case, he must be tied up again. If be
ter irqfite d7y put some sxveef X1' ^ r baUncbes’. Put ^ beads on his neck, let go the head, and give a good bed. When the bhs-
ished by the process. b°n * ’ 311 repeat 11 every second day. Give time, and no work, otherwise the horse may he bJem-
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
)ary,, eminent pathologist, that as local inflammation gives rise
(constitutional febrile symptoms, so idiopathic fevers of
,, kinds, in their turn, often give rise to, or at least are
! ;ompanied by local inflammatory symptoms. The old
f riers mistook these local symptoms for the fever which
■ iduced them, and we fear the error is sometimes com-
i tied in our own days. The characteristic symptoms are
petal disturbance of the circulation, and feeble, rapid
j |?e, weakness, prostration of strength, determination of
Pod to particular, but, in different instances and epide-
ics, very different parts, producing pain, and manifesting
; :endency to inflammation, but of a degenerate kind, so
t it the very texture of the tissue becomes disorganised,
be progress of the disease is often rapid, and the result
, -y fatal. In some cases, the lungs or heart are attacked,
i others the liver, bowels, or even some external part of
i: body. This we believe to be the true history of such
i eases as the quarter-evil, the black-quarter, the joint-
hn, and various braxies, which figure so conspicuously in
tj: older works, and whose ravages were attended w ith
;':h fatal consequences to the agriculturist. In some well-
t ertained instances, nineteen individuals have died out of
i :ry score which has been attacked. To the possible re-
crence of such complaints, the veterinarian should not
s it his eye; and, in actual practice, we have witnessed
i schief where these circumstances have been disregarded,
11 where bleeding, though not excessive, has been pushed
11 far, with the object of relieving the local complaint, to
; considerable sacrifice of life. In these cases, we have
- mged the treatment, administered wine and other cor-
ils, instead of debilitating remedies, and thus have ar-
ted the progress of mortality.
In the study of the veterinary art, the ground-work is
teology, inasmuch as it relates to the most fixed and
ft ble part of the frame, and so becomes the guide and di-
i tory to the relations and actions of all other parts. In
vordance with this fact, wye shall first direct attention
! die Osseous system,
tftoi Diseases of bones are not common, and the only ones
shall mention are Exostosis and Necrosis, under which
; nei> or ulceration, and Anchylosis, may be included.
I■ ostosis is an osseous tumour, originating from a bone, in
1 ich the periosteum is always necessarily involved, there
I ng thickening of this membrane, and deposition of osseous
i liter by it, in many cases, not less than by the bone it-
T ft may generally be the result of some local in-
j y> though unquestionably it may occur from other causes,
ere is no bone which it may not attack ; and an exosto-
! as large as a child’s head, has been seen on some of
1 bones. The attending pain seems to varyf and to be
I fatly dependent upon the extent to which the circumja-
1 it parts are involved, as does also the degree of lameness
1 pay produce. With a few exceptions, the disease does
1 often force itself upon notice. The appropriate reme-
j1 'cry uniform in its beneficial results, is counter-irrita-
b by frequent, and if necessary, smart blistering, firing,
f M'tons. In some cases, it may finally call for excision.
( e exceptions just alluded to, are the diseases knowm un-
t e names of bone-spavin, splint, and ring-bone, which
^ ^Ui)t aftord snpnimr»nc f if io _
615
result of long-continued irritation and inflammation of the Veterinary
parts implicated. Science.
Fractures are not uncommon among domestic animals ;
although, from the frequent attendant violence, many of them Fractures,
are beyond the reach of art. Thus is it generally W\\h frac¬
ture of the skull. Sometimes the ridge of the orbit, at its
outer and upper part, is fractured by falls, and more fre¬
quently by blows: the detached portion may be replaced,
and retained by stitching the skin, and bandages. The spi¬
nal processes of the vertebrae are sometimes fractured, and
caries of these parts occurs from injuries of the saddle.
The ribs, too, are subject to fracture, and the sacrum, from
falling backwards, when paralysis of the tail occurs. The
extremities, however, are most liable to this accident, in¬
cluding the femur and tibia, the scapula, humerus, elbowy,
fore-arm, cannons, pasterns, and coffins. Fracture of the
leg occurs on the road or street, the rider or driver
not knowing whether the accident has occurred in the
fall, after it, or in trying to avoid it. It may be that
the fracture is produced by a blow from the opposite foot.
When the end of the bone protrudes through the integu¬
ments, the fracture is called compound, and the prospect
of a successful issue is then greatly diminished. It is a
great error to suppose that a horse’s bone, once broken,
cannot unite; it does so as readily as in man. When the
attempt is not made, it is on account of the cost and trouble.
When an animal is highly valued, the cure may be wisely
undertaken, and successfully accomplished, by the appli¬
cation of splints and bandages, the sufferer not being slung.
In sheep, fractures heal with great facility; and also in the
dog.
On the Myoeogy, or muscular system of the lower ani-Muscular
mals, we shall say but little. It consists chiefly of two system,
parts,—of what constitutes generally the body or belly of
the muscles, popularly called flesh ; and of shining tendons,
into which these muscular fibres are inserted, forming
strong elastic cords, which are fixed into the bones and
other parts which are to be moved or compressed. These
tendons generally lie over and round the joints, thereby
strengthening them. To these must be added the apon¬
euroses, which are tendinous wrappers or binders, of vari¬
ous thickness, which cover various sets of muscles, and oc¬
casionally connect them to each other, and to the bones
beneath. These constituent parts of the muscular system,
and especially the last, are generally esteemed the seat of
rheumatism ; a disease from which the lower animals are Rheuma-
not altogether exempt. It is generally produced by sud-tism.
den exposure to cold and rain, damp and drought, after
being overheated. Sometimes it is more general, accom¬
panied with pain, lameness, and fever: in other cases it
is local. One form of the Chill of Mr White, resembles
Rheumatic fever in man. A few hours after violent exer¬
cise, especially if the horse has been plunged into a river,
or washed freely with cold water, and then placed in a cur¬
rent of air, it may be found almost incapable of moving,
and can scarcely be led out for examination without diffi¬
culty, and this by metastasis, may change into acute founder.
With this there is quick pulse and rapid breathing. The
    7   pain may be generally diffused, or local. Sometimes it is
afford specimens of the disease. But it is more- confined to the muscles of the chest, w hen it forms the chest-
‘ftrue, that, in these instances, other tissues than those founder of Gibson, and many farriers. The term anticor
■leu are implicated, and often primarily; so that we shall is sometimes applied to this disease affecting the breast,
pone their consideration. Necrosis is the death, more but it is also applied to any uneasiness or swelling of the
| oss extensive, of the whole or part ofa bone. An effort part. The disease often falls upon the loins in oxen, con-
oade by nature to throw it off from the frame, by exfolia- stituting the chine-felon of older writers, and arising from
11 and it is often wonderful to observe what is effected in the same causes as those mentioned above. Sometimes it
i P Way» The disease is not, however, often witnessed in shews itself at one or more of the joints, forming thejbm<-
, °«er animals, so we need not dwell longer upon it. An- felon. We have witnessed acute rheumatism in the elbow
i ur°liIS’f °r a bony union of Parts of a Joint whicl1 were and stifle> though ^rely ; but frequently in the fetlocks,
a v free> and played on each other, often occurs, the after catarrhal affections. The treatment in all these com-
616
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Joints.
Bone
spavin
frequently on the hind than the fore feet. If sufficient'
time be not allowed for the active use of means, the whole
joint may be involved, and become useless.
Abscess, the result of inflammation, more or less acute
is a circumscribed swelling, containing matter in the sur¬
rounding cellular membrane, which forms a cyst for con-
Veterinary plaints consists in bleeding, moderate purging, with fomen- at this point, it is apt to spread, producing anchylosis be-'
Science, tations and embrocations to the swellings. The disorder tween the large^ and small pastern bones. It occurs more
called t\\e founder in dogs, is this disease, usually produced
by the same class of causes, and requiring the same kind
of remedies. In addition to bleeding and purging, hot
baths, and a dry and comfortable kennel, with small doses
of colchicum and antimony, are the most successful reme¬
dies, followed by regular exercise. . . , . ,
Besides the tendons already mentioned, and the accurate taming it, the matter or pus being a product of the inflam-
fitting of the bones into one another, having their extre- mation. This pus generally must procure vent for itself,
mities covered with cartilage, a substance in firmness and and, as a general principle, in that direction where the re¬
elasticity approximating to caoutchouc, the joints are sistance is the least. Thus it usually comes to the sur-
greatly strengthened by what are properly called liga- face. Often, however, it does not; the abscess bursting
ments and which consist of strong tendinous cords, passing in another direction, the matter escapes, and a sinus, fis-
from bone to bone, and most firmly binding them together, tula, or pipe, so designated by farriers, occurs. These
Internal to the cartilages, and lining the cavity of the joint, amnncr th* re¬
fine vascular membrane, designated the synovial, whose
Wan
The splint
Ringbone.
office is to secrete the joint-oil: and to finish these de¬
tails, we have only to add one other fact, namely, that
wherever friction occurs, as of a tendon upon a bone, there
is found what is called a bursa,, which is nothing else than
a fine bag, which secretes a lubricating fluid, so facilitat¬
ing the motion. All these parts, it will be understood,
enter directly into the formation of the joints ; and when
these exquisite structures are considered, and their extreme
liability to accidents, it will at once be perceived how com¬
plicated and important these injuries and diseases must ne¬
cessarily be. We now return to the diseases of the bones
already named, to which we shall add those of the othei
parts just mentioned.
After the exposition already given of the pathology of
exostosis, the somewhat complicated examples of it, to
which we now proceed, will not occupy us long ; and the
description of one will nearly serve for the others. Bone
Spavin occurs in the lower part of the hock. It is usu¬
ally observed as a small hard tumor, at the top of the shank
bone, and of the inner splint bone, near the lower wedge
bones. It seems to be produced from stress or over-work,
occurring especially in young horses, and at first is com¬
monly attended with pain, occasioning considerable lame¬
ness. The ligaments and cartilages have probably been
injured; the periosteum and bone inflame, swell, and throw
out ossific matter, and, unless care be taken, the disease
spreads to the wedge bones, and to the astragulus, thereby
involving the hinge-joint of the hock, a result most anxi¬
ously to be avoided. The treatment, which should com¬
mence early, is mainly counter-irritation, by repeated smart
blistering, firing, setons, punching, and long rest and
ease. Under the treatment specified, many complete
cures have been effected, and with no return of the disease.
From the want, however, of sufficiently active treatment,
and of due patience, only partial relief is very often obtain¬
ed. The horse is rendered unfit for quick and hard work,
and remains spavined for life. The circumstance of the
lameness diminishing in the chronic state, under exercise,
is explained by the principal seat of motion, between the
astragulus and tibia, being free, and the stiffness and pain
being felt chiefly in some less important parts of the ar¬
ticulation.
The Splint or splent now requires little more for its
elucidation than being defined. It acquires its name from
its seat, occurring always on one of the splint bones of the
leg. A tumor, which feels hard, appears between the knee
and fetlock, and generally upon the inside of the leg. Its
nature, causes, symptoms, and cure, entirely correspond
with those of the last-named disease. The deformity often
appears in a chronic state, gives no great trouble, and
finally may disappear. Ringbone has acquired its name
from its form, usually shewing itself just above the coronet,
where it is an ossification of the lateral cartilages, from
compression and irritation. Though generally commencing
sinuses burrow especially among the fasciae, tendons, joints,
and other parts lately alluded to. Abscess may occur in
any part of the body ; and the object of art ever is, to ex¬
pedite its formation, and to afford a free and speedy evacu¬
ation, especially when from its locality, there is risk of
When sinuses form, they must be freely opened;
,1-evil.
there.
sometimes by counter-opening to that extent, that the;
matter shall have the most direct and safest exit. In this
connection two complaints require mention. Poll-evil
is a name derived from its proximity to the head. The
cranium is sustained on the neck by the help of ligamen-
turn nuchce, or pack-wax, a broad and strong ligament, alto¬
gether of a peculiar nature. It not unfrequently happens
that, from a horse’s raising his head violently against the
manger, or bruising it with the halter, or from cruel blows
of brutal stablemen or carters, an injury is inflicted. It
a certain extent it may be superficial; but in addition
from the contusion of the inner surface of the ligament or
the bones, inflammation is often excited in the soft parti
beneath. Hence the secretion of pus, which could ne
ver work its way through the pack-wax; and hence i
burrows deep, and in different directions, till serious in¬
jury is done far and near, not sparing, sometimes, the bon;
processes. So soon as the disease is discovered, the treat
ment is plain, and if judicious, effectual. The probe nous
instruct, and openings and counter-openings may be madi
freely, but with discretion ; and the sinuses, wholly or par
tially freed, may speedily, by means of stimulants, be indue
ed to assume a healthy action. Fistula of the withers stuko
from the pressure and irritation of the saddle, forms anothe
instance in which these sinuses are apt to run deep, am
produce much mischief. Hence all injury from this causi
requires watching. By pressure we may ascertain the ear
liest formation of pus ; and the abscess should be openeo
After sinuses are formed, the principle of treatment is t
same as just specified. Tents, or dossils ol lint, put wit
in the lips of the wound, may sometimes be required.
To the Bursa, so generally spread over the body, w
have already made allusion; and in turning to t eir i-
eased condition we may affirm that this arises anw-
solely from an increased effusion into their cavity, p”
duced by a strain of the tendon passing over 1 e n’
from increased friction in over-exertion, where }
become enlarged, tense, painful in themselves, an
more by the irritation they produce in the neighuou
parts. Sometimes the swelling is enormous, an ^
matter of surprise there is comparatively so little oca
constitutional disturbance. These swellings are pop i ^
ly called Windgalls—Ganglions in man. bman w ^
galls may long exist without apparent injury, bu ) t
always unseemly ; and when fresh we should en
remove them. Cold evaporating lotions are so
tried; but we believe smart counter-irritation, > j
and repeated blisters, is much more likely to be use^ ^
obstinate cases firing is much practised; and t oUp ,
lieve that, in this and other complaints, this pain u
1^ ] j been, and still is, much abused, yet, administered dis-
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
617
( etly, it is too valuable a remedy to be discarded. If the
f^ng does not succeed, we advise puncturing the cyst, ap¬
ing compress and bandage, and healing the external wound,
| ere there is any difficulty, with the help of the actual cau-
t y.i This being the nature and the treatment of windgalls
r lerally, we can speedily dismiss those which, from pecu-
1 -ity of position and importance, have figured as distinct
£1 peculiar diseases. Bog-Spavin, sometimes called
] ,ood-Spavin, occurs in nearly the same position as
\ le-spavin, but is much softer in its texture, and elas-
t, Its causes are the same as those already mentioned.
rie circumscribed tumor obstructs the return of the blood
f m the neighbouring veins, which consequently swell;
1 ice the name Blood-Spavin, and hence the unwar-
i itable practice of removing a part of the vein. This is
i erious disease, though the symptoms are not so acute as
i bone-spavin; the lameness is less, though it is obstinate,
i constitutes unsoundness. On the treatment we have
thing to add. Capped Hock is named from its position,
> back projecting point of the joint. It is usually pro-
i ced by blows, often inflicted by the horse itself, by kick-
jj in harness, or in the stable. If not speedily dissi-
- ted, the tumor is apt to become callous and obstinate,
rb. ie Curb is another enlargement at the back of the hock,
t three or four inches under its projecting point. The
nplaint is produced by an injury of the ligament which
meets the os calcis with the metatarsal bone, and consists
a thickening of the ligament and cellular membrane. It
:urs from a sudden sprain, in a race, an extraordinary leap,
severe gallop over heavy ground. The swelling is not
iat, but at first the complaint is usually attended with
neness. Some horses are termed curby-hocked, implying
it they labour under a species of malformation, in conse-
enceof which the ligament in question is more liable to be
ured than in other hocks. Windgalls are very common
've the fetlock. Thorough-Pin, a swelling both on
out and inside of the hock, is an affection of the bursa
the back part of the joint, with an effusion of the lu-
cating fluid. If the tumor on one side be pressed, the
id is forced into that of the other side ; hence the name.
ie symptoms arise either from the bursa, surrounding
■ perforans tendon, passing round the back part of the
pk, being disturbed, or from the capsular ligament itself
ing involved.
Affections of the Synovial Membranes, so serious Veterinary
in their nature, are almost always the consequence of ex- Science,
ternal injury. When the joints are laid open, especially the
larger ones, the danger is great from the inflammatory fever, Synovial
and the result is often fatal. The opening is sometimes mem^raues
witnessed in the stifle, hock, elbow, and fetlocks, but most At elbow,
frequently in the fore knee. In the former of these joints
it is generally the result of puncture, either accidentally or
through brutal usage; the swelling is rapid and extensive,
and the attending inflammation most hazardous. The
opening into the knee joint is the result of coming down,
with severe Broken Knee. Under this term is included Broken
the slightest division of the skin, as well as the most for- knee,
midable; and here no injury is trifling. The worst should
at once be ascertained by accurate examination. If slight
and superficial, the wound may be bathed twice or thrice a-
day with Goulard’s lotion; swelling and inflammation require
repeated poultices; any tendency to proud flesh must be
repressed with burnt alum, or blue stone. The appear- Exposed
ance of synovia at once demonstrates the nature of the ac- knee
cident; and the limb must then be moved as little as pos-joint*
sible, as the rubbing of the ends of the bones on each
other is most injurious. The great object here, as in the
case of the other joints, is to endeavour to close the orifice,
and if possible to anticipate inflammation and fever; and
unless this can be effected the animal must be destroyed.
By the careful application of plaster, sometimes stitching,
applying paste or flour, by skilful bandaging, and complete
rest, the puncture has been, and may be healed at once.
For the same object white vitriol is applied, and the
cautery is often useful. The synovial membrane itself is
not to be cauterised, but the superficial parts. If the first
application has not been successful in the course of a few
days, a second may be tried; and five or six applications
have at last rewarded the practitioner’s skill.
A Sprain, or strain, is violence inflicted, with extension, Sprains,
often rupture and displacement, upon the soft parts of a
joint, including cellular membrane, tendons, ligaments, and
all other parts forming the articulation. The dislocation
or disruption may be complete, or it may be a mere bruise
or stress; and innumerable are the shades of difference
between these extremes. Effusion of the fluids is an attend¬
ing consequence. Parts of vital importance, as in the neck
or back, may be implicated, and the accident be imme¬
diately fatal or wholly irremediable; on the contrary, they
As it is necessary to explain how this may be safely accomplished, we shall say a few words on the proper mode of securing animals.
itching. A twitch is an instrument composed of a noose of cord, attached to the end of a stick ; and twitching consists in fixing the
>se on the upper lip of the horse, and twisting it rather tightly. From the great pain it can be made to produce it exercises great con-
1 over the animal, and makes it stand quiet. The matter is very simple, and, when required, can be applied in the field as well as in
6table. Casting is the term used for throwing down a horse or bullock, and so keeping it. In the former animal this is done by
ans of hobbles, strong straps and cords particularly arranged, which are first attached to the feet and then suddenly drawn together, so that
1 R||imal must fall, the fall being regulated by one man at the head and another at the haunch. Even when most skilfully performed,
ro the net of falling and the struggles after it, many accidents have occurred to man and horse. In the case of the ox you take a long
'e, double it, and tie a knot in the middle about a yard from the end, so as to leave a noose of sufficient size to go round the bullock’s
| k; which being put on, the two ends are to be brought between the fore legs, and round the hind pasterns, then back again and through
noose. By standing in front of the animal, and drawing up the ropes quickly, so that the hind legs are drawn towards the chest, it is
ily thrown down; while in this situation the ropes are to be secured, and any operation may be safely performed. The veterinary sur-
m also employs the side-lines, barnacles, and trevis, so much used on the continent; for the particulars concerning which we must re-
to the works named at the end of the article. , .
n Fiuing, or applying the cautery, casting is a frequent preliminary. The part should previously have been shaven or the hair clipped as
jt as possible. The operation consists in drawing lines, which had best be parallel, about half an inch asunder, on the affected part
•a a red hot iron, with a small smooth rounded edge. No part is in a fit state to be fired when the skin is hot or inflamed, and the skin
aild never he deeply penetrated by the iron. According to the heat of the point, so should be the velocity and lightness of touch, and
'r0WT1 marking from the singing is all that is required. After the firing the horse must be laid up for three or four days to prevent his
lnn/ ffe part. If the irritation produced is less than was intended, it may be promoted by means of blistering ointment. When it is
to moderate it or heal it, the treatment is the same as after blistering. Counter-irritation is also effected by means of the seton and
• rowel, ’pjjg SetON consists of a piece of tape or soft cord passed under a portion of the skin by the seton needle; the ends may be
i — ^ui a meue ui tape ui duii, — j .— -- - , . ...
1 together, the cord may be moved every other day from side to side, being previously lubricated with oil of turpentine or blister plas-
• Thus the amount of irritation may be regulated ; and the practice is often resorted to for relieving deep-seated and painful affections,
le Rowel is only a seton under another form. In applying it ah incision is made in the skin to the extent of about an inch, by pinch-
11UP cutting it with a bistoury or rowel scissors. The cellular membrane round the wound is then separated to the extent of
inch, so as to admit a dossil of tow, which is better than leather, smeared with digestive ointment.
f i. wliieh has a tendency to relieve any deep-seated neighbouring morbid action.
A discharge is soon pro-
4 i
618
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinary
Science.
Of the
neck.
Back.
Shoulder.
may be to that extent only, that with time and care, re¬
storation maybe accomplished. They constitute a very
serious class of cases. The marked symptoms are pain in
the injured parts, and inability of motion, sometimes com¬
plete. The treatment is at first rest, a regulation of the
local action and constitutional disturbance, according to
circumstance, by venesection, general and local, the anti¬
phlogistic regimen, fomentation, bandages, and other sooth¬
ing remedies; and, when the sprain is of an older date,
counter-irritation, friction, and gentle exercise.
A sprain of the Neck is commonly the result of a violent
foil upon the head, as in hunting, or in a steeple-chase. The
spinal cord may be severely injured, and, according to the
precise situation, there may be instant death, or hopeless
paralysis. In other cases, without serious injury of the
cord, there is displacement of some of the bones, with a
slight twist of the neck and head. In such a case there may
be recovery, with permanent distortion. A sprain of the
Back may occur in the field or upon ice. The hind feet
slip backward, as in leaping a ditch, and the violent effort
the horse makes to recover his footing appears to be the
cause of the injury. The bones of the spine may thus be
partially separated, or the stress may be so slight as to
attract no attention till the horse cools. In aggravated
cases art can do nothing; the milder ones must be treated
according to the principles already laid down. Sprain of
the Shoulder assuredly occurs, though shoulder-lameness
is often imputed when the disease is totally different;
hence the importance of discrimination. It is more fre¬
quently produced by a slip or side fall, than by fair and
violent exertion. On examination there may be neither
heat nor swelling in the part; but there will be unwilling¬
ness to move the joint; the animal will extend it and raise
the leg as little as possible; there will also be soreness in
the articulation on pressure, and a peculiar drawing up of the
leg. If there be difficulty in coming to a decision from the
symptoms, we must take the limb in hand, and observe if
the movements of the shoulder-joint give pain. A mild
blister often effects a cure ; and the constitution is seldom
disturbed. Rest must be secured. Regarding the sprains
Hip-joint. 0f the Hip-Joint, usually called whirl-bone, or round bone,
our remarks would so much correspond to those just de¬
livered, that we shall not repeat them. The Stifle-Joint,
and the Hock are occasionally sprained, and such accidents
are marked by swelling of the part, and dragging of the leg.
The Patella is sometimes dislocated, and the ligaments
torn, when the leg is dragged and powerless. The knee-pan
should be reduced by drawing the leg forcibly forwards,
pressing the patella into its place. The Fetlocks and Pas¬
terns are also subject to sprain, and to be involved in the
injury of the perforating flexor of the foot and the suspen¬
sory ligament, which are primarily concerned in Breaking-
down. Two injuries are described under this name. One
is merely a sprain of the back-tendons, usually in the fore¬
leg ; it may be so slight as to escape notice till the horse
cool, or it may be such as to produce marked lameness
from the first. The other, or true breahing-down, is said
to consist in a rupture of the tendons and ligaments: it
occurs suddenly, and generally when the horse is at full
speed; it rarely happens in both the fore-legs at once.
The horse stops instantly, or he falls; on rising he is seen
to rest on his fetlocks, the toe turned up, the sole looking
forward. Some able writers have denied the possibility of
the fracture of the ligament; but the true pathology here
regards not one ligament or tendon, but all the parts which
form the back parts of the joint. Sometimes they are par¬
tially torn. When the fetlock does not wholly come to
the ground, the foot, skilfully treated, may become as use¬
ful as ever; when both fetlocks come down the horse can
seldom be recovered. This accident sometimes leads to
a contraction or drawing up of the leg, which ultimately
Patella.
Breaking.
down.
knuckles over at the fetlock. For the relief of this,
tendons must be cut; an operation proposed twenty ycailij
ago, and now coming into general use
The human hand has been the subject of much and dei'^i
served admiration, and the horse’s foot is scarcely less a e
object of wonder. It is also a highly vital and complicat
ed organ, essential to the well-being of the animal, an
pre-eminently exposed to injuries. On a minute know
ledge of its structure, and the uses of its various parts, dt
pends the successful treatment of its multitudinous and in
portant diseases, which, early and accurately discriminai
ed, may often be speedily remedied, while, mistaken an
neglected, they proceed from bad to worse, till the animi
is good for nothing.
We here say nothing of Weakness of the Foot, whicLy
of the irregular pressure of the shoe on peculiarly
hoofs. Judging from analogy, these annoyances would 1
supposed to consist of hard cuticular excrescences Press11
on the tender parts beneatli; instead of which, they a
bruises, generally produced by the heel of
mere
which, from the extravasated blood, assume a re
_   -   v • a * (J
dark colour. These bruises affecting the sensitive par
neath, do not act otherwise than injuries from other cau
They usually occur only in the fore-feet: their site
most invariably in the inner quarter between the ar
the ft#
'lien
is rather an original infirmity, than a distinct diseasti
though it leads to many. Animals so formed should neve
be put to severe and heavy work, for which they are wholll
unfit. Neither shall we say much regarding Shoeing;
most important art, on the enlightened and careful practk
of which, much of the horse’s welfare depends. Thegre;
principle is to afford a good and level bearing, while tl
nails, in giving sufficient attachment, do not injure tl
quick. The bearing is to be supplied only to the crust; at
the toe especially must be kept short. When there is aij
tendency in the hoof to contract, the nails in the inn
quarter, which is the weaker, should be placed well forwar
so as to confine the play of the back part of the foot
little as possible. Sometimes the extremities of the hee
are turned up, which caWed calking ; and additional par
are put to the toe, for the purpose of giving purchase
draught; but these additions are unnecessary for the pn
tection of the foot, and only increase the liability to injui
and disease. It occasionally happens in shoeing, that
nail may injure the tender parts beneath ; an accident whic
goes under the name of Pricking, and which is also causr|
by wounds inflicted on the sole, by broken glass, shai
flints, &c. As soon as the tenderness is perceived, tl
cause should be most carefully investigated. Hard pressu
near the injury may show that the nail is the cause; win
the shoe must be removed, and the part freely pare
What is to be apprehended is inflammation and supp
ration, proceeding to sinuses. Where irritation is conside
able, rest, and cold lotions, and a laxative may be prescri
ed ; when at all threatening, the foot should be envelop*
in warm poultices. The disease somewhat advanced, lorr
a whitlow, which is called Pipes or Quittor, in whichv
find that the sinuses have run deep. It may be in several c
rections, mounting up to the coronary ligament, causings
vere and protracted lameness. The cure may be both pai
ful and tedious, but the principle is clear: free vent nu
be procured for the matter, all pressure and irritation rai
be removed, the parts must be soothed by poultices, and tl
sinuses must be gently stimulated to healthy action, by s
lutions of white or blue vitriol, or corrosive sublimate,
is sometimes recommended to plug up the sinuses wi
strong caustics, to urge them to assume a healthy inste.
of a diseased action. The plan may occasionally succee
but the action is violent, and will often aggravate the ■
order it is intended to remove. Mild dressings and rc
will complete the cure. Corns are usually the consequen .orw.
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
tnj,
nary list, at the heel. If they advance to mischief, it is pre-
■ ce. ,e]y Such as has been described under the head of quittor,
X "^'•d must be treated in a similar way.
These injuries, it will be observed, produce inflammation
the internal parts of the foot, which somewhat approxi-
jtes, but yet is different from, that acute inflammatory af-
;tion of the parts, which is known under the name of
:ute Founder, and whose primary seat seems to be
e lamina; of the coffin-bone, (hence called laminitis,')
(1 the other sensitive parts within the hoof. This disease
mes on after great stress and over-exertion, and especial-
when, after the feet have been battered, and the animal
er-heated and exhausted, it is exposed to cold and damp.
iis however is not the only cause. We have already
an, when treating of rheumatism, that by something like
etastasis, the morbid action moderating in the chest, as-
1s the parts now under review. Still more curious is the
:t, that when an animal has gorged himself with dry meat,
• example at the corn-bin, if he escape a disease of the
miach, of which more anon, this same acute founder is an
casional consequence. Hence, then, though the disease
ly be caused by local injury, yet the constitutional agency
ast not be overlooked. The symptoms are such as this
2w suggests. They appear more frequently in the fore
an the hind feet; they may attack the fore-feet only, or
the four. First, there is pain manifested, by a general
^inclination to move, fidgetiness, and an unwillingness to
row the weight on the inflamed feet. The mischief is
ry readily and unequivocally detected, by pushing the
imal backwards ; if he winces under this, and is still un-
lling to move, it is an unerring indication of the existence
the disease, whether in its mere local or constitutional
anifestation. In violent cases, however, the complaint
eaks for itself. The foot on examination is perceived to
; hot, pain is produced by a slight blow, the neighbouring
teries pulsate violently, the animal cannot stand without
fficulty, and will ere long dropdown from the violence of
e agony, sometimes resting his muzzle on the affected
ember. With this there is symptomatic fever in its acut-
t lorm. The results of the local inflammation need not
F detailed, the effusion of serum, and formation of pus be-
i|g substituted for the healthy secretions. The whole crust
jay be separated from the sensitive foot, leaving (he stump
Ire and exposed ; or, if checked, the separation may be
utial, or wholly absent, and there may be no greater mis-
jiief, than by and by, the appearance of a slight depression,
ring upon the crust. The treatment will be anticipat-
; it is the antiphlogistic, with an energy commensurate
the violence of the symptoms. The bleeding may be
?£d> though to this we should not attach peculiar import-
‘Ce, further than thereby effecting an opening in the sole,
giving vent to matter, and saving the coronet. The
oes should be removed. In slight cases, the free appli-
ti°n of cold should, with the constitutional treatment,
mmand the symptoms. If the crust has separated, more
ess> by suppuration, its bearing edge must be removed
soon as possible, and the weight thrown on the sole to
e'jent pumiced feet; and after this, the hoofs may be re-
oduced in a perfect state. Pumiced Foot is one of those
8eases which result from acute founder. In it the sole be-
■ucs flat, or even convex, thereby allowing the central
1 sensitive parts to press on the ground, to their speedy
nment. , ^ be complaint appears to arise from a morbid
^etion ot the laminae, and also of the sole, whereby the
n-bone has no adequate support. This is most apt to
l'ur> if the animal is put to work too soon after the in-
mmatory attack, and when the ive laminae have
)rsu ciently recovered their healthy condition, the crust,
/■cover, being apt to curve towards the toe. Sometimes
t ? f ^l0US *nbammatory action is so obscure, as not to be
c e ’ an^ the detect in the horny defence is the only
619
ccd
evidence of its previous existence. This disease is most Veterinary
apt to appear in horses with wide feet, much exposed to Surgery,
hard roads and pavement; its progress is usually steady,
though slow, and many horses are rendered perfectly use¬
less by it. We should ascribe this in some degree to in¬
sufficient remedies being employed for its cure. What is
desiderated is time, perfect rest’ and improvement of the
secretory organs, by stimulating the coronet to a healthy
secretion of crust, and chiefly by supporting the sole.
^ Contraction of the Foot. Navicular Disease. Navicular
Grogginess. Great has been the pains taken by able disease,
veterinarians to elucidate the disease known under the
above names, concerning the vast importance of which
in this country, there is but one opinion. By high autho¬
rity it has been called “ the curse upon all good horse
flesh,” (though, in passing, we remark it is rather the in¬
fliction of man, than of any higher power;) and, coin¬
ciding with this, is the statement, that the public have sus¬
tained greater loss of valuable horse flesh from the havoc
of this disease alone, than from all the catalogue of dis¬
eases to which the limbs are liable. Unfortunately, how¬
ever, there is not more uniformity of sentiment concerning
the importance, prevalence, general history, and result of
this disease, than there is diversity of opinion concerning
its pathology ; or rather we should say more accurately,
its proximate cause. It is universally agreed that the hoof
in its healthy and normal state is roundish, and largely en¬
dowed with the property of elasticity. When we attach
to it an iron shoe, this natural play is impeded; and that
this result of domesticity has much to do with the disease,
some way or other, is universally allowed ; the complaint
being unknown among horses in their natural state, and
nearly so in other countries where they are as much es¬
teemed and used as in our own. How then, and to what
extent does this shoeing operate ? Some contend that the
contraction of the crust, thus produced, is the true origin of
the evil; that this fetters the sensitive parts within ; that the
sole becomes externally concave, internally convex; that
the soft elastic parts are absorbed ; that the frog becomes
the rock of danger; the capsular membrane of the navicu¬
lar joint is injured ; in a word, that “ the navicular-joint
disease is the general seat of the chronic lameness of the foot.”
Many years ago, the present writer took a part in this con¬
troversy, and endeavoured to demonstrate that the primary
and permanent disease is established in the synovial capsule,
•between the tendon and navicular bone, and arises gene¬
rally from strain and over-extension of the tendon, where
it passes under the navicular bone. More recent and
able wu’iters have since contended that “ the inflammation
of the little plates covering the coffin bone, is the most
usual cause and that a degree of inflammation, inferior
to that causing acute founder, produces all the sad results.
It would be tedious to mention all the discordant opinions
which, with much ingenuity, have been promulgated upon
the point; but we still believe that the injury of the syno¬
vial capsule of the navicular joint is most generally the pri¬
mary and proximate cause, though we do not contend it is
the only cause. Mr Turner, again, thinks that the harden¬
ed frog is the rock on which most valuable horses strike; but
he allows it is not the sole one ; and so it is with other spe¬
culations. Why then appear to differ, when substantially
we agree ? Not that we are here arguing for concession
which will compromise the truth ; but we hold, that the unit¬
ed persevering ingenuity of scientific men has fully illus¬
trated the nature of this disease ; that it has predisposing
causes, such as w ant of paring, shoeing, and still more, bad
shoeing, hereditary tendency of particular breeds, and
high condition ; for it is a disease not of the agricultural,
but of the high-bred horse. In like manner, it has mani¬
fest exciting causes, such as strain of the tendon, and over¬
exertion, pressure on the sole, as from travelling with a
620
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Veterinary stone in the foot; and there is the tight shoe exciting irri- a cleft or fissure, and sometimes exhibiting in the diseased V
Science, tation of the foot, which, hot and uneasy in the stable, is part only a somewhat modified and inferior kind of horn. '
aggravated by occasional and violent exercise, until the The secretion is, in short, to different extents deficient andS
capsular membrane, tendon, laminae, cartilage, and bone, irregular, which exposes to further injury, is accompanied
one after another, and together, are involved in a degree of with more or less tenderness, making the part incapable of
subacute and inveterate disorder, which has given too much bearing the pressure of the shoe, and often causing lame-
occasion to all the hard things which have been said ness. The primary attention in the treatment must be
against it The symptoms of the early, and, in a practical given to the diseased coronary band, removing as far as pos-
point of view, the most important stage of the disease, are sible the cause, by careful paring, protecting and cherish-
1  c foot and sWtnPss of the sten : ing it, sometimes with digestives, sometimes bv blistpri™
rnecuhar'shiftino- of'the feet, and shortness of the step ; ing it, sometimes with digestives, sometimes by blistering.
° ^ 1 •  —ci- Thefissureshouldgenerallybe filledwithsomemildointment,
whilst a degree of heat is found in the foot, more especr- “~~ 9 j —u.mmcm,
ally about the heel and coronet. There is a continued point- or with tar, as dressing, bound on by a coarse tape, and cover¬
ing or holding the foot in a relaxed position ; dryness of ed with a coating of pitch or tar. When the animal is kept
the' hoof, throbbing of the pastern arteries, and pain on at work, the shoe should be so applied that the pressure be
pressure,’ in the hollow of the pastern. The other parts of not imposed on the diseased part. A Sand-Crack is also S (.
the limb are clean and fine; there is general tenderness
Cutting.
of the foot on pressure, with tripping and stumbling ; final¬
ly, the foot is contracted. In the treatment, all possible
attention must be paid to the shoeing; the sole should be
thinned, the bars pretty freely removed, and the toe made
short. The other predisposing causes must, as far as possi¬
ble, be removed; and the exciting, especially the over¬
tasking, often so inconsiderately and cruelly, the generous
nature of our noble steeds, whose dashing, rapid, and firm
action, is so frequent a cause of all the mischief. Fi¬
nally, the proximate cause must be combated, not by clips
on the heels, or screws, or jointed shoes, but according to
the principles laid down for the relieving of irritation and
inflammation ; cooling diet, laxatives, blistering, supplying
due moisture to the hoof,1 and turning out. Time, and
skill, and care, may thus do much.
The foot and leg of the horse are liable to various ex¬
ternal injuries, some of which are inflicted by the one limb
wounding the other. Cutting, Brushing, Interfering,
are said to take place, when the one foot strikes and wounds
the opposite fetlock; and they usually occur in young and
Speedy-
cut. *
timidhorses with ill-formed legs. The habit requires either
a particular form of shoe, with which the shoeing-smith is
familiar, or so putting on the shoe that the crust will pro¬
ject beyond it. A boot is sometimes required. The
Speedy-cut is an injury of the same kind, where the leg
is struck higher up, and when the horse is going fast. In
these cases the leg must be covered with a boot. In the
a fissure of the crust, and differs principally in this, thatitcL
does not necessarily proceed from a previous injury or known
disease of the coronary band. It may happen in an instant,
from a false step ; and hence a horse, though he may spring
a sand-crack within an hour after purchase, cannot be re¬
turned on that account to the seller. Into this crack, or
perpendicular division of the hoof, the sand or dirt enters.
It occurs in both fore and hind feet, and in the former usu¬
ally in the inner quarter, in the latter, in front, the princi¬
pal stress being there; it arises from dryness and brittleness
of the crust; sometimes it does not penetrate through the
crust, and then it causes no lameness. It must not, however,
on that account be neglected. It should be carefully rasp¬
ed out, and treated as advised under the last-named disease,
the shoe being so modelled as not to press upon the crust
under the crack. Firing may be occasionally necessary.
When it penetrates to the quick, pain and lameness ensue,
and fungous growth may appear, which must be removed
by opening out the fissure, and by stimulants or escharo-
tics, after the inflammation has subsided. The sole should
be kept sufficiently moist, the hoof occasionally pared, and
the horse turned to" grass. The crack will, with time, recede
from the coronet, till at length it totally disappear.
The Thrush or Frush primarily attacks the frog, and
appears to arise from the continued application of moisture,
dirt, and other irritating matters, though it is sometimes
supposed to owe its origin to a wound of the frog, or a con¬
traction <$f the hoof, whence it proceeds to the external
~r 11 I . I  Fv «fl nTVM
rusk.
tnese cases me leg must, ue wvcicu »viui * ^ ^     . 1 . , , ..j
Overreach. Overreach the wound or bruise is produced on the heel parts. Horses of all ages, and even the unshod ,
rip j i- _ r* i. 1 Tko in nil situations, are subiect to the disease, and it appears
Tread
Core.
False
quarter.
of the fore-foot by the hind one in travelling. The Tread in all situations, are subject to the disease, and it appears
is the same kind of injury upon the coronet of the hind foot, more frequently in the hind feet than the fore. Among i s
either bv the tread of another horse, as often happens in ca- first symptoms is a discharge of offensive matterproceea-
valry regiments, or by a false step of the other limb. The ing from the cleft, and gradually pervading the who e
Overreach is the consequence only of fast paces. A semi- frog. If neglected, the entire foot may become involved,
circular wound is made ; the skin being raised like a flap, The sooner, therefore, that the primary disease is cured t
which folds backwards and downwards. The injury is done better; and cleanliness and astringents are the appropmu
not bv the toe, but by the edge of the inner rim of the shoe, remedies. After being thoroughly cleaned out, the euav
Sometimes a part of the skin is quite scooped out. These tiori may be filled with calomel, which generally cures,
injuries should not be disregarded, for if neglected they pro- with pledgits of tow dipped in warm tai, or some cs
duce Quittor. All that is usually required is to wash the wash, every night, and retained sometimes during t )
wound well, put into it a pledgit of tow dipped in Friar's The general health should be attended to, and exercise
balsam, and bind it up with a bandage. If the cure is not glected. The term Seedy-Toe has been applied to a c ■
at once effected, and a slough forms, the disease is called a nic form of softening and local irritation, wine , » , [
Core, and requires for its cure only a continuation of the between the crust and sole, gradually spreads roun ,
same remedies, with poultices. It seems to be aggravated, if it be not someumes occas ^
One of the functions of the coronary ligament is to se- by mire and gravel insinuating itselt into tne a f , sj
certe the matter answering to the nail in man, which goes of the edge ot the sole: sometimes inflammation ° . £nt j
to form the crust or external wall of the hoof in ani- live parts beneath is assigned as the cause. 1 e ^
mals. When a part of this band has been wounded or in- the same as that of the complaints with whicli 1 is ^
jured by disease, it can no longer perform its functions Canker is usually a mere extension an , at
aright, and hence the disease called False-Quarter. It form of the preceding diseases, from want 0 ^
appears in very different degrees, sometimes forming quite tention, though sometimes it follows other inju ^
Clay alon
1 Tow, moss, cow dung mixed with clay to give it consistence, and Cherry’s felt pads, are the best materials tor sto . * um] b
is apt to get too hard, though it may answer for great heavy horses, whose work is slow, and whose heels are raised r where tb
high calkins. Tow and moss, after filling the sole, must be packed a little under the shoe, and can be wetted as requi
hoofs are naturally weak and brittle, they require additional or more frequent softening.
111
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
621
,. ,n5;|)ie frog, instead of secreting horn, produces a fungous
Le. owth which pervades the whole sole, and ultimately
rtends to the entire secreting surface of the foot. It is
ost commonly seen in, and is almost peculiar to the heavy
eed of cart horse, which is often peculiarly exposed to
e exciting causes, and sometimes, it would seem, there is
strong hereditary predisposition. Those with white feet
e most liable to attack, and the hind feet more than the
re. After it has existed for some time, the disease is
[ficult of cure. The principle on w'hich the cure must be
nducted, is the removal of the diseased sole and fungous
owths, so giving free vent to the morbid discharge, by
eans of the knife and escharotics; lunar caustic, and
ustic potash, likewise being often highly useful; and this
'ected, astringents, escharotics, and pressure are to be
aployed. M. Feron regarded tar and sulphuric acid in
e proportion of four ounces of the former to two drachms
the latter, as a specific. Cleanliness, perseverance, and
ne, will effect a cure.
■ Foul of Foot in cattle resembles the diseases we
ve just been describing in the horse, and in fact is
arly identical with them. Sometimes there is a conspi-
;ous crack between the claws of the hoof, followed by in¬
timation and secretion of offensive matter; and at other
ties a tumor appears above the coronet, between the hair
id hoof, attended with pain and inflammation: sometimes
e mischief is owing to foreign bodies finding lodgment
iout the hoof. The remedy for this complaint is removal
' such foreign bodies, simple ablution, astringent washes,
of alum, sugar of lead, and white vitriol, and dressings
ith some stimulant, among which equal parts of soft soap
id turpentine has been much commended. According to
ir Skerret, three or four dressings never fail to produce a
ire. It is alleged the constitution sometimes participates
i the disease, if it does not produce it, as in the case of the
urrain, which within these few months visited us. In
iiese cases cleanliness, bleeding, a laxative, and sometimes
■rot. mltices may be required. Foot-Rot is the name given
) this kind of disease as exhibited in sheep, among which
commits such disastrous and ruinous consequences, at-
icking, if neglected, the whole flock, so that in feeding
icy actually crawl on their knees, before they become
s victims. Hence it is regarded in the last degree con-
sgious. After a good deal of investigation, however, we
ive arrived at a different conclusion; and we discover
its history nothing more than the results of that domes-
c state to which we have subjected this useful creature,
y nature, not unlike the goat, it frequents the summits of
e lofty mountains, where its hoofs, altogether analogous
those of the horse, are exposed to much tear and wear,
f ken from these alpine regions we transfer the sheep into
ir grassy lawns, our moorish lands, or sandy soils, this
caring away of the crust is put an end to; it grows long,
k1 proves a great encumbrance. In this state it is ex-
I >sed to many injuries, among others from the long grass
the pastures, and itself necessarily injures the soft parts
'neath; and hence lameness, inflammation, suppuration, to
'e extent of casting the hoof, are the consequences. We
we not here space fully to prosecute the subject, and must
lerefore take the liberty of referring to another quarter
,r a more ample elucidation of the subject.1 The cir-
amstance of the disease occurring epidemically arises, we
"'.ceive, from the whole flock being placed in precisely
milar circumstances. The symptoms of the disease are
Ult0 ai)alogous to those so largely dwelt upon in the
orse; and we would insist upon prevention rather than
urc. We^advise the providing the flock with regular walks
with a hard and gravelly bottom. Long rough grasses should Veterinary
be cut down in their pastures. Regarding the treatment, Science,
suffice it to say, that the principal points to be attended to,
are paring away the detached hoof, and dressing the surface
with some caustic, of which butter of antimony is the best.
Leg Evil, or Black Leg, is a term much, but not very Leg evil,
definitively, used among shepherds, for various disorders of
the limb, some of which are sufficiently formidable. One
of them begins at the hoof or knee, and soon makes the
animal quite lame. The part is covered with small blisters
filled with a dark-coloured fluid, and the skin now breaks
out in sores. The complaint is said to be highly contagi¬
ous, and separation accordingly is enjoined between the
sound and unsound. The wool is to be removed from the
diseased part, the sores, after being well washed, are to
be dusted with burnt alum, and the whole limb to be wrap¬
ped in a cloth spread with Turner’s or a more stimulating
cerate. Another disease, which also goes under this name,
is a chronic rheumatic affection, now in one limb and now
in another. The joints become stiff and somew hat swelled,
and the lameness is obstinate; but the disease, although
tedious, is not fatal. A third disease corresponds to
quarter-ill in cattle.
Leaving the all-important instruments of movement, wre Diseases of
proceed to the internal parts, and commence with the Di- the diges-
gestive System. We begin with the Teeth. The his-tlve sys-
tory of the dental apparatus furnishes the most specific evi-
to their natural ones; or that they should be made
' .ilk on the hard road, or to be put regularly into a fold
ij> wa
dence regarding the age of the individual, especially in
early life; and hence the importance of minute acquaintance
with the following particulars respecting the horse. The
foal at birth has no teeth; but in a few days, tw o above and
two below : the central, make their appearance, and soon
after four others, on the sides of these; in three or four
months more, other four, the corner teeth, as they are called,
appear. These twelve in front of the mouth continue with¬
out alteration until the colt is about two and a half years old,
when he begins to shed his teeth. The two central teeth
above and below are the first that fall out, and the new teeth,
called also horses’ teeth, are much larger and stronger than
the former. Between the third and fourth year, the next
incisors above and below, fall out, and are replaced in like
manner; and between the fourth and fifth year the corner
teeth are changed. When the animal is about a year old,
four molars appear in each side of each jaw, and when about
eighteen months, a fifth. At the age of two and a half, the
first temporary molar drops out, and a permanent one takes
its place; at tlaree and a half the second, and at four and a
half the third. About this time the sixth and last molar
appears, and is a permanent tooth. During the fourth year
the tusks or tushes appear. The change which takes place
between the fifth and sixth year, is the gradual wearing
down of the outer edge to a level with the inner. At seven
the outer incisors have become a little longer, and the black
mark smaller; at eight the mark is generally lost. After
this period, a judgment is to be formed by the cavities in
the upper teeth. About ten, the central teeth have lost
their marks, the two next have but little left, though they
are still readily seen in the upper corner ones; by the twelfth
year they too have also disappeared. The tushes, like the
incisors, gradually change their form. At first they are small,
sharp, and shell-like, with a concavity on their inner sur¬
face; the teeth become gradually larger, and the concavi¬
ties less, and at about the age of eight they are nearly lost.
About twelve, the inside of the tusk becomes somewhat
rounded in form, and ere long is quite round, blunt at top,
and of a yellow colour. This colour, with advancing years,
pervades all the teeth. The age of the ox and sheep, in
their earlier years, is ascertained by a similar acquaintance
with the changes of their dental apparatus; in later years
1 Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 852.
622
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Lampas.
Veterinary from their horns, a year being allowed for every ring, an-
Science. gWering to the shedding of their coat; and three additional
in the ox, for the space between the oldest ring and the tip.
Diseases of The Diseases of the Teeth attracting attention are
the teeth. but few. The edges of the grinders, at all ages, are apt to
get rough, wounding the inside of the cheek, and so inter¬
fering with mastication. These asperities must be filed down
with the rasp. Not unfrequently the growth, especially of
the grinders, is irregular; a process of one of them often
projects, injures the opposite jaw, and interferes with the
proper discharge of their functions. The cure is to reduce
this tooth to the level of the others by means of the rasp,
forceps, or chisel, or, if loose, to remove it.
Themouth. Proceeding to the Mouth, wre remark, that its lining
membrane, including the tongue, is apt to be affected with
Aphthous Aphthous Thrush, a crop of small vesicles or pustules,
thrush. which may go on to ulceration. This woidd appear to be a
disease of the mucous follicles, and requires the greater at¬
tention, as it is sometimes associated with strangles. These
symptoms are seen in the horse, and also frequently in cattle
and sheep, commencing with small blisters, and the peeling
off of the cuticle of the tongue and mouth, whereby much
difficulty is experienced in taking food ; and fever is some¬
times present. In these cases, laxatives, antacids, such as
chalk and diaphoretics, should be prescribed, and an astrin¬
gent wash to the parts, as of borax and alum. Lampas is
often described as a painful swelling of the lower bars of the
palate, projecting above the surface of the front teeth, and
interfering with feeding, as a disease of young horses, con¬
nected with the shedding of their teeth, and occasioning
fever. It is not, however, so much a disease, as a natural
and salutary process, which, in general, is best let alone,
and in which cruel remedies, such as firing, should never
for a moment be thought of.
Tongue. The Tongue is liable to various injuries. Frequent
trouble is given in all the domestic animals, from the
lodgement of sharp irritating substances about the tongue,
throat, and teeth. The offending body may be a needle,
thorn, or sharp bone ; and in consequence, the animal de¬
clines his food, appears sick, and may froth at the mouth ;
so that in the dog we have known this accident mistaken
for rabies. In cases of this sort, the parts should be care¬
fully examined, and on the removal of the offending body,
the cure is readily accomplished. Inflammation of the
tongue occurs spontaneously in the lower animals, as
sometimes in man ; but is more frequently seen as
the result of accident. Awkwardness and violence in ad¬
ministering balls and drenches are frequent causes; and
the horse, in sleep, sometimes severely bites his tongue.
From the violence used in administering physic, we have
seen the inflammation run so high, as to terminate in gan¬
grene. The disease is characterised by great swelling and
prolongation of the organ, thereby impeding breathing,
free bleeding from the part, by scarification by a sharp
knife, and general bleeding, are the most efficient remedies,
and sometimes a part of the organ must be cut off. If
only a couple of inches are removed, no alteration is pro¬
duced in feeding ; but if double or more be removed, the
animal cannot drink till it gets its nose under water, when
it can produce a vacuum, and employ suction. From the
same kind of rough handling, the frsenum is often torn, so
occasioning ulceration and soreness; but with mild dressing,
the sore soon heals. Sometimes we have seen the injury so
extensive, that amputation of a part of the member became
necessary. The hemorrhage from excision is seldom trou-
The blain. blesome. The Brain, as originally described in cattle,
consisted, we believe, in an obstruction of the ducts of the
sublingual glands, wdiereby the saliva was confined, occa¬
sioning a tumour at the root of the tongue, which pro¬
duced protrusion of that member, and threatened suffoca¬
tion. This disease is likewdse known in man. All that is
required is to make a free opening with the lancet. Bv 1
extension of the term, the name is applied to the occurreiv"
of vesicles, or small blisters in this locality, which pervalf
the fraenum and the gum. They occur in the horse as well
as in cattle, going on to troublesome and protracted inflam¬
mation, sometimes threatening mortification. Scarification
may be used, and strong solutions of alum and borax, with
tincture of myrrh, and Friars’ balsam.
The Parotid is the most important of the salivaryVlan(]s
largely secreting this important fluid, and poiinns; it'
through its duct, into the mouth. With the situatio&n of
the gland, and the course and termination of the duct
every veterinarian must be familiar, that he may avoid in¬
juring them, and be able to heal them ; no easy task, when
they have been divided. The principle of cure is suffi¬
ciently evident. In the case of the duct, it is to brino' the
divided ends as closely together as possible, and to keep
them there, at the same time preventing the escape of any
saliva from the wound. This may be tried by the skilful
application of a fine pin, scarifying the edges, if fistulous,
and keeping the integuments closely approximated. To
rouse these parts to the adhesive inflammation, the cautery
is sometimes used ; but we have found a strong solution of
corrosive sublimate, (ten grains to the ounce,) more effica¬
cious. If we fail in this method of cure, an artificial opening
or canal, as much as possible in the natural course, must be
made between the divided part and the mouth ; and when
this is thoroughly established, we must connect with it the
part of the duct coming from the gland, healing up the su¬
perficial parts. Concretions sometimes occur in the duct
We have seen them occasionally as large as marbles, rattling
in the cheek like dice. If troublesome, and requiring to
be removed, this must be effected from the inside of the
cheek, or if from the outside, the wound must be dressed
very carefully with a pin, as in bleeding. In certain cases
of cold and sore throat, the gland may inflame and swell,
becoming conspicuous, when it forms Mumps ; as do also
the other salivary glands, especially the submaxillary, con
stituting what the farriers call Vives. For these com
plaints cruel modes of treatment used to be adopted, which
happily are abandoned. Reduced feeding, possibly bleed¬
ing, blistering, and time, are all that are required. Some¬
times these glands become involved with others, in stran¬
gles, when they wdll again come under notice.
Concerning the (Esophagus, to which we next proceed,
the only complaint to which we shall allude is that of Ob¬
struction. This may arise from tumours and schirrus, to
which we may subsequently advert; now we shall insist
only on what is called Choking, or obstruction of the pas¬
sage-by a large morsel of food, witnessed more in cattle than
in horses, and most frequently when they are feeding upon
turnips, potatoes, carrots, and such like. The obstruction
usually occurs at the bottom of the pharynx and commence¬
ment of the gullet, not far from the lower part of the larynx,
which we have seen mistaken for the foreign body. The ac¬
cident is much more serious in ruminating animals than m
others, as it immediately induces a suspension of that ne¬
cessary process, and of digestion, followed by a fermenta¬
tion of the food, the evolution of gases, and all those fright¬
ful symptoms, which will be noticed under the disease
Hoven. The difficulty in breathing, and the general un¬
easiness of the animal, usually direct at once to the nature
of the accident, which examination brings under the cog¬
nizance of the eye and hand. No time must be lost m en¬
deavouring to afford relief; and the first thing to be trie
is, by gentle friction, and pressure of the hands upwar s
or downwards, to see and rid the animal of the morse •
Failing in this, we mention first, the great virtue we rave
frequently found in the use of mild lubricating fluids,
as warm water and oil, well boiled gruel, &c. The grue
is grateful to the animal, which freely tries to gulp an
race,
W
itii
undof
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
rinar)*ften succeeds. Whether this is owing to the lubrication
nee. ,f the parts, or to the natural action superinduced, it is un-
Z^'iecessary to inquire; but the fact we know, that a few
lints of warm gruel have often proved successful in remov-
n!r the obstruction. If this remedy should be ineffectual,
he foreign body may perhaps be within the reach of the
mall hand which a kind dairymaid may skilfully lend for
he purpose. If this good service cannot be procured, the
•ommon probang must be used, the cup-end being em-
iloyed. Other and more complicated instruments have
,een invented, acting upon various principles, some, for
“xample, on that of bruising the obstructing body, and the
pbag- ]Se of these requires considerable skill. Disappointed in
y. y] we must finally have recourse to the knife. We have
;ut into the oesophagus in the horse, merely twitching,
vithout casting him, and extracted the foreign body with
keility. Great care may afterwards be requisite, as the
rUllet does not always very readily unite, and death some-
imes follows. The best treatment, we are persuaded,
Consists in applying a stitch or two of the interrupted
aiture, of fine catgut, so closing the divided parietes of the
rullet, and healing the external wound at once by the first
ntention; the cure is promoted by the application of a
carefully graduated pad and bandage. The food must be
;pare and soft.
omim In passing to the Abdominal Viscera, we shall premise
«. a short account of crib-biting and wind-sucking ; practices
which are said to increase the tendency to indigestion and
colic, and to lower condition, rendering those animals which
i-bitiiipractise them unsound. A Crib-biter derives his name
from seizing the manger, or some other fixture with his
teeth, arching his neck, and sucking in a quantity of air,
with a peculiar noise. After a time the abdomen is evi-
iently enlarged. The habit is most common in young
lorses, but is infectious, and unless the offender is secluded,
spreads widely. The best remedy is a muzzle made for
lie purpose. It consists of an iron rack, so wide as to
illow the horse to seize his food, and yet so narrow as not
to permit the passage of the teeth; and this should be
applied so long as the practice is persisted in. The strap
"I- '(Hind the throat is in common use. Windsucking con-
‘"K' psts in swallowing air, without fixing the mouth. The
torse presses his lip against some hard body, arching his
eck, and gathering together his feet. It may be prevented
y applying the strap, which when studded with one or more
sharp points or prickles, opposite the lower part of the jaw,
will effectually prevent the animal’s assuming the position
n which he sucks in air.
Costiveness, a complaint to which, from the great
hanges in their feeding, all the domestic animals are
icculiarly liable, is interesting not only on its own account,
at also as leading to other and more dangerous disorders.
Alves are very subject to it, when first put on dry meat;
nd it is highly necessary they should speedily be relieved, as
Mic and enteritis are the frequent consequences. In the
horse it is very apt to occur from eating old luxuriant grass ;
:ind it is then occasioned by the felting together of the
"(>ody fibre, whose length interferes with its division, so
uiat it accumulates in great masses. This is most apt to
occur in the rectum, and to an extent not to be overcome
>) the most strenuous efforts of unassisted nature. The
fame state is also seen in dogs. Hence the manual assist¬
ance which from time immemorial has been rendered by
(he farrier, under the name of Raking and Back-raking,
introducing the hand or finger into the rectum, and emp-
its contents. In some cases this is imperiously re-
(lUued ; but in many we conceive the practice might well
glve place to the use of injections with the help of the
Annge. In proceeding to afford relief by physic, some
preparatory care is necessary, concerning which we refer
u a ormer page. The bowels once cleared, the tendency
623
tive-
should be met, and counteracted, by appropriate food.—In Veterinary
this connection we may mention, that several cases have Science,
occuired to us where the bad health of horses seemed'v
owing to Acidity in the Stomach. In these, the appe- Acidity,
tite was lost and vitiated, so that old lime and dirt were
preferred to wholesome food. The animal was dull, the
coat staring, with a tendency to perspiration, the pulse
being natural. Loss of the cud in cattle and sheep some¬
times arises from the same cause. Having noticed the
craving for lime, we prescribed magnesia, and found great
and immediate benefit, so that the practice, we conceive,
merits more extensive trial.
That there are cases of pure Spasm or Cramp of the Stomach
Stomach and Intestines, can admit of no reasonable and
doubt, although they may often be overlooked and misun-bowels,
derstood. In the horse, it is said to occur most frequently Spasmodic
in the ilium. It comes*on suddenly, and the pain in theco^c”
part is intense. The animal shifts his posture, looks at
his flank, paws violently, strikes his belly with his feet, lies
down and rolls about. In a few minutes the pain ceases,
and the horse shakes himself, and begins to feed ; but, on
a sudden, the spasm returns, with the painful symptoms ;
ere long there may be another remission, to be followed
by another paroxysm, till it terminate in permanent relief
or violent inflammation of the parts. Among the most com¬
mon causes of this complaint, are the drinking of cold water
when the animal is heated, sudden exposure, under such
circumstances, to cold and damp, mechanical obstruc¬
tion, especially from foreign bodies, and over-feeding upon
green meat. The distinguishing symptoms between colic
and inflammation, into which it is so prone to run, are, that
in the former there is no previous cold fit, the pulse
is comparatively little affected, there are intervals of
relief, and pressure on the abdomen does not aggravate
the suffering, but relieve it. The treatment must be
prompt, and it consists in the immediate administration of
anti-spasmodics, of which laudanum and turpentine are
among the most powerful. An ounce or two of lauda¬
num, and three ounces of turpentine, in a pint of linseed
oil, often afford instant relief. If we are disappointed in this
result, venesection should be immediately practised, as
bleeding is the most powerful of all antispasmodics ; fo¬
mentations, or smart counter-irritation should be applied to
the abdomen ; large warm injections prescribed, and laxa¬
tive medicine ; soft meat alone should be permitted ; the
horse should be kept comfortably warm, and have gentle
exercise for a day or two.
The food, after being subjected to the process of mas- indigestion,
tication, passes into the stomach, where it should undergo
the still more important one of Digestion. This is chiefly
effected by the agency of a peculiar secretion of the organ
called the gastric juice, which possesses a solvent power
superior to that of any other in nature with which we are
acquainted. Even if meat be tainted, it corrects that taint,
and when the ingesta have a strong tendency to acidity or
fermentation, it arrests or suspends that tendency. This
occurs in man, and in the lower animals; though many
accidents are apt to interfere with its healthy exercise,
these varying with their varying structure and habits. The
stomach of the horse is small, and incapable of containing
much at a time, so that it soon passes off. The stomach
of the ox and other ruminants is complicated, the food
passing from pouch to pouch, until the process of digestion
is completed. Whatever interferes with the healthy dis¬
charge of this function, will naturally lead to Indigestion,
which, in the lower animals, unlike to what occurs in
man, leads directly to disease of the most rapid and fatal
character. Of the predisposing causes—to turn first to the
horse—one of the most influential is any thing which in¬
terferes with mastication. Hence the prejudicial effect of
eating too fast, whereby there is a deficiency of the com-
624
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinary minuting process, and a paucity of saliva, and hence the
Science. evi] 0f the dental apparatus being impeded in its play.
~ 'Another, and if taken singly, perhaps the most important
cause, is a surfeit, overloading the stomach with more than
it can manage, especially after a long and fatiguing fast,
exhausting the vital powers. White mentions three cases
he had known where a horse had got to the coi*n chest
during the night, and was dead before morning. Other
causes, however, are to be added, one of which is over-drink¬
ing. If the horse drinks largely at the time when he feeds,
it washes the food from the stomach ere it has undergone
the salutary changes above alluded to, and thus is prone to
fermentation. Sudden change of food is another cause, as
from soft to dry ; and some articles more than others, tur¬
nips, carrots, potatoes and grass, more than hay or oats, and
peas more than barley. Another cause is being put to hard
work on a full stomach. When from such causes as these
the stomach is oppressed, indigestion arises, and under one
of two forms; the food either undergoing no change,
forming a dangerous load, or running rapidly to frightful
fermentation. The former is less alarming, and treat¬
ment will do much : purgative drenches and injections
are to be administered. It is in this state of matters
that acute foot founder is apt to arise, as noted above,
where its appropriate treatment is mentioned. In the
latter alternative, where fermentation occurs, one of the
most fatal and fearful diseases of our domestic animals is
produced. The horse may be seized on the road, and if
pushed to a fast pace, it is often certain death. He
slackens his pace, wishes to stop, and attempts to lie down.
Sometimes he falls down as if shot, the moment he is
stopt; at slow work he sometimes quickens his pace, and
is unwilling to stand. In the stable he paws the ground
with his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, sometimes quite over, or
lies on his back. WThen the distension is not great, he may
lie tolerably quiet for several minutes, but when consider¬
able, he neither stands nor lies a minute, and is no sooner
down than he rises again ; he generally starts all at once,
and again throws himself down with great violence. He
strikes the belly with his hind-feet, and often looks an¬
xiously to his flanks, sits up as a dog, and sometimes at¬
tempts to vomit. As the disease proceeds, the pain be¬
comes more and more intense, the horse darting himself
about with terrible violence ; every fall threatens to be his
last; perspiration runs oft’ in streams, and his agony ap¬
pears extreme. The belly is always swollen, and the girth
may be torn. On dissection, the stomach is frequently
burst, the belly full of its contents, and of gas, and the
diaphragm ruptured. When death is delayed, the bowels
are found inflamed, often twisted, and sometimes burst.
The treatment consists in arresting the fermentation, and
re-establishing the process of healthy digestion, which is
to be effected by the most powerful stimulants and car¬
minatives. Several formulae we supply below.1 These
must be administered as a drench ; the abdomen should be
rubbed; the animal should be walked slowly about, and
supplied with a good bed, and room to roll about. If there
be no relief in half an hour, a second dose may be given,
and ere long, if still required, a third. The probang too may
sometimes be introduced, and the relief it affords, is some¬
times considerable. In the majority of cases, this treatment
will succeed, if the bowels have not been previously inflam¬
ed or burst. This form of the disease is nearly confined to
heavy draught horses, which are long in the yoke, have keen
1 Linseed oil raw, one pound; oil of turpentine, from two to three ounces; laudanum from one ounce t0.tw0.0“nceSXtj of tepid
ithe whole
administered as a doze. Or hartshorn, from half-an-ounce to an ounce ; or chlorate of lime, half-an-ounce given in two P*nts _
water. The following tincture may sometimes be kept in readiness:—Take good spirits, whisky or brandy, two pounds; 8ln^^
ounces ; cloves, three ounces ; digest for eight days, and add sweet spirits of nitre, four ounces. Half a pint of this tmctufe i . ^
in a quart of warm water. In cases of pressing urgency, from one ounce to two ounces of tar may be added to half a pint o sp >
given diluted, with great prospect of advantage, especially to cattle.
appetites, and devour greedily, and with them it is very com. V L
mon. The complaint has received various names in dif S ^
ferent places, such as Gripes, Colic, Flatulent Colic ^ v
Spasmodic Colic, Frett, Batts, Enteritis, or Inflamed ^
Boicels, and Acute Indigestion, &c. This superabundant
not to say confused nomenclature, is annoying not only to
the ignorant, but even to the well-informed, and should be
rectified. The disease corresponds to Tympanitis in man
and the old name Hoven is perhaps the best.
Hoven. Blown. Fog-Sickness. The name Hoven H
universally expresses the occurrence of the above disease
in cattle and sheep, the structure of whose digestive or¬
gans renders them peculiarly liable to the complaint; while
the sudden changes to which they are exposed in feeding,
prove exciting causes. Thus it is often witnessed in ani¬
mals removed from confinement and winter feeding, to the
luxuriance of the clover field; and in house-fed cattle
from the exhibition of rich food, such as pease meal and
beans, often supplied to enrich their milk. We have al¬
ready mentioned that it sometimes proceeds from obstruct¬
ed gullet. The symptoms bear so close a resemblance,
both in their progress, and termination in rupture and death,
to those so fully described above, that we shall not repeat
them. The treatment mostly corresponds, and it must
be equally prompt. The mixture of the oils of linseed
and turpentine is nearly a specific. In addition, the pro¬
bang is often used with advantage; but so violent and
rapid are the symptoms, that recourse must sometimes be
instantly had to the operation of Paunching, which,?
though apparently a desperate remedy, is generally attend¬
ed with success. The place for puncturing the paunch is
on the left side, in the central point between the lateral
processes of the lumbar vertebra?, the spine of the ilium,
and the last rib. Here the trochar may be introduced with¬
out fear. If air escape rapidly, all is well. The canula may
remain in for a day or two, and on withdrawal, little or no
inconvenience will usually manifest itself. If no gas escapes,
we must enlarge the opening freely, till the hand can be
introduced into the paunch, and its contents removed, as we
have sometimes seen in prodigious quantities. This done,
we should close the wound in the divided paunch with two
or three stitches of fine catgut, and carefully approximate
and retain the sides of the external wound, and with rest,
wait for a cure, which is often as complete as it is speedy.
The Braxy, so fatal in sheep, comes to be considered!
here. It has been divided into several varieties, as bowel
sickness, dry braxy, &c. The disease particularly attacks
sheep when in good condition ; and when they are suddenly
deprived of their wholesome food, and forced to feed upon
coarse grass and heather, &c. Constipation appears the ex¬
citing cause; violent inflammation succeeds, with much
agony to the sufferer ; great tendency to swelling, so that
the viscera and the abdominal cavity sometimes burst; and
withal, a tendency to mortification and sinking, so that a -
ter speedy death, the touch of the viscera, and even the car¬
case, is intolerable. The disease is often stated to be hope¬
less ; but if met early, and treated on the principles a
ready laid down, this gloomy view should not be taken. ^
Associated somewhat with the last disease as to cause, ^
yet differing materially as to symptoms, is the Stomach
Staggers, whose immediate cause is usually stated to e
in the stomach, while some of its most conspicuous symp
toms affect the brain, which we are persuaded is <kcU e( ^
implicated; hence its compound name. Mr White con
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
nary lers that the complaint is caused by enormous dis-
ce. nsion of the stomach ; in a marked case, sixty pounds of
' <rd and imperfectly-masticated food having been found in
e viscus, the coats being stretched and attenuated ; and
approximation to this state being seen in many others.
ie horses most liable to the disorder are such as have
len exhausted by hard work, unwholesome food, and old
je. The disease often makes its appearance first after a
| ig fast, and over-work, but frequently also when the horse
i at grass. Hence it has been supposed that the quality
i the food acts as a cause, especially rank grasses, and nox-
i is weeds, such as the common rag-weed. It has often been
i yarded as infectious, but perhaps is only endemic. It ap-
I irs most commonly among agricultural and cart horses,
\ ich sometimes have fallen victims in scores. In a few
(,es, it seems to proceed to regular Hoven. The most
1 iminent symptoms are the horse’s hanging his head, or
r ting it in the manger ; appearing drowsy, and refusing
d; the mouth and eyes being tinged of a yellowish co-
r; there is twitching of the muscles of the chest, and
t: fore-legs appear suddenly to give way, though the ani-
r 1 seldom falls; the pulse at first is not affected, but in
f r or five days inflammation of the bowels or lungs su-
j venes; the belly is costive, and the dung hard and
s ny. Lockjaw frequently occurs before death. The best
tatment is to endeavour first to empty the stomach of its
I d, and then to excite the process of digestion. For the
fimer of these intentions, the stomach-pump should be
t ployed, though it is not so applicable in animals as in
i n ; or tepid water should be administered in large quan-
t es, which, passing speedily from the stomach, is supposed
t remove much of the load. Searching and stimulating
1 atives are also indicated ; most of all croton ; also such
£ does and calomel, with ginger or carbonate of ammonia.
these means should be added enemata, and, by and bye,
sae slight cordial. If the head symptoms are prominent,
t temporal artery or jugular vein may be opened, and
1 od drawn with advantage. Finally, there must be steady
(Arcise, and frequent and careful feeding, under which
I atment many cures are effected. The Faudlebound
(cattle and sheep is, we believe, nothing more than a mo-
• cation of this disease. In this variety it has been ascer-
taed that the maniplies are most involved, its secretions
£ suspended, and its contents become dry, hard, and caked,
(f solid mass. Though the constipation is great, yet
t re is sometimes the appearance of a slight purging, which
r y deceive the practitioner.
nflammation of the Stomach is not a common
< nplaint in any domestic animal, and is induced chiefly
I n over-doses of purgatives, and mineral poisons, espe-
1 Hy arsenic and corrosive sublimate. In these cases the
I se is rapid, sharp, and small, the extremities cold, the
r piration quick ; there is also the appearance of dulness
■' dejection, with great debility. After the bowels are
625
and by the profuse perspiration, thready pulse, great weak- Veterinary
ness, violent straining and purging, terminating in convul- Science,
sions and death. The stomach-pump should be used ass-^V^w
speedi y as possible: after this we must boldly use the
antiphlogistic regimen, latterly somewhat supporting the
strength, by bland food and anodynes.
r^le Peritoneum, as is well known, is a membrane which
lines the walls of the abdomen, and invests all its viscera,
forming the external covering of the stomach, intestines^
liver, &c. Hence it bears a principal share in the acute
inflammation of all these organs, which inflammation is
very ready to spread from one to another, till all the inflec¬
tions of the continuous membrane are involved. Acute
Peritonitis, then, is a very dangerous affection, attended Peritonitis,
with marked symptoms of severe general pain in the abdo¬
men, with high fever, quick pulse, great costiveness, scanty
urine, &c. Of all domestic animals, the disease occurs
most frequently in the dog. It is produced by sudden chills
and damp, after being over-heated, by wounds, sometimes
after castration, by the introduction of air into the abdomi¬
nal cavity, or by irritating substances, as happens in the
escape of the contents of any of the viscera, in which case
it is almost necessarily fatal. The treatment required is
the antiphlogistic, in its greatest rigour, and especially at
the commencement, with large bleeding, strong purging, as
with croton oil, the free action of the mucous very much
relieving the peritoneal membrane; also large enemata, and
strong counter-irritation rubbing the abdomen with some
powerful epispastic.
Besides appearing as an acute disease, peritonitis of- Ascites,
ten shews itself in a chronic form, and in both of these
aspects it is a common cause of Ascites, Dropsy, or an
effusion of serous fluid into the abdominal cavity. When
this follows a violent inflammation, it is usually accompa¬
nied with an effusion of coagulable lymph, which more or
less agglutinates the parts together, and it is highly dan¬
gerous under this form. When the inflammation is mode¬
rate, the dropsical affection is not so dangerous. Its symp¬
toms are marked; there is tension of the abdomen, with a
feeling of undulation when struck, great thirst, short breath¬
ing, and scanty urine. Together with the internal effu¬
sion, there is sometimes present anasarca of the abdominal
parietes, sheath, and other parts. Here laxatives and diu¬
retics1 are the most appropriate remedies. In many other
cases, dropsy is purely a symptomatic affection, arising not
from any complaint of the peritoneum itself, but from
watery effusion, the consequence of impeded circulation
towards the heart. Enlargements of the liver and spleen,
anomalous tumors in the abdomen, and various diseases of
the heart and lungs, operate in this way. The complaint
is not very common in the horse, but we have frequently
witnessed it in mules and donkeys. Nor is it uncommon
in cows and sheep, being often in them conjoined with a si¬
milar affection in the chest. The dog, when labouring, as
I %* 7 ►_/1L X J • V V V_ IO Cll AiJliCti AH JL ) TV 111 11 CIO
1 e y evacuated, oily and mucilaginous liquids should be he often does, under the complaint, loses his appetite, the
1 scribed, with a little opium ; and the food should be countenance is haggard, the appearance dejected, abdo-
' y soft and spare. Arsenic was formerly given very free- men distended, and perhaps he is finally suffocated. In
-o horses; and corrosive sublimate is still administered these cases, temporary relief may be afforded by tapping Tapping,
a variety of complaints. In the case of an over-dose of with the trochar; when, from cattle, five or six gallons may
latter poison, white of eggs is an effectual antidote, if be drawn off, and sometimes with permanent relief. In
1 en m time. Without this albumen, inflammation is soon conducting the operation, care must be taken that the ab-
| need. For arsenic no antidote has yet been discovered, domen be swathed, and kept compressed. When dwelling
it le horse it cannot be vomited, which aggravates all the upon the peritoneum, we must not omit to mention that
j nptoms. The pain of the abdomen is made very manifest both it and its folds, as in the omentum and mesentery,
the wistful looks of the sufferer directed to his flanks ; are peculiarly liable to a variety of anomalous tumors, and
i Ntre, dose from half an ounce to an ounce; foxglove or digitalis, dose one to two drachms of the powder; cream of tartar, dose one
.° ounces; sweet spirit of nitre, Spiritus Etheris Nitrosi, dose one or two ounces; oil of juniper, dose one to two drachms, are
( !’ ’ c®oh||g diuretics, given once or twice a-day : Oil of turpentine, and the powdered resin, are somewhat stimulant, and therefore not
, 1’ °^d "here there is fever; they are however more commonly and extensively used than any of the others, and are more certain in
('r effects> dose two or three ounces of the oil, and from half an ounce to an ounce of the powdered resin, formed, with half a drachm
.inger and linseed meal, into a ball, by means of palm or other oil, or of soap.
V0L. XXI. J f 4 ^
626
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinaryto tubercles of various kinds, often produced by inflamma- sometimes resembling membranes, and to run on to deep V
Science, tion, and the occasion of obscure disease and of death. Ot and troublesome ulceiation.^ Ihe blood is sometimes ?
'these diseases, melanosis is one of the most extraordinary.
It consists of an extraneous deposition of a black amorphous
mass, or masses, which most frequently appear about the
rectum, but may occur in other localities: it is witnessed
almost exclusively in grey horses, and particularly when
sometimes
coagulated on the dung, and in such quantity as, with'*
other secretions, to receive the name of The Blood.
Upon the whole, it is a more dangerous complaint than
diarrhoea, and the symptoms, though to a certain extent
corresponding, are more severe. Great promptitude, there-
Scirrhus.
Diarrhoea.
Molten-
grease.
they are passing from a dark to a light colour. All these fore, should be used in endeavouring to effect a cure. In
cases are generally obscure during life, and are more fre- cattle, it is generally easy, by administeiing a dose or two
quently suspected than demonstrated. They are often,
however, seen on dissection, and a knowledge of their oc¬
currence is essential to satisfactory practice.
Scirrhus of the Stomach is one of those diseases
which we have occasionally witnessed in the horse, though
we do not remember it has anywhere been described. It
occurs at the cardiac oritice, and lower part of the (eso¬
phagus, but is still more frequent at the pyloric extremity.
Here the thickening is sometimes immense, appearing like
canker of the foot, with numerous and large granulations,
several inches long, and making the part feel as if distended
with food. These morbid growths produce symptoms of
eructation, and of acidity and distention, as already de¬
scribed. Anodynes may be administered; but the disease
is beyond the reach of art.
Diarrikea, Flux, Scouring, occurs in most of the do¬
mestic animals. It supervenes as a consequence of super¬
purgation, by which the animal is much weakened, and, in
the case of the horse, to his serious detriment. Physicing
used to be practised far too freely and frequently; and the
regulating of this fashion is one of the most decided im¬
provements in modern practice. Diarrhoea, however, often
occurs spontaneously, the result of change of food, irrita¬
tion in the bowels, or chill after over-exertion. When mo¬
derate, the pain is inconsiderable; but when aggravated,
the mucous membrane, which is the seat of the disease,
acqiflres a tendency to inflammation, and griping and colicy
pains are the consequence. It is most frequently witnessed
in what are called washy animals, whose loins are narrow,
with a long space between the ribs and ileum ; and this re¬
mark holds good of cattle, sheep, and dogs, as well as
horses. The disease should always be speedily checked.
If the food be at fault, it should be regulated, and green
meat should be withheld: if there be ground to suspect any
existing irritation, it should be removed by a laxative;
and chalk, or chalk with a little powdered opium, may after¬
wards be administered; this is a powerful remedy, as is also
catechu. Starch gruel should be given, and cold guarded
against. Some horses, in going to hunt, apparently from the
excitement, are troubled with occasional diarrhoea. Starch
of salts; a single dose often at once checking the disorder.
In sheep, chalk and warm milk, followed up with catechu
and opium, are very efficacious. In all the affected ani¬
mals, the diet must be carefully regulated, and small doses
of calomel, chalk, and opium given.1 This usually acts as
a charm, altering the morbid secretions, and affording re¬
lief. Anodyne clysters may also be used, and cold must
be avoided.
Obstruction of the Bowels may arise from a variety C
of causes, with which the veterinarian should be familiar,ti
and the disease may be more acute or chronic in its nature.
To the former category belong violent local spasm and
inflammation, producing intussusceptio and death in a few
hours. In enteritis and peritonitis likewise, there is some¬
times a remarkable and very complicated twisting, which
seems by its mechanical action alone to obstruct all descent
of the ingesta. Hernia’, external and internal, are addi¬
tional causes. To the latter class belong various tumors,
which are prone to occur, andschirrous contractions of the
canal itself, and the presence of foreign bodies. In all these
cases the practitioner must be on the alert. On the treat¬
ment of inflammatoiy attacks we have already dwelt. In-1
tussusceptio is a protrusion of an upper into a lower part'
of the bowel, or from inverted action, the reverse, as may
be seen in the finger of a glove. It is a frequent cause of
obstruction, as connected with inflammation, and is often
witnessed after death : it is very common in dogs, and more
frequent in sheep and cattle than in the horse. Ihe ex¬
tent to which it may occur is considerable, reaching to
many feet of inverted intestine. Sometimes it is near the
anus, and a part may protrude, and slough, and yet the ani¬
mal recover. In a variety of this complaint, occurring in
the rectum, the result of constipation, the part, impacted
with hardened faeces, which it cannot evacuate, is force
onwards by the peristaltic action, and is protruded a
hand-breadth, or even to double or triple that extent.
In these cases, the gut must instantly be relieved, and
then its return is easily accomplished. Cases of Hernia,
both external and internal, sometimes occur in the horse,
usually produced by violent exertion. The latter cases m
gruel, with chalk and a small quantity of powdered opium usually be fatal; the former occur in the s|;r0*^inJo^ ^
(a drachm for a dose), will generally prevent it. Molten-
grease, the Gras-fondu, is often associated with more ag¬
gravated cases of diarrhoea. It derives its name from the
appearance of fatty matter, forming a crust, or partial co¬
vering to the fmcal pellet. It is usually supposed to have
a constitutional origin, and to be connected with some in¬
flammatory tendency, more esp>ecially of the mucous mem¬
brane of the lungs, or with general fever. Be this as it
may, it is often produced by violent exertion in a horse,
which is not prepared for it, being fat and unaccustomed to
exercise. The symptoms of threatening fever are present,
and venesection is often the first step in the cure; the re¬
maining treatment is the same with that of diarrhoea.—Dr-
perfect horse. If immediately detected and reduced
animal may be saved. Foreign Bodies, which usua 5
produce obstruction, are called balls, and are distinguis e
as hair, dust, and calcareous balls. The Hair-ball, vejT
common in cattle and sheep, is produced by animas n
ing their coats. The hair thus introduced into thest01™ !
and there supplied with some nucleus, by the consten
con-
almost violent rotatory action of the part, is ^pcedOy^ ^
verted into a ball, most regularly and thoroughly
may continue a long while in the stomach, and ti
The Dust-ball, most common in horses, derives its nan^
from being composed chiefly of corn and barley dust, sa ^
in grinding meal, and used as food. It owes its ori0 ^
Dysentery, sentery, Cling and Breckshuach, in sheep, is likewise an the same phenomena occurring in the stomach, ^but^ ^
affection of the mucous membrane of the intestines. It frequently finds its way into the intestinal jm0St
differs from the foregoing, in having a tendency to be local, often several of them, as of the former. I ^ aj"^
almost
fed
especially in the large intestine, and termination of the gut; exclusively found in those animals which have
and also in being more violent, more apt to produce febrile on the substance. Whether the Calcareous comm0n
action, and effusion of bloody mucus and lymph-like matter, different origin, we do not know ; but it is of mos
Calomel, from one drachm to two drachms; chalk, from half an ounce to one ounce ; opium, half a drachm to one drachm.
it-ball.
cwotii
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
o urrence, and is generally found in the intestine, often in
t caput coecum. Its comparative frequency in some lo-
c ties is ascribed to the calcareous character of the dis¬
til, or of the water drunk. It often acquires a great size,
uhout pain or trouble. At. other times, however, stealing
o gradually, it undermines the health, and destroys life. In
a advanced stage, no doubt can remain as to the nature of
tl disorder. The countenance is haggard, the eye dis¬
used, the back up, the belly distended, the respiration
b omes hurried, bowels habitually costive, and sometimes
tl horse will sit like a dog, upon its haunches. Relief may
fi juently be afforded. Strong purgatives and large injec-
ti is must be given, and under their continued action the
o nding body is sometimes removed.
Various worms, some truly, others erroneously reputed
si h, infect the alimentary canal in the domestic animals,
a frequently occasion more alarm than is at all necessary.
( the former kind are the round worm, teres ; the thread
u tn, ascaris ; and the tape worm, tcenia. Of the latter
627
and their only food seems to be the juices of the mem-Veterinary
brane, without their irritating, in common circumstances, Science,
the parts. The hots, thus taking up their quarters about
the end of summer, pass the whole winter and spring with¬
out undergoing any change, except that of gradually en¬
larging. When arrived at maturity, they cease to retain
their hold on the stomach, and before this, all efforts to
force them are vain, commingle with its contents, pass into
the intestinal canal, and to the horror of stablemen, are
ejected in multitudes from the anus. As soon as they find
a convenient retreat, they change into a chrysalis, and in a
few weeks more, into a fly, which takes wing, finds its mate,
and thus is prepared for repeating the extraordinary pro¬
cess. The Red-tailed horse-bot, G. hcemorrhoidalis, is Red-tailed,
scarcely half the size of the former. This fly deposits its
eggs on the lips of the horse, to the exceeding annoyance
of the poor animal, which is no sooner aware of the pre¬
sence of his enemy, than he tosses his head, and gallops off
tn n rvor-f A rT,U~ 1 
to a different part of the field. The larvae taken into the
a various species of the extraordinary hot, the larvae of the stomach fix themselves exactly like the G. Equi, and differ
bhze, or gad-fly. In the horse, the taenia is very rare ; in in their future history only in this, that after leaving the
tl dog, exceedingly common. When the horse is un-  
d -fed, his bowels are full of the teres and ascaris ; and the
a, earance of his staring coat, want of flesh, and voracious
a elite, betoken it. The teres is somewhat larger than in
n i, the ascaris darker. They occasion gripes and diarrhoea,
b the mischief they produce is not great. The principal
h itat of the ascaris is the coecum, although they are some-
ties found in countless multitudes in the colon and rec-
tu. Turpentine is a deadly poison for all these worms;
b this medicine, so harmless in man, acts most disagree-
ay in the lower animals. Hence it must not be given to
tl nn pure or in large quantities, especially to the dog, but
n :ed, in small proportion with other oils, as linseed, or in
a, ill, or enclosed in a piece of gut, and with these pre-
c tions, it may be found at once safe and efficacious. In
tl s, the teres is the most common, especially in puppies ;
t taenia; the most prejudicial. The ascaris likewise tor-
n its them. If left undisturbed, the two former often occa-
i \fits, followed by emaciation and death. Iron filings, two
d dims to a dose, are highly reputed as an anthelmintic for
d s; but we believe turpentine, or small doses of tartar
aetic, to be more efficacious.
Ihe (EsTitiDiE, comprehending the Gad or breeze flies,
a not numerous in Britain, though the genus Gasterophi-
I containing several British species, has been distinguish-
e irom the (Estrus by Dr Leach. It is the larvae of the
h uer which invade the horse, while those of the latter at-
t c the ox and the sheep. Two species molest the horse,
!’ the stomach and intestines their habitation ; whilst
II :a^e> an(l the sheep, species of the other genus attack
s erally, the skin, and the cavity of the nose. Mr Blaine in¬
i' ns us that the dog is infested with one of these parasites,
v ch he is disposed to consider a hot, but its history has
1 hitherto been investigated, and we suspect that it is
1 vly a species of taenia, which we have often noticed.
e great-spotted horse-fly, G. Equi, which is by far the
^ common, also makes the ass its occasional victim.
ving selected the individual to which her future progeny
1 o be intrusted, she hovers about till she is prepared to
‘,0S1*' *ler egg* She then makes a sudden descent on her
| tnn, and glues it to his coat, repeating the operation till
r or five hundred are sometimes fixed on a single horse,
inside of the knee and shoulders being the selected lo-
ties; f°r the horse, in relieving irritation with his tongue,
> and teeth, is made the unconscious instrument of con-
stomach, and passing into the intestines, they are in no haste
to make their final exit, but continue for a considerable time
at the extremity of the rectum, there creating great unea¬
siness. Back-raking, under the circumstance, affords relief.
The Ox-Bot, CEstrus bovis, is about the size of the G.Equi. Ox-bot.
I hough appropriated to the ox, this species sometimes
attacks the horse. It is a cuticular insect, the eggs be¬
ing deposited externally in the skin of cattle, and the larvm
inhabiting a tumor, or abscess formed round them. These
tumors are usually found in the hack or loins, and are
often larger than a pigeon’s egg. When the fly is deposit¬
ing its ova, the cattle are in the extremest agitation and
dismay, and sometimes become quite furious, running off,
bellowing, at their full speed. The larva in its cyst gra¬
dually enlarges, while the pus that is secreted by the irri¬
tation serves for its nourishment. The tumors which are
produced are called warbles, wormals, or womils. The skin
and hide are permanently injured by being subjected to
this process. The Sheep-bot, CE. ovis, is thought to de- Sheep-bot
posit its eggs on the nostrils of the sheep, though, from the
agitation of the animal at the time, it is not easy to ascer¬
tain the fact. The larvae soon find their way to the frontal,
maxillary, and other sinuses of the face ; here they adhere
for a time, producing considerable inflammation. When
mature, the larva wriggles from its warm abode, falls into
the soil, there becomes a chrysalis, and continues dormant
for about two months. We refer for more ample details to
the writings of Mr Bracy Clark, who has acquired such
merited celebrity for his elucidation of this and other ab¬
struse departments of the science.
A variety of diseases are usually enumerated as occurring Liver,
in the Liver, more especially in the well-fed dray horses
of London, and in stall-led cattle. Acute Inflammation Inflamma-
is one, in which the pain of the affected part is very obscure, tion.
and the natural language of the sufferer not very expres¬
sive; nor is the symptomatic fever marked. Here a striking
analogy is noted, however, between the lower animals and
man, inasmuch as there generally is a sympathetic pain in
the right shoulder, so strongly marked as often to be mis¬
taken for the principal disorder, and treated accordingly.
Yellowness of the eye, and mucous membranes, and of
the urine, are also present. Bleeding, and purging with
aloes and calomel, are the appropriate remedies. Be¬
sides accte, there is also Chronic Inflammation of this Chronic,
viscus, marked by enlargement and softening, and not un-
frequently ulceration. The characteristic symptoms are,
a languid eye, unwillingness to move, indifference as
ing them into his stomach, where alone they can come
maturity. No sooner is this transfer made, than the larvm a languid eye, unwillingness to move, indifterence as to
^ disclosed, and immediately fix themselves upon the inner feeding, yellowness about the mouth, unthrifty coat, high-
11 of the viscus, where they hang in dense clusters, at- coloured brownish-yellow urine, constipated bowels, with
hcd by their head, which is provided with sharp hooks, faeces not of the natural appearance, but either of a light
628
VETERINARY
SCIENCE.
Veterinary colour, from want of bile, or of a dark hue, from excess of
Science, it. Along with this, there is pain, often with lameness of
the right shoulder. Under a course of laxatives with aloes
and calomel, we frequently find these symptoms disappear,
and health restored. If inveterate, it sometimes happens,
as subsequently proved by dissection, that the viscus is
quite disorganized, and frequently ruptured, when of course
Jaundice, there is great sinking, and sudden death. Jaundice, com¬
monly called the Yellows, is another disease which occurs,
and more frequently in the dog and sheep than in any other
of the domestic animals. Enough has already been said to
elucidate its symptoms and treatment.
The rot. The true pathology of the Rot in sheep was long ago
pointed out by the late professor of agriculture at Edinburgh,
to be “ a direful ruin of the general health and constitution,
which supervenes from deficient or depraved aliment.” In
Scotland it is agreed that it never occurs where there is an
adequate supply of good pasture, and rank grasses are held
universally to occasion it. Dr Coventry moreover stated,
that if not rendered desperate by fatal complications, every
flock and every sufferer may be recovered by simple means,
seasonably used. When all the powers of the constitution
are once prostrated, other and hopeless diseases undoubt¬
edly appear, of which character are pulmonary consump¬
tion, and the disorganized liver, which have attracted so
much attention. With this disorganization are conjoined
hosts of what are called fluhe-ivorms, from their resem¬
blance to flounders and other flat fish, and whose history is
yet involved in obscurity. Whether wdth the rank grasses
of marshy lands, which the sheep under the circumstances
are compelled to eat, the ova of the future parasite gets ad¬
mission into the frame, is a point which remains to be in¬
vestigated. The cause, however, being recognised, the
disease may generally be avoided, and when it exhibits it¬
self, the remedy is alike plain and simple,—to remove from
the noxious feeding, to relieve the bowels, and supply
plenty of wholesome nourishment.
Spleen. The diseases which have been principally signalized in
the Spleen, are enlargement, usually chronic, often united
with tubercles, sometimes with softening and rupture, and
of course speedy death. These diseases are not very com¬
mon, and are certainly obscure, being apt to be confound¬
ed with the anomalous tumors already noticed. They may
be marked by rigors, loss of flesh and appetite, but the
symptoms are rarely conspicuous. After sudden death from
rupture, occurring in a poney at work the day before, we
found this organ to weigh not less than seventy-two pounds.
Staking. Before leaving the abdomen, we must mention, that in
taking leaps, horses are sometimes wmunded in the belly,
or staked. The wound may, or may not penetrate the
cavity, which is easily ascertained by the finger. In the
latter alternative, it is comparatively of little consequence,
and the treatment is the same as in other skin wounds.
In the former, it is much more serious. A portion of the
bowel is almost sure to protrude, and the quantity is aug¬
mented by every step that is taken. Examination should
instantly be made to ascertain if the bowel itself is w'ound-
ed. If so, the lips of the wound must be nicely united with
catgut ligatures, before the intestine is returned. If this
cannot be done at the moment, a bandage and pad will
prevent its farther escape, till proper assistance is procured.
If the bowels are uninjured, by a little gentle manipulation
they may be replaced, the edges of the external wound
drawn together, and secured by pins and tow, and a bandage
bound round the body, sustaining a compress over the aper¬
ture. Our dread, after this,is that enteritis maybe produced.
Hence the antiphlogistic regimen must be pursued, and in
all its vigour. Venesection must be freely, and if there be
tenderness, repeatedly used; the diet must be very spare,
and of the softest kind, and with great care, a cure may be
effected. Another variety of the accident remains to be
noted
is where the muscles, or other parts of the parie
tes of the abdomen, are torn, while the skin remains ' —
tire ; a sac being formed,Jinto which some of the abdombaj
contents may protrude. In this case bandages and press '
must be carefully applied, and laxatives and snare Lt ^
scribed. met pre
In commencing our review of the diseases of the Urin¬
ary and Generative Organs, we remark that in tl
horse considerable advantage is derived from the size '
the parts, which allows the ready introduction of the anoint
ed hand into the rectum, so that the viscera, including evei
the kidneys and ureters, may be carefully examined
amtiin
it*
Nephritis is not a very common disease. It may bi
acute or chronic; sometimes it is idiopathic, sometime'
caused by the exhibition of particular drugs and food
When acute, the pain is violent, there is symptomatii
fever, and a peculiar straining of the body; "the anima
frequently lies down, and points with his nose, in his at
tempts to reach the seat of the disease ; the urine is high
coloured and scanty, and there are frequent ineffectua
efforts to pass some. The treatment consists in thi
vigorous employment of the antiphlogistic regimen, in thi
free use of decoctions of linseed, in fermentations and mus¬
tard poultices, blisters and turpentine being carefulh
avoided. In the cow, pus is often passed with the urine
which ought, and may easily be distinguished from Zra-
corrhcea. ILematuria, bloody urine, generally arises
from a diseased state of the kidneys, though it is sometimes
produced by diseased states and fungus of other parts o
the passage, and sometimes by violent strains and interna
ruptures. Genuine Diabetes, which is a protracted in
crease of the quantity of urine, with a change in its die
mical composition, is not a very rare complaint in horses
Great thirst is usually a prominent symptom, and feverish
ness. The pathology of the disease is obscure, but seemi
to be connected with derangement of the digestive organs
Purging, especially wfith aloes or croton, or with salts, to¬
gether with astringent medicines, such as carbonate of soda
chalk and lime, also catechu, should be used, and a changi
in the food, which should be of the best quality. Carrot
are regarded serviceable, as also the mixture of a litth
pipe-clay or pease-meal with the water drunk. We havi
found iodine a never-failing remedy, very useful in cor
reeling the thirst, and checking the flow of urine. Calculi ^ '*'■
are often found in the kidneys of all the domestic animals
including the pig ; but they do not readily pass down into
the bladder, on account of the horizontal position of tbf
ureter. They occasionally produce immense enlargemeni
of the ureters, and considerable irregularity in the func¬
tions of the part.
Inflammation sometimes occurs in the bladder, more
especially about the neck : the symptoms are pain in tht
viscus, and constant micturition, with others as state(;|arillM.
under nephritis, and the treatment generally resembki
what has been advised for that complaint. The injectioi
of a little warm oil into the bladder, often affords singula:
relief. Calculus is occasionally witnessed in this viscus
and the symptoms are well marked in the constant irnta
tion and the dribbling of urine; manual examinatior
speedily confirms suspicion. It is sometimes seen in valu¬
able young colts and slots, and an attempt must be made
to afford relief. This may be effected by cutting merely^1
partly by dilatation. Lithotomy in the horse is not sr
perilous, or difficult an operation as in man, the spact
being much more ample. The following is the mode n
which it may most easily be accomplished. A sounc r
to be passed up the urethra, till it is felt in the perinseunii
an incision is then made into the canal, and a “1’’ec,
introduced from this point into the bladder; with
probe-pointed bistoury the incision is to be enlarged on
left side of the raphe; the right hand is now introduce
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
629
iv to the rectum, the two fingers of the left into the blad-
' >r • the stone may thus be pushed against these fingers,
ijd by them guided to the neck of the bladder, and so
reed through the opening in the urethra. A stone weigh-
y four and a half ounces has thus been successfully remov-
| and the wound healed quickly. Sometimes a soft pulpy
ass almost fills up the viscus. Fungous Growths and
cerations are apt to occur in the mucous coat of the cow's
adder, and corresponding diseases in the horse, and in
e glans penis. In the former case, they are not easily re-
edied; in the latter, the diseased part should be excised,
tion. astration is a formidable operation, especially in the full-
own horse, and is best performed by making an incision
rough the scrotum, allowing the testicle to protrude, tying
e arteries, cutting the cord, and removing the gland,
bese we know are but hints, but our limits prohibit details.
3 to Nicking and Docking, w'e believe the time is near
hand when even the Cow-leech will perceive the ab-
rdity of endeavouring to improve upon the fair forms of
e most graceful works of nature, and will leave the horse’s
il, no less ornamental than useful.
Inflammation of the Udder, Garget, occurs in the
are as well as in cattle, as a consequence of parturition ;
though it is only in the latter that it is produced from the
irbarous practice of hefting, delaying milking, that the
lantity may appear the greater. In bad cases, when the
ilk cannot be elicited in the common way, a fine hollow
be (made for the purpose) may be introduced into the
at; through this the milk flows, and the udder resumes
• healthy tone. In severe cases the inflammation runs so
gh, that mortification is the consequence, and the udder
ops off. When this threatens, blood should be drawn
2ely from the milk veins, purgatives should be adminis-
red, the weight of the part supported, and poultices ap-
ied. Suppuration will thus frequently be induced, and a
incture being made, will relieve. Inflammation of the
Ider, more general or partial, and sometimes confined to
ie teat, is frequently so severe in the ewe, that she re-
ses all sustenance to her lambs, so that they actually die
starvation. The treatment for the dam, is in principle,
le same as that just mentioned. In the bitch the disease
ten becomes chronic, and excision is necessary.
The Respiratory System includes the cavity of the
ose, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, and chest, with
ieir several component structures. Each distinct part is
able to assume morbid action, whilst, at the same time,
veral of the tissues are continuous, and common to two
r more of the above named parts, so that any disease at-
icking one, is apt to spread to others.
As it regards the Nose, the phenomena produced by its
avities being infected with the Bot, have already been
lentioned. Fungous excrescences not unfrequently pro-
eed from the turbinated bones and septum, and appear as
olypus, so interrupting the respiration. In their more ag-
ravated form they secrete pus, and produce a consider-
hle discharge, so that the animal may be supposed to
ibour under glanders. The remedy here is to remove
ie polypus with the forceps, subsequently washing the
arts with a styptic lotion. Nasal Gleet from inflam-
lation of the Schneiderian membrane, has sometimes been
escribed as an independent local complaint. Any obser-
ations which we have to make upon it, will find a place,
bile considering those disorders of which it frequently
onstitutes a conspicuous part.
W hen treating of the gullet, wre had occasion to men-
ion one cause of Choking, connected with foreign bodies
Jdging in the narrowest part of the tube. We have now
0 add, that draught horses, during a dead pull up hill,
offletimes choke from the pressure of the collar on the
n , pipe. They may stagger a little before falling, or fall
ory
)IN
fa,
rithout
warning. The wheels should, under the circum¬
stances, be set across the road, and the collar thrown off Veterinary
the windpipe. The accident is most apt to occur when Science,
the animal is put to draw with a bite in his mouth, as often
happens on canal banks. When the morsel goes down
the gullet, it is intercepted by the collar, and the two
pressing on the windpipe, compress it; and so many horses
have been lost. A knowledge of the fact should lead to the
necessary precaution. Inflammation of the larynx Laryngitis,
frequently takes place, the disease at the same time spread- .
ing from the delicate lining membrane to the nearest parts.
In this way lymph is effused, and the play of the parts im¬
peded. Sometimes the smaller cartilages themselves are
altered, being thickened and contorted, and small tumors
are apt to be produced, both within the tube and -without
it. The marked symptoms are local pain, difficulty in
breathing and s-wallowing, and general fever: the treat¬
ment required is venesection, and the other parts of the
antiphlogistic regimen. Tumors occurring in this locality
in cattle, constitute the disease called Clyers, which, Clyers.
though it may not for a time interfere with fattening, yet
speedily injures health.
Connected with the larynx and trachea chiefly, but Disorders
sometimes also with the lungs, are various distressing affec- of breatb-
tions of the breathing, which, from the character of the ^Si-
respiration, have procured for the animals labouring under
them such names as these, Piper, Trumpeter, wheezer,
whistler, blower, grunter, roarer, to the causes of which
infirmities we shall now allude. The rima glottidis and
larynx are supposed to be peculiarly affected, when there
is that sharp and hasty sound which is expressed by the
first two of these terms. The Whistler utters a somewhat
shrill sound, when in somewhat continued exercise, and
this is supposed referable to some cause producing con¬
traction in the trachea. The sound of the Wheezer is some¬
what like that of an asthmatic person, and is supposed to
proceed from an over-copious secretion in the bronchiae;
it is heard even when the horse is at rest. Roaring is
confined to the increased sonorousness of breathing, on
any considerable exertion. A Highhlower is an animal
which puffs and blows loudly, dilating his nostrils, while
the flanks are comparatively quiet; and in the Grunter it
is supposed there is some altered structure in the lungs,
which interferes with all considerable exertion. A horse la¬
bouring under this infirmity, when suddenly touched with
the whip or spur, will at all times utter this grunting sound.
In further illustration of these material infirmities, we shall
dilate a little on Roaring and Broken-Wind. Mr White Roaring,
mentions, that he had once and again examined animals
which were perfectly useless from Roaring, and had found
every part healthy except the larynx, which was ulcerous.
Many roarers, however, have subsequently been examined,
in which the larynx was quite sound, while the lining mem¬
brane of the trachea was thickened. Tight reining has been
ascertained to be a cause, the windpipe being found flatten¬
ed, and bent from the bearing of the bridle. Obstruction of
the nose, hepatization of the lungs, and even enlargement
of the liver have been suspected. In several instances, we
have noticed tumors in the passage, and a wasting of the
muscles on one side of the larynx. Thick-wind is dis¬
tinguished from Broken-wind. In the former the breath-Broken-
ing is rapid and laborious, but the inspiration and expira- wind,
tion are equally so. In broken-wind again, the inspiration
is performed at one effort, and the expiration requires a
kind of double effort. The cause of broken-wind seems to
be the rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs, w here¬
by air-vesicles are produced on the surface, and the expul¬
sion of the air is rendered less direct and easy. It is
usually produced by animals being urged to over-exertion
when in bad condition, though ahorse may becomebroken-
winded in a straw-yard. Although the cure of this affec¬
tion is not to be expected, yet it can often be very much
630
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinary mitigated, and that mainly by attending to the diet, con¬
science. densing nutriment into the smallest compass, keeping the
'***^Y^*~' bowels open, and giving little water before work.
Tracheotomy is the operation by which the trachea is
Tracheo- opened, the name Bronchotomy being often inaccurately
tomy. applied to it. It is performed chiefly in cases of sudden
obstruction, which cannot be removed on the instant, but
which it is anticipated will soon be overcome. It is fre¬
quently practised on the horse. The operation is simple,
the incision being made in the mesial line, separating the
muscles, and then slitting through a couple of rings, the
canula being left in. While the opening was left, we have
known the roaring horse to be free from his complaint for
many months; but from this operation no one would ex¬
pect any thing like permanent relief.
Strangles. The account usually given of Strangles is not so
simple as it might be. It is a disease of the horse, and few
escape it. It attacks them when young, colts not excepted.
Generally, however, it exhibits itself at the age of four or
five years, during the prevalence of pulmonary complaints.
It may be defined a catarrhal affection, accompanied by a
specific phlegmonous affection of the cellular membrane of
the throat, tending to abscess, with slight fever. The
whole cellular membrane, between the branches of the
lower jaw, becomes distended with serous and lymphy effu¬
sion, acquiring a firm and solid feel, and is tender and hot;
it advances to suppuration, and terminates in abscess gene¬
rally of the throat, but sometimes also in other parts of the
body. This alone is Strangles, all other symptoms being
only concomitant or accidental. Such are the soreness of
the throat, the redness and discharge from the nose, the
cough, and tumefaction of the salivary glands. Inflamma¬
tion of the trachea and lungs, and some say glanders, may
supervene upon this complaint. The only treatment re¬
quired in an ordinary case, is the application of a blister, to
urge nature to terminate the process. The abscess should
be opened as soon as ripe, and suppuration promoted by
slight digestives. Hundreds of cases have been witnessed
without one fatal termination.
Catarrh. Common Cold is familiarly known in the lower ani¬
mals ; and three stages are observable. At first, there is
a discharge, chiefly watery, from the nose, with irritation
of the nasal and neighbouring membranes; secondly, in
two or three days there is a copious discharge of thick yel¬
low mucus, and the membranes become slightly inflamed;
there is irritation of the larynx and trachea, with fulness
and a tendency to swelling, feverishness, and sonorous
cough. Soreness of the throat is often present, and the
lungs frequently become involved. In the third stage,
usually most marked where the treatment has been neglect¬
ed, the animal apparently regains health and spirits, but
the cough, though milder, continues; an evil which should
anxiously be guarded against. The nasal discharge also con¬
tinues, and sometimes terminates in glanders. The com¬
plaint, as it regards the horse, requires nothing more than
a few days’ confinement in a stable of mean temperature,
from 50° to 60°Fahr., w’arm clothing, bran-mashes, instead
of corn, with a little laxative and diuretic medicine. If
the parts about the throat are much involved, an epispastic
should be applied. If the constitutional symptoms run
high, venesection should be employed, and the sooner the
better. In combating the third stage, a rowel or seton may
be made under the jaw; the bowels should be kept free,
exercise steady, and by and by tonics, as sulphate of iron.
Influenza. Epidemic Catarrh, Influenza, the Distemper of
Horses and Dogs. This very prevalent disorder is, we
conceive, not infectious, but epidemic; and different epi¬
demics exhibit characters as diverse as it is possible to
conceive. Consisting essentially of the train of symp¬
toms so well known as catarrh, with the addition of fever,
more like the product of an atmospheric poison than any
thing else, the symptoms are sometimes those of hieh in iL
flammatory diathesis, sometimes those of the most co ^
piete depression and exhaustion. Hence, the most acnN ^
rate description of one epidemic is quite inapplicable t" *
another, and even the individual cases differ, thouo-h par°
taking of the general type. This being true of the symn'
toms, there is a corresponding variety in the treatment and
probable result. We shall now make a few remarks on
cases at the opposite limits of the scale, and the reader
will readily understand the intervening varieties. Influ.
enza, with inflammatory diathesis, comes on like a severe
attack of common catarrh, the lining membrane of the nose
being highly irritable, with a distillation of watery fluid-
the irritation rapidly spreads to the frontal sinuses, the eve
and throat, with oppression, and failure of appetite. A
thick discharge of the watery fluid soon takes place, the
parts about the throat and windpipe become highly irrit¬
able, swallowing difficult, and the food is quidded, and
even water swallowed with difficulty; the cough is very
troublesome ; the pulse rapid, and the fever high. These
symptoms would run rapidly to a fatal termination, and
blood-letting is clearly the best remedy. The blood is very
sizy, the venesection may require to be repeated, and the
other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen must be employed.
But at other times the attending fever is of the very oppo-
site character, amounting almost to putrid fever, when the
visitation goes under the name of malignant epidemic. De¬
bility, and tendency to sinking, here form the type of the at¬
tack. From the very commencement, the poor animal stag¬
gers in his gait, and can scarcely stand; he refuses food, and
is deprived of all energy; the pulse is rapid, small, and
weak, while the catarrhal symptoms are still conspicuous.
Even at the commencement, there is scarcely room for ve¬
nesection, and yet the tendency to inflammation is mani¬
fest, and not only in the respiratory organs, but also in
other parts. Here the practice must be the reverse of that
above alluded to : refrigerants, anodynes, tonics, saltpetre,
sweet spirits of nitre, camphor, laudanum, and wine must be
had recourse to, with hand-rubbing, wisping, judicious ven¬
tilation, clothing, and placing in a loose box. These are
descriptions of extreme cases, and the vast majority met
with in practice lie between them. Sometimes an early
and moderate bleeding is all that is required. The tend¬
ency to sinking appears to be thus diminished ; and some¬
times no venesection is required. The complaint is apt to be
tedious, and also to relapse; so that the considerations which
would recommend care after common catarrh, are doubly
cogent in reference to influenza. We have stated that this
is the distemper of the horse: it is also the distemper ot
Dogs, in which it is apt to be severe, accompanied with a
staggering gait, and delirium from affection of the brain.
In milder cases, it forms the snifters of various animals.
Under the general term Inflammation of the Ldngs, 1
several very distinct affections are included. The bronchiat
are lined with mucous membrane to the minutest cells; the
entire organs—all the lobes—are included in the lining
membrane, the pleura, which also covers the whole internal
cavity of the chest; and there is finally the parenchymatous
substance. Hence bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia,
though all in a general way, inflammation of the lungs, an
having many things common, yet differ widely in symptoms,
history, and treatment. They are all in the highest degree
dangerous, are marked by symptoms of high inflammatory
fever, and require prompt observance of the antiphlogist'^ ,
regimen. A tendency to Bronchitis, and often more
than a tendency, is witnessed in catarrh, and still more m
influenza, and it also shows itself as an original imopat
affection. The irritation and soreness are considerable, m
natural secretion is apt to be greatly augmented in quan
tity and vitiated in quality, becoming viscid and S™1*?0? ’
and suffocation and death may be the consequence o
L.
VETERINARY SCIENCE. 6si
inary fusion into the air-cells. Pleurisy, again, is apt to at- worse than all, kept in an Augean pest-house. That such Veterinary
e. ,ck the serous membrane, from sudden chills and other combination of circumstances may induce tuberculous com- Science.7
causes; the inflammation speedily proving a great check plaints, the history of many familiar diseases too clearlv^^
'• i the breathing. Serous effusion is usually the conse- demonstrates. The matured matter of these tubercles is
lence, whereby the play of the lung is impeded, and decidedly contagious, and thus may the disorder be inocu-
• ay be arrested, and ymph effused, whereby dangerous lated and propagated in a thousand ways ; and it mav also
Jhesions are produced. Pneumonia, again, with some- as held by high authorities, have still more frequently a
hat of the same local symptoms, extends to the disor- spontaneous origin. There is nothing inconceivable in the
inization of the proper substance of the lungs, loading idea that this, like other tuberculous complaints, may in its
iem with effusion, and hepatizing them. These dis- early stage, and under favouring circumstances, lie, or be
ises, though distinct in origin and nature, are apt to be kept latent and innocuous; whilst if advanced to a certain
.mbined in progress, and hence the hazard is augmented, point, it becomes irresistible, and defies all the powers of
leeding in large quantities at first, refrigerants, laxatives, art. Hence the distinction into chronic and acute glanders
datives, blistering, and setons, are the appropriate reme- The disease usually attracts attention only when the
es. As bronchitis advances, care must be taken not to tubercles are advancing to maturity. Farcy-buds, small
i low the strength to sink too much. Chronic Cough is tumors, are now seen in various situations, as on the
sequel of the foregoing inflammatory diseases, and of legs, or inside of the thigh, under the collar bone, in the
hers of the lungs and wind-pipe, as has been mentioned, head, neck, or in the axilla, produced apparently from over-
is common, and may often appear innocuous, but should exertion or exposure. They are touched with the cautery,
ways be regarded with suspicion; the animals suffering tonics are prescribed, (sulphate of copper, zinc, or iron) ;
ider it should be watched, and the bowels kept easy. Boil- every thing in the stable obnoxious to health, is removed ;
the animal gets full diet, plenty of air and exercise ; the dis¬
ease is arrested, and a cure may be effected. When the
disorder commences, as commonly, in the nasal cavity, the
discharge is successively watery, gluey, pustular. When
inspected, the surface being studded with small ulcerating
tubercles, has a marked and peculiar aspect, not uniform
and continuous, but irregular and angry, from the number
of minute irritable ulcers, with deep and well-marked
margins. Under favouring circumstances, these spread
fast; all the nasal cavities are soon involved; the lym¬
phatic glands under the jaw participate ; tubercles de-
velope themselves in the lungs, usually the prelude of
death; the horse loses flesh ; he falls from his meat;
cough succeeds; strength fails; the discharge from the
turnips, carrots, barley, and bran mashes form useful
eding.
Consumption affects cattle, sheep, and swine, more fre-
lently than horses, and the young rather than the old. It
ises from neglect, cold, and exposure in damp unpro-
cted situations, and is very insidious in its attack and pro-
ess. The animal becomes thin, the coat staring, the
in appearing as if glued to the ribs ; obstinate cough su¬
bvenes; discharge is frequent from tiie nose, and granu-
r swelling appears about the neck. On dissection the
ngs are studded with tubercles. Ulcers in the lungs,
mcx, may be numerous, and the mesenteric glands are
equently implicated and enlarged. The mesenteric ar-
ry, too, is often enlarged, especially in the ass ; and with-
J’     twill- 5 OLlCIJgLII l£Uld, LUC UiSCUcUgC 110111 1110
it are found a number of worms, the Strongylus and nose becomes purulent and most offensive ; and the emaci-
TATOTA If i*-. *-v     1 „„ „ _ L‘ 4.1, „   1 V * __1 1 .l • 1 ..1 .11 1. i/i i.
ilaria. It is in the early stage alone of the complaint,
at any thing can be done; and the prospect of cure is
it faint.
crs. Glanders and Farcy are usually regarded as the most
iportant diseases to which the horse is subject; (the
ule and ass are also liable ;) but every account with
liich we are acquainted is nevertheless unsatisfactory, and
ore calculated to puzzle and perplex, than to enlighten
id satisfy. One author mentions that no fewer than sixty
uses ot the complaint have been enumerated; whence
may safely be concluded that the true one was yet to be
und. I he full elucidation of the subject would require
ore space than we can here allow. Professor Dupuy,
Ms celebrated work on the subject,1 rendered good ser-
ated loathsome animal must at length be relieved from his
misery. Whenever the disease appears among a sound
stud, the infected animal should instantly be removed, and
every part of the stall, stable, and its furniture must undergo
a complete purification ; but the glandered horse, well fed,
lodged, and groomed, will often work for years, and improve
upon it. Such animals are sources of danger to other
civ ya 10 1JV-/ » »-'» LlJdCDO 11 liOcll lolclU IUI Y} ctLJLl It* OHL.1I ctil ILllclld ell v. RUUIL/L.S UI LicLli^C.1 IU ULIlt-F
ore calculated to puzzle and perplex, than to enlighten horses, also to their attendants, who may be glandered by
id satisfy. f>no them ; but isolated, they may be profitable to their own¬
ers, and not burdensome to themselves. Simple discharges
of matter from the nostrils must not be mistaken for glan¬
ders.
W'ater of the Chest, as stated above, is an occa- Hydro-
 j 7  0  sional consequence of Pleurisy, which, under the circum-thorax.
;e 'yhen he so ably and irrefragably established that in stances, requires time and great care ere it can be re-
*s disease (for all are agreed that the two named above medied. Often, in more chronic cases, pain and symp-
“ oi;ly modifications) there occurs the development of toms of inflammation are not detected. Effusion, how-
lumerable tubercles ;—whether in one particular tissue, ever, steals on in the cavity, and the lungs become op¬
pressed. The chest when struck, now returns a dead,
dull sound, and not the sonorous tone it emits when the
healthy lung is in immediate juxtaposition. Diuretics,
laxatives with mercury, tonics, and repeated blistering, are
the appropriate remedies. It is for such cases that Para- Paracen-
centisis is performed, by which the watery effusion is eva- tis s.
cuated, and the lung left free. This operation, however,
is often little better than a forlorn hope. The operation is
very easily performed. An opening is made between the
eighth and ninth ribs, near the anterior edge of the ninth,
and not far Horn the sternal extremity. The trochar and
canula are here to be introduced, and the stream flows
apace. Caution however must be exercised, in arriving at
a correct diagnosis ; for we have known the animal expire
in the hands of the operator, from air rushing in upon the
l the mucous, or in several, has not hitherto been deter-
. • , these minute tubercles we should ascribe the
gin ol the nasal affection, as well as of the farcy-buds;
“ ^sorbents in the former, as well as in the latter affec-
n> being speedily implicated. At first they are very
u l Under certain circumstances they may lie dor-
int: or, on the contrary, they may proceed rapidly to
‘t isome maturation, when various parts of the frame
Gime crowded and contaminated with them, to the
snaction ot life. It is a domestic disease, unknown
H)ng the hordes of wild horses ; of a scrofulous charac-
> unheard ot in climes where struma is unknown ; and
8 rvation and filth, because it seldom or never origi-
^ ln a "ell-ordered stable, but is ever found rife where
mrses are over-worked, ill-fed, and neglected, and,
1 De 1’Affection Tuberculeuse, &c. Paris, 1817.
632
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinary healthy lung, instead of water flowing out and relieving the
Science, oppressed one, so causing instant destruction.
The Diseases of the Heart and Beood-Vessels
have not received that attention in veterinary science which
their importance claims. As throwing light upon some of
them, and on pathology generally, we shall here introduce
Plethora, a few remarks on Plethora. When the supply of food
is greater than the exigencies of the system require, an
animal usually becomes fat, but still may be tolerably
healthy. When, however, a sudden change is made from
poor to rich feeding, not fatness but plethora may be the
consequence ; more blood is formed than the system can
easily dispose of, and it becomes oppressed. This effect is
often witnessed in cattle and sheep, which, after indulging
for a time in luxuriant pastures, take what is called a shot
of Blood. All at once they become very ill; some part of
the body swells, becomes puffy, as if containing air, and in
two or three hours the animal is dead, from the Quarter-evil,
already described. Upon dissection a large quantity of
black and decomposed blood is found in the cellular mem¬
brane which during life was distended. The horse seldom
suffers in this way ; but in him plethora creates a strong
disposition to inflammation of the eyes, feet, and lungs, and
sometimes to an eruption which is called a Surfeit, or the
Nettle-rash. The hair falls off in patches, and the skin is raw
and pimpled. There is also a tendency to grease, and to
what has been designated a weed, or Shot of grease, in the
heavy draught breed. One of the legs, generally a hind
one, suddenly swells ; the animal becomes lame; there is
pain in the inside of the thigh, increased upon pressure ;
and fever supervenes. The disease bears a close resem¬
blance to the Phlegmasia dolens of our species, and the
leg often becomes as thick as the thigh. We consider it
a disease of the absorbents ; these vessels enlarging to
the size of a quill, and having their vasa vasorum highly
injected. We have seen it occur chiefly during continued
rest after hard work and exposure to weather, in animals
which were highly fed. The best treatment is large blood¬
letting, scarifying the limb, fomenting, and applying hay,
straw, or flannel bandages, with purgatives and diuretics.
The pressure of a bandage will expedite the reduction of
the part to its natural dimensions.
Carditis. Some of the diseases of the sanguiferous system are
acute, others chronic. Inflammation may attack the heart,
and is always most dangerous ; the symptomatic fever runs
high, and is generally remarkable for the bounding velo¬
city of the pulse. Venesection must be alike prompt and
free, and the other parts of the antiphlogistic regimen in
keeping. When pleurisy exists, the pericardium cannot
well escape, and the latter membrane may be the origin of
the mischief. In either case the Pericarditis is apt to
terminate in dropsy of the membrane, in one case of which
we found not less than four pounds of serum. Enlarge¬
ment of one or other of the cavities is by no means un¬
common, and the valves are often ossified. Aneurism of
the great arteries occurs, but is very rare. These affec¬
tions are more frequent in cattle than in the horse ; and
not unfrequently we have witnessed some foreign body, as a
needle, work its way into the heart, and destroy life.
The only other complaints belonging to this section we
shall mention, are diseases which arise from phlebotomy.
The first of these, though it may alarm the inexperienced,
Thrombus. is very trifling. It is a globular swelling, Thrombus, some¬
times as large as the fist, arising immediately around the
newly-made incision. The filtrating of the blood from
the vein into the cellular membrane, which is the cause
of the disease, is rarely very copious. Gentle pressure may
be used at first, and should be maintained with a well-
Inflamma- applied sponge and bandage, kept cool with cold lotion,
tion of ju- Occasionally there is inflammation of the jugular from
gular. bleeding, and more rarely, of the plate and saphena vein.
wl#
The cause is usually referred to the use of a foul
or lancet, or from allowing hairs or other foreign
to interfere with the accurate adjustment of the edges
of the wound. The first appearance indicative of the
disease, is a separation of the cut edges of the inte<ni-
ments, which become red and somewhat inverted. Sup¬
puration soon follows, and the surrounding skin appears
tumified, tight, and hard, and the vein itself above the ori¬
fice, feels like a hard cord. After this the swelling of the
neck increases, accompanied with extreme tenderness; and
now there is constitutional irritation, with tendency to in¬
flammatory fever. If, under these circumstances, the ani¬
mal be not relieved, the head becomes swollen on one side
the sensorium disturbed, and death is sometimes, though
seldom, the consequence. The mischief is supposed to
arise from the inflammation spreading from the surface to
the interior coat of the vein ; and the disease in the neck
does not proceed towards the heart, as in man, but in the
opposite direction. In the first stage we must try to re¬
lieve by evaporating lotions, or by fomentations. If these;
fail, and as soon as the disease begins to spread in the
vein, the appropriate remedy is to touch the spot with the
actual cautery, simply to sear the lips of the wound, and
apply a blister over it, which may be repeated. Purga¬
tives in full doses must be administered, and the neck as
much as possible, kept steady and upright.
Connected with the circulating system, we should not
omit to state, that small parasites, popularly called worms,
are sometimes found in the blood-vessels, and other parts.
This is true in man, and still more in the lower animals.
We allude chiefly to the strongylus and filaria, which are!
found chiefly in the aorta and cceliac plexus. Allusion
has already been made to them under phthisis; and it is
one of the filaria that is found in the aqueous humour of
the eye of horses in the East Indies. They are accused
of appearing in some of the viscera, and there causing
disease ; as, for example, in the bronchiae. In these cases
turpentine should be administered by inhalation and the
mouth. We once, whilst castrating a colt, met with
strongylus in the spermatic vessels. The subject is toe
extensive to be prosecuted here.
The Brain and Nerves, as may be well supposed, pre¬
sent an interesting, if not a very numerous group of dis- M
eases. We commence with Fits of various kinds; and
this the more willingly, as we are not satisfied that theii
pathology has very satisfactorily been ascertained. Swoon- ooning
ing Fits appear in horses and dogs. The horse staggers,
swings from side to side, lies on the pole, stops and falls,
or falls running. The fit probably arises from accumula¬
tion of blood in the head ; it is most common in hot
weather, going up hill; and some animals are very liable
to it. Whenever the horse shews any tendency to giddi¬
ness, he should be pulled up, and so may recover in an in¬
stant. Before proceeding, see that the windpipe be free
and the bearing rein slack. Should the horse fall) r"'
move the harness, assist him to rise, and if water be
hand, give him a few mouthfuls. This attack, in pop11'
language, is a Megrim, an appellation which should gi'f
place to that of Vertigo, or Giddiness. There are ei
and more aggravated forms of the affection, proceeding (
what is regarded Epilepsy, or the Falling-sickness. ^
these cases the horse rears up and falls suddenly, or i
reels about and then falls; the muscles of the eye ar
affected with spasm, so that this organ is greatly distor e ^
the breathing is often disturbed, and sometimes Here
violent motion of the legs. The duration of the nt v ^
from a few minutes to several hours. “He, safs. ^
Youatt, “ who values his own safety, or the ^lives 0 ^
family, will cease to use an epileptic horse. e
Dr Gregory had his arm broken from a horse bein,, ^
tacked with this disease. If the horse is pletioric,
rtijft
lilepsj-
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
633
•I)'
ould be bled. The bowels should be kept open, and
I > feeding be moderate. Setons to the neck should also
[• tried. Apoplexy is a disease to which the horse is
j. very subject. Sometimes the stroke is sudden, and the
{ e severe; but more commonly some warning is given.
r e animal will be seen with his head low, or supported
a linst the manger; he staggers as he stands, and if’moved,
a >ears as if he would fall; his sight and hearing are af-
j ted. He will continue in this state for several, perhaps
t jive hours. He then falls, grinds his teeth, with eyes
fjn, protruded, and fixed, the pupil dilated, and twitch-
i s about the frame; he is unable to swallow, the drink
i 'eturned by the nostril or the mouth, and the dung often
\ ded involuntarily; the twitchings increase to convul-
s ns, and death speedily closes the scene. The treatment
i ;he most copious bleeding, with the other parts of the
< ^phlogistic treatment.
The frightful disease of Mad Staggers is seen in the
I rse, ox, and sheep. It occurs in plethoric subjects after
•hat exertion, exposure to the meridian sun, and high
pding, though the distension of the stomach has not a pri-
t ry share in its production. The first stage is that of
sggish circulation and oppressed brain. The animal
s nds with his head thrust against some hard body, his
6> closed, and he yawns, doses, and sleeps till he ac-
t Jly falls down, sometimes backwards, in his stall. This
s rtles him, and he rises hastily, but soon relapses. The
) se is slow, breathing sometimes stertorous, the appetite
i laired, and the animal will dose with the morsel in his
i uth. These lethargic symptoms may continue several
C;s, and may at last end fatally, or they may be succeed-
i by wild and furious delirium. The pulse now rises,
i piration quickens, the countenance becomes animated,
1: conjunctiva flushed. Fits of delirium appear, the
1 se dashes himself furiously about, throws himself down,
I > in temporary insensibility, suddenly rises, again be-
i nes convulsed, and again relapses into stupor. Approach
i such an animal is highly dangerous; for he will rear,
eel round upon his hind legs, and fall back with a vio-
ice which threatens instant destruction. These convul-
e agonies may continue for hours, before death closes the
lie. On dissection the brain is found turgid with blood,
d water occasionally in the ventricles. Cattle and sheep,
j these animals it is the Louping-ill), when attacked,
mhle, fall dowm, and subsequently roll and toss about:
‘ ox gores at every thing within its reach. The treat-
nt must be most active. The bleeding should be push-
to faintness, and the more rapid the evacuation the bet-
• The same energy should be employed in the other
Ts of the antiphlogistic regimen.
^ ater in the Brain, Dropsy in the Brain, Sturdy,
raggies, Turn-sick, Gid, Giddiness. This disease is rare
the horse, not unfrequent in cattle, dogs, and sw ine, and
i'y common in sheep. The disease is sometimes acute,
II more frequently chronic, occasionally congenital, when
ny ounces of fluid are found in the ventricles. Young
j eP and hogs are most liable to Sturdy. At first the ani-
! detaches itself from the rest of the flock, and appears dull
• l stupid; by and by it goes round about, as if giddy, and
• length appears blind, in which state it may long continue,
yet recover. The disease depends upon the effusion of
■ ^either on the surface of the brain, or into the ventricles,
uPon die spontaneous growth of hydatids within the skull.
16 remedies which have been proposed, are the making
•1 perforation into some part of the cranium, and amongst
>eis, through the nose and cribriform plate into the
':t- ’ and in those cases where the serum or hydatids are
b Ieached, no doubt immediate benefit may result,
one case in three has been thus restored. The
lout
datids
? may occur in any part, and careful examination on
-SU1 lace sometimes shews the exact locality, so that the
vol. xxi. J
spot may be trepanned. In cases where their effects cannot Veterinary
be detected, it would be folly to proceed farther. Blisters Science.
and setons have been proposed, and laxatives should bev^^'^w
given ; and if these fail, the animal should be killed, as the
disease does not injure the mutton. Palsy also occurs Palsy,
in the domestic animals, and is common in the dog. In the
horse it is sometimes idiopathic, but occurs more frequent¬
ly in the hind legs, from severe injury of the spine. If the
disease is slight, epispastics, with friction, may in time be
useful; if aggravated, the case is hopeless. Tumors of Tumors.
the Brain are frequently met with on dissection, and pre¬
cede and probably produce some of the diseases of the head.
Their existence, however, can only be suspected, and art
has no control over them.
Our views respecting the highly interesting disease ofHydro-
Rabies, or Canine Madness, are not a little pecu- phobia,
liar; but being the result of considerable observation,
and leading, as we conceive, to most important and be¬
neficial results, we will neither conceal nor compromise
our decided convictions. We hold, then, that rabies is
essentially an inflammatory affection, attacking peculiar¬
ly the mucous membrane of the nose, and extending
thence through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bones,
to the anterior part of the brain, so giving rise to de¬
rangement. of the nervous system, as a nepessary con¬
sequence : this train of symptoms, we consider, consti¬
tutes mainly, if not wholly, the essence of an occasional
epidemic, not unlike some forms of influenza or epi¬
zootic ; and the bite of a rabid animal is not, to another
so bitten, the exciting cause of the disease, but merely
an accidental concomitant in the prevailing disorder; and
the disease, hydrophobia, produced in man, is not the re¬
sult of any poison introduced into his system, but merely
the melancholy, and often fatal result of panic fear, and
of the disordered state of the imagination. Those who are
acquainted with the effects of sympathy, and imitation, and
panic, in the production of nervous disorders, will readily
apprehend our meaning ; and if our view be correct, the im¬
mense importance of disabusing the public mind on the sub¬
ject is apparent. This is a task which we hope one day to
accomplish. But in the mean while, considering the vast
responsibility of promulgating these views, without the ut¬
most certainty as to their truth, we shall not press them;
nay, we shall, to any greater extent, withhold them at pre¬
sent, and shall now do all the justice our limits allow, to
the elucidation of the prevailing, and what is generally
considered, the established pathology and history of the
complaint.
It is generally alleged, that the complaint arises sponta¬
neously only in the canine and feline species of animals,
including the dog, fox, wolf, and the domestic cat, and that
from them it is readily communicated to others, as to horses,
cows, sheep, and man. It is frequently stated, that these
last have not the power of communicating the complaint to
others; but Mr Youatt mentions, “ that several farriers
have lost their lives from being bitten or scratched in the
act of administering medicine to the rabid horseand
Magendie and Breschet have taken the saliva of a man
who was labouring under hydrophobia, and have therewith
inoculated healthy dogs, which, they assert, became rabid,
and bit other dogs, so spreading the contagion. Though the
disease has received its name from the horror of water exhi¬
bited by man, yet the symptom seems confined to him; rabid
dogs lap freely, and sheep aftected with the disease are rather
greedy of water. It is a great mistake to suppose that
every rabid dog must be wild and furious; on the con¬
trary, his faculties are not particularly disturbed; there is
no want of his usual sense, but great irritability; for a time
he knows his master’s voice, and obeys him. The early
symptoms in Dogs are usually some peculiarity of manner,
and some strange departure from their usual habits. In
634
VETERINARY SCIENCE.
Veterinary many instances the peculiarity consists in a disposition to
Science, pick up straws, and other small objects. Others keep lick-
ing another dog, or cold iron, or stones ; and there is often
a strong antipathy to strange dogs. As the disease ad¬
vances, they bite those dogs with which they are asso¬
ciated, and lastly the persons round them, though this only
in a moment of irritation; there is also a peculiar change
of the voice. In the Horse the symptoms are such as the
following. The animal will go to work apparently well; all
at once he will stop, tremble, heave, paw, stagger, and fall.
Almost immediately he will rise, draw his load a little far¬
ther, again stop, look about him, and again fall. The pro¬
gress of the disease is rapid. The animal kicks and plunges
in the most violent manner, often attempts to seize and bite
other horses and the attendants, and will level to the ground
everything before him, himself sweating, snorting, and foam¬
ing amid the ruins; palsy of the hind legs is apt to super¬
vene, the thirst is excessive, and the act of swallowing appa-
parently difficult. The disease rarely extends beyond the
third day. On dissection, there is usually found inflamma¬
tion at the back part of the mouth and nose, and at the top of
the windpipe, the origin of the spinal cord, and frequently
in other places. Dogs are much more susceptible of the
disease than man ; and thus of twelve dogs and four men
bitten by the same mad dog, every one of the dogs has
died of the disease, while the four men escaped. The in¬
terval between the infliction of the wound and the inva¬
sion of the symptoms varies considerably; both in man
and the horse, the mean average is from three to eight
weeks. As to the treatment, we would first of all state
frankly, that as to cure after the disease has fairly mani¬
fested itself, none is recorded. Hence the importance of
prevention, and that mainly by the speedy and complete ex¬
cision of the wounded parts. At the moment the animal is
bitten, no time should be lost in endeavouring to get rid of
the poison. Free washing may do something, and after this
a firm compress between the wound and the heart, till a
veterinarian, or some competent person, be procured, who
should excise freely, and apply caustic. Copious venesec¬
tion has proved the most soothing remedy; and with a hint
from the experience of Magendie we must close. This
physiologist, knowing the influence of largely substituting
water for blood in the circulating system, tried the experi¬
ment in a mad dog which was in a furious state, and which
instantly became tranquil, and so continued for five hours.
Again, he injected one pint of water at 100° Fahr. into the
vein of a man’s arm ; directly the patient, from being high¬
ly rabid, became tranquil, and the pulse fell from 150 to
80 in a minute, the convulsive motions ceased, he drank
water without difficulty, and continued to improve till the
fifth day. In another case, death followed as in this; but
at the moment of the experiment, there was a great and
sudden change for the better. The patient lived eight days
after the injection, and died, possibly from another com¬
plaint. In attempting this treatment, the veterinarian re¬
quires unusual dexterity, as well as caution.
Tetanus. Tetanus. Lock-jaw is another of the most melancholy
diseases which can be witnessed. It is common in the horse,
and occurs also in the ox, sheep, and dog. It proceeds from
two causes, the most common being the irritation of a punc¬
tured wound in some tendinous part, as the foot, (which may
give no kind of trouble,) or from docking or nicking, and also
spontaneously, especially in climates warmer than our own.
The symptoms of the complaint soon discover themselves.
The muscles of the jaw, as expressed in the synonym, are
early affected, forming trismus; and the other voluntary
ones are soon implicated, as those of the neck, spine, and ex¬
tremities. The animal does not feed as usual, and appears
unwell ; he drops his food and gulps water. Saliva drops
from his mouth, and the jaws are found to be stiff; even his
head cannot be turned, the eye squints, and the haw, mem-
brana nictilans, is drawn into the socket; the back and loir
become stiff, the tail erect, and the extremities simnil!!i!
fixed, u lihp thf* Ipo-o nf a efnnl •” tRc ^...1   s 5
like the legs of a stoolthe pulse at the cod
mencement is not affected, but soon gets quick and irre<n
lar; the breathing becomes laborious, the countenanc
wild, and expressive of great agony ; the poor animal ma
die in one or two days, or it may be nine or ten days b(
fore he is exhausted. The rule of practice is to look fi
the wound which has preceded the disease, and if there t
irritation, to relieve it. For the constitutional symptom
large bleeding is the most powerful remedy, and injectir
water into the veins, as noticed under rabies, would be wj
worth a trial. This will promote the operation of physi
which in the estimation of many is the chief remedy,
drachm of croton seed, and six drachms of aloes, may 1
administered, and repeated the following day, the bowe
being torpid. Blisters and opium have been extensive
used, with the appearance of success. In the few casi
where life is spared, great care is necessary during the pn
tracted convalescence.
Neurotomy is the cutting of a nerve which supplies
part labouring under painful disease, for the purpose
easing or removing that pain. High expectations were 01
ginally entertained of the value of the operation; at
though many have been disappointed, yet it frequent;
proves highly useful. Mr Sewell, its respected proposer, h;
operated upon more than five hundred cases, and in eig
out of ten, with marked success. The fore-feet are pec
liarly liable to accident and disease, and the operation h
been very much confined to them. The structure of f
parts greatly favours this success, for the muscles whi
move the feet are situate high up the leg, and their nerv
need not be interfered with, as it is cutting the nerve
sensation which affords the benefit. The practice was o:
ginally proposed for horses incurably lame, and for cases tn
would not admit of relief by any other means, and to thej
alone it should be restricted. It is applicable to any ki
of chronic lameness about the feet or coronet, except p
mice feet, and succeeds best where there is an alteration
the form and texture of the hoof; and in anchylosis;
often yields great benefit. If inflammation or ulceration !
present, the operation must at all events be postpom
since it would aggravate these states. The operation
not difficult. The horse being cast and secured, an in
sion about two inches long is to be made upon the side
the large pastern bone, in the direction of the large pastej
nerve ; the trunk of the nerve is to be laid bare, avoid!
the artery which lies anteriorly, and about one inch oi it is
be cut out; the excision is to be made on both sides, a
in both legs, if both are diseased ; the wound to be heal
by the first intention.
Stringhalt is more a blemish than a disease, thougl
is very unpleasant to the rider. It is a convulsive kind
action in the muscles of the hind-leg, supposed owing
irregularity of nervous influence. Neither its precise s
nor nature is accurately known, and dissection has tai
to throw any light upon it. It is most conspicuous wl|
the animal commences exercise, and in a short time
greatly subsides. Any method of cure is yet unknown.
The Diseases op the Eye are highly important,
slightest blemish interfering with the usefulness and va
of the animal; and, though not numerous, they have e
been found most untractable, and regarded as reproacne
the science. Criticising the labours of the many aut
who have so ably illustrated our art, is what we would sc
pulously avoid ; but, on the present occasion, a seme
duty constrains us to warn the student generally aga
many of the views and statements which have been t
mulgated ; no where have we seen more loose observa i
more erroneous pathology. The organ is most delica e,
anatomy most minute ; and it is upon an accurate acqua
■]' ilrinjln
the fj1.
m
::b!
V E T E R J N A R
rV ■ -e with this, both in health and disease, that practice can
■ ~ne he based. To one ignorant here, all is obscure ; his
'raiment must be undecided, and of course unsatisfactory.
'ie diseases of the organ are, to a remarkable extent, the
i .ult of the domesticity to which we have subjected the
1 rer animals, and especially the horse ; in our stables they
,, ever forcing themselves upon our notice, while so long
‘ ]ie is running wild, and breathing the untainted air, they
*. never seen, and in the other animals, with the excep-
l n of the dog, they are but rarely witnessed.
The front of the ball of the eye, and the inner surface of
t> eyelids, are covered with a membrane, the conjunctiva,
jist of whose blood-vessels are colourless. This membrane
i he seat of common Ophthalmia, in common speech, of
i lamed eye. Whatever irritates, inflames ; and hence we
.. how the application of any foreign body, a few particles
< sand, or a hair, may produce ophthalmia. This is the
c iy disease of the eye which has been noted in cattle, and
; siwj solely from the cause now mentioned. Sometimes
rise bodies are actually impacted into the membrane ; a
/aw or hay seed may be so fixed, that all the efforts of
I; animal may fail in removing it; the eye becomes red
: 1 troublesome, and hence the importance, in all cases, of
,-efully examining the organ, and satisfying ourselves
i ;re is no cause of external irritation present. It is not,
j wever, to be supposed that these foreign bodies are the
i e cause of ophthalmia in the horse. From the state
i the constitution, exposure to weather, and often the
• ntamination of a filthy stable, idiopathic ophthalmia
ses. The conjunctiva and its offshoots, towards the
:hrymal gland, and elsewhere, are implicated. It is found
iversally red and inflamed, the eye is very sensitive to
ht, it waters much, and there is pain. This may excite
neral fever, or it may not; and this is alw'ays an impor-
it element. It may continue a long while, and prove
mblesome without the deeper parts of the organ being
plicated, or they may be involved ; and it may be acute,
th a tendency to high inflammatory symptoms, or it may
chronic, where there is the very opposite, namely, weak-
ss and debility in the parts, and in the frame ; this latter
te is apt to be quite as tedious, though not so painful as
f i former. This distinction should never be forgotten in
ictice. When called to treat a case of this common oph-
dmia, after ascertaining there is no irritation from a fo-
gn body, we are first to examine the state of the stable,
it the air is not impure, or too hot. If a horse has
wiously had inflammation of the eye, this attack may
nothing more than a local affection of the vessels, and
ssibly a wash, or rather an injection, of some simple col-
ium,1 once or twice a-day, is all that is required. These
temal applications should not be used too strong. Bran
ishes should be substituted for corn, and a laxative pre-
j ’ibed; the horse should not be exposed to the inclemency
the weather, and the light in the stable should be
I tderated. All this may by some be regarded unnecessary
d troublesome ; but so long as it is a fact that one attack
apt to induce another, and that these in the long-run de-
'oy the sight, it is the greatest folly not to meet, and if
ssible remove at once, the present ailment, and the fu-
re tendency. If the symptoms do not speedily yield to
is treatment, we must determine whether there is inflam-
itory diathesis, or chronic debility; the condition of the
unal, of the pulse, of the eye, are all to be considered, and
these show that mischief threatens, the antiphlogistic re-
men in all its parts is to be energetically applied, and the
e is to be protected from the stimulus of light; fo-
ptations and injections are carefully to be applied, and
tons introduced. These directions are given under the
i—
Y SCIENCE. 635
supposition we have to deal with acute ophthalmia. Wdien Veterinary
it is chronic, this treatment would be detrimental, both to Science,
the disease and the constitution. In the chronic form, the
local treatment generally consists in stimulating collyria
and setons, and the constitutional, instead of being lower¬
ing, must be strengthening. A peculiar, and not unfre¬
quent cause of irritation we must not omit, which consists
in the inversion of the lower eyelid, whereby the eye¬
lashes constantly play upon the eye-ball, and thereby in¬
flame it, constituting the disease called Trichiasis. This Trichiasis,
complaint we have often witnessed in dogs and cattle, but
seldom or never in the horse. Pulling out the eye-lashes
affords but a temporary relief, as they soon grow again in a
wrong position. A part of the loose skin of the eye-lid must
itself be removed, by pinching up a portion, and removing it
with scissors, and healing with stitches; after this, when the
parts heal, the cilia are found restored to their proper position.
It is in this connection that Nebulje and Specks in the Nebulae,
cornea are to be considered ; the former being more super¬
ficial, the latter dipping more deeply into the substance of
the part. Directly in the sphere of vision, these of course
impede it, and cause obscurity of vision. Even here, we
must proceed gently. These blemishes are the pure con¬
sequences of inflammation, and this subdued, their tendency
is to disappear. Time and nature will do much ; and the
duty of the practitioner consists in helping forward the sa¬
lutary process where necessary, by gently stimulating
washes, whilst irritating powders should be avoided, espe¬
cially in dogs. Open Ulcers frequently occur in the cor¬
nea, and are always to be viewed with alarm, as they may
speedily cut deep. They should be delicately touched with
a fine point of lunar caustic, by which the morbid action is
usually changed.
As the conjunctiva is liable to acute inflammation, so is Specific
it with the internal membranes, the choroid, iris, &c. Itophthitl-
seldom, however, happens in the lower animals, that an op- mia.
portunity is afforded of examining these parts under disease
separately; and hence, what has been called Inflamma¬
tion of the Internal Eye, Specific Inflammation,
and Moon Blindness, may be considered as an inflamma¬
tion of the whole internal parts of the eye. That there is
any thing specific about this complaint, we do not believe,
although high authorities have proceeded so far as to dis¬
tinguish it as the specific gouty opthalmia. All that we
are to learn from this is, that the constitution is often atfault,
and must be regulated ; that there is an inflammatory dia¬
thesis, and that every error in diet or treatment tells upon
the weakened part. This inflammation is apt to move from
one eye to another ; and overcome once, to return again and
again, (hence its name moon blindness,) till the sight is en¬
tirely lost; all which, we believe, is owing mainly to two
causes already hinted at; namely, that due care is not taken
of the organ in early attacks, and in endeavouring to restore
the constitution to sound general health. These views are
to be our guides in the treatment; and if this required to
be decided in the opthalmia already dwelt upon, still more
is it necessary in that now under consideration. As to
the symptoms, this internal inflammation may exist without
the external parts participating, but usually they are soon
involved. One symptom very pathognomatic we must
also add; it is a whitish opaque state of the cornea, which
supervenes in a few hours, completely obscuring vision,
and interfering with our perception of what is going on
within the eye. This is not to be viewed as a distinct dis¬
ease of the cornea, as is often supposed, but merely the
result of the fulness and pressure of the parts behind; and
were that once relieved, the cornea would immediately re¬
gain its transparency. As to treatment, we have scarcely
‘Collyhu. Cooling. Sugar of lead, one drachm; opium wine, one drachm ; water, two pounds. Stimulating. Sulph. zinci, two
‘‘thins; opium wine, one drachm ; water, two pounds; or nitrat. argenti, one drachm, aquae distill, one pound.
636
VETEKINARY SCIENCE.
Cataract.
Amauro-
Veterinary any thing to add. The sight, and the whole value of the
Science, animal is at stake, and what is done, must be done prompt-
■ ly and thoroughly, and the animal should not be removed
from the sick list till he is in sound wholesome condition,
sound in lith and limb, when he would be as little liable to
future attacks as others.
Cataract is an opacity of the lens or its membrane. It
may follow as a consequence of the disease last described,
when no remedy can be of any use, as the whole organ is
disorganized; or it may occur as a pure idiopathic disorder,
when, ere long, it will completely obstruct vision. In
this form it usually appears in the dog. This complaint can
only be remedied by an operation; and extraction being ex¬
ceedingly difficult in the horse, all attempts to perform it
should be relinquished. Couching would be more easily per¬
formed. But still the removal of the lens is so detrimental,
that it is scarcely wTorth a trial.
Gutta Serena, or Glass Eye, when pure, is an affec-
sis- tion of the retina, or of the brain, which fails to receive the
usual impression from light. Professor Coleman had a horse
which fell backwards, on one side of the head, and the oppo¬
site eye became amaurotic, probably from injury to the brain.
A touch of apoplexy often produces the same effect; or it
may be acute inflammation of the retina; or chronic, which
may never have attracted observation. Depletion may at
first be tried; and then the use of setons, attending to the
Worms in general health. Worms, the filaria already mentioned,
the Eye. (p.6.36,) occur in our East Indian possessions, in the aqueous
humour of the eye of the horse, a curious locality, their oc¬
cupancy of which is not readily accounted for. Twenty cases
sometimes occur during a twelvemonth in a single cavalry
stud. On puncturing the cornea, the prisoners escape.
Diseases of The Ear of the dog is liable to several diseases, of which
the ear. the internal and external canker are the most considerable.
Canker. The former consists of irritation and ulceration of the tube,
Internal, with discharge of matter, sometimes of blood, occasion¬
ally closing the ear, and producing deafness; or the ulcer¬
ation may spread to the internal parts, and produce death.
This chiefly occurs in water-dogs. Injections of sugar of
lead, white vitriol, or nitrate of silver, are the most power¬
ful local remedies, and the general state of health must be
improved. Canker in the outside of the ear appears most
frequently in smooth coated dogs: and the same kind of
washes, with the decoction of oak bark and iodine ointment,
are the most effective remedies. If it does not yield to
these, the ear must be rounded, and the disease extirpated.
Cutaneous Affections. The name Surfeit has been
given to a crop of small tumors about the size of hemp-
seed or large peas, which break out suddenly over the
bodies of horses, especially in spring, often beginning at the
neck, and frequently disappearing as quickly as they come,
being attended occasionally with itchiness. Its pathology
is obscure. The digestive organs are supposed to be at
fault; and poisonous herbs, a draught of cold water when
heated, sudden exposure to cold and damp, calcareous
balls, and worms, have been suspected. Moderate bleed¬
ing and laxatives form the surest remedies. The somewhat
continued use of doses of antimony, nitre, and sulphur, have
been much commended. The horse should be comfortably
clad, and should receive regular exercise.
Mange is a very common and most loathsome disease
of the domestic animals, arising from a cause the very re¬
verse of that implied in the name of Surfeit, being the
result of under-feeding, starvation, and neglect. It is
in a high degree contagious; for not only contact with an
infected animal, but even with the sordes from his body
wherever they are found, is sufficient to produce it. While
we thus state that mange is common in the lower ani¬
mals, we mean nothing more than that a disease of the
same general character may affect them all. It is some¬
times supposed that all these are specifically the same, and
External.
Of the
skin.
Mange.
that the itch in man, and the mange in the dog, are idei j
tical with the disease in the horse, the ox, and the shee '
This, however, we apprehend is carrying the matter too f;
It is said the mange in cattle has been propagated to tl
horse, and from the horse to cattle; but it is held there
no decided instance of the mange in the dog being cor
municated to the horse, and still less of the mange of f
quadruped being communicated to man, or the itch of m
to the quadruped. We may here however mention, tl
we have seen a herd of cattle labouring under ring-wor
a modification of the complaint, and the two boys w
were keeping them were infected with the same coi
plaint. In the Horse, we have noticed two varieties, t
one of which is vesicular, and in this we are persua|
ed animalculae abound, whilst in the other there is or
simple disquamation, with oozing of ichor and falling
of the hair. This variety is much the most common
summer. The face, particularly round the eyes and lij
the sides of the neck, the withers, shoulders, axillae, a
thighs, are the parts most conspicuously manged. T
grand cause we have already hinted is under-nourishm
what is technically caWed poverty; but when onceinducf
if care be not taken, it will spread widely. In stables
consider it a token of want of care, and sufficient dressii
When wushing to rid an animal of the complaint, or
guard against its being infected, the most minute attenti
must be given to its clothing and furniture, as brush
combs, pails, manger, &c.: these must be purified andkt
uncontaminated; after this the cure with a little trouble
readily effected. As to constitutional treatment, gentle la:
lives and alteratives should be prescribed, and the food
nourishing and soft. As to local, sulphur ointment, in a|
of its well-known formulae, combined occasionally with sot
preparation of mercury, or tar with rape-seed oil, is a sou
reign remedy. In Cattle and Sheep, the ichorous matter!
apt to collect in the neglected hair and wool, and hence t
name Scab-mange, Scab, and Scurf. In commencingt
cure, these sordes must be washed off, and salving must
most freely administered. This should be done at thefi;
appearance of the complaint, for when once introduced ii
a flock it greatly diminishes its value. It seems to spre
not so much by direct contact, as from the infected ston
banks, &c. which are the principal resorts of the flock.
Eogs, the disease is obstinate, and exhibits several varieti
One of them is called the Red-mange, in which there is
particular eruption, but a general redness of the skin, tvhi
is hot to the touch. Sulphur, sulphuric acid, chlorine, mi
curials, tobacco, and hellebore, are the local remedies, ai
laxative and alterative medicines, with abundant light fee
ing, the general.
Erysipelas in sheep appears in various slight modific
tions, which have received different names. \\ ildfh
it is said, generally shews itself at the beginning of winti
and first attacks the breast and belly. The skin inflam
and rises into blisters, containing a reddish fluid, wfii
escapes and forms a dark scab. The animal sometimes I
vers. Venesection should be used, the skin should be was
ed with a solution of sugar of lead or with lime water, a
physic given, such as salts and sulphur; afterwards a it
doses of nitre. Under a somewhat severer form, it is apt
spread quickly among the flock. It appears general!)
autumn, and does not continue above eight days at a tin
although the sheep once affected are liable to a relap
The treatment is the same as in wildfire, but some"1
more vigorous. Mallenders is the name given to
scurfy and somewhat obstinate eruption on the insi e
the hock of the horse in the fore-leg, and Salle-noek* ^
a similar affection in the hind one. Washing with so a a
of corrosive sublimate, or with sugar of lead, or anoe
ing with iodine ointment, with an occasional laxative,^
diuretic, should effect a cure. Saddle-galls are s1
lain
ai
(iilfl* 1
VETERINAR
r 5jn„ from the friction of the saddle, for which a strong
!; ‘ * tjon of salt with tincture of myrrh is a good application,
^Vilst attention should be paid to the padding of the sad-
( The tumors which sometimes result from the pressure
the saddle go by the name of Warbles ; to which, when
’ t >y ulcerate, the name of Sitfasts is applied, from the
i lous skin which adheres to their centre. Goulard water
, y be used to disperse the swelling; a digestive ointment
, 1 remove the sitfast, and the sore should be healed with
i olution of sulphate of zinc.
The well-known and unsightly disease called Grease,
i i morbid secretion from the cutaneous pores of the heels
£i neighbouring parts, of a peculiar greasy offensive
Jtter, attended with irritation and increased vascular
s ion. It is most frequently seen in coach and cart horses,
\: often also in young colts which are badly cared for;
i s most common in the hind feet, but occurs in all. Its
i in cause seems to be sudden changes in the condition
i the foot from dry to wet, and from heat to cold, greatly
t rmented, of course, by evaporation. It is seldom seen
i thorough-bred horses, and this probably because they
£ . vvell groomed. The first appearance of grease is a dry
s irfy state of the heel, with heat and itchiness. Swelling
s :ceeds, with a tendency to lameness; the discharge
i jments in quantity, the hair begins to fall off, and pain
11 lameness become marked. Deep fissures are apt to
! :ome prominent symptoms, and to occur sometimes at
t: upper portion of the fetlock; in the former case they
i; designated Dry-cracks, in the latter Rattails, by -
! riers. Pustules now arise, which burst, and expose
pat coarse granulations, which have received the name
i Grapes, and which, with the thickened skin, become
igh and hard, almost horny. The diseased foot at this
le may be thrice its natural thickness. As to treatment,
f jvention being better than cure, we re-echo the state-
mt of Professor Coleman regarding cavalry horses, that
; soldier deserves punishment whose horse becomes
iasy. In the early stage, the parts should be washed
ice a day with soap and water, and a solution of sugar
lead and sulphate of zinc applied ; this may not be che-
cally scientific, but we have found it superior to any
ing else. Even in old and aggravated cases it is very effi-
cious. When grapes abound, a little of the powdered
ic should be introduced among them, which application
:en supersedes the application of the actual and other
uteries, as do also, more decidedly, strong washes with
luted sulphuric and nitric acids. We have also found a
lution of corrosive sublimate, and iodine ointment, excel-
nt remedies. If the horse be strong and full of flesh,
xatives should be given, followed by diuretics ; if weak,
nics may be added to these last. The feeding too must
! varied with the condition;—green meat and carrots
i ould be given, and mashes frequently as a substitute for
•in. During convalescence exercise should be given;
id bandages and pressure hasten the cure.
Warts or Angle-berries are prone to occur in the
>rse, and in cattle, and to be troublesome, more espe-
ally in calves. They appear about the eyelids, ears,
'se, neck, groin, sheath, and are apt to spread. They
ten require removal. Sometimes you must cast the horse,
'd remove them with the scissors, knife, and cautery, or
ith a ligature. Escharotics, however, have great efficacy,
'cb as alum, blue-stone, corrosive sublimate, and some¬
's. mes arsenic. Encysted Tumors also are by no means
•'common, a kind of Ta/p (By which may generally be re-
ioved by simple incision, having no decided root or adhe-
on.
I be domestic animals are apt to be annoyed with ver-
nn> which slight knowledge and attention would readily
'move. In particular states of hot weather, Flies, especi-
! y some species of the Tabanidce are great nuisances; they
Y S C I E N C E. 637
will make a spirited horse unmanageable, will drive cattle Veterinary
from their pasture, to scamper about in a state of extreme Science,
agitation ; and as to sheep, the Ettrick Shepherd says,— '
“ The flies were at this time settled in the fold in such
numbers, that we could with difficulty see each other;
the heads of the sheep were swollen and black, and seemed
all over a scab, the flies being settled on them like a black
cloud. A few were anointed with train oil, and no sooner
were they turned among the rest, than in less than a minute,
not a fly was to be seen.” Spirit of tar, added to the oil,
renders it more efficacious ; and as the fly will not face these
remedies, horses and cattle should be protected. Fleas
are very troublesome to dogs. Washing and combing are Fleas,
not without efficacy, nor tobacco-water, though it frequently
poisons the dog. Mr Blaine says, “ the only tolerably cer¬
tain cure I know is, to make the dogs sleep on fresh yellow
deal shavings.” Rosin and bran may be usefully applied.
Oil, however, we believe, is a specific. We have invar¬
iably found it so for Lice, so common in horses, cattle,
sheep», and dogs. In horses, the prevalence of this filthy Lice,
vermin shows want of dressing, although it is often con¬
nected with poverty and mange. In the slighter visitations
we have invariably found, that a single dressing of olive-
oil alone, will cause their disappearance from all the above-
named animals, or a solution of corrosive sublimate, al¬
though this requires a little more caution. For the Tick
in sheep, a mixture of tar and turpentine is a speedy and Tije
certain poison ; and for the Maggot, sometimes a most
fatal vermin in this quadruped, the great matter is the Maggot,
shepherd’s watchful care; as soon as discovered, the af¬
fected part must be shaved, and spirit of turpentine, or of
tar with oil, or a solution of corrosive sublimate applied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Generally of the Science.
Saitibel’s Lectures on Farriery. 4to, London, 1793.
Boardman’s Dictionary of the Veterinary Art. 4.to, London, 1805.
White’s Treatise on Veterinary Medicine. 4 vols., London, 1815.
  Dictionary of the Veterinary Art. 1 vol., 12mo, Lond., 1817.
Blaine’s Outlines of the Veterinary Art. 5th edit., London, 1841.
Hurtrel’s Dictionnaire de Med. et Chir. V^t^rin. tom. 4, Paris.
Huzard’s Esquisse de Nosographie Vet^rinaire.
Morton’s Veterinary Pharmacy.
The Veterinarian, Periodical Journal.
The Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.
Thomson’s Popular Essays on the Diseases of Horses, Cattle,
Sheep, Swine and Dogs. Perth, 1831.
Of the Horse.
Clark (J.), Treatise on Shoeing, &e.
Clark (J.), on the Prevention of Diseasesof Horses. 8vo, Edin., 1785.
Coleman’s Observations on Structure, and Foot of Horse. 2vols.,4to.
Clark’s (B.) Essay on the Bots of Horses, &c. 4to, London, 18!5.
  New Pharmacopteia for Horses. 4to, London, 1819.
 Description of a new Horse Shoe, &c. 4to, 1820.
 History of the Horse. London, 1834.
Laurence’s History and Delineation of the Horse. London, 1809.
Peale’s Observations on Diseases of the Horse. 1814.
Percivall’s Lectures on the Vet. Art. 3 vols., 8vo, London, 1823-
 Systematic Treatise on the Diseases and Lameness of
the Horse. 8vo, London, 1834. Also, his Anatomy of the Horse.
Lawrence’s Inquiry into the Economy of th| Horse. London, 8vo.
The Horse, Library of Useful Knowledge. 8vo, London, 1840.
Freeman’s Observations on the Horse’s Foot. 4to, London, 1796.
Goodwin’s System of Shoeing Horses, &c. London, 1820.
Vines on the Glanders.
Wilkinson on Tetanus and Epidemic Catarrh. London, 1818.
Of Cattle.
Library of Useful Knowledge. 8vo, London, 1810.
Lawrence’s General Treatise on Cattle. London, 1805.
Skellett’s Treatise on Cattle. London, 4to.
Of Sheep.
Library of Useful Knowledge. 8vo, London, 1840.
Hogg’s Shepherd’s Guide. Edinburgh, 1807.
Mackenzie’s Diseasesand Management &c. of Sheep. 8vo, Edin., 1809.
Transactions of Highland Society, vol. iii.
Blacklock on Sheep.
Of the Dog.
Blaine’s Diseases of Dogs, &c. 8vo, London, 1824.
638
v e v
V I A
Vevay, VEVAY, a town of Switzerland, the capital of a bailiwick
Viaduct. 0f same name in the canton of Vaud. It is finely
situated on the lake of Geneva, where the climate is mild,
and the prospects around are of the most exciting descrip¬
tion. In this town many English families find a retreat.
There is a college, an hospital, and other benevolent insti¬
tutions. Vevay has little trade, and that mostly in native
productions. It contains 430 houses, with 4500 inhabit¬
ants. There are two churches, in one of which, St Mar¬
tin’s, are monuments to two Englishmen, Ludlow and
Broughton, who had sat as judges at the trial of Charles I.
and found refuge here.
VIADUCT. The contract for a brick viaduct should
clearly define the site and extent of the whole of the sections;
the gross amount to be paid, as well as the detail prices at
which any additions or extra works are to be paid ; an enu¬
meration of the plans, sections, and drawings, which should
be signed by the engineer and contractor ; and, attached to
the contract, the mode in which the work is to be paid for,
the time for its completion, and the time the contractor is
to uphold the work, together with the penalty for non-com¬
pletion. It should state in a precise manner any diversions
of roads or streams, the nature of the foundations, and
whether the contractor is to find cofferdams, centerings,
scaffolding, and all other machinery and materials. With
respect to the time for completion, it will be best to divide it.
If, for example, it is a viaduct of ten to twelve arches of fifty
feet span, and forty feet high, in twelve months at the far¬
thest the brick work and masonry of the abutments, piers,
and wing walls, should be up to the springing of the arches.
The remainder of the work may be divided into two por¬
tions of six months each, so that the whole should be com¬
plete in tw'O years. We are well aware that such a work
could be executed in much less time, but it would be at a
corresponding increase of expense.
The contractor should be bound to execute the work to
the satisfaction of the engineer, or whoever may be ap¬
pointed by the parties for whom the viaduct is to be erect¬
ed, and at all times to keep a sufficient number of men on
the work, or the engineer should have power to send the
requisite number. This will of course be done at the con¬
tractor’s expense ; and it should be expressly stated, that
all materials, scaffolding, and machinery, on the spot, wall
be used by the engineer, and that he will provide any other
materials which may be requisite, in order fully to employ
his men. The number of competent foremen to be em¬
ployed by the contractor should be stated; and the en¬
gineer should have power to supersede any of them for in¬
capability or improper conduct, and in default of there
being a sufficient number, to employ as many more as
should be found requisite, up to the specified number. An
account of the foremen and workmen employed, should be
furnished to the engineer weekly, each trade being classed un¬
der a separate head, under a penalty of five pounds per week.
The contractor should be bound to enclose the whole
area before commerxing the work, and to comply with all
local regulations ancj-the act of parliament, if there is one,
under which the work is to be done, so as to prevent all
trespass on the adjoining lands, and to maintain the said
fence till the works shall be completed; but if any of the
adjoining land would be of use to the contractor, it should
of course be procured for him, by his undertaking to pay
the expenses. He should be bound to deposit any spoil
earth taken out for the foundations, wherever the engineer
may appoint. Any temporary roads which he may require,
should be set out and made entirely at his own expense,
he compensating the owners of the land. Before he com¬
mences any excavation or work for any of the abutments,
piers, or wing-walls, or commences any arch, proper notice
should be given to the engineer, under a penalty of not
less than twenty pounds.
Should the parties for whom the viaduct is to be built
be called upon to pay any damages to the owners of tl ’
adjoining property, or to any other person, through the
negligence or wilfulness of the contractor’s workmen th
should reserve the power of deducting the money so paid
from any sums which may be due to the contractor for the
performance of the work. No subcontract, except for la
hour, should be allowed, without the the engineer’s consent
in writing. Should the contractor become bankrupt, or
should he, from any other cause, cease to continue the works
the engineer should have power, after serving him with a
written notice, to carry on the vvork himself, placing the
amount of all monies expended by him, in constructino-the
work, to the contractor’s account, and using all the materi¬
als and machinery on the ground, which should become the
property of the parties for whom the viaduct is built, from
the time they are brought upon their ground, till the com¬
pletion of the works, and should not be removed without
their consent. When materials are brought on the ground
of an improper sort, or unsound, or of an inferior quality in
the opinion of the engineer, the contractor should be bound
to remove them forthwith, and to .supply their place by
others, in default of which the engineer should have power!
to remove them after two days’ notice, without being amen¬
able for either loss or damage in so doing. The expense
of the removal, of course, should in all cases fall on the
contractor.
Should the engineer discover that any part of the work]
is unsound, or imperfectly executed, or not performed in
strict accordance with the conditions of the specification,
plans, sections, or drawings, he should have power to order
it to be immediately taken down and executed in a proper
manner, without any extra charge whatever, and without
any delay ensuing in the completion of the several parts of
the work ; and if the contractor should refuse or neglect to
do so after proper notice, the engineer should have power
to cause it to be done, charging the expenses to the con¬
tractor, and removing the materials, and then proceeding to
erect the work in a proper manner.
The contractor should be bound to make any alterations,
additions, or omissions in the vvork, on being authorized to
do so by the engineer ; the omissions being set off quantity
for quantity against the additions, or by measurement and
valuation, as may be agreed on, and the balance accounted
for to either party. There should be no alterations what¬
ever allowed, except under the signature of the engineer.
The contractor should be furnished with copies of the draw¬
ings and specification, but he should be bound to see they
are correct, and should also be required himself to set out
the whole of the wrork. Should there be any buildings,
trees, or other matters on the site of the works, the pro¬
perty in them should be secured to the parties for whom
the viaduct is to be built; the contractor removing them to
the nearest public road, giving a week’s notice previously
to his doing so, and stating the place to which they will be
removed. All damage done to the works during their pro¬
gress, or to the materials or implements thereon, whether
arising from accident or the carelessness of the workmen,
should be made good at the contractor’s expense ; and e
should be bound, not only to execute such works as are
expressly described respectively in either the specification)
plans, sections, and drawings, but also such othervv^
may be necessarily implied, or reasonably inferred to e
done ; and in case of any dispute arising, the decision o t c
chief engineer should be considered final. ,
The mode and times of payment for the work, an ^
nature and extent of any sums which may be retaine 10 ^
the periodical payments, as a security for the due p61-101,
ance of the contract, should be clearly defined, and a so ^
time when the retained money will be paid, which in
cases should be dependent on the engineer being pcieC
*4tt,
W
11.
V I A
itisfied with the state of the works. It is usual to make
^tie contractors of these works an allowance, when they have
large quantity of materials on the ground, as part payment;
r instance, when two million or more bricks are on the spot,
ty per cent, on their value is usually advanced ; and, ge-
,rally speaking, if it is seen that the contractor is proceed-
g with his work in a spirited manner, he should be en-
mraged by every reasonable assistance in the power of
e parties by whom he is employed.
The schedule of prices for extra and additional works
ould include every thing which is at all likely to be re¬
ared ; such as fencing, excavations, brickwork, concrete,
anework, specifying the nature and quality of the stone,
d the description of the work ; such as string courses,
ping, ashlar work, imposts, cornices, caps to pilasters,
;oins, &c.; the price of wrought and cast-iron work, of
Iverts, drains, and ditching, specifying the size in each
se; of timber, stating the size and description ; pruning
d levelling at the ends of the viaduct; piling for founda-
[ms; the formation of roads ; laying railways, distinguish-
g the price with blocks from those with sleepers ; and all
her things which it may be necessary to order in the
iiirse of the work.
It is usual to take security from the contractors for these
jrks. Many an excellent contractor may not be able to
id substantial sureties. In this case, his character from
s last work will form the best criterion. It is always ad~
ntageous to get a zealous, active, and substantial con-
ictor, even at a higher price, for all large works.
The specification should state in a clear manner the site
the viaduct, its intended use, and what work is to be in-
aded in the contract, with any other information, so as to
iable the contractor clearly to see bisway. The level
ould be stated, the span, height, and form of the arches,
Tether any are askew’, and if so, the angle of their incli-
igion; the radius of the curve, if there is any ; the nature
d quality of the principal material; and if this should be
ick, then whether there are to be stone arch quoins,
ringing courses, string course, plinth, or coping ; also,
oat pilasters, &c. are intended ; what is to be the form of
ie piers, whether they project from the face line of the
f ch; what description of wing wnlls, and whether they are
be built plumb, or battened, or curved, and what arched
•enings they may have, and if so, whether there are to be
verts to them, and also any other internal openings which
ay be intended; for instance, in railway viaducts, walls
11 be required in the abutments for the support of each line
rails; but these may be built considerably cheaper, by
[htening them with arched openings, having inverts un-
rneath. In this case, the wing walls might be built
umb, and extended just far enough for the required slope
die embankment at each end. The space between the
ills, for supporting the four lines of rails, should be arched
er with nine-inch brickwork for supporting the earth and
•Hasting of the railway. The spandril walls should be
rpendicular, and a wall should be run, if the height re-
ures it, under each rail, extending over the arches, piers,
d abutments; the spaces between these walls being arch-
1 over in a similar manner to those described above.
Ibe form and dimensions of every part of the viaduct
o'dd be shown in the drawing, whidh should contain an
ovation, plan of foundations, plan of the roadw’ays or wa-
''tays, it any; sections through the square and askew
Ties and piers, the abutments and parapet walls, showing
e iorm °f the string course, plinth, and coping ; and last-
>a longitudinal section throughout the whole length of
I viaduct. The nature of the ground should be carefully
II ivd, before the footings of the piers and abutments are
oh ed on ; and if at all doubtful, concrete should be used ;
‘f m all cases, the footings should be slipped outwards,
1 carr‘ed so low as to rest on an entirely good and solid
V 1 A
foundation. Should there be any waterways under any of Viaduct,
the arches, the outer course of materials of the piers on
each side the water, should be laid in Roman cement, hi°'h
enough to ensure their safety in this respect. The piers
of askew arches may generally be lightened in the interior,
and the mode of doing this should be shown in the drawing.
The spring course should if possible be of stone, not less
than twenty inches thick on the face, say for an arch of
fifty feet span, and rising behind, so as to form the proper
skew’back of the arch. These should be laid over the tops
of the piers and abutments, each stone not being less than
three feet six inches in the bed, each course consisting of
not less than eight stones in the width of aviaduct of about
twenty-eight feet broad ; and no stone should be less than
three feet six inches in length, dowelled and leaded to the
adjoining one. If the viaduct is brick, the upper surface
of the stones, at the springing of any askew arches, should
be made in steps or notches, for receiving the brick-work
of the arch, each step taking five courses of bricks, and be¬
ing cut at right angles to the brickwork, rising behind at
the proper summering for forming the skewback of the arch.
The five courses of bricks agreeing with each arch stone,
should all fit into a corresponding step in the springing
course.
The form of arches is so much a matter of taste, that no
general rules can be given without assuming some particu¬
lar one. We shall therefore take a segment of a circle, a
very substantial viaduct in that form having been built by
Robert Stephenson, Esq. They were fifty feet span, thirty
feet eight inches in length, and three feet thick. The
thickness of each arch quoin was equal to five courses of
bricks; and they were alternately three feet three inches,
and two feet six inches in length on the soffit from the face
of the arch, and rising in steps to receive the horizontal
courses of the spandril walls.
Great care should be taken in giving all the arch quoins
a true and perfect bed throughout each stone ; and no pin¬
ning should be used in any part. The joints of the arch
stones should be neatly chamfered rustic, and the faces of
them fair tooled, and projecting about an inch from the
brick work. The proper summering should be given to the
bricks in the arch; and any irregularity of form, arising
from imperfection in the laggings, workmanship, centering,
or any other cause, should be removed, and immediately
corrected by the contractor. The centres should in no
case be struck without one week’s notice to the engineer.
After they are removed, the whole of the brickwork in the
soffit of the arches should be carefully and neatly pointed.
With respect to keeping the arches dry—a point which it
has been found extremely difficult to effect, and without
which the brick work soon becomes damaged—we believe
that puddling, if carefully and properly done, will always
succeed. Drainage by pipes through the piers has been
tried, and failed. A mixture of coal tar and lime has been
found to succeed, and so has coal tar alone, boiled ten or
twelve hours, so as to evaporate the water and ammoniacal
liquor. As, in cooling, it sets moderately hard, it must not
be laid on in wet weather, and the surface of the brickwork
should be clean swept previous to applying it. Leading
the arches with about five pound lead is a sure preventive ;
but the process is expensive. The asphaltic cement is also
a certain cure, but is dear compared with coal tar.
The backing should be built up to the required height,
with good brickwork, well grouted. The wing walls of a
railway viaduct should consist of six walls, built plumb up
to the level of the crown of the arches, and extending in
the direction of the railway towards the embankment at
each end. They should be well bouded into the abut¬
ments, and lightened by arched openings. The top of the
exterior walls should be brought to a proper level with the
upper side of the arches, for receiving the string course
640 VIA
Viaduct, and parapet walls. The outer walls for the sized arches
we have assumed should be about three feet thick, and con¬
structed with bricks laid in horizontal courses, properly
jointed with the arch quoins. The interior walls should be
eighteen inches thick.
A string course should be laid along the whole length of
each front of the viaduct, projecting uniformly with the
face line of the arches. No stone in this string course
should be less than three feet six inches in length, neatly
tooled on the exterior, wuth the joints made to fit close for
the whole bed of the stone. The parapet walls will have
a bolder and handsomer appearance, if they stand on a
stone plinth, about eighteen inches high, and eight inches
wide, placed upon the string course ; the remaining portion
of the wall being brickwork, fourteen inches thick; the
courses being carefully laid parallel with picked bricks ;
the exterior faces of the plinth being fair tooled, and the
whole of the walls throughout forming a uniform and regu¬
lar line.
The coping should be of stone, the form and dimensions
for which should be shown in the drawing; and no stone
should be less than three feet in length, neatly jointed, and
the exterior faces fair tooled or chisel-dressed, each stone
being dowelled or leaded to the adjoining one. The spaces
round the footings of the abutments and wing walls should
be firmly rammed up with clay, if it can be procured, to
the level of the ground, in courses of one foot in thickness,
each layer being properly beaten before a succeeding one
is put on. It will sometimes be convenient to make a new
channel for water-courses, so as to bring them through a
given arch of the viaduct. In this case, the old channel
should not in any way be impeded, till the new channel is
formed; after which, the excavation which has been taken
out to form the new channel, may be used in filling up the
old.
Great care should be taken in the selection of materials
for the construction of these works. The bricks should be
hard, sound, and well burnt; those used in the face of the
work being selected of a uniform size and colour. The quar¬
ries from which the stone is to be brought, should be nam¬
ed, and care taken that the whole is of a good and hard
quality, free from flaws of every description. The mortar
should be made of lime to be named in the specification,
and mixed in the manner, and in the proportions between
the lime and the sand, which is known to be best for the
particular kind of lime, and be thoroughly incorporated of
the proper consistence. The Roman cement should be re¬
cently made, and kept from contact with the atmosphere,
or any moisture. An equal quantity of good sand or road
dust should be mixed with it; and no more than what is
required for immediate use should be mixed, or any that
has set be worked up again.
The brickwork should be laid either in English or Fle¬
mish band, as may be ordered ; and in no case should any
joint of mortar exceed a quarter of an inch in thickness;
no broken bricks should be allowed to be used, either in¬
ternally or externally, unless absolutely necessary as clos¬
ers ; nor should any difference be made in the exterior and
interior of the work. The whole of the brickwork should
be grouted at every course, and the exterior neatly point¬
ed. All the stonework should be truly bedded, and the
vertical joints cut square back for the whole bed of the
stone ; no pinning of any kind being allowed.
After the piers have all been brought up to the level of
the springing of the arches, the contractor should fix the
centering, and complete the brickwork and masonry of the
three arches, and their backing next adjoining to an abut¬
ment ; the wing walls and spandril walls being also carried
up to the same height as the backing. When these three
arches have all been completed, and properly backed, the
centering may be removed from the arch nearest the abut-
y i a
ment, and fixed in the proper place for the completion of Via
the fourth arch. As soon as the fourth arch is completed ^
and backed as above, and not before, the centering may be *
moved from the second arch from the abutment, and fixed
in the proper situation for completing the fifth arch; and
so on with the rest, the centering never being removed
from the two last arches which have been turned, until a
third, or the one in advance of these two, has been finished.
The centering used should be subject to the approval of the
engineer.
The string course, plinth, parapet walls, and coping
should not be put on, until the whole of the centres have
been withdrawn ; and in no case should the centering be
struck without orders from the engineer. If the founda¬
tions require cofferdams, the contractor should be bound to
find them at his own expense. Great care should be taken I
that the viaduct is properly placed, so that, in the case of a
railway, the outside line of rails, when laid in their uniform
and proper position, shall be equidistant from, and parallel
with the faces of the parapet walls ; and in case the line in
that particular part where the viaduct is, should be curved,
this will require the most vigilant attention; also, that be¬
fore the string course is laid on, every part of the brick¬
work is properly level, so that the eye, in running along
the string course, shall not be able to detect any deviation
from the given line. We have known more than one case
in which a noble and handsome structure has been entirely
defaced, to a professional eye, through the inattention or
the incapacity of overlookers who have been entrusted with
this important part of the work.
After the expense of an embankment equals that of a
viaduct, there will almost always be a gain in building the
latter, if an increased height is required ; because the ad¬
dition to the piers and abutments for this extra height, will
cost much less than the additional earthwork at the base of
the embankment. Let us take a case in point. In 250
yards of railway, forty-five feet high, there are required
three bridges. A viaduct for this 250 yards, with fifty
feet arches, w'ould cost L. 17,000 ; each bridge would
cost L.1400, and the remaining embankment sloping 2:1,
would cost L.6150, at Is. per yard ; total, L.10,650. Hence
the viaduct is much the dearest method. If the height
was seventy-five feet, the bridges may be taken at L2U00
each, and the remaining embankment at L. 15,250; total,
L.21,250, besides the extra land; while the viaduct, hav¬
ing only 216 cubic yards of brickwork, at L.l for each
yard additional height, after full allowance for extending
the wing walls, &c., would only cost L.19;000. may
conclude, therefore, that viaducts are cheapest only at very
great heights. Much of course depends on the lengt o
lead, whether building stone can be got from an adjacent
cutting, &c. The cost may however be lessened, by a
judicious use of wood and iron. Several wooden viacucts
have lately been constructed for railways; and in America
they are largely used. A novel plan has been a“0P.te„m
that country by Mr Town. (See Stephenson s uvr 11
gineering of North America.) ^
In the preceding articles in this work, the subjec
arches has been so fully discussed, that nothing remain^ ie
cept to give a guide to practical men, how to construe
arch of equilibrium, und to shew the variation which itua ^
goes under different dimensions. Supposing,
way on the viaduct to be horizontal, (fig- L n
let KI = y, AQ = A, Cl = w, DK=r«, and KQ = G
a
Log. of + /v/ w2 — g2
a
y ~ ^ Log. of c -f-
where the denominator has only to be computed once,
V I A
641
VIA
11£ ,-hole formula is very easy. In the following table, if   A
/tilt lumber under xh is multiplied by any half space hav- the radius of curvature R is R = 2ax + + Q) ~
T ,jie given values of a and c, it gives points in the curve
or lues of y; and if more points are wanted, the column  
log's the logarithm of the denominator in the formula; this is a minimum when * =
L,ie the numerator only will require computing. ^
and
Q- + a + a:
- a2,
 a. The subtan-
Viales,
Vianna.
Feet.
2
20
xh
Log.
Feet. Feet.
20
10
15
20
23
25
29
3
4
5
6
10
15
6
7
8
9
6
7
8
10
6
7
10
15
6
7
8
10
15
6
7
10
15
20
21
22
23
26
•3217
•44
•52334
•592
•766
•903
•47064
•65573
•79175
•90213
•35304
•49192
•59397
•75019
•30163
•4201
•63823
•85424
•27149
•37779
•45668
•57678
•768876
•2815
•37824
•57683
•76891
•90121
•34394
•4841
•59117
•82253
1-299943
•574286
•76552
•89614
•995635
•995591
•39794
ig. 2. shews this arch with a — 2, c — 20, and with
spl's varying from twenty to seventy feet. These give
th -esult of increase or decrease in that element. Taking
nr h and c each = 20, and making a— 5, we see in fig.
3, e effect of increasing the road on the arch, keeping the
loir curve height of the road the same, having fifteen feet
h( ht, and five feet road ; and in the upper curve, where
20, a — 5, and c = 23, we see the effect of increasing
th -oad to five feet, and- retaining the same height of arch-
" eighteen feet. Fig. 5 is with A = 9, « = 20, and c =
This would be the curve for one of the bridges under
tlij London and Birmingham railway, near the Bull Inn, at
hi Birmingham end of the line. Fig. 9 shews the effect
°t wering the crown ; the heights to the road being 10,
15 20, and 25 respectively, while in each case h = 20, and
5.
hese arches of equilibrium are more adapted for bidck
stone, owing to the difficulty of making the arch-stones
m ie latter radiate properly. In elliptic arches, however,
th is not always done: they are made to radiate to one
C(i re> sometimes from ignorance, but oftener because,
n n properly done, each arch-stone requires a mould for
j" side; in the curve of equilibrium it will generally be
hl to assume a centre to the nearest regular figure;
°t nvise let KD (fig. 1) = a, AQ = t, DQ = e, DP = x,
ar CP = y, and Qs = 1  - ; then
Hy log, g -p c 2ac c?
gent is equal to ^/2a x2. Ffy log. —A X !^^ax + x~.
From any point C in the arch, draw the tangent cb (fig.
1,) then the pressure on the arch-stone at Cg is as the se¬
cant of hep directly and radius inversely. Hence, taking
unity as radius, if the depth of the arch-stone at the crown
^a.sec. bep)2^ is multiplied into the sec. bep, it gives the
length of the arch-stone at any point proportioned to its
pressure.
The areas being proportional to the weights set off K',
the centre of gravity, draw K'N perpendicular to EN, join
K'B, then the pressure in the directions K'N and NB, is as
these lines, the former to a lever EN, and the latter to a
lever EF. Put the area of the arch = a, K'N = b, EN
= d, BN —f FG = g, and EF = x, then• is the ef¬
fort to overturn the pier, and xa the resistance; and —-
^ ... -fa • a is the difference. The height of the
— xa, or
/
°t. XXI.
pier is xg, and its resistance on the lever \x is, xg'\ x, or
; hence for an equilibrium these must be equal, or
a = whence * = jS^±Ef-2j.
The centre of gravity may be found near enough, by
drawing equidistant lines parallel to KH, (fig. 1,) taking
the centre of gravity of each part, and tracing a curve
through the points’ lines parallel to KQ, which treated si¬
milarly, will give another curve, and when this] cuts, the
first is the centre of gravity. The area may be found by
a corresponding process.
VIALES, in mythology, a name given among the Ro¬
mans to the gods who had the care and guard of the roads
and highways.
VIANA, a department or corregimento of the province
Entre Duro e Minho in Portugal, extending along the sea¬
shore to the northward of the river Minho. It comprehends
seven towns, 291 villages or parishes, 30,980 dwellings,
with about 170,000 inhabitants. The capital is a city of
the same name, situated at the mouth of the Minho, a river
nearly choked up with sand, and only admitting vessels with
alight draught of water to approach the wharfs at the high¬
est tides. From this circumstance the trade of the city
has, of late years, been transferred to Oporto. The chief
traffic is in fruits and in some light wines. Viana has an
extensive sea fishery, which gives occupation to 300 boats.
The city is surrounded with walls defended by bastions,
and the entrance from the sea is protected by two forts, St.
Jago and Cao. The public buildings are two parochial
churches, or religious houses, an hospital, a poor house, and
a military school or college. It contains about 2000 houses
and 9500 inhabitants. There is a light-house at the en¬
trance of the river Lema, whose latitude is in 41° 39r north.
There is another place in Portugal of this name, the
town of Viana in the province of Alentejo, which contains
450 houses and 1850 inhabitants.
In the province of Navarre in Spain, is also a Viana, a
city near to Estella. It stands on a hill about three miles
from the river Ebro. It is surrounded with walls, and is
4 M
642
Vibes
. I!
Vicenza.
V I c
defended by an ancient castle, and contains 3,500 inhabi¬
tants, who are chiefly employed in rearing black cattle,
sheep, horses, and mules.
' VIBEX is sometimes used by physicians, for a black and
blue spot on the skin occasioned by an efflux or extravasa¬
tion of blood.
VICAR, a person appointed as deputy to another, to
perform his functions in his absence, and under his autho¬
rity.
Vicar, in the canon-law, denotes a priest of a parish,
the predial tithes of which are impropriated or appropriat¬
ed ; that is, belong either to a chapter, religious house, &c.
or to a layman who receives them, and only allows the
vicar the small tithes, or a convenient salary.
VICENZA, a delegation or province of Austrian Lom¬
bardy, within the government of Venice. It is bounded
on the north-west by the Tyrol, on the north-east by Bel-
luno, on the east by Treviso, on the south-east by Padua,
and on the south-west by Verona. It extends over 836
square miles, is divided into thirteen districts or circles,
and these into 113 communes, containing 297,547 inhabi¬
tants, who are all of the Italian race, except those who
live in seven of the Alpine districts, who are Germans;
but all adhere to the Catholic religion. The land is gene¬
rally level, but some spurs of the western Alps project
themselves into the plain on the northern side. It is water¬
ed by several streams, which unite near the capital, and
there assume the name of Bachiglione. This river is
then navigable to the Brenta below Padua, and with it
enters the Adriatic sea. The soil is generally good, and
for the most part well cultivated, and the face of the
country excites the highest gratification to one who tra¬
vels through it with an agricultural eye. Maize is the chief
corn crop. Wheat and rye are likewise cultivated, but are
far less productive than maize, which forms almost exclu¬
sively the food of the peasantry. Flax and hemp are grown,
but not extensively. The chief object of the farmers is the
mulberry tree, whose number is rapidly increasing, as well
as that of the silk worms that are fed with the leaves. The
vines are mixed with the trees, and trained in festoons from
one to the other. This has a most charming effect, but is
said not to be favourable to the produce of wine, which
article is in general of bad quality. A great number of
sheep and oxen is fed near the streams or meadows, which
are mowed three or four times in the year. The wool is
tine, and that, with the cheese, forms a valuable portion of
rural wealth.
Vicenza, a city, the capital of the delegation of that
name in Italy. It is built on two streams, the Bachiglione,
and the Recone, which divides it into two parts connected
together by four bridges. It is surrounded with walls,
having six gates, one of which, leading to the Field of
Mars, is considered the master-piece of the celebrated
Palladio. Vicenza contains an ancient castle, twenty-
two churches, and thirty-three chapels or oratories, with
several hospitals. The inhabitants within the walls amount
to 20,478, but including the suburbs, are 33,000. These
chiefly find occupation in the various stages of preparing
silk. The winding and throwing it, to furnish distant
markets, is the chief pursuit, and one which of late has
vastly increased, and promises in future a still more rapid
increase from the great number of mulberry trees that have
been reared. Although some of the streets are narrow, and
some few of them crooked, yet no place exhibits such speci¬
mens of architectural art as this city and its environs. The
most distinguished of the edifices were built by Palladio,
who was born here in 1518. The cathedral is a noble
Gothic building; but the church of Santa Corona is most
y i c
admired, especially as it is ornamented with some fi
mosaic work and several exquisite paintings. The ^
house is the finest specimen of the taste and skill o/pT ^
ladio, and next to it the pcilcizzo c&pitcincili. bcsidps trVi. i V \^
the palaces of Trifflno, of Volpi, of Doraie* dlT
opera-house, are beautiful piles of building. ’ The 6
virons are also distinguished by beautiful villas from tt
same master, the finest of which is that of Bahnarana witl]6
out the gate. Vicenza, like Verona in the middle a^es'
became an independent state, and like it, was, in 14(K oV
dued by the Venetians. , Ub'
VICRAVANDY, a town in the province of the Carna¬
tic, twenty-two miles west-north-west from Pondiehpm"
Long. 79. 43. E. Lat. 12. 5. N. y’
VICTOIRE ISLE, a small island in the eastern seas
covered with wood. Long. 106. 30. E. Lat. 1. o9. N.
VICTOR,^ Sextus Aurelius, a Latin historian, lived in
the age of Constantins and Julian. From the terms in
which he speaks of Africa, describing it as “ decus terra-
rum,” it has been conjectured that he was a native of that
region. According to his own account, he was born in the
country, and was the son of a poor and unlettered father.
We learn from Ammianus Marcellinus that the emperor
Constantins having seen Victor the historian at Sirmium,
afterwards appointed him prefect of Pannonia Secunda, and
honoured him with a brazen statue. At a subsequent pe¬
riod, as we learn from the same authority, the office of pre¬
fect of the city was likewise conferred upon him. He is
supposed to have been the same individual who in 369 was
consul along wdth Valentinian.1 It has been inferred that
he was not a Christian.
Aurelius Victor appears to have been the author of a
work “ De Viris Illustribus Urbis Romae,” which has re¬
peatedly been printed under the names of Cornelius Ne-
pos, Suetonius, and the younger Pliny. The first of his
illustrious men is Procas king of the Albani, the last Sex¬
tus Pompeius. Of this work, his tract “De Caesaribus’hs
to be regarded as a continuation. It commences with Au¬
gustus, and terminates with Julian. This tract first ap¬
peared in an edition of the author’s works published by
Andreas Schottus, Antverp. 1579, 8vo. Here we likewise
find the earliest impression of the tract entitled “Origo
Gentis Romanae but whether it is a genuine production
of the same author, has been considered as extremely
doubtful. Another work commonly ascribed to him bears
the title, “ De Vita et Moribus Imperatorum Romanorum;
excerpta ex libris Sexti Aurelii Victoris, a Caesare Augusto
usque ad Theodosium Imperatorem.” This title is not ap¬
plicable to a work composed by Victor, but to one compil¬
ed from his wTitings. The materials appear to be borrow¬
ed from Suetonius, Eutropius, Ammianus, and Victor.2
Of the entire works ascribed to this author there are se¬
veral editions, accompanied with the notes of various cri¬
tics. Among these we may specify that of Leyden, Lugd.
Bat. 1671, 8vo. An edition “in usum Delphini” was pub¬
lished by Madame Dacier, Paris. 1681, 4to. For another
edition we are indebted to Pitiscus, Traj. ad Rhen. 1696,
8vo. But the best edition of Victor is that of Arnzenius,
Amst. 1733, 4to.
VICTORIA FORT, a fortified island on the coast of
Concun, about seventy miles south from Bombay, which
commands a harbour six miles to the north of Severndroog.
Long. 72. 55. E. Lat. 17. 56. N.
VICTORY, the overthrow or defeat of an enemy in war
or combat. . ,
Victory, in Pagan worship, is represented by Hes‘°
as the daughter of Styx and Pallas ; and Varro calls ^
the daughter of Heaven and Earth. The Romans erecte
Relandi Fasti Consulares, p. 436. Traject. Batav. 1715, 8vo.
Vossius de Historicis Latinis, p. 195, 221. Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, tom. iii. p. 123.
V I D
a emple to her, where they prayed the gods to give
Si cess to their arms. They painted her in the form of a
j. vv nan; c]ad in cloth of gold. In some medals, she is re-
fc' ;ented with wings flying through the air, holding a lau-
n crown in one hand, and a palm in the other ; but in
oi it medals, she is seen standing upon a globe, with the
s£ e crown and branch of palm.
rIDA, Marco Geronimo, a very elegant Latin poet,
w a native of Cremona, but the time of his birth is un¬
ci ain. Dirterent writers have placed it in 1470, 1480, and
j, o. His parents were noble, but not wealthy. He pro-
si ited his studies at Padua and Bologna, and at an early
aj Was admitted into the congregation of the canons re-
g ir of St Mark at Mantua. Here however he did not
i lc r remain, but removed to Rome, where he became a
c; on of St John of the Lateran. His poetical talents re¬
el imended him to the favour of Leo the Tenth, who be-
srved upon him the priorship of St Sylvester near Tivoli.
Via published a collection of his poems at Rome in the
y r 1527. This collection, a quarto of 110 leaves, con-
t; ,s De Arte Poetica libri hi., De Bombyce libri ii., De
Llo Scacchorum, Hymni, Bucolica. Leo recommended
ti dm the subject of a sacred poem, which was not com-
pled till after the death of that pontiff. Under the title
o “ Christiados libri sex,” it was published at Cremona
l ii 1535. In 1532 Clement the Seventh had promoted
hi to the bishopric of Alba. Another pope, Paul the
1 ird, destined him for the bishopric of Cremona, but died
t ore he could fulfil his intentions. Vida composed seve-
r other works in verse, and some in prose. When his
escopal city was attacked by the French and the imperi-
a ts in 1542, he displayed his courage by urging the gar-
run to make a strenuous defence, and he afterwards con-
t mted to the recovery of this conquest out of their hands.
1 accompanied the papal legates to the council of Trent;
a l upon that occasion composed a prose work, entitled
1 lialogi de Reipublicse Dignitate,” and printed at Cre-
una in 1556. He died at Alba on the 27th of Septem-
1 1566, and his remains were interred in the cathedral.
' la possessed a very elegant taste, and was a great master
( Latin versification. The art of poetry, the operations of
t silk worm, and even the game of chess, he has discus-
‘ with singular grace and harmony. The encomium of
1 pe rendered his name familiar to English ears :
Immortal Vida, on whose honoured brow
The poet’s bays and critic’s ivy grow.
1 his poems there are several collective editions. A col-
j tion, exclusive of his sacred poems, was published by
omas Tristram, A.M. Oxon., 1722-3, 2 part. 8vo. But
1 best edition, containing all the poems which he ac-
1 wledged as his, together with the Uialogi, appeared
* « afterwards, “ curantibus J. Ant. et Cajetano Vulpiis.
Jtav. 1731, 2 tom. 4to. Some of Vida’s poems have
I' ;n translated into various languages. Of the Poetics an
Iglish translation was published by Pitt in 1725, and an-
l ier by Hampson in 1793. Of the poem on Chess an
J S^sh version is said to have been published by Erskine
1 1736. A translation of another work, accompanying
1 original, appeared under the title of “ The Christiad, a
em in six books: translated from the Latin of Marcus
eroninms Vida, by J. Cranwell, M.A., Rector of Abbots
>ton in Huntingdonshire.” Cambridge, 1768, 8vo.
' IELLE. (Fr.) a very old stringed instrument, played
means of finger-keys, and the friction of a wheel instead
^ a bow. It is much used by wandering Savoyards. In
itain it is called a hurdy-gurdy.
IENNA (Wien), the capital of the circle of Austria,
j of the whole Austrian empire, is situated upon an arm
1 me Danube, to the south of the main stream, at the mouth
' t ie rivulet Wien, about 500 feet above the level of the
'' and in north latitude 48° 12', and east longitude 16°
VIE 643
22 . i he city, properly so called, is very small, consisting Vienna,
in 1827, of only 1227 houses, while the suburbs contained
7415. It is surrounded with a strong and compactly built
brick wall, rising from fifty to seventy feet above the outer
ditch, and forming a fine terrace, which serves as a public
promenade, called the Bastey. The Bastey is externally sur¬
rounded by the Glacis, an open space, varying in width from
about 1200 to 1600 feet, and rising gradually into eminen¬
ces upon which the thirty-four suburbs are built. These
are also surrounded with a wall, the external circumference
of which is about fourteen miles, but are completely separ¬
ated from the city by the Glacis, which has been laid out
with fine w^alks, thus affording, in the very midst of the
town, every facility for air and exercise to the inhabitants.
Within the narrow circuit of the Bastey, which may be
walked round in fifty minutes, is contained almost every
object of interest or importance; the Imperial palace, the
offices of government, the residences of the higher classes,
most of the public museums, libraries, and galleries, the
best shops, and, with one exception, all the good hotels.
But, like those of most other old towns, the streets of the
city are narrow, the places small, and the houses lofty, ris¬
ing to four or five stories, occupied by different families, and,
like those of Edinburgh and Paris, approached by a com¬
mon stair. Their average number of occupants is about
forty; but in the very heart of the city, there are large
masses of building, containing more inhabitants than many
a large village. They are generally built in the form of a
square surrounding a small dark court, and are under the
superintendence of a Hausmeister, a person appointed by
the proprietor to watch over the building and its tenants,
to preserve the cleanliness of the common passages, and at¬
tend to the street door. It is however fashionable to reside
in the city; and even a tradesman domiciliated there holds
a higher rank than his brethren in the suburbs. The sub¬
urbs are not so splendidly built as the city ; but their more
elevated situation, their wide and regular streets, and the
inferior height of the houses, would seem to render them a
preferable residence, were it not for the domineering influ¬
ence of fashion.
Among the numerous public buildings which adorh
Vienna, the following may be enumerated as the principal.
The Kaiserburg, or imperial palace, is a very large build¬
ing, of a most irregular form, consisting indeed of a conglo¬
meration of edifices erected at different times, but present¬
ing, nevertheless, many portions remarkable for their mag¬
nificence, and the beauty of their architecture. It stands
on the south side of the city, incloses several courts, one or
which, Joseph’s Platz, is adorned with a fine equestrian
statue, in bronze, of the emperor Joseph II. The part
used as the residence of the sovereign is called the Schweit-
zerhof, and is an extensive building forming two sides of a
square, but its appearance is not very striking. It however
contains large collections of valuable works of art. The
rest of the building is devoted to various purposes, compris¬
ing, among others, the Hof-Bibliothek, or imperial library,
the chancery of the empire, the imperial riding-school, and
the theatre of the palace. The library is a temple worthy o.
the intellectual treasures which it enshrines. It contained,
in 1839, 425,631 volumes ofprinted books in every language,
and 17,136 manuscripts, mostly of great value. The palaces
and mansions of the nobility are among the most interest¬
ing buildings in Vienna, while those devoted to public pui’-
poses are seldom worthy of the smallest notice. Among
these mansions may be noticed the palace of the Archduke
Charles, and the gorgeous palace of the Prince of Liechten¬
stein. The ancient palace of Prince Eugene, called the
Belvedere, was converted into a museum by Joseph II., to
whose munificence and taste Vienna is thus indebted for
one of the best collections of paintings in Europe, particu¬
larly rich in the works of the Flemish and the German
644
VIE
V I E
Vienna, schools. The ground floor of the Belvedere also contains
a fine collection of ancient armour, and of portraits of the
most distinguished persons connected with the house of
Hapsburg. The arsenal likewise contains collections of
weapons of war ingeniously arranged; and, in the city arse¬
nal, besides sufficient arms for 30,000 men, and a propor¬
tional artillery, there is a large collection of Turkish tro¬
phies, including the head of the grand vizier, Kara Musta-
pha, who commanded the Turks at the siege of Vienna in
1683. Vienna is indeed well calculated to afford gratifica¬
tion to the antiquary and the admirer of the fine arts; for,
besides the imperial and public collections, many noblemen
have their separate galleries and collections, and all are of
easy access.
Vienna contains fifty-seven Catholic, one Lutheran, one
Calvinist, and four Greek churches, with two Jewish syna¬
gogues. The principal of these is the cathedral church of
St Stephen, almost in the heart of the city ; a beautiful Go¬
thic building, with a steeple remarkable for its symmetry
and height. It was begun by the first duke of Austria, be¬
fore the middle of the twelfth century; in the thirteenth it
was twice destroyed by fire, and then rebuilt in its present
form. Its greatest length is 355 feet, and its extreme
breadth 230; the height of the steeple is 420 or 434 feet,
and it is ascended by 753 steps. Next in rank to the ca¬
thedral the Viennese reckon the church of St Carlo Bor-
romeo, in the suburb Wieden, erected by the emperor
Charles VI., between 1715 and 1737. It is a large massy
structure, surmounted by an oval dome cased in glittering
copper, and having in front a portico of six Corinthian co¬
lumns. Before the church are placed two Doric columns,
each of thirteen feet diameter, and having their shafts
adorned with a spiral band of bas relief; those of the one
representing the life and death, and those of the other the
actions of the saint. The church of the Capuchins is only
remarkable for containing the sepulchral vault of the im¬
perial family, where the remains of its members have been
deposited, since the emperor Matthias, in 1619* The cof¬
fins are of bronze, oblong in form, and very large. But
the hearts of the deceased are deposited in one of the
chapels of the Augustinians, and their other viscera in St
Stephen’s. We may also mention St Peter’s church, a
poor imitation of St Peter’s at Piome; the church of the
Augustinians, remarkable for its extent, and for the tomb of
the archduchess Christina, the work of Canova; and the
church of St Rupert, remarkable for its antiquity, having
been originally built in A.D. 740, restored in 1436, and
again in 1703.
V ienna is most liberally provided with scientific institu¬
tions and charitable establishments. The university, found¬
ed in 1237, possesses an astronomical observatory, an ana¬
tomical theatre, a laboratory, a good library of 100,000 vo¬
lumes, a museum of natural history, a botanical garden, and
torty-two professors. It was established on its present foot¬
ing, and the building which it occupies was erected by the
empress-queen Maria Theresa, in 1755. Besides the uni¬
versity garden, the late emperor Francis II. established, at
the Upper Belvedere, another botanical garden, where may
be found almost all the plants indigenous to Germany.
There is also a gymnasium, equally well appointed, and a
commercial academy, in which pupils are instructed, not
only in the usual routine of school learning, but also in the
science and the history of commerce, the knowledge of mer¬
chandise, and mercantile law, the productions and advan¬
tages of all the commercial states in the known world, and
those objects of natural history that furnish materials for
commerce, manufactures, and philosophy; chemistry as ap¬
plied to the useful arts; correspondence on all kinds of bu¬
siness; drawing, mechanics, mathematics, &c. For all
these branches the pupils pay only three florins (six shil-
lings and twopence) a-month; and for a small additional
sum they are taught the Latin, English, French, and Italian
languages. The oriental academy is unique of its kind H
Here young men are instructed in the oriental language/ ^
and also in the political relations of Austria with the Eastern
nations. When their studies are finished, they are employ,
ed as secretaries to ambassadors, consuls, or other agents of
the government in the East. This excellent institution was
founded by the emperor Joseph II., and has produced some
of the most distinguished men in the recent history of Aus.
tria. The Theresian academy was founded by the empress-
queen Maria Theresa, for the education of the sons of the
nobility; but her philosophic son, Joseph II., thinking they
would be better fitted to perform the duties of good citizens
if educated in a school of more mixed character, suppress’
ed it, and distributed the revenues in pensions to meritori¬
ous civil and military officers. His nephew, however, the
late emperor Francis II., re-established it on the original
plan. It is under the superintendence of a director, and
has twenty-one professors, ten masters of modern languages,!
and several tutors. The medico-chirurgical academy, found¬
ed by Joseph II., is one of the finest buildings in Vienna.
It has accommodation for 1200 patients; the science is I
taught by six professors; and the collection of anatomical
figures in wax, by Fontanor, is little inferior to that of Flo¬
rence. The general hospital for the sick, also founded by
the same emperor, contains 111 rooms, with 2000 beds, and
is computed to receive annually about 10,000 patients.
Adjoining to this is the lying-in-hospital, another monument
of Joseph’s benevolence. There is likewise a foundling hos¬
pital, and many other charitable institutions, which reflect
the highest honour on the founders, and on the liberality ot
the government which supports them. Besides the scien¬
tific establishments already mentioned, there are also at]
Vienna an academy of military engineers established in 171",
in which seventy-nine pupils are gratuitously educated; a
veterinary school; and the imperial polytechnic school,de¬
signed for the instruction of tradesmen in their various arts
and professions. The general state of science is however
represented as far from flourishing. The number of scien¬
tific men is small; and, with the exception of a small medi¬
cal society, there is no institution, by means of which they
can keep up an intercourse with each other. Medicine and
the various branches of natural history are the sciences
most cultivated. The botanical gardens are good; and
the imperial museum of natural history, which occupies se¬
veral large rooms in the palace, is particularly important.
Of all accomplishments, however, a proficiency in music
holds the highest place in the estimation of the Viennese;
and, in the practice of this art, they are certainly as much
above the other nations of Europe (except the Italians), as
they are below them in more solid and useful pursuits.
Besides the Bastey and the Glacis, already mentioned,
Vienna possesses several other public walks and gardens
of great value and importance to the health and recreation
of the citizens. The most celebrated of these is the Pra¬
ter, said to be the finest public park in Europe. It is si¬
tuate on the north-east of the city, in a large island, formed
by two branches of the Danube. From the entrance, the
principal drive extends about half a mile in length, divided
by rows of trees into five alleys, of which the two oute
are appropriated to pedestrians, the next two to equestrians
and the inner one to carriages. Beyond its termination, is
the more rural part of the Prater. There the wood become-
thicker, the alleys are no longer straight and formal, bu.
wind irregularly till they are stopped by the banks of the
Danube itself. On each side of the drive stretches a ver¬
dant lawn, plentifully studded with coffeehouses, and thei^
fore much frequented by the listless pedestrians, who sea
themselves under shady awnings, or on the grass beneam
clumps of trees, enjoying in idle gaiety their ices, coflee,
and cigars. The Prater is frequented daily by the r.c.
i
VIE
the great, on horseback or in carnages. On Sundays
o | other festivals the shopkeepers and mechanics likewise
n jrt to it in flocks, to amuse themselves and their chil-
(j. n wjth ninepins, conjurors, see-saws, and roundabouts,
a t0 dine under the trees and the pavilions. Three or
r, r times a-year fireworks are displayed in the Prater, each
e ^bition of which lasts forty minutes, and represents tem-
grottoes, parterres of flowers, fortresses, &c. To the
V, itward of the Prater, communicating with it by two al¬
ii ; and on the same island, is the Augarten, a large en-
c iUre, intersected by regular walks, and containing two
]£ re eating-rooms, where parties are supplied with dinner,
a illiard-room, a dancing-room, and a coffee-room. On
t] first of May this garden is crowded to excess. The
fgitenau is a large meadow to the west of the Augarten,
d Ided from it by the wall of the suburb, and still on the
, ie island. It contains a church and two public houses,
a has its share of company in fine weather. On the
t Sunday and Monday after St Bridget’s day, a fete is
1 here; and the number of persons who then come to
d| ce and amuse themselves usually amounts to about thirty
ti usand. The island which contains these parks and gar-
d is, is connected with the city and the southern suburbs
t six bridges. The Volksgarten is a large enclosure, be-
t ;en the Kaiserburg and the south wall of the city; it is
i: act the palace garden, but the people are freely ad-
r ted, and it forms a favourite promenade. It contains a
si licircular building where coffee and other refreshments
n y be procured; and also a Doric temple, built on the
r,; lei of that of Theseus at Athens, to contain a group by
Ciova, of Theseus killing the Minotaur. Forin-door amuse-
r nt, there are several theatres. Two of these are in the
(i /, namely the Burg, or Palace theatre, and the Kaernth-
r thor (Carinthian gate) theatre. There are others in the
s mrbs, and one of them, near the Wien, is capacious and
! idsome. The imperial theatre, where operas are per-
ti ned, is not remarkable for its architecture or its stage
ciorations; but its instrumental and vocal performances
b y, generally speaking, be called the best in Europe,
fhe police in Vienna has long been celebrated as one of
t most perfect in the world. But its functions are not
(i ifined to the ordinary duties of repressing crime, and
v idling over the public health and convenience; it also
tes care that no one presume to discuss too freely af-
f 's of state, or canvass the measures of the government
i a spirit opposed to its wishes. Foreigners, and especially
t se who come from countries where liberal opinions are
I valent, are therefore kept under a vigilant inspection,
1 any offensive conduct on their part is instantly followed
; an order to quit the city. As a necessary appendage to
; s system, spies are employed, whose official duties are
! i confined to coffeehouses, and other places of public re-
t) but extend even to the privacy of domestic life. For
more legitimate, or at least more laudable purposes of
ice, the city and suburbs are divided into eight districts,
: each of which is appointed a physician, a surgeon, an
j?thecary,and an accoucheur, all paid by government. It is
! ir duty to attend the necessitous sick at their own houses,
-1 to administer advice and medicine gratis. These func-
1 laries are the guardians of the public health, and make
"ply report to the police of the births and deaths; and,
1 guard against secret crimes, the proprietors of houses
‘ obliged to announce to them the deaths of any of their
^ates, nor can any person be interred without producing
ir certificate. In short, their surveillance, in conjunc-
1 with that of the police, is extended to the minutest
cumstances that can affect the public health. In what
•’ be called compulsory cleanliness, Vienna might serve
‘ a Model to every other city. No dirt of any kind is
: muted to be thrown into the streets; no accumulated
ss decayed vegetables is ever to be seen in the mar-
V i E 645
kets; no slaughter-houses are to be seen throughout the Vienna,
city. Putrefying provisions are never allowed to be sold ;
no adulterated bread, for that is not only weighed, but
chemically analyzed, if suspected to contain improper in¬
gredients; and woe to the offender, for the fine is gene¬
rally ruinous. The police also regulate the markets and
the price of provisions.
Yet notwithstanding all this care, Vienna is decidedly
unhealthy, and the climate is generally fatal to delicate
constitutions. Colds, catarrhs, and pulmonary complaints
are frequent and most malignant. This insalubrity arises
from its peculiar situation ; for it is exposed to the fre¬
quent prevalence of easterly winds, which, blowing over the
cold plains of Russia, Poland, and Hungary, the icy tops
of the Carpathians, and the waters and marshes of the
Danube, increase continually in coldness and dampness till
they reach Vienna. To the north wind the city is also
equally exposed, while, from the softer influences of the
south and the west, it is excluded by a neighbouring chain
of mountains, behind which rise the everlasting snows of
the Tyrolian and the Carnic Alps. Alternations from heat
to cold, and from cold to heat occur two or three times
a-day, almost throughout the year. The narrow streets
preclude any benefit from the sun, even when he shines;
and in dry weather the clouds of dust are intolerable. The
mean temperature is from 7° to 9° below zero of Reaumur’s
thermometer.
Vienna is the most important manufacturing town in the
empire, more than 60,000 persons finding employment in
different branches of industry. The principal manufac¬
tures consist of silk and other stuffs, gold lace, silver lace,
ribbons, hardware, and ironmongery goods, needles, philoso¬
phical instruments, carriages, and paper. The carriages
are prized in most parts of Germany. There are also se¬
veral porcelain works, one of which employs 150 painters,
and about 1500 work people. There are also made steel
ornaments, jewels, watches, musical instruments, and che¬
mical productions. There is a cannon-foundry, and a
manufactory of arms, belonging to government. Vienna
is indeed the centre of Austrian commerce, and of the ca¬
pital and circulation requisite to maintain it. The produce
of its industry gives rise to an exportation sufficient an¬
nually to furnish cargoes for 6000 boats, and loads for
nearly 2,000,000 of waggons. The canal of Newstadt
serves for a communication, not only with that town, but
also with the Danube, through the lower part of the Wien.
Three annual fairs are held in the town, and the number
of mercantile houses amounts to about a thousand. Be¬
sides the canal of Newstadt and the Danube, by which
Vienna communicates with Hungary and the upper parts
of southern Germany, communications have recently been,
or are in the course of being, formed with other provinces,
by means of railways. The Ferdinand railway, 276 miles
in length, commences in the Prater, extends through Mo¬
ravia and Silesia by Brunn, Olmutz, and Troppau, to
the salt mines of Bochnia, beyond Cracow, with various
branches; one of which goes to Presburg, and another
from Brunn to Prague. Baron Lina’s railway extends
from Vienna to Newstadt, and onward to Raab, with
branches to Modling, Lachenburg, and Baden. It then
goes to Oedenburg, and south of the Neusiedler See to
Raab. The Mittelbahn, or Central railway, extends from
the Ferdinand railway at Gausendorf to Presburgh, Romorn,
Pesth, and Debreczin, crossing the Theiss by a very long
bridge. The total length of this railway is 326 miles. A
line has also been projected to connect Vienna with rI rieste;
but the difficulty of passing so many large rivers and lofty
mountains as intervene, is such as would involve a most
enormous outlay, even if the execution of the project were
found to be practicable.
The population of the city and suburbs was found, in
646 VIE
Vienna. 1830, to amount to 319,873 souls, without counting the
garrison and strangers : including them, the total might be
332,000.
The roads immediately beyond the gates of the suburbs
are worse than those around any other capital in Europe ;
and, for several miles, the country is dreary and devoid of
interest. But the more distant environs are highly beauti¬
ful, and offer numberless interesting excursions to the citi¬
zen and the traveller. On the north are the islands of the
Danube ; on the west the lofty summit of the Calenberg ;
on the south the mountains of Styria, covered with forests
and vineyards; and on the east, towards Hungary, exten¬
sive plains, along which the eye ranges unobstructed to the
distant horizon. A few miles east of the capital is the im¬
perial palace of Schoenbrunn (Pretty spring,) which was oc¬
cupied by Napoleon as his head-quarters in 1805 and 1809-
It was built by Maria Theresa, who used it as her favourite
residence. The building is large and superbly furnished ;
the gardens are well laid out and very beautiful; and the si¬
tuation is delightful. Lachsenburg or Laxenburg is another
imperial palace, where the emperor has two residences; the
one an ordinary palace, with a theatre and other append¬
ages ; the other a sort of model of an ancient baronial castle,
with a moat, portcullis, arched gateway, court, hall, chapel,
chambers, dungeons, walls, passages, galleries, communica¬
tions, turrets, and every other proper accompaniment of an
ancient fortress. The interior is fitted up in a correspond¬
ing style ; and at a little distance there is a regular tilting
ground, where occasionally mock tournaments have been
held for the emperor’s amusement. We may also mention
Maria Hitzing, near Schoenbrunn, which possesses a theatre
and baths, and has been considered the finest and most
picturesque village in Austria; Penzing, noted for its rib¬
bon manufactures; Meidling, for its mineral waters; and
Baden, fifteen miles south-east of Vienna, a fine town, with
3000 inhabitants, and frequented annually by four or five
thousand strangers, to drink its mineral waters ; and, near
Baden, Weilburg, a magnificent palace recently erected by
the archduke Charles.
Notwithstanding all its disadvantages of climate and si¬
tuation, few places possess such ample resources, such ge¬
neral means of enjoyment, both intellectual and physical, as
this imperial city. Its magnificent imperial library, scarce¬
ly inferior to any in Europe, and its admirable museums and
public galleries, are all open to the public, in a manner so
perfect as to arrangement and accommodation, as to render
them practically and generally useful. The theatres and
the opera are all excellent. The streets are crowded
with a lively, active, bustling population. Nothing oc¬
curs to annoy or molest the passenger; and in no capital
of continental Europe does the stranger, whose passports
are regular, and conduct orderly, experience or perceive so
little of the interference of the police as at Vienna. No beg¬
gars are to be seen; no appearance of poverty meets the
eye; no one appears badly dressed. The Viennese are
indeed a happy and enjoying people ; frugal, cheerful, and
contented, they seek no alteration in their condition ; they
know little of their government but its mild and paternal
influence ; and they dread changes of any kind as fraught
with evil. They see their princes mixing among them with
all the simplicity and kindness of private citizens ; and they
love them with an affection which they believe to be reci¬
procal. Their general tone of character forms them for
tranquil enjoyment in themselves, and promoting it mothers;
and the lower classes, as well as the higher, are generally
found to be mild, kind, and obliging. They are, however,
said to be more addicted to sensual than to intellectual plea¬
sures ; and the standard of morality is very low among all
classes.
Vienna is a place of considerable antiquity, and has been
the scene of many historical events. It was originally a
V I E
small village, encircled by marshes and forests, ami peopled
by fishermen; but here the Romans established castra stati-
va, or a standing intrenched camp, which gradually became a
town, with the name of Vindobona; and it was here that
the emperor Marcus Aurelius died, a.d. 180. On the de¬
cline of the Roman empire, it fell successively into the
hands of the Goths and Huns; and in 791 was, with the
rest of Austria, attached by Charlemagne to his dominions
The origin of the modern town is commonly ascribed to
Henry the First, duke of Austria, who is said to have found¬
ed it in or about the year 1142. In 1241 it was taken bj
the emperor Frederick II., and again, in 1297, by the em¬
peror Rudolph, wdio bestowed it, with the duchy of Austria
upon his son Albert, who became the founder of the arch-
ducal, now the imperial family. It was vainly besieged In
the Hungarians in 1477 ; but, eight years afterwards, it wa'
obliged to surrender to Matthias, king of Hungary and Bo
hernia. It was besieged by the Turks in 1529, and agair
in 1683; and was relieved, on the latter occasion, only hi
the arrival of a Polish army, under their king, Sobieski, wh!
beat the Turks with great slaughter before the city. It
1805, it surrendered to the emperor Napoleon; and agaii
in 1809, after a short resistance. Six miles east of the cit’
is the island of Lobau, in the Danube, where the Frenci
were encamped for six weeks, in 1809 j and opposite it
near the north bank of the river, are the villages of Aspern
Essling, and Wagram, where were fought the desperat
battles which decided the fate of the Austrian monarchy a
that time. (c.h.)
VIENNE, a department of the south-west division a
prance, formed out of the ancient province of Upper Poitou
It extends in north latitude from 46° 8', to 49° 9/, and i
longitude from 0° 7' east, to 0° 58' west. It is bounde
on the north by the departments of Mayence and Indre
Loire, on the east by the Indre and Loire, on the sout
by Upper Vienne and Charente, and on the west byth
two Sevres. The extent is 2640 square miles. It is di
vided into five arrondissements, thirty-one cantons, an
three hundred communes. It sends two deputies to th
legislative chamber, and contained in 1836, 288,002 inh:
bitants. They all adhere to the Catholic church, excejj
about 14,000 Calvinists, settled in and around .Rouilb
The people adhere rigidly to their ancient manners an
practices, and are reported to be enemies to all improvfj
ment, and to be careless, idle, and ignorant. They ar
chiefly agriculturists, and live, as their ancestors lived, in
state of great filth and destitution, on the halt produce <
the land; the other half being delivered to the landlord
who pay out of it the territorial imposts.
The surface of the department is an elevated plain, ui
interrupted by any remarkable hills or valleys. In son
parts it is sandy, in others clayey, but in all of tolerable
cundity, with the exception of about one-fourth, which
uncultivated heath land, but which might be made prodm
tive if capital could be found, and the ancient prejudices ar
customs were exchanged for the more modern usages. Mo
of these neglected wastes are situated in the eastern divisic
of the department, on the arrondissements of Chatelherai
and Montmorillon. The principal river, the Vienne, pas>
through the department, from north to south, about nit
six miles, and is the only one that is navigable, and t
only for a short distance, and with vessels of a small bu
den. It receives in its course the water of numerous srru
rivers. The climate is in general mild and temperate,
the north-west winds often bring early and sudden ros
which occasionally do great injury both to the corn a
and the vineyards.
The product of corn is insufficient for the consump w
and potatoes, but especially chesnuts, are used as substi u
for grain. The quantity of wine produced is cons'e!"a ;
and some of it has the property of being improved by c
uniit,
h.-v
i
y i e
nne. ig for many years. Much of it is made into brandy. In
years, 250,000 hogsheads of wine have been made,
'he forests have been neglected, and now yield an insuffi-
ient supply of fuel, especially as there is some demand for
from the few iron works in the department. The cattle
•e stated to be only 50,000 oxen, and 175,000 sheep; but
icre are numerous swine in proportion to the other ani-
ials, amounting to about 45,000. These are mostly sent
,r the supply of Nantz, Rochelle, and Rochefort. Suf-
cient hemp and flax are grown to provide employment in
>inning, and linen cloth for common use. The only manu-
ctures besides iron already noticed, are some paper,
irthenware, leather, and coarse woollen goods, but barely
licient for the internal demand. From the water com-
unication being slight, and the roads in bad condition,
ere is little commerce, and that consists of the export of
ules, swine, walnuts, chesnuts, wine, brandy, and, in
>ars of extraordirfary productiveness, a little corn.
Vienne, Upper, a department in the north-west of
ranee, formed out of the Upper Limousin, and the dis-
icts of La Marche and Poitou. It is situated in north la-
ude between 45° 26', and 46° 24', and in east longitude
.'tween 0° 33', and 1° 41'. It is bounded on the north
i the departments of Vienne and of Indre, on the east by
at of the Creuse, on the south by the Correze and the
ordogne, and on the west by the Charente. It is 2165
uare miles in extent, is divided into four arrondissements,
id those into twenty-seven cantons, containing 198 com-
unesor parishes. It contained in 1836 a population of
)3,011, all of whom adhere to the Catholic church. They
e represented as indolent and uninstructed, but kind and
laritable, as penurious, and yet hospitable. The insti-
tions for instruction are few and very ill conducted. The
ceof the country consists of mountains, hills, deep chasms,
id narrow valleys, but presents no extensive plain. The
ountains are of granite. The highest of them are in the
nth part of the frontiers of the department of the Creuse
id the Correze, and decline gradually in height towards
e departments of the Charente and the Vienne. The
eatest height of any of them does not exceed 3000 feet,
he rivers, which amount to thirty-eight in number, are
pid, and in their course have worn themselves deep beds
the granite or schistose hills. The principal are the
ienne, 240 feet wide at Limoges, the Gartempe, the
rdoer, the Venaise, the Graire, and the Issoire, none of
iich are navigable. There are some lakes, but none of
eat extent. The climate is damp, cold, and highly va-
ible. The frost begins early, and ends late. The me-
um heat of the year at Limoges is from eight to nine of
eaumur greater than in Paris, though it is three degrees
nth of that city. The appropriation of the soil is, accor-
ng to the “ Statistique de la France,” 554,266 hectares,
iich is divided nearly in the following order :—Ploughed
id, 248,599 hectares; water meadows, 93,960; upland
ffsture, 47,516; 9870 commons, 2969 vineyards, 33,563
osnut wood, 39,580 forests, 4300 gardens, 14,480 sites
houses and roads, 2969 courses of rivers, dikes, and lakes,
d 64,1/3 uncultivated heaths. Little alteration has
en place in agriculture during the last two hundred
ars, except by the introduction of potatoes. As the na-
'es sPeak a patois something like the Provencal, they have
,s nieans of becoming acquainted with the improve-
ents ,ma(fe in the other parts of France ; and almost the
10 e is cultivated on the Metayer system. Frequent fal-
jvs are necessary, and with them very little wheat is
T ’ about the same quantity of buck wheat, and about
it t timfs as mucb rye. The oats, barley, and maize do
’ ogether yield half as much grain as the wheat alone.
^ most beneficial husbandry is the breeding of cattle:
e!'e are sold for the markets in the large cities near it,
some even in Paris. The annual sale to other depart-
V I G
647
ments is about 10,000, and 15,000 oxen and cows. In the Vierlauds
department, there are about 600,000 sheep of small size, II
and with coarse wool, but they are much annoyed by the Vigevano.
wolves. One important product is the chesnut, of which
more than a million quintals are annually harvested. They
are used as a substitute for bread by the inhabitants, but
some are sent to other districts. The forests have been
much neglected, and now yield little timber for building;,
and but a scanty supply for fuel.
There are mines of antimony, tin, and iron, but the pro¬
duct of them is inconsiderable. There are some valuable
clays adapted for making porcelain. The manufactures are
mostly of the domestic kind, such as that of spinning flax,
and weaving it into linen. Some woollen and cotton goods
are made in the city of Limoges, the capital of the de¬
partment.
Vienne, an arrondissement of the department of the
Isere, in the south-east of France. It is 690 square miles
in extent, is divided into ten cantons, distributed in 132
communes, and contained 145,001 inhabitants in 1836.
The chief city, bearing the same name, is built on the side
of a hill on the left bank of the river Rhone, from which it
rises like an amphitheatre. It consists of narrow and
crooked streets, but has a fine promenade recently formed
on the side of the stream. It has a cathedral of great
beauty, several other churches, a museum, a theatre, and
some extensive barracks. In 1836, it had a population of
16,484 persons, chiefly occupied in making paper, linen
goods, iron and copper ware. It is one of the most ancient
cities of France, and the capital of the ancient Gauls; and
various reliques of antiquity are from time to time disco¬
vered.
VIERLANDS, four small islands in the river Elbe, a
little above the city of I^amburg, and under the joint go¬
vernment of that city and of Liibec. The inhabitants are
a colony of Dutch who came to these spots on a religious
account, and who still retain their ancient language, reli¬
gion, dress, and manners. They are, in fact, the market
gardeners of the city of Hamburg, and supply its inhabi¬
tants with the best of culinary vegetables and fruits. The
names of the islands are, Old Gamme, New Gamme, Kirk-
warden, and Kosslacke. They form four parishes, and con¬
tain a population of more than 7000 persons.
VIERZON, a city of France, in the department of the
Cher, and the arrondissement of Bourges. It stands at the
point where the rivers Eure and Eber unite, and contained
in 1836, 4706 inhabitants, employed in making hosiery,
woollen goods, and leather. Lat. 47. 12. Long. 1. 58. E.
VIGER, Francois, more generally known by the name
of Franciscus Vigerus, a learned Jesuit, was a native of
Rouen, and died there in the year 1647. His treatise en¬
titled “ De praecipuis Graecie Dictionis Idiotismis liber,” is
said to have been originally published in 1632. The sub¬
sequent editions are very numerous, and some of them are
enriched by the emendations and additions of Hoogeveen,
Zeunius, and Hermann. An edition, including the annota¬
tions of all the three, has been printed in our own country.
Glasg. 1823, 8vo. In this improved form, the work pos¬
sesses great value. Viger published an edition of Euse¬
bius, “ De Preparatione Evangelica,” accompanied with
notes and a new Latin version. Paris. 1628, fob
VIGEVANO, a province of the kingdom of Sardinia in
Italy, in the principality of Piedmont, on the frontier to¬
wards Milan. It is a level and rich, though small district,
producing wine, silk, and some rice. The capital is of the
same name, is the seat of a bishop, and is situated about
two miles from the river Tessin. It is surrounded with
walls, has an old castle, and contains besides a beautiful
cathedral, two parish churches, seven monasteries, and three
nunneries, to each of which there is attached a church.
The inhabitants are 15,200, very industriously occupied in
648
V I G 4
V I G
Vigilan- raising silk, and in making silk goods, especially stockings
and handkerchiefs. Lat. 45. 18. 54. Long. 8. 46. 56. E.
VIGIL, in church history, is the eve or next day before
any solemn feast; because then Christians were wont to
watch, fast, and pray, in their churches.
Vigils of Plants, a term under which botanists com¬
prehend the precise time of the day in which the flowers of
different plants open, expand, and shut.
VIGILANTIUS, the bold opponent of ecclesiastical
corruptions in the fourth century, and the forerunner of
those who have since testified for scriptural truth, and
protested against certain errors of the ancient fathers.
Others of the same, or of an earlier period, may have
offered some occasional opposition to superstitious practices,
as they crept into the church; but Vigilantius openly
denounced relic and saint worshippers as cinerarios et
idololatras.x He made an uncompromising attack upon
the obligation to celibacy, the adoration of saints, prayers
for the dead, the use of relics, and pilgrimages, and exposed
their mischievous tendency, at the critical time when they
were sanctioned by such eminent men as Ambrose, Chry¬
sostom, Jerom, and Augustin. He was one of those reso¬
lute inquirers, who dare to think for themselves, and who
appear at intervals, after the lapse of centuries, to remind
Christians that they are to abide by the rule of thought
and action, which is laid down in the book of God’s reveal¬
ed will, and are not to be satisfied with any canon which
cannot be examined by that standard. He may therefore
have a place given to him in that noble phalanx, in which
Claude of Turin, Valdo of Lyons, Luther, and Calvin, took
their stand, for the defence of the pure gospel.
Vigilantius was born about the year 360, at the foot of
the Pyrenees, under the warm sun which fertilizes Aqui¬
taine, and in the midst of that majestic scenery which calls
forth latent genius, and gives a tone of independent cha¬
racter to the native of the mountains. Calagorris,^ now
called Caseres, was his birth-place ; not Calagorris in Spain,
but a village on the northern side of the Pyrenees, so named
by a band of insurgents, who were driven by Pompey from
the Spanish borders, and settled on the Gallic frontier.5 * 7
The father of Vigilantius kept the Mansiof or station at
Calagorris, where travellers were supplied with post-horses
and guides to conduct them through the passes; and this
brought the young mountaineer under the notice of Sulpi-
cius Severus, the historian, who took him into his service,
and employed him in the management of his estate, and in
the sale of the wines which it produced.5 For his good
conduct in this situation, he was taken into the confidence
of his patron, and lived with him more in the character of
a friend than a dependent. There are some beautiful let¬
ters still extant, which passed between Sulpicius Severus
and Paulinus of Nola, in which Vigilantius is mentioned
in the warmest terms of affection ;G and no doubt he was
indebted to his familiar acquaintance with these two emi¬
nent persons tor his first serious impressions. Had he not
been a man of uncommon strength of mind, he would have
fallen into the same errors which clouded their religious viewi ?
Happily and providentially, however, he was enabled t! t!
turn their example to advantage, even on points in vvhic* ^
they were misguided, by avoiding the rocks on which tile'
split; and he became a reformer where he might have beei
a sceptic, or at least a scorner, with such extravagancy
before his eyes as they practised under the name of reli
gion. Sulpicius, in a season of great mental distress, wen
to Martin, bishop of Tours,7 for instruction and consolation
and it is probable that Vigilantius accompanied him on oni
or two of his visits to that gloomy ascetic, in 392 or 393
and witnessed some of those acts of austerity8 and preten
sions to miraculous power,9 which proved Martin to be ar
impostor or a crazy fanatic, and opened the eyes of thi
young man to the true character of a system, which turnei
the head of his master, and made him the victim of a spi
ritual delusion.
Sulpicius devoted the whole of his immense property ti
the exercise of almsgiving and hospitality. His beautiful
villas at Primuliac and Elusone, near Tholouse, were madi
the asylums of the mendicant and the wayfaring man. Hi
built churches; he founded a monastery; he entertainei
strangers; he treated his domestics as if they were his nea!
relations; and he lived in the practice of every Christiai
virtue.10 He watched, he prayed, he fasted. But this waj
not enough. Wrought up to the highest pitch of religion1
fever by Martin, and others of a disordered imagination, hj
believed that his oblations of faith and piety would be unj
acceptable to heaven, unless they were accompanied by th
most rigid self-denial and self-infliction. But the more h
tormented himself, the more did fears, utterly inconsisten
with the covenant of reconciliation and the pardon of sins
offered in the gospel, prey upon his heart and understand
ing. Vigilantius observed the melancholy and maddening
effects produced in the noble mind of his protector, am
learnt to abominate the lessons which degraded “ the Chris
tian Sallust,” as Sulpicius was called, to the level of a creduj
lous and extravagant narrator of false miracles.11
He likewise had opportunities of seeing how leaven <
the same kind worked in Paulinus of Nola, and how
spoilt his Christianity. That illustrious and amiable sairj
(for saint he was, in spite of his religious mistakes), we
persuaded by the advocates12 * of an ascetic rule of life, whic
was falsely called Christian perfection, to renounce the com;
fort and privileges of wedlock, to live with his wife as
with a sister, to desert his post of duty, to deny himse
the necessaries of life, to abandon the world, to practis
severities on his person, and to have recourse to superst
tious observances, which reduced his body to a skeleton
and his mind to a state bordering on imbecility.
Vigilantius continued to pass his time in the society <|
Sulpicius, in Aquitaine, or of Paulinus, in Campania, unt
the year 394 or 395, and with them he had the best oppoi
tunities of cultivating sacred learning, and of discussing the(
logical questions. But succeeding to considerable proper*
on the death of his father, about that time, he resolved total
1 Hieron. Opera. Epist. ad j^ipar. 37, vol. iv. par. ii. p.278. edit. Paris. 1706. 2 Plieron. Opera, iv. par. ii. p. 282.
3 BaR* Grit. Hist. Chronol. vol. ii. p. 74. 4 Bergier, Hist, des Grands Chemins de 1’Empire, liv. iv. c. ix. pp. 638, 646, 65 ■
Vaissette, Hist. Gen. du Languedoc, i. 152. Tillemont, Memoires, xii. 193.
See especially Epist. Paulini ad Snip. Sev. No. 1. Paulini Op. edit. Antv. 1622. 7 Sulp. Sever, de Vita S. Mart. c. 2b.
8 One of them is thus described by Paulinus:
Quin et contexto setis coopertus amictu,—
Exesa assiduo compunxit acumine membra,
Ut tereret tenuem vestis nimis aspera pellem,
Et cutis extends stimulis adtacta paveret.”—Paulini Vita S. Martini, lib, h.
7 See Sulp. Sev. Dialog! de Virtutibus Martini. 10 Epist. Paulini ad Sulp. Sev. . ,
See the miracles of Martin and of the hermits of Egypt, described by Sulpicius, in his Liber de Vita Martini, and Dia OS1
Virtutibus Monachorum Orientalium.
~ Jerom, among others, who told him he must make an absolute renunciation of all he bad, and voluntarily embrace en'‘l
poverty, if he wished to be perfect. It is in vain to defend the Christianity of the fourth century from the charge of faiia 1C1
See Epist. Hieron. ad Paul. 49. Opera iv. par. ii. p. 563-
1
y i g
s 3Urney to the East for his mental improvement, and car-
J J a letter of introduction from Paulinus to Jerom,1 who
Vj then dwelling as a recluse in Palestine. This intro-
c 'tion, which took place after he was in priest’s orders,
v; a turning point in his life. The errors for which he
rrht have had some respect, in connection with such
(Itle and humble servants of God as Sulpicius and Fau¬
lts, (and never is error so dangerous as when recom-
i nded by good and holy men), became disgusting in the
s r an(] choleric monk of Bethlehem, whose learning gave
a t:n<r to his acerbity. It was unendurable to be a spec-
t k of Jerom’s spiritual pride, and to hear him revile
t ry body whose opinions were opposed to his own, while
1 professed to make the birth-place of the meek and lowly
j ,us his abode, in order that he might be the better able
t keep his body in subjection. Their disputes ran high,
a 1 Jerom, who began by speaking of Yigilantius as “ the
1 y presbyter,”2 and “ Christian brother,”3 soon changed
]i opinion, and heaped every epithet upon him that was
rlst expressive of contempt and resentment. He punned
i m his name, and called him Dormitantius, and inveighed
ainst him as an ignorant pretender to learning.4 “ Tap-
sr,” “ madman,” “ monster,” “ possessed of a devil,”
1 eretic,”5 “Samaritan,” “ worse than a Jew;” these were
sne of Jerom’s terms of reproach applied to Vigilan-
ts; but we search in vain for any fair grounds of accusa-
I n in justification of such language, which has been con-
< nned by some of the best writers of the Romish church.
} i charges of heterodoxy on the great doctrines of atone-
i nt and justification, no imputation of doubtful faith on
l: doctrine of the Holy Trinity, are advanced against
la. The sum and substance of Jerom’s indictment
; ounts to this, that Vigilantius denied the sanctity of
i ics; that he refused to worship and to burn lights at the
mbs of the martyrs, and to invocate saints; that he dis-
ioroved of vows of celibacy, of pilgrimages, and of noc-
i nal watchings in cemeteries ;6 that he doubted the pre-
: ice of departed spirits at the places where their bodies
' re buried; that he questioned the tales of miracles said
i have been wrought at the sepulchres of the martyrs ;
II that he protested against the imputed efficacy of
| yers, either for or to the dead.7 Unfortunately we have
' hing left but Jerom’s account of the controversy ; and
,rilantius only speaks for himself in the pages of his adver-
; y, in some of which he is represented precisely in the same
ht, and almost in the same words, as the early Christians
re by their pagan calumniators. Jerom hated Vigilan-
s personally, because he had accused him of inclining to
: ne ot the opinions of Origen. Fleury admits that Je-
n was too vehement in his controversy with Vigilan-
1 s i and Erasmus makes use of a stronger expression,
lebacchatur convitiis.”8 After making some stay in Pa-
1 ■*ne and Egypt, Vigilantius returned to Gaul in 396 ;9
: 1 on his way he visited a Christian community in the
i ttian Alps, the ancestors, as we have reason to believe,
1 file Valdenses, among whom he found persons entertain-
' the same opinions as his own. This visit may have
in occasioned by a statement of Ambrose relating to the
‘ inons and practice of his mountain clergy. Claude,
"°P °f Turin, four hundred years afterwards, was said to
1 lv'e the sect of Vigilantius10 in those parts; in other
V I G
words, to attempt to put down the same abuses which Vi¬
gilantius had exposed. v
During the eight years that followed, he officiated as
priest in the diocese of Tholouse, not far from the Pyre¬
nees ; but he does not seem to have been confined to the
duties of his parish j11 for we read of his making excursions
into different parts of Gaul to collect books, to copy MSS.,
and to put himself into communication with bishops and
clergy whose sentiments were similar to his own. Jerom’s
invectives against those Gallic prelates12 who advocated
the same cause as Vigilantius, and his reproof of Exupe-
rius, bishop of Tholouse, for not silencing him “ with a rod
of iron,”13 prove that there was a strong attempt, at this time,
to correct those superstitious practices of the church of the
fourth century, which Vigilantius denounced as having an
idolatrous tendency. It is quite clear, that the Aquitaini-
an clergy leant, for the most part, towards the opinions of
Vigilantius, because nobody was found in southern Gaul
to contradict him ; and for that reason Jerom undertook
to rebuke and refute him, at the request of Riparius and
Desiderius. The influence of the Pyrenean presbyter was
exercised in another way; he employed much of his time
and his fortune in the transcription and circulation of copies
of Scripture.14
The zeal of Vigilantius in his endeavour to check the pro¬
gress of corrupt innovation, was unremitting till the time of
his death, which took place, it is supposed, during that terri¬
ble invasion of the barbarians, the Alans and Vandals, which
desolated the south of Europe at the beginning of the fifth
century. In 401 and 403, and again in 406, we find Jerome
writing against him,15 and describing his persevering efforts
in the dissemination of his principles; but after that no more
mention is made of him. The full benefit of his protests
against antichristian novelties was not felt, either in his
lifetime or in the ages that immediately followed. But he
was one of those champions of the faith raised up in fulfil¬
ment of the promise, that the gospel of truth shall never
be without a witness; and it was reserved for a happier
era to establish the doctrines which he so faithfully main¬
tained. (»• f«)
VIGO, a sea-port of Spain, in the province of Galicia,
more remarkable for the excellence of the bay on which
it stands. Vigo bay is entirely enclosed with high moun¬
tainous land, broken by cultivated valleys, which form a
pleasing landscape. It is entered by a long channel, in
which there are from twenty-seven to thirty-two feet
of water. The beach is clear, the holding ground good,
and there a ship is well sheltered from the sea by the
Bayona islands. The town is surrounded by an ancient
wall, and is defended by a citadel. The harbour, though
so well situated, is little frequented by any but coasting
vessels. Vigo contains not more than 2500 inhabitants. It
is remarkable as the place where a Spanish plate-fleet took
refuge in the year 1702, and was attacked by a combined
fleet of the British and Dutch ships, then at war with
Spain. The victory was complete, but the Spaniards set
fire to the richest of the treasure-ships, which were burnt
and sunk. It was to this place that General Crawford led
the light division of Sir John Moore’s army, on its retreat
from Spain, and embarked it with despatch and without
loss. The latitude is 42. 13. 20. N. Long. 8. 33. 30. W.
Hjer. Op. iv. pars 2, p. 568.
... v ~r ”• e- 1 Hier. Op. iv. pars ii. p. 568. - juiu.
Vigilantius was not named among the heretics enumerated by Epiphanius, Augustin, Theodoret, or Isidorus.
See the confession of Jerom, that these nightly assemblies were productive of intemperance and profligacy.
See Epist. 37, and Adversus Vigilantium. Hier. Op. iv. pars ii. pp. 281—288.
Erasmus, Argumenta Invectivae Hieron. vol. iii. p. 55. 9 Hieron. Op. iv. pars u. p. 279. Hpist. ad Kip. 3,.
Eraef. lonae Aur. advers. Haer. Claudii. Bib. Patr. iv. 535. edit. Par. I624- .
Hier. adv. Vigil, iv. 2. 282; and Epist. ad Vigil. 36. 12 Ibid. 13 Hier Ep. 37. ad Ripar. Ibia.
Hler. Epist. ad Vigil. 36. Vlde Hier- °Pera’ vo1- lv- u-
V0L. xxi. 4 N
3 Ibid. p. 277.
4 Ibid. pp. 281, 282.
649
Vigo.
650 V I L
Vijana- VIJANAGRAM, a considerable town of Hindustan, in
gram t]le Northern Arcons, twenty-five miles north by west from
v U Yizapatam. Long. 83. 30. E. Lat. 18. 4. N.
VILLAFRANCA, a small town in the delegation of
Verona in Venetian Lombardy, with a population of 2000.
It is nine miles distant from Verona.
ViLiiAFRANCA, a town of Spain, in the province of Es-
tremadura, distant from Madrid about 200 miles. It is a
place of hut little importance, and has a population of about
2500.
VILLACH, a circle in the Austrian government of Lai¬
bach in Illyria. It is bounded on the north by the Upper
Ens, on the east by Klaganfort, on the south by Laibach
and Venice, and on the west by Tyrol. It extends over
2200 square miles, and comprehends four cities, eleven
market towns, and 1147 villages, with 112,980 inhabitants.
It is mostly an alpine district, with lofty mountains covered
with snow, but intermixed with valleys of great beauty and
fertility, and several picturesque lakes and waterfalls. The
chief occupation is mining, by which some little silver and
less gold is obtained, but more considerable quantities of lead,
copper, antimony, and quicksilver. There are also many va¬
luable quarries, yielding marbles of great beauty. The capi¬
tal is the city of the same name, on the river Drove. It is
well built and strongly fortified, contains two churches, 360
dwelling-houses, and 4820 inhabitants, who are chiefly em¬
ployed in converting the minerals into common utensils.
Lat. 46. 35. Long. 13. 42. E.
VILLAGE, an assemblage of houses inhabited chiefly
by peasants and farmers, and having no market; a circum¬
stance by which it is distinguished from a town. The
word is French, formed from the Latin 'cilia, a country
house.
VILLEFRANCLIE, one of the arrondissements of the
department of the Rhone, in the south of France, con¬
taining 584| square miles, and divided into 9 cantons,
127 communes, with 151,980 inhabitants in 1836. The
capital is the city of the same name, situated on the river
Morgon, near to the left bank of the Paone, in a most fer¬
tile district. In 1836 it contained 7553 inhabitants, who
make cotton and woollen goods, and carry on a consider¬
able trade in wine, corn, cattle, and other agricultural pro¬
ductions. Long. 4. 38. E. Lat. 48. 59. N.
Villefranche, an arrondissement of the department
of Aveyron in France, extending over 493s square miles.
It is divided into four cantons and forty-eight communes,
having 81,130 inhabitants in 1836. The capital is the city
of the same name, situated at the junction of the rivers Al-
son and Aveyron. It is well built, and in 1836 contained
8738 industrious inhabitants, occupied in making linen
goods, paper, hats, copper ware, and other articles. Long.
2. 3. E. Lat. 41.24. N.
VILLENA, a city of Spain in the province of Murcia.
It is situated on the north-east of the river Jumilla, in a
bleak and mountainous country. Near it is a salt lake,
two leagues in circumference, which supplies the neigh¬
bouring district with salt for culinary purposes. The whole
of the surrounding country is studded with the remains of
fortresses built by the Moors. From this elevated coun¬
try, the capital and other places on the coast draw their
supplies of ice. The city contains fourteen streets, and
8000 inhabitants. It is situated in Lat. 38. 36. N.
VILLEIN, or Villain, in our ancient customs, denotes a
man of servile or base condition, viz. a bondman or servant.
VILLENAGE, in Law. The folk-land, or estates held
in villenage, was a species of tenure neither strictly feudal,
Norman, nor Saxon, but mixed and compounded of them
all; and which also, on account of the heriots that usually
attend it, may seem to have somewhat Danish in its com¬
position. Under the Saxon govei'nment, there were, as
Sir William Temple speaks, a sort of people in a condition
of downright servitude, used and employed in the most ser-
V I L
vile works, and belonging, both they, their children
effects, to the lord of the soil, like the rest of the cattle
stock upon it. These seem to have been those who
what was called the folk-land, from which they were i
moveable at the lord’s pleasure. On the arrival of t
Normans, it seems not improbable that they who w(
strangers to any other than a feudal state, might givesoi
measure of enfranchisement to such wretched persons
fell to their share, by admitting them, as well as others,
the oath of fealty, which conferred a right of protectii
and raised the tenant to a kind of state superior to dov
right slavery, but inferior to every other condition. T
they called villenage, and the tenants villeins.
These villeins, belonging principally to lords of mane j
were either villeins regardant, that is, annexed to the n
nor or land ; or else they were in gross, or at large, that
annexed to the person of the lord, and transferable by dt
from one owner to another. They could not leave th
lord without his permission ; but if they ran away, or wi
purloined from him, might be claimed and recovered
action, like beasts or other chattels. They held indc
small portions of land by way of sustaining themselves ai
families, but it was at the mere will of the lord, whomh
dispossess them whenever he pleased ; and it was uj
villein services, that is, to carry out dung, to hedge i
ditch the lord’s demesnes, and any other the meanest
fices; and their services were not only base, but uncertj
both as to their time and quantity. A villein could
quire no property either in lands or goods; if he pure!)
ed either, the lord might seize them to his own use, i
less he contrived to dispose of them again before the ij
had seized them, for the lord had then lost his opportuni
In many places a fine was also payable to the lord1
the villein presumed to marry his daughter to any c
without leave from the lord ; and by the common law, I
lord might also bring an action against the husband for (
mages in thus purloining his property ; for the children
villeins were also in the same state of bondage with th
parents; whence they were called in Latin nativi,whI
gave rise to the female appellation of a villein, who v
called a neife. In case of a marriage between a freenj
and a neife, or a villein and a free woman, the issue folia
ed the condition of the father, being free if he w-as fr
and a villein if he was villein, contrary to the maxim
the civil law, partus sequitur ventrem. But no bast;
could be born a villein, because by another maxim of <
law, he is nullius filius; and as he can gain nothing
inheritance, it were hard that he should lose his natu
freedom by it. The law however protected the persons
villeins against atrocious injuries of the lord; for he mif
not kill or maim his villein, although he might beat 1)
with impunity.
Villeins might be enfranchised by manumission,
process of time tliey gained considerable ground on th
lords; and in particular they strengthened the tenure
their estates to that degree, that they came to have in th
an interest in many places fully as good, in others bet
than their lords. For the good-nature and benevolence
many lords of manors having, time out of mind, permiti
their villeins and their children to enjoy their possessie
without interruption, in a regular course of descent, !
common law, of which custom is the life, now gave tin
title to prescribe against their lords; and, on performai
of the same services, to hold their lands in spite ol any <
termination of the lord’s will. For though in general ti
are still said to hold their estates at the wdl of the o
yet it is such a will as is agreeable to the custom o j
manor ; which customs are preserved and evidence^ oy
rolls of the several courts-baron in which they are enter
or kept on foot by the constant immemorial usage o ^
several manors in which the lands lie. And as suci
ants had nothing to show for their estates but those c
V I N
■ncivfjms, and admissions in pursuance of them, entered on
ilAgen .)ese rolls, or the copies of such entries witnessed by the
-eward, they now began to be called tenants by copy of
| cent> wrt roll, and their tenure itself a copyhold.
I 1 VILLENEUVE D’ AGEN, an arrondissement of the
i ^'epartment of the Lot and the Garonne, in France, ex-
;nds over 560 square miles, and is divided into six can-
ms, with eighty-six communes, which contained in 1836
3,961 inhabitants. The capital is a city of the same name
n the river Lot, with a population of 11,222 in 1836.
VILLIERS, George, duke of Buckingham, was the
lird son of Sir George Villiers. He wras born at Brookes-
y in Leicestershire, August 20, 1582. His handsome
jrson and pleasing manners gained him the favour of
igies I., who, in 1615, created him a knight, with a
ension of L.1000 a-year. From this time, his promotion
as rapid, and his influence with King James unbounded ;
'ter whose death, he continued as great a favourite with
s son. But for his transactions, which are matter of his-
try, we refer to the article Britain. He was assassinated
I: Portsmouth by one Fenton, August 23, 1628.
Villiers, George, second duke of Buckingham of that
mily, son of the preceding, was born at Westminster, Ja-
lary 30,1627. During the civil wrars, he served in the royal
•my under Prince Rupert. After the death of Charles L,
1 attached himself to his son, and at the restoration was
ade master of the horse, and was one of those confidential
inisters of the king who were designated the Cabal. His
iblic conduct was unprincipled and capricious, and his pri-
ite life notorious for profligacy and crime. He died April
i, 1688, justly neglected and despised. See Britain.
VIMIERO, a small town of the province of Alentejo,
the kingdom of Portugal. It stands on a mountain, and
intains 430 houses, with about 1800 inhabitants, and is
ply remarkable as the scene of one of that series of vic-
ries gained by the duke of Wellington during the penin-
klar war.
VINA or Bin, a singular musical instrument of India, of
e lute kind. Mersenne describes and gives a repre-
mtation of it in the twenty-first proposition of the second
)ok of his Harmonics. It is minutely described in the
siatic Researches.
VINCATGHERRY, a town of Hindostan,in the Mysore
jab’s territories. It is built on a rising ground, and con¬
its of several inclosures surrounded by walls of stone, and
inked with towers and bastions, which rise higher and
! gher towards the central inclosure, in which stood the
jabs dwelling. It is distant 120 miles west from Madras.
ong.78. 38. E. Lat. 13. 2. N.
MNCENT, ST, one of the windward West India islands,
situate in 13° N. Lat. and 61° W. Long. It is seven-
en miles long from north to south, and ten miles broad,
j emg discovered by Columbus on the 22d January (1498),
bicb is St Vincent’s day in the Spanish calendar, he named
| after that saint. It was then inhabited by a ivarlike race of
aiibs. 1 he first settlement of Europeans was made by
,(,dy of adventurers from Martinique in 1719. It was
ng a neutral island, but, in 1762, it wras taken possession
by the English, and ceded to them by the treaty of Paris
t ie following year. At the instance of some rapacious
anters, the English engaged in an unjust war against the
arnbees who inhabited the windward side of the island,
1 " 10 we,[e forced to consent to a peace, and to cede a
Jge tract of valuable land to the crowm. The consequence
t is was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the
a uction of the island when attacked by the French. It
as owever restored to England at the peace of 1783,
1 as, since that time, continued in the possession of
jj'1 a’n' population amounted in 1831, to 27,122, of
I "j1 were whites. The number of registered slaves
le st August 1834, was 22,266 ; and the amount of
’Pensation paid out of the parliamentary grant was,
v 1 n
651
or L-26, 10s. 7d. each. The amount of exports
m 1836 was, 21,694,512 lbs. of sugar, 242,637 gallons of
rum, and 394,830 gallons of molasses. The total value ofv
the exports was, L.349,480, and the imports for the same
year, L.155,522. The island has a local legislature, con¬
sisting of the lieutenant-governor, a council of twelve mem¬
bers appointed by the crown, and an assembly of nineteen
members elected by freeholders of ten acres of land, or of a
house of the yearly value of L.20 in the town, or of L.100
in the country.
Vincent,
St.
Vincent, Gulf of St, a large inlet in the south coast
°f Ne_w Holland, extending eastward about forty-five miles,
and sixty miles farther in a northern direction. At its mouth
it is not more than nine miles broad, but afterwards widens
to more than double the breadth.
VINCENT, John Jervis, Earl of ST, a distinguished
naval officer, was born at Meaford, in Staffordshire, on the 9th
of January 1734, old style. His father, Lwynfen Jervis, Esq.,
was counsel and solicitor to the admiralty, and treasurer of
Greenwich Hospital. Young Jervis was destined for the
law, but having contracted a dislike to that profession, and
a strong predilection for the sea, he ran awTay tfom school,
and expressed his determination to be a sailor. He was
therefore placed under Commodore Towmsend, who was
at that time going out in the Gloucester as commander-in¬
chief to Jamaica. This was in the year 1748. In 1754
he was made a lieutenant out of the Prince into the Royal
Anne ; and in the year 1759 he distinguished himself very
much at the siege and capture of Quebec, when General
Wolfe w^as killed. He was in consequence promoted by
Sir Charles Saunders, the commander-in-chief, to the rank
of commander into the Porcupine sloop of war. In the
following year he was made a post-captain. He command¬
ed the Foudroyant in July 1788, when the memorable
rencontre took place between Admiral Keppel and Count
d’Orvilliers, and bore a very distinguished part in that ac¬
tion. In 1782, Captain Jervis fell in off Brest harbour
with the French ship Pegase, of seventy-four guns and
700 men, and took her after an engagement which lasted
three-quarters of an hour. The Pegase had eighty men
killed and wounded, while Captain Jervis and lour men
only wTere wounded on board the Foudroyant. In conse¬
quence of this action, which at once raised his renown to
the highest pitch, he was created a knight companion of
the Bath. In 1784 he was elected member of parliament
for Launceston, and he afterwards sat for North Yarmouth.
In 1787 he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral of the
blue, in 1793 to that of vice-admiral, and in 1795 he be¬
came admiral.
In November 1793 an expedition was fitted out to at¬
tack the French Carribee islands, and Sir Charles Grey and
Sir John Jervis were nominated respectively to command
the land and sea forces to be employed on the occasion.
The expedition was at first completely successful, and
Martinique, St Lucia, and Guadaloupe, were surrendered
to the British arms. The French however succeeded in
retaking Guadaloupe, and the rainy season and the yellow
fever frustrated all the efforts of the British to regain pos¬
session of it. In 1795, on the resignation of Admiral
Hood, Jervis was appointed to the command of the British
fleet in the Mediterranean, and was employed in blockad¬
ing the French fleet in Toulon, and protecting our trade
in the Levant, a service which he performed with consum¬
mate skill and success.
In 1797 Admiral Jervis, with only fifteen ships of the
line, gained his celebrated victory over the Spanish fleet,
consisting of twenty-seven ships of the line. The engage¬
ment, which took place off Cape St Vincent, on the 14th
of February, lasted about ten hours. The Spaniards were
completely defeated, and four sail of the line, two of 112,
one of 84, and one of 74 guns, were taken. The thanks
of both houses of Parliament were voted to the fleet, and
652
YIN
V I N
Vincent, the commander-in-chief was created a peer, by the title of
St. Earl of St Vincent. This victory was much more important
in its consequences than might be supposed from the mere
numerical loss which it caused to the enemy. It paralyzed
the power of Spain, gave encouragement to our allies, and
added fresh vigour to the efforts of the government in pro¬
secuting the war. The battle of Cape St Vincent was fol¬
lowed by the mutiny of the British fleet at Spithead; and
in the month of May and June following its effects were
felt in the fleet which was cruizing before Cadiz under the
command of Lord St Vincent. But the ringleaders were
executed, and the mutiny speedily repressed by the resolute
and determined conduct of the commander-in-chief, with a
combination of humanity and ingenuity eminently charac¬
teristic of the man: he contrived to make one execution
produce the effect of many, by ordering it on an unusual
day, Sunday morning. It was the practice to dispatch mu¬
tinous vessels to serve under his orders; and by his mas¬
terly operations of combined mercy and justice, he soon
reduced them to order, restoring discipline by such ex¬
amples as should be most striking, without being more nu¬
merous than absolute necessity required. In June 1799
he resigned the command of the fleet, in consequence of
ill health, and returned to England in the month of Au¬
gust following. On the resignation of Lord Bridport, and
his final retirement from active service, he was appoint¬
ed to the command of the Channel fleet, and in the
spring of 1800 hoisted his flag in the Ville de Paris. In
the following year, on the formation of the Addington
ministry, he was made first lord of the admiralty, and in
that important office the great capacity for business with
which he was endowed by nature shone forth in all its
lustre. He instituted the celebrated Commission of Na¬
val Inquiry, which not only led to numberless discoveries
of abuse and extravagance, but laid the foundation of a
system of economical administration, which has since been
extended from the navy to all the departments of the
state. The extent of corruption brought to light by the
Commissioners of Naval Inquiry almost exceeds belief.
From the dockyard only the government was plundered at
the rate of a million sterling annually, and the same nefa¬
rious practices prevailed in all the other departments.
Lord St Vincent grappled boldly with these monstrous and
deep-rooted abuses, and by his unsparing rigour, inflexible
honesty, and resistless energy, succeeded in putting them
down. “ It is impossible,” says Lord Brougham, “ to cal¬
culate what would have been the saving effected to the re¬
venues of this country, had Lord St Vincent presided over
any great department of national affairs from the beginning
of the war, instead of coming to our assistance after its
close.” The resignation of Mr Addington in 1804 put an
end to the naval administration of St Vincent, as first
lord of the admiralty; but the exigencies of the state caus¬
ed him in 1806 to be called from his well-earned retire¬
ment, and from the enjoyment of his domestic comforts, at
the age of seventy-two, to take the command of the Chan¬
nel fleet. He was at the head of the expedition, and the
commission sent to the court of Portugal in 1806; and his
conduct in that delicate and important affair displayed great
talents and address. In the spring of 1807, advanced age
and impaired health compelled him finally to resign his
command. The remainder of his life was spent in retire¬
ment at his beautiful seat of Rochetts, where he died on the
14th of March 1823, in the eighty-eighth year of his age.
The character of Lord St Vincent presented an admirable
union of the brightest qualities which can adorn both civil
and military life. As a statesman, he was distinguished for
his sagacity and foresight, and the profoundness of his
views. He was a steady and consistent supporter of liberal
principles, ever preferring the side of humanity and free¬
dom. He was not more distinguished for his great talents
than for his magnanimity and complete freedom from evei
feeling of jealousy or envy. And it has been justly said
one who knew him well, that “ all good officers, all nit Vi
employed under him, whether in civil or military sewic
spoke of him as they felt, with admiration of his genius a
preaching to enthusiasm.” (Captain Brenton’s Life 1
Earl St Vincent. Lord Brougham’s Statesmen of tl
Times of George III.) Bi ^
VINCI, Leonardo da, an illustrious Italian painte
descended from a noble Tuscan family, was born in tl
castle of Vinci near Florence, in 1445. He was plact
under Andrea Verochia, a celebrated painter in that citv
but soon surpassed him and all his predecessors so muc
as to be reputed the master of the third or golden age
modern painting. But his studies were far from termina
ing here : no man’s genius was more universal; he applii
himself to arts, to literature, and to the accomplishmen
of the body ; and he excelled in every thing which he a|
tempted. Lewis Sforza, duke of Milan, prevailed on him
be director of the academy for architecture which he hadji
established, where Leonardo soon banished all the Got!
fashions, and reduced every thing to the happy simplici
of the Greek and Roman style. By the duke’s order
constructed the famous aqueduct that supplies the ci
of Milan with water: this canal goes by the name of Me
tesana, being above 200 miles in length, and condui
the water of the river Adda to the walls of the city.
1479, he was desired to construct some new device for t
entertainment of Louis XII. of France, who was then
make his entrance into Milan. Leonardo accordingly ma
a very curious automaton in the form of a lion, whil
marched out to meet the king, reared up on its hinder le
before him, and opening its breast, displayed an escutche
with fleurs-de-lis quartered on it. The disorders of Loi
bardy, with the misfortunes of his patrons the Sforzi, obli
ing Leonardo to quit Milan, he retired to Florence, whe
he flourished under the Medici. Here he raised the en
of Michael Angelo, who was his contemporary; and II
phael, from the study of his works, acquired his best ma
ner of designing. At length, on the invitation of Francis
he removed to France, when above seventy years of at
where the journey and change of climate threw him in
his last sickness: he languished for some months at Fo
tainbleau, where the king came frequently to see him; ai
one day rising up in his bed to acknowledge the hono
done him, he fainted, and Francis supporting him, Le
nardo died in his arms. His death happened in 155
Some of his paintings are to be seen in England and oth
countries, but the greatest part of them are at Floren
and in France. He composed a great number of discoun
on curious subjects ; but with the exception of his treat
on the Art of Painting, none of them has been publishei
VINCULUM, in algebra, a character in form of a li
or stroke drawn over a factor, divisor, or dividend, wb
compounded of several letters or quantities, to conm
them, and shews that they are to be multiplied or divid
&c. together by the other term.
Thus dXa-{-b—c shows that d is to be multiplied ii
a -f- b—c.
VINDHYA MOUNTAINS, a chain of hills mH
dustan which passes through Bahar and Benares, and c<
tinues through the provinces of Allahabad and Maw
along the north side of the Nerbuddah. They are in
bited by Bheels, and other predatory tribes.
VINEGAR, Acetum, an agreeable acid, prepared ir
wine, cider, beer, and other liquors; of considerable u
both as a medicine and a sauce. The word is Fren'
vinaigre; formed from vin, wine, and aigre, sour.
VINGORLA, a town of Hindustan, belonging to t
rajah of Colapoor, on the sea-coast of the province or e,
poor. Long. 73. 22. E. Lat. 15. 54. N*
I’.'Otlt
1
V I Q
V I R
653
VIOLA. See Botany.
Vioi.a, or Tenor Violin. A bow-instrument of the
alin kind, intermediate in size and pitch between the
hlin and the violoncello. It has four strings, of which
e third and fourth are covered with silvered copper wire,
is tuned C, G, D, A, reckoning upwards, and is an octave
dier in pitch than the violoncello, and a fifth lower than
e violin. See article Music.
Viola, or Alto Viola, an instrument of the violin
id, larger than an ordinary violin, and furnished with four
lt strings, the third and fourth of these being covered with
ver-plated copper wire. It originated from the viola di
accio, one of the ancient set of viols used in concerts.
ie English call it the tenor-violin, or simply the tenor,
i name of alto-viola is derived from its music being writ-
1 in the alto-clef on the third line of the stave. It is
ned C, G, D, A, an octave above the violoncello. For its
mpass, and use in orchestra, &c., see Music.
Viola d’Amore, an instrument no longer in use, but of
hich the tone and effect are said to have been very sweet
cl singular. It was played with a bow, and seems to
.ve varied in the number of its strings and in its tuning,
ne species of it is described as having five gut strings,
d five metal wires tuned in unison with the strings, but
tssing under the finger-board and bridge, and thus vibrat-
g only as open wires, to arpeggios or harmonics, &c., play-
1 upon the open gut strings. The principle of this instru-
ent seems to have been revived in the construction of
me recent musical instruments.
Viola di Gamba, a musical instrument no longer in
e, but which was the immediate predecessor of the violon-
llo. A clever musician, C. F. Abel, in the last century,
rew away his fine talents upon this nasal and ungrateful
strument. A good viola di gamba affords excellent wood
aterials for making a fine tenor-violin.
VIOLIN, a bow-instrument of considerable compass,
d great powers of expression and execution. Its origin
obscure. The best violins are those of the old Cremona
ikers, Jerome, Anthony, and Nicholas Amati, and Stra-
varius and Guarnerius, and F. and T. and G. B. Rug-
iro. Next in quality are those of Jacob Steiner, and of
je two Klotz, father and son, Tyrolese makers. The dif-
Sence between the tone of the Cremona violins and the
rolese has been compared to the difference between the
ie of a flute and a clarinet. The violin has four strings,
ned G, D, A, E, reckoning upwards. The lowest string
covered with fine silvered copper wire. Some persons
ve used silver, or even gold wire, which does not cor-
de like the copper. Gross impositions are often prac-
ed by unprincipled dealers in pseudo-Cremona violins,
ke copies of old pictures, they deceive many purchasers,
any of the finest violins of the old makers have been destroy-
by ignorant repairers, or by capricious alterations made
the desire of ignorant amateurs. See article Music.
^ IOLONCELLO, a powerful and expressive bow-
strument of the violin family. It has four strings, the
ird and fourth of which are covered with silvered copper
>e. It is tuned C, G, D, A, reckoning upwai'ds, and is an
tave lower than the viola. Passages of rapid execution
1 not suit this instrument, especially on the third and
nrth strings. The best violoncellos are those of the old
than and Tyrolese makers. (See article Music.)
' I0LONE, Contra-basso, or Double-Bass, the
rsest instrument of the violin kind. The best are of
'ban make. See article Music.
IQ.UE, or Vich, a city of Spain, in the province of
atalonia. It is situated on the river Ter, above Gerona.
le country around, though not naturally fertile, is render-
P'oductive by high cultivation. The most considerable
nr s for printing calicos are within this district, and there
je 111 ^le city considerable manufactories of cotton. I he
hills around it have mines of topazes, amethysts, and co¬
loured crystals, which are worked into ornamental jewellery
by the jewellers of Barcelona, and form part of its traffic.
Vique is the seat of a bishop, and has a splendid cathedral,v
with several other churches and several convents. It is si¬
tuated in Lat. 41° 47', and contains several monasteries, and
8400 inhabitants.
VIRAGO, a woman of extraordinary stature and cou¬
rage, who has the mien and air of a man, and performs the
actions and exercises of men.
VIRAGNE, a town and mud fort of Hindustan, province
of Aurungabad, in the Nizam’s territories, 100 miles south¬
east from Ahmednuggur. Long. 76. 15. E. Lat. 18.11. N.
VIRANCHIPURA, an open town of Hindustan, in
the Carnatic district of Vellore, situated on the south shore
of the Palur river. It was formerly a large place, and pos-
ssessed many public buildings; but suffered severely during
the war with Hyder. Long. 79. 5. E. Lat. 12. 56. N.
VIRAPELLE, a town on the Malabar coast, in the dis¬
trict of Cochin, five miles north from the town of Cochin.
It is the residence of the apostolic vicar of the Roman Catho¬
lic Christians, who superintends sixty-four churches. There
are besides forty-five governed by the archbishop of Craga-
none, and also the large dioceses under the bishop of Cochin
and Quiton, whose churches extend to Cape Comorin.
Here is a convent of barefooted Carmelites, besides other
Catholic seminaries. Long. 76. 10. E. Lat. 10. N.
VIRE, an arrondissement of the department of Calvados,
in France. It extends over 373^ square miles, and com¬
prehends six cantons, which are divided into 97 communes,
containing 89,450 inhabitants in 1836. The capital is the
city of the same name, a manufacturing place of great acti¬
vity, containing 7339 inhabitants, who make annually
24,000 pieces of cloth, said to amount in value to 3,840,000
francs. It stands on the river Vire, and in the neighbour¬
hood much cider is made, and some of it distilled to mix
with brandy. It was the birth-place of the celebrated na¬
turalist Du Hamel. Lat. 48. 50. 16. Long. 1. 0. 0. W.
VIRGIL. Of the personal history of Publius Vir-
gilius Maro, the greatest of Latin poets, little is known
with certainty. The principal authority on which his bio¬
graphy rests, is a life usually attributed to Tiberius Clau¬
dius Donatus, a grammarian who flourished in the fifth
century of the Christian era. Its authenticity, however, is
very questionable; and, at all events, it is so much disfi¬
gured by interpolations, that it is difficult to extract from
it such facts as may be implicitly relied on. To this sus¬
picious document we have to add a few scanty allusions by
the poet’s contemporaries, and the scattered remarks of an¬
cient scholiasts and grammarians.
By all accounts, the parentage of Virgil is represented
as exceedingly humble. Donatus informs us, that, accord¬
ing to some authorities, his father was originally a potter,
but according to others, and those the more numerous, the
hired servant of a travelling merchant, to whom he recom¬
mended himself by his faithful services, and who gave him
his daughter Maia in marriage. By his father-in-law he
was entrusted with the charge of a small farm in the vicinity
of Mantua, which he ultimately seems to have inherited, and
which probably constituted the poet’s patrimony. What¬
ever may have been the original condition of his father,
it is gratifying to find this testimony to his moral worth, and
to be assured that he was capable of appreciating, and pos¬
sessed the means, as well as the desire, of cultivating the
rising genius of his illustrious offspring. In this respect,
Virgil was equally fortunate with Horace, whose father, al¬
though possessed but of moderate fortune, placed him un¬
der the ablest masters at Rome, along with the sons of
knights and senators.
Virago
II
Virgil.
Virgil was born at Andes, now called Pietola, a village
about three miles distant from Mantua, in the year of Rome
654
VIRGIL.
Virgil. 684, b. c. 70, during the first consulship of Pompey and
■"“VCrassus. He was thus seven years older than Augustus,
and five years older than Horace. He commenced his studies
at Cremona, where he remained till he assumed the toga
virilis. This he did on entering his sixteenth year, on the
very day, according to some accounts, on which Lucretius
died; thus transmitting, without interruption, and with in¬
creasing splendour, the intellectual inheritance of Homan
genius.
Virgil now proceeded to Milan, and from thence, after a
short stay, to Naples. Here he devoted himself to study
with intense application, and laid the foundation ot that
varied learning, for which he was no less remarkable than
for poetical genius. To the language and literature of
Greece he applied himself with peculiar ardour ; and,
in this department, enjoyed the instructions of Parthenius
Nicenus, an author of some reputation. But literature
alone, however varied and attractive, could not satisfy the
inquisitive and capacious mind of Virgil. He strove also to
penetrate the depths of philosophy and science; and medi¬
cine and mathematics continued to be favourite subjects of
pursuit with him through life. Along with his friend Varius,
he studied the system of Epicurus, under Syro, a distinguish¬
ed teacher of that sect, and the intimate friend of Cicero.
Traces of this early discipline are perceptible in his works;
although by some he is represented as an academic, and
as preferring the sentiments of Plato to those of all other
philosophers. To some tradition of his addiction to science,
to the revelations contained in the sixth book of the TEneid,
and to the magic spells described in the eighth Eclogue,
Virgil probably owes his reputation as a wizard, the cha¬
racter in which he principally figures during the middle
ages.
Donatus carries Virgil from Naples to Rome, and there
makes him the subject of several fabulous stories, which it
would be idle to repeat. The probability is that he did
not visit Rome at this time, but having finished his
studies at Naples, returned directly to his paternal abode;
where he continued to reside till his fame as a poet had
begun to attract public notice.
Much uncertainty prevails respecting the early pro¬
ductions of his muse. That the Eclogues were not the
first offspring of his genius, we have sufficient testimony;
but the genuineness of the minor poems, which usually pass
under his name, may well be questioned. The most pro¬
bable conclusion is, that they are either entirely spurious,
or so much disfigured by interpolators as to leave few traces
of their original form. Donatus enumerates the following
as youthful productions of Virgil: Catalecton, Moretum,
Priapeia, Epigrammata, Dirce, Culex, and, while he ad¬
mits that doubts existed respecting its authorship, JEtna.
He is also said to have undertaken a poetical work on the
early wars of Rome, but to have been deterred from the
prosecution of his design, by the rugged and inharmonious
structure of the ancient Italian names. To this attempt the
poet probably alludes in the sixth Eclogue, where he re¬
presents himself as having prematurely undertaken a work
beyond his strength. But whatever may have been the
early essays of Virgil, there can be no doubt that he con¬
tinued sedulously to cultivate those talents with which he
was so richly endowed; and to peruse with intense ad¬
miration and delight those masterpieces of Grecian ge¬
nius, which it was his great ambition to rival and excel.
Nor was he inattentive to the literature of his own coun¬
try ; which however presented a comparatively limited
field for the poetical student. Yet the works of Ennius,
Plautus, Terence, Catullus, and above all, Lucretius, con¬
tained a rich poetical mine, from which much precious ore
might be extracted, and to which, it is manifest, he did not
scruple freely to resort. Into the genius, structure, and
capabilities of his native tongue, he appears to have pene¬
trated more deeply than any other writer; and his dictioi
became the standard to which succeeding poets yielded
implicit, perhaps a slavish obedience. What Cicero effect
ed for prose, Virgil effected for poetry. Few literary phenc
mena, perhaps, are more remarkable, than the mastery 0vt
the Latin language, which even his earliest productions di>
play. In the works of preceding writers may be foun
many detached passages scarcely to be surpassed; but i
uniformly-sustained beauty and propriety of diction, tf
Mantuan bard leaves all his predecessors, as well as succe
sors, at an immeasurable distance.
Virgil is usually represented as having undertaken tlr
composition of his Eclogues at the suggestion of C. As
nius Pollio, a nobleman who was not more distinguiske
as a commander, than as a cultivator and patron of le
ters. On the formation of the second triumvirate, a. u. 7l
Pollio was entrusted by Antony, whose interests he ha
espoused, with the command of Gallia Transpadana, i
which district the patrimony of Virgil lay. The rising ti
lents of the youthful poet early attracted his notice, and!
continued to extend to him his patronage and protection;
long as he remained in the command of the province. Tl
services thus generously and seasonably rendered to geniu
were amply rewarded; and the name of Pollio will lor evi
continue associated with some of the poet’s noblest strain
The date and order of composition of the Eclogues hai
been matter of dispute among critics. By some they ai
supposed to have been written in the order in which the
now stand in the printed editions, and, it is believed, in£
the manuscripts of Virgil’s works; by others, the secon
third, fifth, and sixth are thought to have preceded the fir;
The determination of the question is of little importanc
and our present limits forbid discussion. The subject
the first Eclogue sufficiently indicates the date of its ccn
position. After the battle of Philippi, a. u. 712, Augustu
in fulfilment of a promise which had been previous
given to the army, made a large division of lands amor
the veteran soldiers. Cremona having espoused the cau;|
of Brutus, was among the first to suffer on the present o
casion. Its territory was assigned to the soldiers; buth
proving of sufficient extent, the deficiency was supplit
from the neighbouring district of Mantua. Virgil was tin
involved in the general calamity, and driven with violeni
from his humble patrimony. About this time, however, 1
appears to have renewed his acquaintance and friendsli
with Alphenus Varus, who had been his fellow-student
Naples, and who now discharged some important publ
function in the poet’s district. Under his protection, it
supposed, Virgil repaired to Rome, and by personal app
cation obtained from Augustus the restoration of his fan
To record his gratitude for this signal favour, he compos;
the first Eclogue, which, in the person of Melibceus, pr
sents a vivid picture of the distress and misery by whn
he was surrounded; while in that of Tityrus, he eulogis
in glowing strains, and honours as a god, the youth to who
he owed his own more fortunate lot. It appears, howeu
that he experienced no slight difficulty in recovering
farm, notwithstanding the order of Augustus; and that, '
one occasion, when pursued by the tribune Arrius, who ■
taken forcible possession of it, he saved his life byswimmn
across the Mincius. To these fresh disasters he issupp^
ed to allude in the ninth Eclogue. Besides Augustus, t
persons chiefly celebrated in the Eclogues are Pollio, an
and Gallus, who had been the poet’s earliest PatJ0"sj a|
who ever after continued his most esteemed and boon
friends. .
The Eclogues, in the composition of which he is
to have spent three years, were received by bis country™
with unbounded applause. They were universally rea ^
admired, and such was their popularity, that they wej'e P ,
licly recited in the theatre at Rome. Their nove y,
%
i
V I II
irgi ,storal poetry now appeared for the first time in a Roman
Vi -Wiess; the pictures which they presented of rural felicity,
d of simple and innocent pleasures, so strongly contrasit-
with the scenes of violence and bloodshed which had so
iig deluged Italy; the descriptions of nature so exquisitely
jnded with human feelings and human sympathies; the
■ usions to recent and passing events; the polished simpli-
(y, beauty, and harmony of the verse; all contributed to
,hance their merit in the eyes of his contemporaries, and
i establish them in popular favour.
But, however great their merit in other respects, the
:loguesof Virgil can lay little claim to the praise of origi-
bity. They are, for the most part, imitations, and occa-
i nally little more than translations of Theocritus. Ro-
i m literature was indeed essentially imitative; and its
j ,’atest masters rarely ventured to give unfettered scope
i the impulses of their native powers. Seldom venturing
t depart from their Grecian models, they were content to
; low closely in their footsteps, and deemed it sufficient to
ij.the in the language of Rome those ideas and descrip-
4 ns which were furnished by their intellectual masters.
:t Virgil, while retaining the substance of Doric song,
ineeded in impressing on his Italian transcript not a little
i his own calm and meditative nature, and in awakening
3 popular sympathies of his countrymen in a manner
lich at once stamped him as the national poet of Rome.
>t the least difficulty which he had to encounter in
. reducing this new species of composition, was the ap-
fjrently intractable and inflexible nature of the language
ich he had to employ, little fitted, apparently, for the
tscription of pastoral and rural scenes. But the pow-
i ot the poet triumphed, in a great measure, even over
sdifficulty; and although unable to rival the matchless
dody of the Doric reed, he imparted to his native tongue
elicacy, softness, and variety, of which till then it had been
isidered unsusceptible. In estimating the immediate
reption of the Eclogues, we must not altogether over-
tk the skill and dexterity with which the poet paid court
his early patrons, whose voice was perhaps no less
tential in the literary than in the political world. Their
blication must, at all events, be considered an import-
t era in the literary history of Rome, as exhibiting the
iit-fruits of that genius which was destined to stamp its
[lelible impress on the literature of future ages.
|About the thirty-third year of his age Virgil removed to
>me. Here he experienced the bounty, as well as friend-
P>()* Maecenas and Augustus, and appears to have been
ced by their liberality in circumstances which enabled
n ever after to devote his undivided energies to his fa-
irite pursuits. It is pleasing to find the most cordial
ation subsisting, even at this early period, between such
n as Virgil and Horace. Both candidates for popu-
tavour, in circumstances which too frequently produce
a ry, if not hostility, these illustrious poets appear to have
lf.n united in the closest ties of friendship. Virgil is
‘ to have intoduced Horace to the notice of Maecenas ;
tie deep feeling of respect and admiration with which
I >race regarded Virgil, is manifested in several parts of
works. Hie sixth Satire of the first book exhibits a
asing picture ol the intimate terms on which they lived
f. tle*r common patron Mmcenas, and with some of
|pir poetical contemporaries. During his residence at
>me’ irS‘l inhabited a house on the Esquitine hill, near
f ens Maecenas. He was treated with universal
r ’.aiT.on one occasion, when some of his verses
e fec*ted in the theatre, the whole audience rose to sa-
"dh ^,e same respect that they were ac-
unL-V- t0 ^esl:ow on the emperor. But his modesty
L rormRthe public gaze; and amid the splendour and
[h h'1 ° .orne, he longed for scenes more in harmony
lls poetical and contemplative genius, and, it may be
G I L.
655
added, better suited to the delicacy of his constitution. Virgil.
After a brief sojourn in the metropolis, he accordingly re-
tired to Psaples, at that time the favourite retreat of lite-
rary men; and there, or at a delightful residence in the
vicinity of Nola, about ten miles distant, he continued
chiefly to reside during the remainder of his life.
Having thus chosen a congenial place of abode, Virgil,
at the suggestion of Maecenas, commenced the composition
of the^ Georgies. The subject was selected, we are told,
with the view of restoring among the Romans a love of
those rural pursuits to which they had been peculiarly ad¬
dicted in early times, but which, amid the desolation and
bloodshed of the civil wars, had been entirely abandoned
and forgotten. Little is known of the private life of Virgil
during the composition of this immortal poem, which occu¬
pied the space of seven years. Donatus and others relate,
that he was accustomed to dictate a number of verses in
the morning, and spend the day in polishing and reducing
them to a smaller number. From internal evidence, this ap¬
pears to be no inaccurate description of his literary habits.
The Georgies more than realized the highest expecta¬
tions that had been formed of Virgil’s poetic powers. This
work, which is dedicated to Maecenas, is divided into four
books,and treats in succession of husbandry, pilanting, cattle,
and bees. Our limits forbid any attempt at analysis ; nor
indeed could words convey any adequate notion of the
wonderful union which this masterwork presents of di¬
dactic precept, varied and splendid description, touch¬
ing pathos and sensibility, episodes at once appropriate
and striking, historic and mythologic allusion, displaying
all the resources of the richest poetical treasury. The
sweetness and easy flow of versification by which the
Eclogues are distinguished, gave but faint indication of
the matchless power, variety, and magnificence of the
Georgies. Although the subject of this poem is peculiarly
national, yet the same imitative spirit which pervades the
whole literature of Rome, exercised its influence here also.
As in the Eclogues Theocritus, so here Hesiod formed the
chief model for the general structure and conduct of the
work. But in this poem Virgil perhaps owes less to his
prototypes than in his other productions; and he has dif¬
fused over the whole a flood of poetical light peculiarly
his own. The poet has indeed exhibited the happiest
combination of genius and art, and has succeeded in im¬
parting to didactic themes a life, an interest, and a gran ¬
deur, of which, from their nature, they seem scarcely sus¬
ceptible. Here the Romans found scenes and modes of
life in which their fathers had delighted, depicted in co¬
lours which could not fail to excite the deepest interest,
and rekindle in their breasts the love of pursuits, winch,
though for a time banished by the rude collisions of civil
strife, were associated in their minds with the heroes and
patriots of old, wdth the undying achievements and illustri¬
ous characters of ancient times. In estimating the merits
of the Georgies, we must not pass without special notice
the matchless beauty of the versification. In sustained
majesty, in melody that ever satisfies but never cloys the
ear, in variety of modulation, in stateliness but freedom of
march, it stands unapproached by any other Roman poet,
and unsurpassed by Virgil himself.
Having with such signal success enriched the litera¬
ture of his country with two species of poetry, of which till
then it possessed no example, he resolved to attempt a
work of a still higher nature. It is evident that he had long
meditated such a work; as we find allusions to it both in
the Eclogues and Georgies. He commenced the JEneid,
a. u. 724, the year in which he completed the Georgies.
This great work, undertaken, we are told, at the request
of Augustus, occupied him till his death, and even then
had not received his finishing touch. As he proceeded
with its composition, the greatest interest was excited re-
656
VIRGIL.
Virgil, specting it, and the highest expectations were entertained
of its merits, as may be gathered from the prognostication
of Propertius, who thus anticipates its future fame:
Cedite Romani scriptores, cedite Graii,
Nescio quid majus nascitur Iliade.
In 729, Augustus expressed a strong desire to be favoured
with a perusal of the poem, so far as it had been completed;
but Virgil excused himself, on the ground that the work was
not yet worthy of such an honour. About a year after¬
wards, however, he was prevailed on to read the sixth book
to Augustus, in the presence of his sister Octavia. When
the poet reached the beautiful passage in which he alludes
so pathetically to the death of her son Marcellus, the adop¬
ted child of Augustus, and the universal favourite of Rome,
Octavia is said to have swooned away; and, on reviving, to
have ordered the poet to be rewarded with ten sestertia for
each line. In conformity with the usual practice among
Roman poets, Virgil occasionally recited portions of his
verses to his literary friends; not, however, for the sake of
display, but in order to be favoured with their critical re¬
marks. His recitation is represented as highly effective,
and as distinguished by remarkable sweetness, and propri¬
ety of articulation.
Having completed the dSneid, he resolved to travel in¬
to Greece, that he might, at leisure, correct and polish
his great work, and bring it to the greatest possible perfec¬
tion before giving it to the world. On this occasion, Ho¬
race addressed to him the beautiful ode, beginning, “ Sic te
diva potens Cypri;” in which he expresses in the most affec¬
tionate terms, his anxiety for the safe return of his beloved
friend. On arriving at Athens, Virgil proceeded to execute
the task which he had imposed upon himself; and, besides,
composed the splendid introduction to the third book of the
Georgies. His original intention, on quitting Italy, was to
dedicate three years to the work of revisal, and then, amid
the scenes of his native country, to devote the rest of his
life to the study of philosophy, in which he had always de¬
lighted. Augustus, however, on his return from the East,
having reached Athens, Virgil, probably in consequence of
the state of his health, resolved to accompany him to Rome.
But his days were now numbered. The vessel in which he
sailed along with the emperor, touched at Megara, where
he was seized with extreme debility; and his distemper in¬
creased so much during the remainder of the voyage, that
he died a few days after reaching Brundusium. This
event took place, a. u. 735, in the fifty-first year of his
age. In compliance with his dying wishes, his bones were
conveyed to Naples, where, in literary seclusion, he had
spent so many years of his life; and his tomb is still pointed
out at a spot about two miles distant from that city. The
urn which was supposed to contain his ashes, bore the fol¬
lowing inscription, which is said, but without sufficient au¬
thority, to have proceeded from the lips of the dying poet:
Mantua megenuit; Calabri rapuere; tenet nunc
Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces.
The precise locality of Virgil’s tomb has been made
the subject of controversy; but there seems to be no good
reason for rejecting the common tradition of the country on
this point. He bequeathed the greater part of his wealth to
his brother; the rest, to Augustus and Maecenas, and his
friends L. Varius and Plotius Tucca.
Virgil is represented as tall of stature, of a swarthy com¬
plexion, negligent in his dress, and somewhat ungraceful in
his deportment. The melancholy with which he was tinged
probably arose from the delicacy of his constitution, and the
ill health under which he laboured. Of the native warmth
of his heart, and the sincerity of his friendships it is impossible
to doubt, since he was universally beloved as well as admired
by his contemporaries; who, amid their mutual jealousies and
literary rivalry, seem to have united in doing honour to one,
V,
^4
who ever cheerfully recognised the merits of others
rejoiced in, and, to the utmost of his power, promoted t
success. Of the more private and familiar life of Vi
nothing is known. Unlike Horace, whose works consti
his best biography, Virgil has few allusions to himself
none that throw light on his domestic habits. He pa
before us with much of the indistinctness and shad
grandeur in which he envelopes the shades in Elysium
When he perceived his end approaching, he is
to have ordered Varius and Plotius Tucca to burn
iEneid, on which he had expended so many years’ laf
and on which his future fame was expected mainly to
The reason of this command has been the subject of n
discussion. The common opinion is, that not having .
ceived his finishing hand, he was unwilling to transm 0
posterity and peril his fame on a work, which he had
brought to that degree of perfection which he had conljl
plated. Some, again, account for the poet’s conducl n
the supposition that, on the approach of death, he felt
gret at having produced a work which, instead of inspi
sentiments of liberty, was intended to reconcile his 0
trymen to the chains which had been imposed upon t
by a successful but unworthy usurper. Fortunately fm
interests of literature, Augustus interposed his auth<
to save a poem, to the completion of which he had lot
forward with intense interest, and from which he an
pated so much glory to himself and the Roman state,
was intrusted to Varius and Tucca for revisal and pi
cation, but with express injunctions that they should n
no additions to the words of the poet; and we have
son to believe that they executed their honourable
in a spirit of due reverence for departed genius.
The Alneid, as already mentioned, excited the hig
expectations among the literary contemporaries of the
during its composition ; and on its publication, was hi
with universal approval. Ovid alludes to it more than t e
in terms expressive of his conviction that it occupied
first place in Roman literature, and that, in common
the other works of the author, it would last while the'
nal city should endure. The sentence thus early prone
ed, has been confirmed by the consenting voice of,
ceedingages; and, whatever difference of opinion may!
existed respecting its comparative merits, the ^Eneii
ever been ranked as one of the rare productions of hu n
genius, which are destined to immortality. If consi ’
as the rival of the Iliad, the iEneid will be presente
a false as well as unfavourable point of view; and it is
cult to conceive that it was composed under any such
dominating idea. Neither the age which produced it,
the genius of the poet, was favourable to such an achi
ment; but having resolved to compose an epic poem, \
no doubt took Homer as his model, and endeavoure
transplant into the fabric of his work as many of the b
ties of the Grecian poet as suited the nature of his sut
We accordingly find that he drew equally on the Iliad
Odyssey, the first six books being on the model ol
former, and the remaining six on that of the latter,
far his plan was adopted with a view to avail himse
the whole range of Homeric materials, it is difficult tc
termine ; but it was a bold attempt, if it was ever con
plated, to rival or surpass in a single work, the comb «
excellencies of his matchless models.
The chief design of the vEneid appears to have bee:
deduce the origin of the Romans from the Trojans, an
tracing the family of Augustus to iEneas, to establisl
divine title to the sovereignty of Rome. This leading *
pervades the whole texture of the work; and the rest 1
which was thus necessarily imposed on the poet, must e
interfered most unfavourably with the freedom of ^
movement. The character of J3neas is meant to sm ^
forth that of Augustus; but while he constantly occi
5
V I R
ie fore-ground, he is invested with few attributes calcu-
ited to excite admiration, or awaken a vivid interest in his
reer. He is represented as the mere passive instrument
■ fa).e) and there is consequently little about him of heroic
ring. The Romans, however, could not fail readily to
cognize the intended resemblance ; and the halo thrown
ound the hero of the jEneid, was calculated to reconcile
em to the destined sway of his descendant, which had
:en mysteriously announced by oracles.
We cannot enter into the details of the iEneid, or point
it the manner in which the poet has accomplished his main
,sjgn. As might be expected, he has availed himself of
1 the native, as well as foreign resources within his reach,
hile the whole displays that sober and chastised judgement
r which he was so remarkable, and which, in his case,
is so admirably combined with high poetical genius. The
neid has been generally censured for want of variety in
e characters. That this charge is well-founded, must to
certain extent be allowed; but the fault is inseparable
bm the very design and structure of the work. The chief
liject being the exaltation of Augustus, no formidable com-
ititor could be admitted on the scene. The whole atten-
)n is fixed on one central figure, to which all the others
; e made subordinate. But although the contrasts of cha-
cter are not glaring, they are frequently not indistinctly
arked; and if they are apt to elude the notice of the
.reless observer, they reveal themselves with sufficient
earness to the more searching and curious eye. But the
eat merit of the iEneid lies, not in its leading design and
■neral conduct, but in the beauty of its details; many
' which will bear comparison with the happiest inspira-
)ns of the father of epic song. It may not be improper
remark, that Virgil, amid the fulsome homage and adula-
m, which, in common with the other poets of that age,
t bestows on Augustus, frequently displays a truly Ro¬
an spirit; and, from the manner in which he represents
e agents and events of the olden times, appears to sym-
thise with, and appreciate, the sterner and nobler virtues
which Rome was distinguished, while the genius of free-
m yet presided over her destinies.
In the composition of his works, Virgil drew unsparingly,
, t only on the poetic treasures of Greece, but on the more
nited resources of his native literature. This however he
1 in conformity with the universal practice of his coun-
fraen; and it may with truth be affirmed, that he bor-
wed nothing which he did not adorn. His imputed pla-
irisms have sometimes been pointed out with a malicious
dustry; but when properly viewed, with reference to
e position and mission of the poet, they will be found to
oye at once the soundness of his judgment, and the
irity and refinement of his taste.
The general character of Virgil as a poet may be con-
lered as fixed by the concurring testimony of critics of
I ages. That he was deficient in the highest attribute
genius, in the power of creating and bodying forth ori-
«al conceptions, must be admitted; but, with this limi-
tion, there are few qualities in which he will be found
wting. In soundness of judgment, and correctness of
Jte; in depth and tenderness of feeling; in chastened
acy and imagination ; in vivid and picturesque descrip-
)n; m the power of appreciating and pourtraying the
autiful, whether in nature or art; of depicting passion,
d touching the chords of human sympathy; in matchless
auty of diction, and in harmony and splendour of versi-
ahon, he stands alone among the poets of his own coun-
’ ’an^ "dll bear a favourable comparison with those of
y other. His works have taken their place among the
perishable offspring of genius, and, while literature lasts,
1 continue to exercise a powerful influence on the po-
ti tasle Recessive generations.
yJe editioprinceps of Virgil was printed at Rome, by
V I R 657
Sweynheym and Pannartz, sine anno, most probably 14G9. Virgil,
Of the immense number of editions which have succeeded Virginia,
it, we must content ourselves with mentioning the follow-
ing, as among the most valuable. N. Heinsii, Amst. 1676,
12mo. Ruaei, in usum Delphini, Par. 1675, 4to; often
reprinted. Emmenessii, Lugd. Bat. 1680, 3 tom. 8vo.
Masvicii, Leovard. 1717, 2 vols. 4to. Burmanni, Amst.
1746, 4 tom. 4to. Heynii, Lips. 1803, 4 tom. 8vo. A
new edition of Heyne’s Virgil has lately appeared, with
valuable critical additions by Wagner, Lips. 1830-2, 4
tom. 8vo. A fifth volume is announced to complete the
work. Hunted,-Cupri Fif. 1810, 2 tom. 8vo; remarkable
for the accuracy of its text. Forbigeri, Lips. 1836-9,
3 tom. 8vo.
Of the English translations of Virgil, that of Dryden is
the most popular. A translation of the Eclogues and
Georgies by Warton, and of the JEneid by Pitt, appeared
in 1753, 4 vols. 8vo. These are held in high repute. The
.Fneid has also been translated into English verse by Sym-
mons and Ring; and into Scotish verse by Gawin Doug¬
las, bishop of Dunkeld. Of this last work, an excellent
edition was published by Ruddiman, Edin. 1710, fol.; but
a still more valuable edition, in 3 vols. 4to, is now print¬
ing for the Bannatyne Club, under the superintendence
of George Dundas, Esq. Of the Georgies, Sotheby’s trans¬
lation is incomparably the best. d. k.
Virgil, Polydore, an English historian, born at Urbino
in Italy, was sent in the beginning of the sixteenth cen¬
tury by Pope Alexander VI., as sub-collector of the papal
tax called Peter-pence in this kingdom. He had not been
long in England before he obtained preferment in the
church; for in 1503 he was presented to the rectory of
Church-Langton, in the archdeaconry of Leicester. In
1507 he was collated to the prebend of Scamlesby, in the
church of Lincoln; and in the same year was made arch¬
deacon of Wells, and prebendary of Hereford. In 1513,
he resigned his prebend of Lincoln, and was collated to
that of Oxgate in St Paul’s, London. We are told, that
on his preferment to the archdeaconry of Wells, he re¬
signed the office of sub-collector to the pope, and deter¬
mined to spend the remainder of his life in England, the
History of which kingdom he began in the year 1505, at
the command of Henry VII. That work cost him twelve
years’ labour. In 1526, he finished his treatise on Prodi¬
gies. Polydore continued in England during the whole
reign of Henry VIII., and part of that of Edward VI.,
whence it is concluded that he was a moderate Papist. In •
1550, being now an old man, he requested leave to revisit
his native country. He was accordingly dismissed with a
present of 300 crowns, together with the privilege of hold¬
ing his preferments to the end of his life. He died at Ur¬
bino in the year 1555. As an historian, he i^ accused by
some as a malignant slanderer of the English nation; yet
Jovius remarks, that the French and Scotish accuse him of
having flattered that nation too much. Besides the above
work, he wrote, 1. De Rerum Inventoribus; of which an
English translation was published by Langley in 1663. It
was also translated into French and Spanish. 2. De Pro-
digiis et Sortibus. 3. Episcoporum Anglice Catalogus.
Manuscript. 4. De Vita perfecta, Basil. 1546, 1553, 8vo.
5. Epistolce eruditce; and some other works.
VIRGINIA, the largest and most central state in the Bound-
American Union, perhaps the most varied in its productions, aries.
and the richest in natural resources, blessed with a happy
climate and a fruitful soil, exhibiting a pleasant interchange
of the most romantic and lovely scenes. The state borders
upon the Atlantic ocean and the river Ohio, extending from
75° 10' to 83° 25' W. Long., having Maryland on the east,
and Ohio and Kentucky on the west: on the north are
Maryland and Pennsylvania, and on the south Tennessee
and North Carolina. Its general breadth from north to
4 o
658
VIRGINIA.
Virginia, south is about 200 miles, its length in the southern part is
from 400 to 430 miles, and, north of 38°, about half that ex¬
tent; its area is about 70,000 square miles, being but little
inferior to Scotland and England united.
Mountains. With the exception of Pennsylvania, Virginia is the only
state that extends quite across the great Appalachian chains,
and it is traversed from north to south by several well-defined
mountain ranges. Our knowledge of the course and connec¬
tions of these chains, which have not been accurately laid down
in maps, is yet very imperfect, but some of them have been
traced with tolerable precision. The Blue Ridge, although
pierced by the Potomac, James, and Staunton rivers, con¬
stitutes a well-marked and continuous chain of 260 miles
in length. In general it forms rounded, swelling masses,
about 2000 feet above the level of the sea, or about 1500
feet above the valleys at its eastern base ; but the Peaks of
Otter shoot up in projecting summits to the height of 4260
feet. The prolongation of the Kittutinny mountain of
Pennsylvania, enters the state in Morgan county, under the
name of the Great Ridge, or North mountain, and passes
into North Carolina under the name of the Iron mountain.
Its height is generally from 2100 to 2500 feet, but the
White Top peak reaches the height of 6000 feet. The
Great valley, which lies between these two ridges, some¬
times called the German valley, is a continuation of the
Cumberland and Tulpehocken valleys of Pennsylvania.
Through this ridge the New river passes westward, and the
James and Potomac eastward. West of this are numer¬
ous mountain masses, which are probably prolongations of
those which traverse central Pennsylvania.
Rivers. Every portion of Virginia is traversed by fine rivers and
streams, useful either as channels of navigation or for
manufacturing purposes. The chief of these is the main
trunk of the Potomac, which has already been describ¬
ed under the article Maryland. Its principal tribu¬
taries are from this state. The Rappahannock rises on
the eastern side of the Blue Ridge, and is navigable for
small vessels to Fredericksburg, 110 miles. James river
is by far the largest and most important of the streams
which have their whole course in Virginia, and is not in¬
ferior to the Potomac and the Kanhawa in utility and
the varied beauties of its scenery. Rising in the Alle¬
ghany mountain, it first bears the name of Jackson’s river,
and after having received the Cow Pasture river, a consi¬
derable stream, it takes the name of King James, passes
through the Kittutinny, and several other mountain chains,
enters the great valley, and, gathering the waters of that
fruitful region, emerges from the Blue Ridge over the Irish
Falls. Above Richmond it descends by a fall of seventy
feet, in the distance of eight miles, into the low country.
Below Richmond it gradually becomes wider and deeper,
and in the lower part of its course expands into a long,
spacious bay, with sufficient depth for the largest ships.
Vessels of 600 tons ascend to City Point, seventy-five miles
from the bay, although there are some bars and shoals which
obstruct the navigation; and vessels drawing fifteen feet
ot water proceed thirty miles higher, to Warwick, which is
within five miles of Richmond, the capital of the state. The
Blackwater, Nottoway, and Meherrin, unite in North Caro¬
lina to form the Chowan, which enters Albemarle sound.
They are all navigable for small coasting vessels. The
Great Renawha, and the other rivers of the western section,
all reach the Ohio.
Minerals. geological formations of this vast region have as
yet been but very partially explored. The mineral wealth
of Virginia is almost boundless; gold, copper, lead, iron,
coal, salt, limestone, marls, gypsum, magnesian, copperas,
and alum earths, excellent marbles, granites, soapstones,
freestones, &c., are among its subterraneous treasures. The
first coalfield is that of the primary region, the extent of
which has not been determined, but indications of coal have
been traced from the South Anna, near its mouth, to Prim v
Edward, south of the Appomattax. The thickness of t! '
coal-seams is very variable, ranging from four or five ^
thirty, forty, and even sixty feet; the coal is bituminoi
and of an excellent quality. On the north branch of tl
Potomac there is a remarkable bituminous coalfield. Un
a stratum of valuable iron-ore, not less than fifteen feet
thickness, there rests a bed of sandstone, upon which repos
a coal-seam three feet thick ; upon this, another bed
sandstone, then a two feet vein of coal; next sandston
then another coal-seam of four feet; again a stratum
sandstone, and over it a seven feet vein of coal; over tl
a heavy bed of iron-ore, and crowning the series an eno
mous coal-seam from fifteen to twenty feet in thicknes
West of the Alleghany, there are some of the most exte
sive and valuable deposits of coal in the world. At Whet
ing, on the Ohio, and for fourteen miles down the riv<
the bank presents an uninterrupted bed of highly bitun
nous coal, upwards of sixteen feet thick. Salt springs occ
in various places. But the most important works are
the Great and Little Kanawha. Gold is at present t
most important of the metallic minerals of Virginia,
occurs throughout a belt on the western side of theprima
district, stretching from beyond the Rappahannock to t
Appomattax. Most of the gold hitherto obtained 1
been procured by washings from the deposit-mines, t
several veins have yielded rich returns. In 1803, atllei
mine, a negro found one lump that weighed twenty-ei}
pounds avoirdupois, worth eight thousand dollars. T
largest piece of gold in one mass, ever found in Eurcj
weighed only twenty-two ounces ; and this was found
Wicklow in Ireland. But the mines in Virginia are n
ther extensively worked, nor fully developed. For seve
years they have been left to the enterprise of the farme
or owners of the soil, who occupy themselves with mini
when not engaged on their farms ; and it is calculated tl
the product of the mines in this section of the count
will amount to about L.80,000 annually.
Iron will probably at some future day prove to be a mi
precious deposit; but, although the ore of several variet
is lavished in profusion on different sections of the sta
it is at present but little worked. Copper-ores are fou
among the altered rocks east of the Blue Ridge; andr
merous openings have been made in Orange, Amhei
Campbell, and Buckingham, for procuring the cuprei
rock, which at an early period was ground on the spot, a
sent to England to be smelted. Lead occurs in the soul
western part of the state, in the forms of the sulpha:
(galena) and carbonate, both of which are wrought, yie
ing a large per centage of valuable metal.
A continuous line of railway is nearly completed acr<
the state, from the Potomac to the Roanoke. The Hit
mond and Potomac railroad extends from Potomac ere
in Stafford, through Fredericksburg, to Richmond, sever
miles, having been completed in 1836. Railroads a
canals cross the state in every direction, affording rea
and convenient means of communication for all purpose
Agriculture has always been the chief occupation on
inhabitants, but not to the exclusion of other branches Ada
industry. “ There is a great diversity in the agriculture
the state, but it is seldom well managed. On both sides “
the Blue Ridge, maize, or Indian corn, wheat, rye, oa
and buckwheat, are the principal grain crops. Tobacco
the principal staple of most of eastern Virginia, but in
valley it is cultivated only in the southern portion, ant i
at all beyond the Alleghany. In the eastern and sout u
counties cotton is planted to a considerable extent,
the shores of the Chesapeake, barley and the c®st0|
bean are cultivated ; and on some of the best law s a
tide-water, hemp is raised to advantage. The 1ran '
leghany county, being exceedingly mountainous an
Sailwji
jid cal*
:ures.
V I R G
>te from market, is chiefly devoted to raising live stock,
o more grain is raised than is sufficient to supply the
unty itself. The culture of tobacco was begun as early
, 1616, and that plant soon formed the staple production
colony. During the latter half of the last century,
,, annual export amounted to 60,000 or 70,000 hogs-
j jds; of late years the amount produced in eastern Vir-
. ,ia has fallen off considerably, on account of the exhaus-
t n of much of the land suited to this crop ; but its culti-
v;ion has been much extended beyond the Blue Ridge,
'lie manufactures of Virginia are by no means inconsider-
; le in value and extent, but they are not in general of the
, ,ss which involves the nicer and more complicated pro¬
uses of art, consisting rather of those simpler operations,
vich convert the native growth of the forest, the products
i the mineral kingdom, or the fruits of agricultural labour,
i o articles of home consumption or commerce. The fo-
i its and the coal-beds furnish a cheap and easy supply of
I?], and the numerous water-falls offer an almost unlimited
itive power for economical purposes ; and within the last
v years several cotton mills have been erected for spin-
ig and weaving, in which white operatives have sought
(iployment. The exports of Virginia consist chiefly of
; -icultural products ; lumber, salt, castor oil, ginseng, coal,
Id, some furs, &c. The value of the direct exports to
•eign countries in 1836, was 6,192,040 dollars, but the in-
•nal American trade must exceed that sum. The im-
rts from foreign ports amounted in the same year to only
106,814; but Virginia receives her supplies of manufac-
red goods and foreign productions chiefly from northern
I rts. The fisheries of the Chesapeake and its tributaries
3 valuable. The shipping owned in the state amounts to
1,000 tons.”
The first white settlers in Virginia were English; and
ic emigration from England continued to be pretty active
ring a great part of the seventeenth century, particularly
!>m the time of the civil wars to the Restoration, in 1660,
id toward the close of the century, both before and after
e Revolution. Many victims of the political disturbances
those periods were also sent to Virginia as servants; and
e captives at Worcester, the followers of Penruddoc, the
sh catholics, and the soldiers of the duke of Monmouth,
Kre sold into servitude in the colony. In the following
ntury, many German emigrants, chiefly from Maryland
d Pennsylvania, occupied the valley in the rear of the
ue Ridge, which thence received the name of the Ger-
in Valley; and in the more western part of the state,
sat numbers of Irish settlers fixed themselves ; and
ne felons were transported to Virginia, as to other colo-
?s. Negroes and mulattose constitute a large proportion
the population of Virginia, and these are mostly held in
very. The first negroes were brought into the harbours
the Chesapeake by a Dutch ship in 1620, when twenty
're sold to the colonists ; but the importation was for a
>g time so inconsiderable, that at the end of fifty years
ir number was only 2000. The inhabitants indeed en-
avoured to discourage the traffic, and the Assembly made
>eated attempts to prevent the further introduction of
groes, but failed in obtaining the requisite sanction of
cr°wn ; and up to the time of the revolution-war, from
00 to 6000 were annually brought into the province by
- English slave-traders. It is one of the grievances re-
vd in the constitution of 1776, and reaffirmed in the
w instrument adopted in 1830, that George III. had
°fflpted the rising in arms of “ those very negroes whom,
!an inhuman use of his negative, he had refused us
miission to exclude by law;” and in 1778 the new
lte prohibited their importation under heavy penalties.
10 listing black population of Virginia is probably al-
feether native.
1 N I A.
Population at different periods.
1642
1670
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830
Whites.
38,000
442,115
514,280
551,534
603,074
694,300
Slaves.
2,000
293,427
345,796
392,518
425,153
469,757
Free
Blacks.
Total
Blacks.
2,000
12,766: 308,193
20,124 365,920
30,570| 423,088
37,139‘462,292
47,348| 517,105
Total.
20,000
40,000
748,308
880,200
974,622
1,065,366
1,211,405
659
Virginia.
Besides the loss of population, occasioned by the removal
of free labourers and of planters with their forces, the sale
and exportation of slaves to other states have been a con¬
stant drain to this class of the population, especially during
the last ten years. Virginia has the unenviable distinction
of being a slave-breeding state, not only supporting sla¬
very within its own limits, but contributing to extend it in
other states of the Union. This unnatural and disgusting
trade must infallibly demoralize both the white and coloured
population ; and as a proof of the suffering which it entails
upon its wretched victims, no less a sum than 14,412 dol¬
lars is stated in the account of the public expenditure of
the state for 1833 for transported and executed slaves;
while the next item, the public guard, amounts only to
19,225 dollars.
A few families of Indians of the Nottoway tribe, a branch
of the great Iroquois family, are still found on the river of
that name, but they have lost the language of their fathers,
and have become much mixed with negroes. Of the thirty
Powhatan clans found here by the first colonists, not one
is believed to survive.
Richmond, the capital of the state, and its principal city,
is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the James, below
the lower falls, standing on several eminences, which com¬
mand fine views of the surrounding country, and give to
the city an air of singular beauty. Richmond was declared
the capital of the state in 1779, and incorporated as a city
in 1782, when however it was merely a small village. In
1800 the population was 5,737, and in 1830 it was 16,060,
more than one half blacks; at present, inclusive of Man¬
chester, which is united with it by a bridge, it exceeds
20,000. Richmond is 110 miles from the mouth of the
river, which carries fourteen feet of water to Warwick, five
miles below the city, and is navigable for boats 220 miles
above the falls.
Such was the state of education in the colony, that one Educa-
of the early governors thanked God that there were notional in-
free schools or printing in Virginia. In 1796, an act was stitutions
passed for the establishment of primary schools ; but in
1809 the governor complained that the law had in no in¬
stance been complied with. In that year a literary fund
was created by the appropriation of fines, escheats, and for¬
feitures, to this object; and the money received by the
state from the federal government in 1816, for military
services rendered during the late war, was afterwards ap¬
propriated to the same purpose. In 1833 the fund amount¬
ed to 1,551,837 dollars, and the income to 78,340 dollars.
In 1817 a permanent appropriation was made of 45,000
dollars a-year from this revenue, to be distributed among
the several counties and towns, in proportion to their free
white population, for the instruction of poor children, and
an additional sum was granted for the same object in 1836.
In 1833, by returns from one hundred counties, there were
2833 common schools, attended by 17,081 poor children.
In order to extend the benefits of this system to all classes
of whites, the school-commissioners of any county are au¬
thorised to lay off the county into school-districts, and,
wdienever any district shall have raised three-fifths ot the
660
y i r
V I T
Virgin gum necessary to build a school-house, to contribute the
Islands, remaining two-fifths. They are also empowered to pay a
'*&*','***'’ sum not exceeding one hundred dollars towards a teacher’s
salary, provided the inhabitants of the district contribute
an equal sum towards the same object; and every white
child in such district is to be gratuitously taught in such
school. There are about fifty-five academies in the state.
The higher educational institutions are the university of
Virginia at Charlottesville; the college of William and
Mary at Williamsburg ; Washington college at Lexington,
Bockbridge county ; Hampden-Sydney college in Prince
Edward county; Randolph-Macon college at Boydton,
Mecklenburg county; the Union theological seminary in
Prince Edward county; the Episcopal theological semi¬
nary near Alexandria ; and the Virginia Baptist seminary
near Richmond. In 1839 there were fifty-two newspapers
published in Virginia.
Legisla- The legislature, styled the General Assembly, consists of
ture. two houses ; a house of delegates of 134 members, chosen
annually; and a senate of thirty-two members, chosen for
the term of thirty-four years. Senators and delegates must
be resident freeholders; the latter of the age of twenty-five
years, the former of thirty. All laws must originate in the
house of delegates. The governor and the council of state,
of three members, are chosen by the joint vote of both
houses of the assembly, for the term of three years, the
senior councillor being lieutenant-governor. The superior
judges are chosen by the same bodies, and hold office dur¬
ing good behaviour. The justices of the peace are ap¬
pointed by the governor on nomination, by the existing
justices of the respective counties, and one of their num¬
ber performs the duties of sheriff. A small property quali¬
fication is required to confer the right of suffrage on white
male citizens; and at all elections “ the votes must be
given openly, or viva voce, and not by ballots”
Revenue. The revenue of the state for the year 1834, wras 403,335
dollars, of which 291,581 dollars were derived from taxes
on land, slaves, horses, and carriages, and 101,283 from
licences, making, with the balance of 185,221 dollars in
the treasury at the close of 1833, a total of 588,556 dol¬
lars. The expenditure, during the same year, amount¬
ed to 472,337 dollars; some of the principal items, ex¬
clusive of payments from literary and other funds, being as
follows:
General assembly...90,141
Officers’ salaries 78,815
Judiciary 22,625
Criminal charges....32,240
Revolutionary half¬
pay officers 12,166
Transported and exe¬
cuted slaves 14,412
Public guard 19,225
Penitentiaries 23,911
Lunatic asylum 34,500
General appropriations 24,417
VIRGIN ISLANDS, situate between 17° 40r, and 80°
40/ N. lat., and between 64° 30; W. long. Sir Francis
Drake is said to have called them the Virgin islands in
honour of Queen Elizabeth ; but this is a mistake, for they
were called Las Virgines by Columbus, in honour of the
eleven thousand virgins in the Romish ritual. The princi¬
pal of these is Santa Cruz, a Danish possession about twenty-
one miles long, and about five broad, which has an area of
more than 100 square miles. It is one of the best cultivated
islands in the West Indies. Sugar is its staple commodity.
The population of the island is reckoned at 32,000. St
rhomas, another Danish island, about twelve miles long,
with an area of about fifty square miles, possesses a safe and
capacious harbour, and carries on a considerable trade. The
population amounts to about 8000. St John’s is the only
other possession of Denmark in this group of any import¬
ance. Its population is about 2500.
The principal British islands are Tortola, Virgingorda,
and Anegada. I he exportable products chiefly consist of
sugar and molasses. lortolaisabout twelve miles long and
O
four broad. Anegada and Virgingorda are each about
miles long. Besides a number of very small islands (' ]!
bra or Passage island, and Vieque or Crab island, belol
to Britain. The latter is sixteen miles long and four bro I
but is uninhabited. The British, Danes, and Spaniards ha
the right of cutting wood in it, and fishing on its coas
The climate is more healthy than in the average of the W
India islands. Excepting Tortola, the other islands conts
a very small number of inhabitants.
The population of these three islands in 1835, consisted
Males. Females. Tota
Free persons, white and coloured 1678 1902 353
Apprentices, 1944 2207 415
Va!
3622 4109 7731
VIRGO, one of the signs or constellations of the zodiji
VIRNANGH, a village of Hindustan, in the province
Cashmere, thirty-seven miles south-east from the city
Cashmere. Long. 74. 13. E. Lat. 34. N.
VIRTUAL, or Potential, something that hasapow
or virtue of acting or doing. The term is chiefly undt
stood of something that acts by a secret invisible cause,
opposition to actual and sensible.
VIRTUE, a term used in various significations. In
general sense it denotes power, or the perfection of a
thing, whether natural or supernatural, animate or inar
mate, essential or accessory. But, in its more proper or
strained sense, virtue signifies a habit, which improves a
perfects the possessor and his actions.
VIRTUOSO, an Italian term introduced into Engli;
signifying a man of curiosity and learning, or one w
loves and promotes the arts and sciences. But amo
us the term seems to be appropriated to those who ap[.
themselves to some curious and quaint rather than inm
diately useful art or study ; as antiquaries, collectors of 1!
rities of any kind, microscopical observers, &c.
VISCOUNT ( Vice Comes), was anciently an officer u
der an earl, to whom, during his attendance at court, i
acted as deputy to look after the affairs of the county. Ej
the name was afterwards employed as an arbitrary title
honour, without any shadow of office pertaining to it,
Henry VI.; when, in the eighteenth year of his reign,
created John Beaumont a peer by the name of Viscoi
Beaumont, which was the first instance of the kind. Av
count is created by patent. His mantle is two doublir
and a half of plain fur, and his coronet has only a row
pearls close to the circle.
VISHNOU, that person in the triad of the Brahmins w
is considered as the preserver of the universe. Bmh
is the creator, and Siva the destroyer; and these two, w
Vishnou, united in some inexplicable manner, constiti
Brahme, or the supreme numen of the Hindus.
VISIER, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman empif
The Visier-azam, that is, “ grand visier,” is the prime r
nister of state in the whole empire. He commands the an
in chief, and presides in the divan or great council. N<
to him are six other subordinate visiers, called visiers on
bench, who officiate as his counsellors or assessors in I
divan.
VISTULA, or Weisel, a large river of Poland, whii
taking its rise in the mountains south of Silesia, visits C
cow, Warsaw, &c. and continuing its course northward, faj
into the Baltic sea below Dantzig.
VITERBO, a delegation or province of the papal t
minions, formed out of a part of Orvieto, the duchy
Castro, and the countship of Ronaglione. It is bounc
on the north by Perugia, on the north-east by Spoletto,
the east by Rieta, on the south-east by Rome, and on t
south and south-west by the sea, and on the west byapj
of Tuscany. The face of the country is in the north mot
tainous, in the middle undulating, and on the west a h"
i
V
V I T
Jain With Civita Vecchia, it extends over 1716 square
■ ria jiles, and comprehends 13 cities, 24 market-towns, and
/itli i"115 76 villages, with 145,022 inhabitants. The chief products
j ^,'e wine,8corn, olive-oil, and live cattle, all of which are at-
'iided to with great ignorance and indolence. The capi-
1 is the city of the same name. It stands on a plain at the
ot of the mountains, is surrounded with ancient walls
id towers, has straight and broad streets well paved with
va, a fine market-place, and many magnificent buildings,
is the seat of a bishop, and besides the cathedral, has 16
irish churches, in one of which, that of Santa Rosa, are
me most valuable paintings, executed by Sebastiano Pioru-
no. The population amounts to 13,100, employed in va-
ous trades, one of the most extensive of which is refining
Itnetre. In the neighbourhood are sulphureous baths of
•eat celebrity ; and near the city, in the church of Madona
dl Quercia, is an image to which numerous pilgrimages are
inually made. Lat. 42. 24. 54. Long. 27. 59- 25. E.
VITORIA, a city of Spain, in the province of Alava.
t is ^ilt on the river Ladorra, which runs into the Ebro,
i a plain which yields excellent wheat and other grain,
at is surrounded with lofty and barren mountains. The
alls round it are unfit for defence, but they render the
tv compact, and furnish very pleasant public walks. It
is” a large collegiate church, and several other religious
aildings. The population amounts to about 8000, who are
anerally an industrious description of people. It has often
ien the theatre of war, and the celebrated battle gained
icre by the duke of Wellington, will transmit its name to
slant ages. It is situated in Lat. 42. 53. 30.
VITTOR1A, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the
land of Sicily. It is in the province of Noto, and is the
tpital of a circle of it called the Contea of Modica, which
mtains 120,000 acres of land, and 80,000 inhabitants. It
130 miles from Palermo, and is oddly situated among
raggling craggy rocks, but boasts of a few fine edifices. It
the seat of an independent local court of justice, and one
The parliamentary cities. It is rather an unhealthy place,
ut contains 10,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied
agriculture, rear a great number of horned cattle, and
roduce a large quantity of silk. It likewise yields much
ax and honey.
VITRIOL, a compound salt, formed by the union of
on, copper, or zinc, with sulphuric acid ; hence called
om the colours white, blue, and green, according to the
letal.
VITRIOLATED, among chemists, something impreg-
ated, or supposed to be so, with vitriol or its acid.
I VITRUVIUS Pollio, Marcus, an ancient architect
f great name, is sometimes represented as a native of
lome; but, if we may rely on the opinion of Maflfei, there
rc divers reasons for supposing him to have been a native
T Verona; and other writers are disposed to transfer the
onourofhis birth-place to Formiae, a city of Campania,
j ad now called Mola di Gaeta. His prcenomen is not less
oubtful than his country. In the first edition of his work,
e is called Lucius. A. appears in some manuscrints. but
h, or Marcus, is most frequently to be found. Of his per-
anal history, any notices which we possess are almost en-
rely derived from his own work. In the preface to the
ixth book, he mentions that he was indebted to his pa-
-nts for a good education. In the preface to the second,
o speaks of himself as being small of stature, advanced in
ears, and having his strength impaired by disease. From
10 preface to the first, we learn that he was personally
oown to Julius Caesar ; that after his death, he was re-
jommended by Octavia to her brother Augustus; and from
'is emperor he obtained a permanent provision, which
Teed him beyond the fear of want. The services which
e rendered were those of a military engineer: “ Ad ap-
‘fitionem balistariim, et scorpionum, reliquorumque tor-
VIZ 661
mentorum refectionem, fui praesto.” His treatise “ De Ar- Vitry-le-
chitectura,” divided into ten books, is addressed to Augus- Francais
tus. This is a curious and valuable relique of ancient art i‘
and literature. The author was evidently a man of supe- Vizagapa"
rior talents and learning, nor was his knowledge limited
to one department: he indeed appears to have been in¬
structed in general literature, and to have been well ac¬
quainted with the Greek writers.
The editio princeps of Vitruvius, superintended by Jo.
Sulpicius Verulanus, is in folio, without place or date, but
is supposed to have been printed at Rome about 1486. It
is accompanied by the treatise of Frontinus, “ De Aquse-
ductibus,” or, as it is there described, “ De Aquis qum in
Urbem infiuunt.” Both treatises were reprinted, Florent.
1496, fol. They were afterwards reprinted by Junta,
Florent. 1513, 8vo. Passing various other editions of Vi¬
truvius, we arrive at that of Guilielmus Philander, Lugd.
1552, 4to. The annotations of Philander, who is reckon¬
ed one of the principal commentators on this author, had
formerly been published in a separate form, Romm, 1544,
8vo. This edition was followed by that of Daniel Barba-
rus, Venet. 1567, fol. After a long interval appeared the
edition of Jo. de Laet, Lugd. Bat. 1649, fol. It is splen¬
didly printed, but is less distinguished for accuracy. With
the annotations of Philander, Barbarus, and others, it con¬
tains some appendages of less importance. One of these
is a Latin translation of Sir Henry Wotton’s Elements of
Architecture. A more suitable accompaniment is the
“ Lexicon Vitruvianum” of Bernardinus Baldus. We now
aescend to the edition of A. Rode, Berol. 1800, 2 tom. 4to.
It was speedily followed by the edition of J. Glo. Schneider,
Lips. 1807-8, 3 tom. 8vo. Another elaborate edition was
afterwards undertaken, “ textu ex recensione codicum
emendato, cum exercitationibus notisque novissimis J. Po-
leni, et commentariis variorum, additis nunc primum stu-
diis Simonis Stratico.” Utini, 1825-9, tom. 1-3, 4to. Whe¬
ther the fourth and concluding volume has made its ap¬
pearance, we have not ascertained. An English translation
of Vitruvius was executed by William Newton, Lond.
1771-91, 2 parts, fol. Wilkins published a translation of
“ The Civil Architecture of Vitruvius, comprising those
oooks of the author which relate to the public and private
Edifices of the Ancients. With an introduction, contain¬
ing an historical view of the rise and progress of architec¬
ture amongst the Greeks.” Lond. 1812-7, 2 vols. 4to.
Of this work some copies are printed in large folio.
VITRY-LE-FRANCAIS, or Vitry-sur-Marne, an
arrondissement in the department of Marne, which extends
over 608^ square miles, and is divided into five cantons,
and 133 communes, which in 1836 contained 50,527 in¬
habitants. The city stands near the junction of the rivers
Orne and Marne. It is strongly fortified, tolerably well
built, and had a population in 1836 of 6822. Lat. 48. 40.
Long. 4. 33. east.
VIVIPAROUS, an epithet applied to such animals as
bring forth their young alive and perfect, in contradis¬
tinction to those that lay eggs, which are called oviparous
animals.
VIZAGAPATAM, a considerable town and district of
Hindustan, in the province of the Northern Circars. The
district, principally situated between the 17th and 19th de¬
grees of north latitude, is mountainous, and many of the
hills are wild and destitute of vegetation. The principal
trading towns of the district are, Vizagapatam and Bimlipa-
tam. A considerable trade is carried on with Calcutta, Cey¬
lon, the Maldavie islands, &c., from which are imported pep¬
per, wheat, wine, cocoa nuts, coir, and cowries. The ex¬
ports consist of wax, salt, rice, and indigo. A considerable
quantity of cloth is manufactured in the adjacent country.
Vizagapatam is the capital of the district. A river from
the north, and turning short eastward to the sea, forms an
662
V O E
Voet.
vriziadroog arm of land one mile and a half in length, and 600 yards in
breadth, nearly in the middle of which the town and fort
are situated. The town is inconsiderable, the Europeans
generally residing in Watloor, a village to the south of the
harbour. At Semachellum, near to this village, is a Hin¬
du temple of great sanctity. It was here that the British
had a factory in 1689, when during a rupture with Auren-
zebe, our countrymen and all their warehouses were seized,
and all the residents put to death. In 1757 it was taken by
M. Bussy. It was acquired by the British in 1765, with all
the rest of the province, under the administration of Lord
Clive; and it now forms one of the five districts into which
the Northern Circars were divided in 1803, when the Ben¬
gal residence and judicial system were introduced. Travel¬
ling distance from Madras 483 miles; from Nagpoor 394;
from Hydrabad 355, and from Calcutta 557 miles. Long.
83. 28. E. Lat. 17. 42. N.
VIZIADROOG, a commodious sea-port of Hindustan,
province of Bejapore, situated south by east from Bombay.
The mouth of the river on which it is situated is half a mile
broad, without a bar: it is said to be navigable twenty-five
miles for vessels of 200 tons burden; and near the mouth
ships of 700 tons may anchor in safety. It possesses an
excellent wet-dock 355 feet in length, and the spring-tides
rise nine feet. The town is situated on a tract of table
land, and is defended by a fort. It was taken by the Bri¬
tish from the Mahrattas in 1818.
VIZIANAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern
Circars, thirty-seven miles west from Gunjam. Long. 84.
45. E. Lat. 19- 21. N.
VIZIERABAD, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Lahore, situated on the eastern bank of the Chinaub or
Acesines river. It belongs to the Seiks. Long. 73. 57. E.
Lat. 32. 23. N.
VIZZINI, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the
island of Sicily, and province of Noto, 97 miles from Pa¬
lermo. It stands on a volcanic mountain, near the source
of the river Dirello, and was the Bedenum of Ptolemy. It
is a very healthy spot, and contains 9100 inhabitants, and
is one of the cities which sends a member to the Sicilian
parliament.
VLISSINGEN, a maritime town of Holland, in the pro¬
vince of Zealand, called by the English Flushing. It is
situated at the mouth of the West Scheldt, on the south
side of the island of Walcheren, and thus in some measure
commands the entrance to that river, and the access to Ant¬
werp. In 1809 it suffered much during the siege by the Bri¬
tish army, but has been more than restored to its former con¬
dition. The fortifications are now strong, and its trade, espe¬
cially that of ship-building, is flourishing. The town contains
8020 inhabitants. It was the birth-place of the celebrated
Admiral De Ruyter. Lat. 51.26. 37. Long. 3. 28. 16. east.
VOCABULARY denotes the collection of the words
of a language, with their significations, otherwise called a
dictionary, lexicon, or nomenclature. A vocabulary is pro¬
perly a smaller kind of dictionary, which does not enter so
minutely into the origin and different acceptations of words.
VOCAL, something that relates to the voice or speech.
Thus vocal music is that set to words, especially verses, and
to be performed by the voice; in contradistinction to in¬
strumental music, composed only for instruments, without
singing.
VOCALIZE, to, (Ital. vocalizzare,') a technical term in
music, signifying to sing exercises upon the vowel A only.
The practice of vocalizing follows the study of the solfeg¬
gio in learning to sing. See Solfa, &c.
VOCATIVE, the fifth state or case of nouns. See
Grammar.
VOET, Gisbert, an eminent divine, was born at Heus-
den on the 3d of March 1589, being the descendant of an
ancient and considerable family. The earlier part of his
v o G
education he received at the school of his native place an
there he astonished his teachers by his uncommon power
of memory. It is said that he could repeat three emir
comedies of Plautus, as many of Terence, the first book c
Horace’s Odes, the first book of Ovid’s Metamorphose1
and many other ample portions of the authors whom he ha]
read. In 1604 he was sent to the university of Leyden
where he prosecuted his studies for seven years. Durin
his theological course, he gave private lectures on logit
and among his pupils he numbered the celebrated Burger]
dick. Having completed his academical studies in 16H h
became a candidate for the ministry. His profession;
career was retarded by a long illness ; but on his recover!
he was appointed to officiate in the church of Vlymen, an
he preached occasionally at Engelen, about a league di
tant. In 1617 he accepted a call to Heusden, where 1
continued to officiate for seventeen years. In 1619 he a
sisted for six months at the famous synod of Dordrecht, an
proved himself a most zealous supporter of the doctrines
Calvin. In 1634 he became one of the ministers
Utrecht; and, on the foundation of a university in tha
city, he was appointed professor of divinity. He now too
his doctor’s degree at Groningen. During the vacation
1637 he paid a visit to England, where he inspected th
public libraries, and formed a personal acquaintance wit
many learned men. For three years after his return, h
discharged his duties in a very laborious manner: beside
his private lectures, he gave eight public lectures a-weel
and likewise taught Flebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. Befor
he settled at Utrecht, he was accustomed to preach eigli
times a-week. He rendered himself very conspicuous b
the zeal and pertinacity with which he opposed the philo
sophy of Des Cartes. This philosopher, who had fixed hil
residence at Utrecht, was exposed to a great variety a
attacks, literary and juridical, from the professor of divi
nity, by whom the tendency of some of his speculation
was considered as highly pernicious. His public opposi
tion commenced in 1639, and gave rise to much contro
versy. Voet was seconded by Rivet, Des Marets, an
other divines eminent for the extent of their learning anj
the soundness of their theology. Having continued hij
labours till a very advanced period of life, he died on tli
first of November 1676, in the eighty-eighth year of hi
age. Among many other wrorks, he published “ Select;!
Disputationes Theologicae.” Ultraj. & Amst. 1648-69
5 tom. 4to. But his principal work bears the title c|
“ Politeia Ecclesiastica.” Amst. 1663-76, 4 tom. 4to.
Voet, John, the grandson of this theologian, was bon
at Utrecht on the 3d of October 1647. His father, Pan
Voet, who was born at Heusden on the 7th of June 161S
became successively professor of logic and metaphysics,™
Greek language, and the civil law, in the university oj
Utrecht, and died in that city on the first of August 167/
He was likewise the author of various works. His sonwa
appointed professor of law at Herborn, and afterwards a
Utrecht, and was finally removed to Leyden, where h
died on the 11th of September 1714. We subjoin a list c
his principal publications. De Jure Militari liber singu
lar. Ultraj. 1670, 8vo. De Familia Erciscunda liber sin
gularis. Ultraj. 1672, 8vo. Compendium Juris juxtase
riem Pandectarum. Lugd. Bat. 1693, 4to. Commenta
rius ad Pandectas. Lugd. Bat. 1698, Hagae Com. 1/01
2 tom. fol. This last is an elaborate, and upon the who!
an able work; nor has it yet lost its high forensic, as wd
as academical reputation.
VOGEL, a small island in the Eastern seas. Long-130
46. E. Lat. 5. 12. S. There is also a cluster oisma
islands, under this designation, near the West coast of Siam
Long. 98. 55. E. Lat. 7. 38. N.
VOGHERA, a province of the kingdom of Sardinia
in the principality of Piedmont, containing two citie
)ice
VOL
nd 139 towns and villages, with 114,400 inhabitants. The
tapital is a city of the same name on the river StofFora.
t is fortified, is well built, and contains seven religious
houses for monks and nuns. The inhabitants, 12,047 in
lumber, carry on considerable trade in wine, corn, and
ther agricultural productions. Lat. 46. 1. Long. 8. 39-
'ast.
VOICE, a sound produced in the throat and mouth of
n animal, by peculiar organs.
Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Articulate
oices are those whereof several conspire together to form
ome assemblage or little system of sounds; such are the
oices expressing the letters of an alphabet, numbers of
vhich joined together form words. Inarticulate voices are
uch as are not organized, or assembled into words; such
,s the barking of dogs, the braying of asses, the hissing of
erpents, the singing of birds, &c.
For a description of the organs of the voice, see Ana-
'OMY and Physiology.
Voice, in Grammar, a circumstance in verbs, by which
come to be considered as either active or passive, i. e.
ither expressing an action impressed on another subject,
is 1 beat; or receiving it from another, as I am beaten.
ice Grammar.
VOIGHTLAND, a province or circle of the kingdom
)f Saxony, which was diminished by the peace of 1814. It
js bounded on the north-east by Erzgeberge, on the south-
:ast by Bohemia, on the south-west by Bavaria, and on the
lorth-west by Reus. The province is divided into three
jailiwicks, comprehending eighteen cities or towns and 294
ullages, with 102,890 inhabitants. It is 303 square miles
n extent, and occupies the side or the top of a mountain-
ms range. It is a raw and cold district and mostly a stoney
;oil, and on the higher parts no other corn than oats will
fipen. It yields abundance of potatoes, which form the
.hief sustenance, much fruit, and in some portion tolerable
lasture. The woods are extensive and furnish charcoal
and some pitch. The chief occupation is in the muslin
(nanufacture, which employs more than 25,000 persons.
There are mines of iron and of copper, and the converting
hose metals into domestic articles affords considerable em-
iloyment. The capital of the province is the city of
\ Plauen on the river Elster.
VOIRON, a city of France in the department of Lozere
md arrondissement of Grenoble. It stands on the river
Gorges, and is remarkable as the central point for the ex-
ensive trade in hempen cloth which is made in the sur-
ounding district. There is also a fabric of sword blades
Highly esteemed, and there are several paper mills. The
nhabitants amount to 6700.
\OLCONDA, a town and fortress of the South of In-
lia, province of the Carnatic. The port is situated on a
■ock 200 feet high, and a mile in circumference at the bot-
lom. R was taken by the Mahratta chief, Sevagee, in 1677;
nd during the Carnatic wars of the last century, v/as a
trong post. Long. 79- 5. E. Lat. 11. 10. N.
^ OLERY, a bird-cage of such a size that the birds have
room in it to fly up and down.
^ OLGA, the largest river in Europe, derives its origin
rom two small lakes in the forest of Volkonski about 80
ftiles from Tver, a town in Russia. It is navigable a few
‘hies above that town. This noble river waters some of
-he finest provinces in the Russian empire, and at last falls
’njo the Caspian sea, by several mouths, below Astracan.
Ihe Volga is subject to annual inundations. In the year
1 < I) the inundations exceeded the lowest water mark by
nearly 40 feet, since which period they have been rather
111 the decline; for in 1775, they rose only to 39 feet 2
inches above that mark ; in 1782, they rose to 26 feet; in
. ’ t0 25 feet 2 inches; and in the year 179L their
leight was the same. Pallas is of opinion that this pheno-
V O L
663
menon may have originated from the diminished quantity' Volhynia
of snow and rain which had fallen in the higher countries; li
from the greater evaporation of the Caspian sea, and the VoIt-
gradual extension of the different mouths of the river, or
perhaps from the joint operation of all these causes.
VOLHYNIA, or Wolhynia, a government, or stad-
holderate, of the Russian empire, extending in north
latitude from 49° 28' to 52° 3', and in east longitude from
23° 30' to 29° 14'. It is bounded on the north-west by
Grodno, on the north by Minsh, cn the east by Kieu, on
the south by the Austrian kingdom of Gallicia, and on the
west by the kingdom of Poland. This province belong¬
ed to Poland till the great dismemberment of that king¬
dom by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, wdien it was transfer¬
red to the first of those powers. It extends over 30,660
square miles, divided into twelve circles, and containing 139
cities and towns, and 2591 villages,with 1,394,600 inhabitants.
The nobility and traders are for the most part of the Polish
nation, but many of the peasants are of a Russian origin,
and there are also many' Jews. The major part of the
population adheres to the Greek church, at whose head is
a bishop of that sect. The Catholics are next in number,
and mostly Poles, who have a bishop at Luzk as head of
their church, and they still have many monasteries. The
Jews have their owm synagogues and their separate schools.
The face of the country is a high level plain, which ex¬
tends northward from the Carpathian mountains. At the
north there are few or no hills, but many morasses, and the
elevated land between them is covered with woods of ex¬
cellent timber. The southern part is undulating, and has
many spurs projecting from the Carpathians, though few of
them exceed 400 feet in height. Their summits are mostly
covered with trees.
The soil is either a loam or clay, occasionally sandy,
but generally mixed with marl, and covered with a thick
coating of vegetable mould. Although in the north there
are large tracts of moors and marshes, yet, by draining,
they are converted into profitable meadow's and corn fields.
Although the process of cultivation is little better conduct¬
ed than in Poland, yet there are fewrer unproductive sea¬
sons, and none in which a surplus of corn is not produced.
Flax, hemp, rape, and tobacco are cultivated; and some oil
is made from the seed, but merely for home consumption.
Hops, saffron, mustard, and capsicum are grown, but on a
limited scale. The converting the forests into timber and
charcoal affords considerable occupation to the labouring
classes. The manufactures are solely for domestic use,
and consist of linen and wmollen cloth, the spinning of which
is performed by hand by the females; and families buy the
yarn and have weavers who go from house to execute their
part of the work. Though Volhynia is nearly equal in ex¬
tent to Ireland and has a better soil, yet, from want of that
stimulus which access to good markets gives, it is enabled
to support, and that in a wretched manner, scarcely one-
fifth of the same number of human beings. The little
trade that exists is in the hands of the Jews, who, by legal
means, or by smuggling, send into the Austrian and Prus¬
sian territory, corn, brandy, live cattle, especially horses,
and some salted meat, and also honey and bees’ wax.
VOLITION, an act of willing. See Metaphysics.
VOLONES, slaves who, in the Punic war, voluntarily
offered their services to the state, which is the reason of
the appellation ; upon which they were admitted to citizen¬
ship, as none but freemen could be soldiers.
VOLT, in the manege, a round or circular tread, hence,
by the phrase to make volts, is understood a gate of two
treads, made by a horse going sidewise round a centre, in
such a manner that these two treads make parallel tracks;
one larger, made by the fore-feet, and another smaller,
made by the hind-feet; the croup approaching towards the
centre, and the shoulders bearing out.
664
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Voltaic Voltaic Electricity properly designates that branch
Electricity. 0f electricity to which the name of Galvanism is generally
applied. The term voltaic has been given to it in conse¬
quence of the science having been founded by M. Volta,
professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, although the ex¬
periments of Galvani were prior to those of his country¬
man. At present we propose to comprehend under this
general title, the sciences of galvanism, electro-magnetism,
magneto-electricity, and thermo-electricity; and we have
adopted this arrangement in order that we might avail
ourselves of the various discoveries which might be made up
to the close of the work.1
PART I.—GALVANISM.
Galvanism, The science of galvanism derives its name from some in-
a. d. 1789. teresting experiments performed in 1789 by M. Galvani,
professor of anatomy at Bologna. When one of his pupils
was using an electrical machine, a number of frogs were
lying skinned on an adjoining table for the purposes of
cookery The machine being in action, the young man
happened to touch with a scalpel the nerve of the leg of one
of the frogs, when, to his great surprise, the leg was thrown
into violent convulsions. Madame Galvani, having ob¬
served the fact, communicated it to her husband, who
speedily repeated and extended the experiment. He
found that the convulsions took place when a spark was
drawn from the prime conductor; and when the blade of
the knife, or any other good conductor, was brought into
contact with the nerve. When a frog formed part of an
electric circuit, a very small quantity of electricity, whether
common or atmospheric, produced convulsions in the
muscles. Having hung a number of frogs by metallic hoops
on an iron railing, he observed that the limbs were fre¬
quently convulsed when no electricity was indicated in the
atmosphere. In studying this experiment, he was led to
the conclusion that the convulsions were not produced by
extraneous electricity, but that they always took place
when the muscle and nerve of a frog were each placed in
contact with metallic bodies, themselves connected by a
metal. A still more powerful effect was produced when
two metals, such as zinc and silver, were employed, the
nerve being armed or coated with one of these metals, the
muscle brought into contact with the other, and the two
metals joined by an electrical conductor.
This experiment is shewn in fig. 1, where Z is the rod
Fig, 1.
of zinc and C the rod of copper. The extremity B, of
the zinc is brought into contact with the armed muscle
of the suspended limb FD, while the extremity of the
copper is brought into contact with the nerve at D. When
the two metals are made to touch at A, the limbs are con¬
vulsed, and take the dotted position^ Galvani explain¬
ed this phenomenon by saying, that the muscle of the fro»
was a sort of Leyden phial, the nerves representing the in¬
terior, and the muscles the exterior coating of the phial, and
the discharge or shock taking place by the metal or metals
which form a communication between the two electrified
coatings. The fluid which thus passed along the nerves
and muscles was called the Galvanic fluid.
The publication of Galvani’s discoveries excited great
interest. The subject was prosecuted by Yalli, Fowler
Robison, Volta, Wells, Humboldt, Fabbrici, and others;
but the labours of Volta were the most successful, and, by
his discovery of the Voltaic pile, he may be considered as
the great founder of the science. In his earliest inquiries,
Volta saw the true cause of the phenomena described by
Galvani. He maintained that the exciting fluid was ordin¬
ary electricity, produced by the contact of the two metals,
and that the convulsions of the frog arose from the electri¬
city thus developed passing along its nerves and muscles.
Volta afterwards proved that the force, which gave rise to
these phenomena, was generated by the contact of hetero¬
geneous bodies, that it decomposed their natural electri¬
city at the point of junction, continually separating the two
fluids, and making the positive electricity pass along the
one and the negative along the other.
According to this view of the subject, every two hetero¬
geneous bodies form a galvanic circle or arc, as it is some¬
times called, in which electricity is generated; and hence
Volta was led, in 1800, to invent the Voltaic pile, or im¬
pound galvanic circle.
This apparatus, shewn m figs. 2, 3, consists of a number
:ove.
of
ta. u,
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
of single galvanic circles, ZC, ZC, &c., each of which is com¬
posed of a disc of zinc and another of copper. These single
galvanic circles are separated by a disc D, of paper, card, or
cloth soaked in water or any other fluid. When thirty or
forty pair or couple of zinc and copper discs, four inche?
square, are combined, as in fig. 2, the electricity developed
will be sufficient to make the gilt leaves of an electroscope
diverge, the upper or zinc end with positive, and the Iowa
or copper end with negative electricity; and if we touch the
upper end with the wetted fingers of one hand, and the.
lower end with the wetted finders of the other, a distinct-
electrical shock will be experienced. ,
The zinc extremity of the pile is therefore called t e
positive extremity or pole, and the copper extremity^ e
negative extremity or pole. The wet card, or disc, " 1C
separates each pair of metallic discs is called the conductor.
1 The names electro.magnetism and galvanism occur so early in the alphabet, that the arrangement referred to could not with propriety
be avoided.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY
665
In order to understand how the electricity of each
city, jvanic pair is accumulated in the pile, let C, fig. 4, be
..plate of copper, or a negative
| ment, communicating with the Fig. 4.
nf (bund by a wire or chain, W.
»f hen a plate of zinc Z, or a posi-
te element, of the same size, is
, ced above it, a decomposition
( electricity will take place at
instant of contact ; the w
Native electricity wall pass in-
! the copper and through the wire W into the ground ;
.iile the positive electricity will enter the zinc, and ac-
imulate, till its tension, or the thickness of the electrical
.atum, is a maximum which we shall call 1. If we were
i make the zinc plate Z communicate with the ground
| another wire, the positive electricity with which it is
i arged will be carried off like the negative electricity from
ti j copper disc, and the electricity, set free by the con-
t|;t of the two metals, would be carried off as soon as it is
Jnerated. By uniting the extremities of the two wires
ti electricities w'ould be recomposed, and a continual cir-
< lation of electricity would take place. The disc of cop~
j r C, communicating with the ground as in the figure,
. d the zinc disc Z, having an electrical intensity equal to
let us place upon Z a wet disc D of card. The positive
:ctricity will pass from Z to D till the tension of the elec-
city in D is equal to 1, a fresh supply arriving from the
ntact of the two metals. The same electrical state will
ntinue when a second plate of copper, C2, is placed above
e disc D. But if we place a second plate of zinc, Z2, it
11 acquire from the copper beneath it and the wet disc
electrical intensity equal to 1, and from its own action
the copper it will acquire another portion of electricity
ual to 1, so that its electrical intensity will be 2. While
is is going on, the negative electricity developed in the
pper will be neutralised by the positive electricity which
possesses, and in the first pair, CZ, there will be a new
velopment, by which the first zinc disc Z will be brought
ick to an intensity 1, as well as the disc D and the second
pper C2. Hence the second zinc disc, Z2, can be in equi-
mumonly when it has an intensity double of that possess-
by the first. In like manner the third zinc disc will
ye an intensity 3, the fourth 4, and so on, the fortieth
ving an intensity 40.
In the voltaic pile which we have now described, the
yative, or copper pile, communicates with the earth, and
e intensity of the positive electricity increases, at every
ir, from 1 to 40. If we take another pile of similar
tensions, in which the zinc or positive pile communi-
tes with the earth, then the intensity of the negative
■ctricity will increase from 1 to 40. Let us now place
ese two poles together, so that the two poles in com-
Iunication with the ground are supported by a wet disc
i card, we shall have a pile of eighty pair of plates, in the
iddle of which the electricity is in its natural state, its in-
usity being there 0, while at one end there will be a posi-
e pile whose intensity is 40, and at the other end a nega-
e P'le whose intensity is also 40.
In a voltaic pile thus insulated we have electricity of op-
>site kinds accumulated at its two poles, and of any inten-
fy " e choose. If we now place a wire in contact with
, P°lc, and another wire in contact with the other, and
r Jng their extremities together, we shall observe an elec-
lc sParh‘ By separating them and again bringing them
'gcther, another spark will be seen, so that there is a con-
nual current of fire passing from the one extremity or
'le of the wire to the other.
We n°w unite the two extremities of the two wires, so
’ 0 c os® the circuit, every thing will appear to be at rest,
1 . notwithstanding this state of apparent repose, the elec¬
trical actions are still going on ; the electrical fluid is de- Voltaic
composed in each pair of plates, and again recomposed in Electricity,
the conducting wires. In order to prove this, we have only
to interpose a piece of slender wire between the extremi¬
ties or poles of the conducting wires, when it will either
become hot, or red hot, or white hot, or be fused, according
as it is longer or shorter, or of a greater or a less diameter.
In like manner, water, acids, and other compound substances
are all decomposed when placed between the poles and the
wires, so as to form part of the galvanic circuit.
CHAP. I DESCRIPTION OF GALVANIC APPARATUS.
In performing these experiments, and drawing from this Galvanic
powerful agent all the electrical energy which it is calcu-aPParatus-
lated to yield, a great variety of apparatus has been employ¬
ed. When a voltaic pile consists of many couples, their
superincumbent weight presses all the water or other fluid
from the discs of card or cloth, and thus injures the action
of the pile. In order to avoid this, Volta introduced the
“ couronne des tasses,” which is represented in fig. 5, where Couronne
A, B, D, &c., are three des tasses.
or more glass vessels Fig. 5.
containing acidulated
water or diluted sul¬
phuric acid; the plates
Z and C of zinc and
copper, about two
inches square, are sol¬
dered to the ends of a
bent metallic wire,
M, N, &c., and are
immersed in the water in the vessels. About thirty of these
cups are sufficient to give a shock. When the circuit is
closed, by joining the ends of the wires W, W,gas is actively
evolved at all the surfaces of the plates, but when the cir¬
cuit is broken the evolution of gas ceases in the copper
plate, and becomes less copious in the zinc.
A valuable modification of the '‘‘•couronne des tosses,”Modifi'-a-
called the trough battery, was suggested by Dr Wilkinson tion of it.
and Dr Babington. Plates of zinc and copper, about four
inches square, are joined together in pairs, by being solder¬
ed at one point. The pairs of plates are then attached to
a strip of well dried and varnished wood, A B, fig. 6, so that
Fig. 6.
the wdiolecanbe
placed in a
trough, T T,
madeofearthen-
ware or wood,
with as many
partitions as
there are pairs
of plates. When
the trough is of
earthenware the
partitions are of
the same sub¬
stance, but if
they are made of
wood the partitions are made of glass. When diluted sulphu¬
ric acid is poured into the cells of the trough T T, the battery
AB, is immersed in it, so that each pair shall be separated
from the adjoining one by a partition of the trough. This
apparatus has the great advantage of allowing us to clean
or repair the plates, without pouring out the fluid, which
can also be changed with great facility. The powerful
voltaic battery, constructed for the Royal Institution by
Mr Eastwick, under the direction of Sir H. Davy and Mr
Children, is upon this plan. It consists of 2000 double
plates, and its acting surface is 128,000 square inches.
When a battery consists of a number of these troughs unit-
4 r
Trough
battery.
666
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Voltaic ed together, the terminal plates of the adjacent troughs are
Electricity. j0jnej >0y s]jpS 0f COpper> which unite the zinc end of one
trough with the copper end of the other.
Cruick- The galvanic trough, as it is called, is shewn in
shanks’gal-dg, as constructed by Mr Cruikshanks of Wool-
vttmc
trough. Fig>
Wollas¬
ton’s ele
mentary
galvanic
battery.
wich. Plates of zinc and
8, soldered together,
are made to constitute
the partitions of a
trough, T T, of baked
wood, by fixing them
into grooves formed in
its side, all the zinc
surfaces being on one
side and all the copper
ones on the other. The
spaces or cells between
them are then filled
copper C Z, C Z,
fig.
Fig. 8.
0
square feet; the plates being six feet long, and two feet
eight inches broad. The plates are attached to
strong ctriaty
wooden frame, suspended by ropes andpullies, which, bein'
counterpoised, is easily lowered and elevated, so as'to mi5
merse the plates in, or raise them out, of the acid. The
ceils of the battery were twenty-one in number and their
united capacities 945 gallons.2
Having seen a new battery of Dr Wollaston’s, constructed
on a large scale by Newman, Mr Hart3 of Glasgow con¬
ceived the idea of adding sides and bottoms to the double
copper plates, so as to make them form cells of themselves
for holding the acidulous liquid. In this way, each galva¬
nic pair became a triad, consisting of two plates of copper
inclosing one of zinc. The following is the method of con¬
structing such a battery as given by Mr Hart: 
“ The cells are formed by cutting the copper in the form
represented by fig. 9, they are then folded up as seen in
fig. 10, and the seams grooved. A drop of tin is run into
each lower corner, to render the cells perfectly tight, and
at the same time to increase the positive state of the cop¬
per. Fig. 11. represents the zinc plate cast in the usual
manner, and having a piece of screwed brass wire cast into
the top of it, in order to suspend it by.
oltlic
Fig. 9.
with a solution of salt and water, or with diluted muriatic or
sulphuric acid. Troughs of this description are very apt
to get out of order from the warping of the
wood by the action of the acid solution, from
the cracking of the cement, and other causes
which affect the condition of the cells. This
trough was still farther improved by keeping
the plates of zinc and copper separate as at Z,
C, but united at their summits S, with a small
ribbon of copper. Each of these double plates
was then placed upon the earthenware or
glass partitions of a trough like that in fig. 6.
Dr Wollaston found that the power of a gal¬
vanic battery was greatly increased, when
each surface of the zinc plate was opposed to a sur¬
face of copper, and in 1815 he constructed on this
principle what he calls an elementary galvanic bat¬
tery, From a series of experiments, made for the
purpose of ascertaining the most compendious form of
apparatus, by which visible ignition might be shewn, he
found that a single plate of zinc, one inch square, when
rightly mounted, was more than sufficient to ignite a wire
of platina j0'sudth of an inch in diameter, even when the
acid is very diluted (fifty parts of water to one of sulphuric
acid). “ But for this purpose,” he adds, “ each surface of the
zinc must have its counterpart of copper, or other metal,
opposed to it; for when copper is opposed only to one face,
the action on the posterior surface of the zinc is wasted to
little or no purpose. The smallest battery that I formed
of this construction consisted of a thimble without its top,
flattened till its opposite sides were about T25ths of an inch
asunder. The bottom part was then nearly one inch wide,
and the top about -j^ths, and as its length did not exceed
^yths of an inch, the plate of zinc to be inserted was less
than fths of an inch square.”1
The plan thus suggested by Dr Wollaston was employed
dren’s bat- iy[r Children in the construction of a magnificent bat-
ter>’* tery, in which each plate presented a surface of thirty-two
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
1
c
“ Fig. 12. is a section of the battery, showing how the
copper tail of the first cell
is connected with the zinc
plate of the second, and
so on. This connection
is rendered perfect, by
joining them with a drop
of solder. The zinc plates
are kept firm in their
place in the cells by three
small pieces of wood, in
the same manner as in Dr Wollaston’s battery; the »
are then fixed (by .means of screw nuts fitted on the bra.-;
wires) to a bar of baked wood, previously well varnished
Fig. 13 represents the battery in its complete state.
Fig. 13.
“ When the battery is small, two may be suspended oi
one frame. When used for shocks, they may be aiw'r
Mr Cbil-
vv neu useu iui suui.is.b,
with the positive or negative poles together, and J01|1L‘ ,
plete the circuit; but when employe
wire to complete tne circuit; out wucn
flagration, the batteries ought to be placed a ong ■
1 Annals of Philosophy, vol. vi- p. 210.
3 Edin. Journal of Science, No. vii. p. 19, Jan. 1826.
2 Phil. Trans. 1815, p. 363.
.
art’s
"VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
ich other, with all the positive poles at one end, and the
jcity. wative at the other, and the poles of the same name
lined. This arrangement will increase the surface, while
e number is the same.
“ When the battery is to be used, it is to be lifted off the
une, and dipped into a wooden trough lined with lead,
to whicl) the acid has been poured, or it may be placed
the leaden trough, and the liquid poured into it, till the
11s are full. It is then to be placed on the frame, and the
st charged in succession.”
Mr Candie of Glasgow constructed six batteries on this
inciple, of twenty-five triads each, and they were found
periorto a battery on Wollaston’s construction, “ with the
me number of plates, but the plates of which contained
iuble the surface.” This comparison was made in the
anner proposed’ by M. M. Gay Lussac and Thenard.
Two of Dr Wollaston’s batteries, each containing ten
ads in porcelain troughs, evolved a certain volume of gas
seventeen minutes, while a battery of the new construc-
|m, with the same number of triads, but presenting only
|e half the surface of the other, yielded the same volume
gas in fourteen minutes.” This effect, as Mr Hart re-
irks, could arise only from the superior means of insula-
m possessed by his battery.
,re-g Very great improvements have been made on the galva-
red c battery by Dr Robert Hare of Philadelphia, w hose Gal-
r, or nic def/agrator, as he calls it, is represented in fig. 14,
|c I1
Mor.) Fig 14.
667
fig. !6, the copper cases being open only at the top and Voltaic
bottom. 1 he copper cases are separated from each other Electricity,
by very thin veneers of wood. w--.
The two troughs, AB, EF, are joined lengthwise, edge Hare’s sral-
to edge, so that when the sides of the one are vertical, those vanic detla-
ot the other must be horizontal. Hence, by turning theSrator>
handle H a quarter of a revolution, the two troughs thus
united upon pivots wdiich support them at the ends, will be
so raised that any fluid in the one trough must flow into
the other, and by reversing the action must flow back again.
In this w^ay, the galvanic series being placed in one of the
tioughs, and the acid in the other, the plates may, by
means of the handle H, be all simultaneously subjected to
the action of the acid, or relieved from it. The pivots are
made of iron, coated with brass or copper, and a metallic
communication is made between the coating of the pivots
and the galvanic series. The lower trough, EF, is con¬
nected with the upper one, AB, by metallic rods, mn, op,
joining the two handles, H, /i.1
In the course of his experimental researches in electri- Faraday’s
city, Dr Faraday was led to the construction of a voltaic v<4taic-
trough, in which the coppers, passing round both surfacestlou^’
of the zincs, should not be separated from each other, ex¬
cept by an intervening thickness of paper, or in some other
way, so as to prevent metallic contact, and should thus con¬
stitute a compact, powerful, and economical instrument.
He found, however, that Dr Hare had in the trough, which
we have above described, anticipated him in his contrivance.
I he arrangement of Dr Hare, w ho separated the copper
plates by thin veneers of wood, and poured the acid on and
off the plates, by a quarter revolution of an axis, which
carries both the troughs with the plates, and another trough
to collect and hold the liquid, was applied by Mr Faraday
as the most convenient. His zinc plates were cut from
rolled metal, and, when soldered to the copper ones, had
the form
Fig. 17.
pich represents an apparatus consisting of two troughs,
ch of which is ten feet long. Each trough contains 150
Ivanic pairs. The galvanic series, AB,in the upper trough,
shewn, as it appears when the acid is off the plates, CD
lag the part of the trough containing the acid when it is
the plates. In the lower trough EF, the galvanic series
omitted, in order that the interior may be better under-
>od.^ The series belonging to this trough is shewn in fig.
The pairs are contained in three p- ,,
xes, each containing fifty pairs. In pla- 1&"
ig these three boxes in the trough, a little / f 'c—\
R'e is left between them and that side
the trough in which the acid enters, so
shewn in fig.
17. They
were then
bent over a
guage into
the shape
fig. 18, and
when packed m the wooden trough, were disposed as in
fig. 19, small plugs of cork be¬
ing used to prevent the zinc Fig. 18. Fig. IQ.
from touching the copper plates, n"\
1 VI
it instead of flowing over them, it may run down out-
t', and rise up within them.
The pairs of the series consist of copper cases, about se-
11 lnches long, three wide, and half an inch thick, each
raming a _
Fig. 16.
Ky
“ plate equal-
distant from
sides, and
evented from
‘^ing it by
Joved stripes
wood. Each
ic Plate is sol¬
v'd to one
e of the adja-
tt case of cop-
as shewn in
c C c c c c c'c c c
and a single or double thick- j
ness of cartridge paper being if
interposed between the conti¬
guous surfaces of copper to pre¬
vent their contact. A trough
of forty pairs of plates could
thus be unpacked in five mi¬
nutes, and repacked again in half an hour; and the whole se¬
ries occupied only fifteen inches in length. A trough of this
kind, with forty pairs of plates three inches square, was com¬
pared with one of forty pairs of four inch plates, having dou¬
ble coppers, and used in porcelain troughs, with insulating
cells, and having the same strength of acid; and the former
was found equal to the latter in the ignition of platina wire, in
the discharge between points of charcoal, and in the strength
of the shock. The following are the advantages of this
form of trough enumerated by Dr Faraday:—1. It is so
compact that one hundred pair of plates may go into a
trough three feet long. 2. The copper bearings, on w'hich
the pivots rest, afford fixed terminations, which Dr Faraday
connects with two cups of mercury fastened in front of the
stand of the instrument. These fixed terminations give
1 Silliman’s Journal, vol. vii p. 347, and vol. v. p 94.
668
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Voltaic
Electricity.
Faraday’s
voltaic
trough.
Mr Young’
improved
battery.
the great advantage of arranging an apparatus to be used
in connection with the battery, before the latter is put in
action. 3. The trough is ready for use in a few seconds, a
single jug of diluted acid being sufficient to charge one
hundred plates. 4. When the trough has performed a
quarter of a revolution, it becomes active, and the experi¬
ment has the advantage of the first contact of the zinc and
acid, which is twice, and sometimes thrice, that which the
battery can produce a minute or two after. 5. When the
experiment is finished, the liquid can be instantly poured
from between the plates, and hence the latter is never need¬
lessly wasted, the acid unnecessarily exhausted, or the zinc
uselessly consumed. The charge, too, is mixed and made
uniform, and the advantage of a first contact is obtained in
the next experiment. 6. The saving of zinc is so very
great, that Dr Faraday estimates the zinc to be thrice as
effective as that in the ordinary form of battery. 7. The
surfaces of the zinc and copper plates may be brought much
nearer to each other when the battery is constructed, and
remain so till it is worn out. 8. Thinner plates of zinc will
do the duty of thicker ones, and rolled zinc, which is the
purest,1 may be used. 9. The purity of the diluted acid is
proportioned to the quantity of zinc dissolved. 10. The
acid is more easily exhausted, so that we need not use
an old charge a second time. 11. By using a due mix¬
ture of nitric and sulphuric acid for the charge, no gas
is evolved from the troughs. Among the defects of this
form of the battery, Dr Faraday enumerates the precipi¬
tation of copper on the zinc plates, which he considers
as arising chiefly from the papers between the coppers
retaining acid when the trough is emptied, which acid,
acting slowly on the copper, forms a salt, which gradu¬
ally mingles with the next charge, and is reduced on the
zinc plate by the local action, and hence the power of the
whole battery is reduced. Dr Faraday proposed to remedy
this evil, by using slips of glass to separate the coppers at
their edges.2
5 The defect thus pointed out by Mr Faraday, was particu¬
larly experienced by Mr James Young of the Andersonian
University, Glasgow, who has proposed a form of battery
in which these papers are not required, and having construct¬
ed several dozens of instruments in the new form, he found
that from the same surfaces of zinc, electricity, the same in
quantity and tension, is produced in both Dr Hare’s form and
his, but that in the new construction, this effect is produced
with half the quantity of sheet copper, which arises from
both sides of the copper plates being presented to surfaces
of zinc. The following is Mr Young’s construction. Sup¬
posing the breadth of the required plates to be two inches,
the sheet copper and zinc are cut into ribbands, two inches
broad and five inches long, and a portion cut out as in fig.
20. The ribbon is thus divided into two squares of two
inches, and united at A, and having a piece projecting at
B. Fig. 20, representing a single plate, either of zinc or
Fig. 20.
Fig, 21. Fig. 22.
Each pair of plates is constructed as in fig. 22. In arr,
ing a number of pairs to form a battery, they are interl ^
so that a copper square comes in between each counle6
zinc squares, and vice versa. This arrangement isnot ea 'f
described. At the positive end of the battery there is ’
single copper plate, which is soldered at the top to the last
double copper plate, as seen in fig. 23, which represents
Fig. 23.
Fig. 24.
copper, is bent at A, as in fig. 21. A plate of zinc thus
bent, is then united to a similar one of copper, by soldering
together the projecting parts BB, as in fig. 22, and this is
the only metallic communication existing between them.
three pairs properly arranged, and also the wav in which
they should be fitted up, and kept steadily apart in a wooden
frame. This frame is made of two solid pieces of wood,
into which are dove-tailed two cross bars, ee, e'e', in front,
with two similar ones behind. The grooves in the cross
bars for receiving the edges of the plates, are formed by
placing the four cross bars together, and sawing a little way
into one side of them all every eighth of an inch or so in
their length, so as to form a set of parallel grooves. This
affords us a better security against metallic contact than the
wedges of cork in Dr Hare’s battery, which are apt to slif
out.
The frame, fig. 23, with its plates, may be introduced into
a porcelain or wooden trough, TT, containing the diluted
acid. Mr Young prefers a single trough to Dr Hare’s two
connected troughs, and by means of an axis of stout wire.
A B, carrying two pullies, P P, the frame and battery can
be raised out of the fluid.
Mr Warren de la Rue made an important step, by usint
asolutionof sulphate of copperas the exciting agent in voltaic
batteries. Oxygen is thus supplied to the zinc by theoxideo
copper; no gas is evolved; and the action being thus rendem
continuous, the effect is fully equal to that momentarily produ,
ced by immersion in acids. The battery which M.de la Rmj
considers best adapted to the use of sulphate of copper, r
shown in fig. 28. The zinc plate is shown in fig. 25. Itshouhj
be tinned on the top A, previous to the
amalgamation of the rest of the plate.
The zinc plate is retained in its place
by grooves cut out of the two slips of
wood BB, to within 3-4ths of an inch
of the bottom. The copper plates are
formed into cells, painted on the out¬
side (as in fig. 26,) five inches square and one inch wide
E,E, being two ears of copper for suspending the cell in it
place, and A, a slip of copper to be soldered to the zm
plate in the adjacent cell. As the zinc plates do not e
scend lower than within 3-4ths of an inch of the bottom c
the cells, the space thus left may contain the deposits ans
ing from decomposition of
the sulphate of copper. The
cells are supported in a long
wooden frame, by means of
the ears E,E, by hooks driven
through them as shown in fig.
27. In order to receive the
charge when the battery is in
action, M. de la Rue employs
the contrivance shown in fig.
i la Hurt
tttry,
Fig. 25.
Fig. 26.
U
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
Dr Faraday found rolled Liege or Mosselman’s zinc the purest.
2 Phil. Trans. 1S45, Part ii.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
taic 8. A spout L, a quarter of an inch deep, is placed at the
ncityop of each cell, and these spouts overhang a wooden gut-
extending along the frame. The solution of the sulphate
mst then be renewed by means of a funnel with a long
eck, the long end being made to descend nearly to the bot-
>m of the cell. When the fresh solution is thus poured in,
ie spent liquor will run out by the spout into the gutter.
Vhen a series of experiments is over, the battery must be
mptied, and the plates well cleaned by dashing water be-
veen the cells.1 Mr Noad justly recommends this battery
5 a very valuable one, and as likely to supersede the acid
kanjed battery altogether. Its initial action was equal to
ne of Wollaston’s batteries of equal surface, and what is
f far more importance, its action was permanent.
,or Professor Daniell haspublishedin the Philosophical Trans-
’s ctions for 1836, an account of two new voltaic batteries,
;ed ossessing valuable properties. The first of these he calls
ie dissected battery, by means of which he says, “ many
etached facts well-known before, had become clear, and of
lore importance, from their connection and comparison
bitheach other by its means.” The following is Mr Daniell’s
wn description of it:—The battery consists of ten glass
ells, a section of one of which is represented in the accom-
ianying figures.
a b c d, fig. 29, is a foot of solid glass, containing a
:avity efgh, the upper part of which
s fitted with a stopper, g h. Through
his stopper the stems of the two plates
j him n, pass into the lower part of
he cavity, which is divided into two cells
y the partition o p, and each of which
ontains mercury, into which the wires
espectively dip. This arrangement ad-
hts of the plates being changed at plea-
ure with little difficulty. The plates may
e connected together, or with the plates
f other cells, by means of wires, p q,
assing through the lateral holes, t, u,
nd dipping also into the cupsof mercury,
fo the glass foot thus arranged, a glass
hade v iv xy z z, is fitted by grinding,
nd constitutes a cell for the reception of
he liquid. A graduated glass jar, A, B,
lay be suspended over either plate by
peans of a brass clip, proceeding from a
od placed by the side of the cell in the
Manner represented by fig. 30, which is a perspective
Irawing of a circular arrangement of ten such cells.
Fig. 30.
669
to the same purposes, but is less expensive in construe- Voltaic
Fig. 29.
tion. It is supported in a per- * Fig. 31. Electricity,
forated table C, D, by its project¬
ing v'imvwy z, and the stems of
the plates pass through the glass
stopper abed, into the exterior
mercury cups o, p, by means of
which all the necessary connexions
may be made.
The circular arrangement of the
cells of the battery, fig. 30, admits
of their being combined together in
various ways with the greatest faci¬
lity, by means of small cups of mer¬
ely </> h, i, placed at proper inter¬
vals. My next disposition was to
connect all the platinum plates to¬
gether by wires radiating from
them to a central cup k, of mercury, and all the zinc plates
by wires, dipping into a ring of the same metal, placed
in a groove a b c d e f surrounding the whole arrange¬
ment. In this state of things no action was of course mani¬
fest, for there was no complete circuit; but upon mak¬
ing a connection by means of a wire, between the central
cup and the exterior circle of mercury, the current was
enabled to circulate, and was manifested by the simultaneous
evolution of gas from all the cells. The inequality of action
became again apparent, and the differences between the
cells was nearly the same, as when they were connected in
separate single circuits.”
Notwithstanding the numerous improvements which have
been made in the voltaic battery, no successful attempts had
been made till the time of Professor Daniell, to discover the
causes of the variations and decline of its force, after the first
immersion of the plates in the diluted acid. The principal
causes of these variations he proved to be the evolution of
hydrogen gas from the negative metallic surface, which not
only consumes a considerable portion of the generated elec¬
tricity, but reduces at the conducting plates the oxide of
zinc, formed by the action of the battery at the generating
plates, and here the conducting plates were ultimately so
encrusted with metallic zinc, as to diminish and finally an¬
nihilate the circulating force. Hence he was led to the con- Professor
struction of what he calls a constant battery, for producing Daniell’s
an invariable current of force, and therefore applicable to constant
many important researches, which cannot be successfully ^aUery’
carried on under variation of the voltaic current. But beside
the attainment of this great object, Professor Daniell con¬
siders it as promising the following advantages:
1. The abolition of all local action, by the facility of ap¬
plying amalgamated zinc.
2. The trifling expense of replacing the zinc rods when
worn out, and the total absence of any wear of the copper.
3. The dispensing with the use of nitric acid, and the
substitution of the cheaper materials, sulphate of copper and
oil of vitriol, and the absence of any annoying fumes ; and,
4. The facility and perfection with which all metallic
communications may be made, and different combinations
of the plates arranged.
The following is Professor Daniell's description of this
valuable instrument.
Fig. 32 represents a section of one of the cells, ten of
which are shown in connexion at fig. 53 ; ab c dvs a cylin¬
der of copper six inches high and three and a half inches
wide; it is open at the top a b, but closed at the bottom,
except a collar, e f, one and a half inch wide, intended for
the reception of a cork into which a glass siphon-tube,
g hi j k, is fitted. On the top, a b, a copper collar, cor-
^ ghi j h, is fitted. Un the top, a o, a copper collar, cor-
% 31 represents the section of a cell which is adapted responding with the one at the bottom, rests by two hori-
1 London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, April 1887, vol. x., p. 244.
670
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Fig. 32.
constant
battery.
\JFood
N
Voltaic zontal arms. Previously to the fixing of the cork siphon-
Eieetrieity. tuke jn jts p]acej a membra-
nous tube, formed of a part
Paniell's °‘ the ^ul‘et of an ox’ 18
drawn through the lower
collar, e f and fastened
with twine to the upper,
l m no; and when tightly
fixed by the cork below,
forming an internal cavity
to the cell, communicating
with the siphon-tube in
such a way as that, when
filled with any liquid to the
level m o, any addition
causes it to flow out at the
aperture k. In this state,
for any number of drops
allowed to fall into the top
of the cavity, an equal num¬
ber are discharged from the
bottom. <7, is a rod of
Fig. 33.
Itaic
cast zinc, amalgamated with mercury, six inches long and
half an inch diameter, supported on the rim of the upper
collar by a stick of wood, r, s, passing through a hole
drilled in its upper extremity; < is a small cup for the re¬
ception of mercury, by which, and the cavity a, at the top
of the zinc rod, various connexions of the copper and zinc,
of the different cells, may be made by means of wires pro¬
ceeding from one to the other.
In fig. 33 the ten cells are represented as connected in
Fig. 34.
single series, the zinc of one with the copper of the next.
They stand upon a small table in a circle, with the apertures
of the siphon-tubes turned inwards, surrounding a large fun¬
nel, communicating with the basin underneath, for the re¬
ception of any liquid which may overflow. A smaller fun¬
nel is supported over the internal cavity of each cell by a
ring sliding upon rods of brass placed between each pair of
cells. One of these only is shown in the drawing to avoid
the crowding of the sketch.”
In the preceding construction, Mr Daniell had two
main objects in view. 1. To remove out of the circuit the
oxide of zinc as soon as its solution is formed; and, 2. To
absorb the hydrogen evolved upon the copper without pre¬
cipitating any substance injurious to the latter. The fit
of these objects is completely effected by suspending the rod
in the membranous cell, into which fresh acidulated wate
is allowed to drop slowly from the funnel above, whilst the
heavier solution of the oxide is withdrawn from the bottom
at an equal rate by the siphon-tube, g h i j k. The
second object was attained by charging the space round
the membrane with a saturated solution of sulphate of
copper instead of dilute acid. When the circuit was com-
pleted the current passed freely through this solution, no
hydrogen appeared upon the conducting plate, but a beau¬
tiful thick coating of pure copper was precipitated upon it,
thus perpetually renewing its surface.
Notwithstanding these charges, there was still a gra¬
dual, though very slow, decline in the force of the battery
wdnch Mr Daniell traced to the weakening of the saline
solution by the precipitation of the copper, and consequent
decline of its conducting power. In order to remedy this
defect, he suspended some solid sulphate of copper in
small muslin bags, which just dipped below the surface of
the solution in the cylinder, and kept it in a state of satu¬
ration by its gradual dissolution. With this improvement
the voltaic current became perfectly steady for six hours
together. An improvement upon this arrangement is
shewn in fig. 34, where a cfh, is a
perforated colander of copper, into
which, instead of muslin bags, the sul¬
phate of copper is placed. The central
collar, b d e g, rests by a small ledge
upon the rim of the cylinder. The
membrane is then drawn through the
collar, and, after being turned over its
edge, it is fastened with twine.
Professor Daniell having found it of
great advantage to increase the num¬
ber of cells, he now places them in two
parallel lines, of ten each, upon a long
table, the siphon-tubes being disposed
opposite each other, and hanging over
a small gutter, placed between the rows
to carry off the refuse solution when the
acid requires to be changed; and as a
uniform action may be kept up by occa¬
sionally adding a small quantity of fresh
liquid, he now dispenses with the dripping funnels.
Professor Daniell considers a battery of twenty cells as
amply sufficient for all the purposes of demonstration and
investigation. It keeps eight inches of platinum wire,
j-^th of an inch in diameter, permanently red hot in the
open air, and it is even an economical source of the purest
oxygen for laboratory purposes. For this latter purpose
he has fitted up a cell by inclosing a platinum plate, in¬
stead of the zinc rod, within the membranous tube, which
is closed at the upper end by a glass tube bent in a con¬
venient form to deliver the disengaged gas under a
receiver. When this cell is included in the circuit of
double cells, the hydrogen is absorbed as formerly by
the oxide of copper, but the oxygen is evolved from
the platina at the rate of eighty-four cubic inches in the
hour. | ence |
In a subsequent paper on voltaic combinations1 Profes-^ ^
sor Daniell found that the power of the battery was great-^ , J
ly increased by an increase of temperature. Having dis¬
solved the sulphate of copper in standard acid, in place of t Biter;
water, the battery produced thirteen in place of eleven
cubic inches of mixed gases every five minutes,
another occasion, he added one part of sulphuric acid to
eight parts of the saturated solution of the sulphate, ant
poured it into the cells, when of the high temperature p™
1 Phil. Trans, vol. xxxvii. p. 119, &c
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 671
nt
iced by the disengagement of heat during the mixture,
icity. iich was about 110°. The battery afforded at first
u ntv-two inches of the mixed gases in five minutes.
Wishing now to try the effect of higher temperatures, he
iplaced the membranous tubes with cylinders of porous
i-thenware. These cylinders, closed at the lower ends,
id their diameter one and a half inches, and the same
,jght as the copper cells. The bottoms of the latter are
ted with sockets in which the tubes are placed, and
Inch confine them in their proper position, the perfo-
ted colanders, which hold the sulphate of copper, pass-
cr over their upper ends. These porous tubes require to
; thoioughly soaked in dilute acid. The increase of
mperature was obtained from steam, and the general re¬
lit of many experiments was, that the working rate of
is battery was nearly doubled at a temperature of 212°,
ovided no secondary action interfered with it.1
In the interesting paper which contains these observa-
swr ons. Professor Daniel! has described an improved constant
j j ittery of large dimensions, the effects of which exceeded
t s most sanguine expectation, and which he thinks cannot
4 farther improved in point of simplicity and cheapness,
his battery consists of ten copper cells, twenty inches
igh, and three and a half inches diameter. The interior
irtitions are formed by merely tying the open ends of the
•ten’s gullets to the rings of the colanders which hold the
lue vitriol, and which are made deeper than before, and
spending them in the cells, to the bottoms of which they
:ach. Each bag contains rather more than a quart of the
ilute acid. The zinc rods are five-8ths of an inch in dia¬
meter, and well amalgamated, and their connexions the
ime as formerly. At the temperature of 67° this battery
reduces, in the voltameter, twelve cubic inches of the
lixed gases per minute, or 720 in the hour. It has great
ower of ignition, and while it will maintain six inches of
latinum wire, an inc^ in diameter, red hot, it will
ill decompose water at the rate of fourteen cubic inches
i five minutes. When the battery is not in use, the zinc
ids are taken out and wiped, and the membranous bags
irefully lifted out of their cells, emptied of their acid, fill-
d with water, and suspended from a frame placed for their
ception. Professor Daniell adds, that there is no reason
) think that the limits of efficiency have yet been nearly
Rained, and the gullets could easily be connected together
) as to obtain bags of any required length. Professor
Daniell has more recently put in action seventy series of
is large constant battery, which, on the 16th February
839, fused titanium, and heated sixteen feet four inches of
m. 20 platinum wire.
Another form of the constant battery we owe to J. W\
hillins, Esq., M.P., who calls it the quantity battery. It
• unsists of an earthenware pot six inches deep and four
ide, which is shewn in action in fig. 35,
ad in perspective in fig. 36, a cylinder Fig. 35.
! amalgamated zinc, Z, Z, standing on
gs half an inch long, and cut out of
ie cylinder, is placed in the pot; the if ra P\
tight of the cylinder, including the legs,
>only two inches. Within this cylinder,
at the distance of three-8ths of an
'th from it, is placed a copper vessel
c, having round its outer edge a rim
quarter of an inch wide, round which a
lm bladder, well cleaned and moistened,
. tle(h The bottom of the pot rests on a
llt'U‘ar piece of baked wood projecting a quarter of an
inch beyond the cylinder. The bladder is then drawn Voltaic
all over and fastened round the upper rim by a cord, and it Electricity,
is kept clear of the copper by the circular piece of wood.
The copper cylinder c c, which is as deep as the pot, is
perforated with six holes equidistant from the top and
bottom. Ihese holes form communications with an inner
cylinder of copper C, C, three quarters of an inch dis¬
tant from the outer one. The shelf bottom of the space
between the two cylinders, is on a level with the lower edge
of the holes, and soldered to the large cylinder. The ob¬
ject of this cylindrical chamber is to hold crystals of sul¬
phate of copper when required, and to contain the solution,
which should not rise higher than the upper edge of the
holes. A small quantity of sal-ammoniac, (muriate of am¬
monia,) in the proportion of five parts of the saturated so¬
lution to 100 of water, is then poured outside the bladder
till it reaches the upper edge of the zinc cylinder ZZ. The
solution of sulphate of copper will require a few crystals
of the sulphate to be added every four hours, but the am-
moniacal solution needs no renewal. The connexions are
formed, as in fig. 36, by strips of
copper soldered to the zinc cylin- Fig. 36.
der Z Z, and to the inner copper
cylinder C C. The wires bend
over the edge of the pot and enter
two cups holding mercury, from
which the wires that transmit the
electrical current through any ap¬
paratus, may proceed. The ac¬
tion of this battery will continue
as long as a particle of metallic
salt remains in solution. If six
drops of a saturated solution of
the sulphate of copper are added
to the exhausted and colourless
solution, the battery instantly resumes its original power.
A constant current, therefore, may be kept up by having a
few crystals of the blue vitriol on the shelf, which, by being
gradually dissolved, will pass to the external surface of the
copper.
Mr Mullins has constructed also a battery for intensity, of Mullins’
the effects of which he has given the following description :2 intensity
—“ I have put,” he says, “ as in the quantity battery, abattery-
shallow cylinder of zinc within, and close to the internal
surface of the earthenware pot, next the copper cylinder,
as before ; but, instead of letting the inside of this cylinder
go for nothing, the internal surface of the copper is lined
with very thin caoutchouc for insulation; then comes an¬
other small cylinder of zinc, then a copper one lined as
the last, then a zinc, and lastly, a copper cock, copper, of
course, enveloped in membrane. In this battery the power
is immense in proportion to the quantity of the metals
used, which, in my opinion, depends upon a new principle,
which is developed in this mode of construction and ar¬
rangement, that is, restricting the electric current to gradu¬
ally diminishing metallic surfaces as it advances, so that,
as the quantity accumulates, the conducting surfaces are
reduced, and of course a much higher degree of intensity
is a necessary consequence. By merely altering the con¬
nexions of the plates, which, by the mode I have adopted,
can be done with the utmost facility, this battery can be
turned into a powerful quantity one, and probably a wine
glass full of the solution is amply sufficient.”
Having found that a single piece of zinc, of three square
inches, surrounded by a membrane, could be easily fitted
up, Mr Shillibear constructed the galvanic apparatus shown battery.
' Ihe experiments of Marianim and Rogers on the indtience of heat upon single voltaic circuits will be found in the Annates deChimie,
™. xxxiii. p. 132, and Sillimans* Journal, vol. xxvii. p. 57, January I8S5. In Roger’s experiments the deflection of the galvanometer,
7 ,l()|n 70° to 147° while the temperature rose from 75“ to 210°.
otid. and Edm. Phil. Mag. 1856, vol. ix. p. 283.
672
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Voltaic in figs. 37 and 38. It consists of a copper trough, C C,
Electricity.
Fig. 37* Fig. 38.
Rev. Mr
Shillibear’s
sustaining
battery.
Bachhoff-
ner’s bat¬
tery.
Dr Hare’s
calorimo-
tor.
£
three inches deep, and two and a quarter wide, divided into
as many compartments, with copper partitions, as we wish
to have zinc plates. A section of a trough, for Jive plates,
is shewn in fig. 38. The zinc plates are soldered firmly to
a copper bar, and this copper bar is fastened by a screw to
a piece of hard wood which serves as a cover to the bat¬
tery. The pole director, shewn at the top of fig. 37, for
directing the course of the electric current, is constructed
thus. In the wood cover, C C, there is cut a groove on
each side of the screw B, in connexion with the zinc, and
into this groove is fitted a copper slide, which carries two
moveable wings, Drf, Ee, which may be easily brought into
contact with the copper or zinc. When the wing Dd is
in contact with C, and Ee with B, the current of electri¬
city will go out from the wire in connection with the wing
T)d, and return by the wire connected with the wing Ee,
into the zinc plates through B. If we now shift the slide,
so that Ee is in contact with C, and De? with B, the cur¬
rent will be reversed, going out by the wire at Ee, and re¬
turning by the wire at T)d, to the zinc through B. In
order to prevent any precipitation of the sulphate of copper
upon them, the zinc plates should be lightly covered with
bladder. When the trough is to be employed for sustain¬
ing a weight, the membranes should be slipped off, and
diluted nitrous acid used instead of the sulphate of copper
solution.
A galvanic battery of a very simple kind, and easily con¬
structed, has been employed by M. Bachhoffner.1 2 A piece
of thin sheet copper, coiled up in the form of a cylinder, 4
inches by 2^, is kept in that state by a fine copper wire.
The cylinder is then placed in a small bladder tied round
the copper with pack-thread. The bladder is open at top,
and its bottom forms the bottom of the cylinder. A sheet
of rolled zinc is coiled up in a similar manner, and a piece
of copper wire, previously soldered to each zinc and copper
cylinder, forms the connexion between them. This battery
may then be placed in a jelly-pot. It is excited by a satu¬
rated solution of sulphate of copper, poured into the copper
cylinder. Another solution of common salt is poured in on
the outside of the copper, and in contact with the zinc. If
it be required to keep the battery in action for two or three
days, a few crystals of sulphate of copper must be added, to
keep up the strength of the solution within the copper cy¬
linder.
Before concluding this part of the subject, wemustnotice
the spiral galvanic batteries. The first battery of this kind
on a large scale, was made by Dr Robert Hare, who call,
ed it a calorimotor from its remarkable power of pr0.,
ducing heat. It consists of sheets of zinc and
niit
fv*
copper
Fig. 39.
formed into coils, the copper coil encircling the zinc at
a distance not exceeding a quarter of an inch. The sheets
of zinc were about 9 inches by 6, and the copper 14 by 6
more of the copper being necessary as shown in fig. 39,
where ZZ represents the zinc, and
C C the copper coil. Each coil was
about 2^ inches in diameter, and
they were 80 in number. All these
coils were let down by means of a
lever, into 80 glass jars, 2| diameter,
and 8 inches large, containing the
acid solution for exciting them.3
M. Pouillet constructed one of
these with twelve couples for the
Faculty of Sciences at Paris, and
found it very powerful in producing
great quantities of electricity with low tension.
Mr Pepys constructed a similar instrument on a gram
scale, for the London Institution, in 1822, for electro-mag
netic purposes. It is represented in fig. 40, where M is the
Fig. 40.
Hurt's
‘ •alk
battery, C C the conductors, W the counterpoise weight
and T T the tubs, one for holding the dilute acid, and thf
other water. The battery M, consists of two plates of cop
per and zinc each Jifty feet long, and two wide, exposing *
superficial surface of 400 feet. They are rolled or wrappei
round a cylinder of wood, with three ropes of horse hair be
tween each fold to keep them from contact, and these rope
are kept in their position by notched sticks, occasionally in
troduced in the rolling. Two conductors C C, of coppe
about three quarters of an inch thick, are soldered to thi
end of each plate, from which the electric force is obtainei
when the instrument is in action. The battery is suspendet
by ropes and pullies, with a counterpoise W, to permit it
immersion in a tub of diluted acid, or when not in use in 1
tub of water. It requires about 55 gallons of fluid, and tin
solution used contains about ^th of strong nitrous acid.4
A very excellent galvanic battery for producing electn
city of different intensities, has been described in l&w
by Mr Joseph Henry, of New Jersey college.5 The objec
of the apparatus is to exhibit most of the phenomena 0
galvanism, and of all those of electro-magnetism on a larg
1 Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity, April 1837, p. 224.
4 Trans. American Philosophical Society, vol. v.
* Id. Id. p. 214. 3 Phil. Transactions, 1823, p. I®?*
5 Silliman’s Journal, vol. iii. 1821, p. 105.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
673
(i 8 sets in all; and each of the 8 troughs which are raised
, to the elements, are divided into 11 cells by wooden
rtitions coated with cement.
kic gile, with one battery. It consists of 88 pairs, each of being the positive, and theperoz^ethenegative element, M. Voltaic
pity, rich is composed of a plate of rolled zinc, 9 inches wide Zamboni has been endeavouring during the last 20 years to Electricity.
$ 12 long, inserted in copper cases, open at top and bot- produce by this pile a perpetual orlong-continued motion •
tn. These elements are suspended in groups of 11 pairs, but the motion, though often long-continued, frequently
jn ''11 * anf1 p*rh ni thp 8 trm,crll° ceases for a while, and sometimes altogether, when the elec¬
tric force of the apparatus has been enfeebled.
Chemists and natural philosophers had in vain endeavour- jr (jassiot
ed to produce chemical effects by means of the dry pile ; obtains '
but M. Grassiot has very recently2 succeeded in exhibiting chemical
, „ its chemical power. Having constructed a pile of 10,000 decomPosi-
dr)' ( alternations of small discs ot zinc, and silvered paper, series of discs of laminated zinc, paper, and oxide of man-tio!l b>r the
ganese, each about one inch in diameter, he divided it into piie‘
separate piles of 1000 each. With this apparatus he suc¬
ceeded in obtaining sparks which passed through the space
and An electric apparatus, in which the phenomena were sup-
ies jsed to be independent of chemical action, was invented
J. A. de Luc, in 1809- It consists of a great number
Fig. 41.
fFJrt
jaut an inch in diameter. These discs succeed each
< ler in the following order: zinc, silver, paper; zinc, sil-
paper. When from 500 to 1000 discs are enclosed in
i iry glass tube, and the plates are pressed together by a
1 iss cap and screw at each end, the pile will produce dis-
t ct electrical effects. When the columns of 1000 series
< ;h, are fitted up as in fig. 41, and placed
rticallyin a glass receiver, a brass ball,
sjpended by a thread of raw silk, will,
lithe action of the two piles, continually
dike the two bells placed at the lower
c 1 of the piles. Mr B. M. Forster suc-
c ‘ded in making an apparatus analogous
t the preceding, which rung continually
ft five months. Mr Singer made one,
\ ich rung continually for 14 months,
s 1 De Luc had a pendulum which kept
\ rating for more than two years.
Mr Singer found that when the paper
\;i perfectly dry, the pile lost all its power,
r l that it was deteriorated when too much
i isture was present. M. Jaeger, however,
q served, that when the paper, after being dried to excess, was
1 ited by exposing the pile to a temperature of from 104°
t 140°, the pile began to act as powerfully as before.
1 fen the paper is in its driest natural state, the pile is ac-
tp, and it loses its activity only when the paper is sub-
j ted to adegree of heat capableof scorchingit. By means
< ji pile of 20,000 groups of silver, zinc, and double discs
( vriting paper, a series of distinct sparks were obtained.
ar, having a coated disc of 50 square inches, was charged
i 1.0 minutes, and gave a disagreeable shock in the elbows
a 1 shoulders. The charge of this jar fused one inch of
P dna wire, the five-thousandth of an inch in diameter.
is pile, though exhibiting such power, did not exercise
t slightest chemical action.
of T'0 th of an inch. When the distance of the points was
S es, the zinc extremity being positive, and the silver ex-
t nity negative, the middle part being in a neutral state
M. de Luc and M. Hausman observed that the rays of the
increased the power of the column, an effect which they
t ught was not due to heat. Mr Singer, however, found
t| t his column was always more powerful in summer than in
'I ter, and in a room with a fire than in one without it.
M. De Luc has shown how the dry pile may be used in
< ermining the conducting power of bodies, and also their
jfith of an inch, the stream of sparks was so powerful as to
produce that peculiar phosphorescent odour which is always
perceptible in the action of the electrical machine. With
one of the piles of 1000 series, a spark passed through a
spaceof the yg^dth of an inch ; but what was of more inte¬
rest, M. Gassiot succeeded, after many trials, in obtaining
chemical decomposition of a solution of iodide of potassium.
He fastened about two inches of platinum wire to each end
of the pile of 10,000 series, the two points of his micrometer
electrometer being brought parallel to each other, so as to be
about a quarter of an inch apart. A piece of bibulous paper
saturated with a solution of iodide of potassium was placed
on a slip of glass, and then brought into contact with the
ends of the wires from each extremity of the pile. The
iodine then appeared invariably on the end of the wire at¬
tached to the end of the pile, which terminated with the
oxide of manganese.
The dry pile has been applied with much success by M. Bohnen-
Bohnenberg, in constructing an electroscope of great deli- berg’s elec-
cacy. Having suspended between the two opposite poles of troscope.
two piles a single strip of gold leaf, he found that this leaf,
however slightly it was electrified, was drawn to one or other
of the poles, according to the nature of the electricity with
which it was influenced. In this way he obtained an instru¬
ment, not only sensible to small electrical influences, but ca¬
pable of indicating the kind of electricity which was pre¬
sent.3
Before concluding this part of the subject, we shall de¬
scribe some series of apparatus, which have been employed
in the most recent researches, both in this country and on
the continent, in conducting the important researches to
The two ends of the electric pile are in opposite electric which we shall afterwards refer, respecting the reduction of
“ * " 1 " ' ■ ••• 1 ■’ ” oxides and earths by weaA currents. M. Becquerel M. Bec-
employed only a single pair of plates, in connection with his querel’s de-
decomposing cell. Having closed a glass tube at one end by co™posing
a plug of moistened clay, he immersed it in a weak solution ct 1'
of common salt. The solution of the metallic salt to be de¬
composed, was then placed in this glass tube, and a com¬
pound metallic arc, formed of zinc and platinum, was placed
in the solution in such a manner, that the platinum leg was
immersed in the tube containing the metallic solution (the
‘i dating qualities, and he has likewise employed it as an negative tube of Becquerel), while the zinc dips in the solu-
! ial electroscope for indicating the electrical changes which tion of salt. Chemical decomposition then takes place, and
*e place in the atmosphere.1 in a few hours or more, sometimes a few weeks, the metal
in 1812, Professor Zamboni of Verona made a consider- appears on the plate of platinum, in a form more or less
crystallised.
Dr Golding Bird, in prosecuting similar researches, has Dr Bird’s
contrived a simple form of the battery, which with Becque- decompo*
refs cell, enables us to perform this class of experiments lnS *)atte,T
with facility and certainty. It consists of a large glass cy¬
linder A, (fig. 42,) 8 inches deep and 2 in diameter. With-
,, . cement on the pile of De Luc. He dispenses en-
!v ^’i'-l1 the discs of zinc, and employs only discs of paper,
1 'v'hose surfaces is silvered, or rather tinned, and the
er covered with a thin film of the peroxide of manganese
'erised in a mixture of milk and flour. The faces of
are placed in contact with those of manganese, the tin
8ee Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxvii. p. 81, 161, 241, and also vol. xxviii. p. 5 Phil. Mag. 1810, vol. xxxv., vi. and vii. and Singer’s
of Electricity. s Phil. Trans., 1840, part i. p 191, note.
Awio/m de Chim. et de Phvs. tom. xvi. p. 91, and Bibl Univ. tom. xv p. 163 Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, vol. xlix.
VOL. xxi. s v > 4 q
674
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Voltaic in this is fixed, by means of corks, another glass cylinder
Electricity. B} il inch in diameter, and 4 inches long, and closed at
one end with a plug or bottom, D of plaster of Paris, 0*7
Dr Bird’s of an inch in diameter. A piece of sheet copper C, 6 inches
decompos- long, and 3 wide, loosely coiled up, and having the conduct¬
ing battery. ing copper wire F, soldered to it, is placed in the cylinder
D, while an equal sized piece of zinc E, loosely coiled up,
and furnished with a conducting wire G, is placed in the
cylinder A. When the cylinder A is nearly filled with weak
brine, and the smaller one B, with a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper, the apparatus is complete ; and if the
fluids in the two cylinders are kept at the same level, a con¬
tinuous current of electricity will be maintained for some
weeks. The mode of connecting this battery with the de¬
composing cell, is shown in fig. 43. This cell is the counter-
Ftraday’s
volta me-
Fi£. 42.
Fig. 43.
part of the battery, consisting of two glass cylinders, A, B,
the latter having a plaster of Paris bottom. The tube B, is
about 3 inches long and half an inch wide, and receives the
metallic or other solution to be decomposed, the outer tube
A being filled with weak brine. Into this brine is plunged
a strip of amalgamated zinc C, connected with the wire F,
of the battery, while a strip of platinum foil D, is immersed
in the metallic solution, and is connected with the wire G
of the battery. This apparatus, therefore, consists of an ac¬
tive single battery, of which C, E, is one of the two metallic
elements, and C and D the other; and the fluid between C
and E, separated by the porous diaphragm D, one fluid ele¬
ment, and the fluid between C and D, separated by a porous
diaphragm, another fluid element.1
Another instrument necessary in voltaic researches is the
volta-electrometer, or voltameter, invented
by Dr Faraday, for measuring the quantity
of voltaic electricity, by means of the quantity
of oxygen and hydrogen generated by the
battery. It consists of a graduated glass tube,
a, fig. 44, closed at the upper end. Platina
wires 6, b', terminating in two platinum plates
within the tube, pass through the tube, and
are fused into the glass. The tube is fitted
by grinding into one of the necks of a two
necked bottle. If the bottle is \ or |ds full
of dilute sulphuric acid, it will by enclosing
the tube, flow into the tube, and fill it. When
an electric current, therefore, is passed
through the instrument between the plates,
the evolved gases collect in the upper part of
the tube, without being subject to the recom¬
bining power of the platina, the stopper c is taken out.
Fig. 44.
By receiving the wires connected with b, b', replacing tl
stopper, and refilling the tube with the liquid by invertin! tt
the bottle, a second measure of gas maybe obtained o3 <5
replacing the wires at b, and b'. ^
Dr Faraday has
Fig. 45.
given in fig. 45, an
other form of the vol¬
tameter, which he
found very useful in
experiments continued
for days together, and
where large quantities
of indicating gas are
to be collected. The
gases, in place of be¬
ing measured in the
tube, as in fig. 44, are carried by the bent tube b, into J
graduated jar, placed in a small pneumatic trough.
chap, n
-ON THE GENERAL PHENOMENA AND EFFECTS
OF GALVANISM.
In our article on Electricity,2 we have already givena
brief account of the results obtained by Dr Faraday, which
established the identity of all the various kinds of electri¬
city, and the relation by measure of ordinary and voltaic
electricity, as obtained by the same distinguished philoso¬
pher, and of his new law of electrical conduction.
Notwithstanding the identity of character of common am
and voltaic electricity, the effects which they produce art
almost infinitely varied, some of these effects being exalted
while others are diminished. All these variations, however
are explicable by the differences in quantity and intensit)
of these two kinds of electricity.
In the case of ordinary electricity, apiece of glass or seal¬
ing-wax, excited by friction and kept near the cap of a golc
leaf electrometer, will produce a great and instantaneous
divergence of the leaves ; but in voltaic electricity the same
effect is not produced, even by a battery of 100 pair of plates
When the extremities or poles of such a battery are ex¬
amined by the electrometer, they are found to be positm
and negative, the gold leaves repelling each other at the
same pole, and attracting each other at different poles, even
when above half an inch of air intervenes. Hence ordinal^
differs from voltaic electricity, in having a much higher de¬
gree of tension, or intensity, that is, in acting with a greatei
elastic force in a given direction. From this property it acts
so powerfully on the electrometer, and is discharged witr
such facility through air, whether highly rarefied or heated
On the other hand, voltaic differs from ordinary electricity
in the enormous quantity of electricity which it delevope;
and puts in motion, and in the continuity or perpetual re¬
production of the current.
In order to convey some idea of the immense difference
in this respect of the two electricities, Dr Faraday ha:
stated that “ the chemical action of a grain of water upor
four grains of zinc, can evolve electricity equal in quantitj
to that of a powerful thunder-storm.” That if a Leyden bat
tery is charged with 30 turns of a large and powerful plate
electrical machine in full action, it would require 800,01
such charges to supply electricity to decompose a sing e
grain of water, or to equal the quantity which is natura }
associated with the elements of that grain of water, endow¬
ing them with their mutual chemical affinity.3 Or Py
the comparison differently, the quantity of electricity in
25\ grains of water is equal to above 24 millions of charges
of the Leyden battery above mentioned, or would keep any
length of platina wure -j^th of an inch in diameter, re °
for an hour and a half.
feme
ween
insry
foiiiie
:tricitj.
1 See Phil. Trans. 1837, part i. p. 39—40 ; and Graham’s Elements of Chemistry, p. 237, 8-
3 Vol. viii p. 574, 5. 3 Faraday s Exp. Researches, p. 253, 258, and 861, 873.
neml
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. «75
bt^!":rrtr,fedbrrn the E,v^
P -t shall therefore proceed to give an account of the effects tricity passes through'them with different depeaofld iTv
, roltarc electricity in motion, or of voltaic currents. that is, the different metals transmit the elearicity wSh d‘f Conduct.
ter. I-—On the Conducting Power of Solids and Fluids fer“t defees of resistance. ingpower.
for Voltaic Electricity. ^ 1 he following table contains the results obtained by Davy,
i • , .. . . . , c. . j Becquerel, Pouillet, &c., respecting the conducting power
When a voltaic battery is in a state of activity, and when of different metals, for different kinds of electricity? ?
t-
*r
lent
'or
Copper,
Gold,....
Silver,..
Zinc,....
Platina,.
Iron,....
Tin, 
Lead,...
Becquerel.1
Voltaic
Electricity.
100
93-6
73-6
28-5
16-4
158
15-5
8’3
Davy.
Harris.* Gumming.3
Voltaic
Electricity.
Ordinary
Electricity.
Thermo-
Electricity.
100
73
109
18
14-5
69
100
66-7
100
33-3
20
20
16-7
8-3
100
35-2
176-5
53
21-6
24-3
23-9
16-8
Christie.4
Electricity of
Induction.
100
110
15-2
52-2
24- 5
22-3
25- 3
12-4
Pouillet.5
Electricity of a
single couple.
100
84
116
13
16
brass 12
These results are, generally speaking, greatly at variance,
t; only ones that admit of comparison being those of Bec-
q rel and Mr Snow Harris. Much depends on the purity
o he metals; and Mr Harris has ascertained that the con-
(1 ting power of alloys is very different from that of their
exponent metals. This appears very distinctly from the
n nber for brass, which bears no relation in M. Pouillet’s
crimn, to the measures for copper and zinc, and also from
1) measure for gold of 18 karats, which we find to be only
t 7th of copper, and the 6th of fine gold. The conduct-
ii power in the same metal increases directly as the area
o :he section of the wires, and inversely as the length of
t wire.
rl. Pouillet has found that the same law holds in liquids
ii inded in cylindrical tubes. By comparing, in this way,
t conducting power of different saline solutions, the con-
d ting wires being formed of the metal whose oxide was
iiblution, he found, as Fechner had done, that the inten¬
se was rigorously in the direct ratio of the section and the
i'prse ratio of the conductibility. In this way he found
11 433 feet of platinum w ire 0-006 inch in diameter, had
t same conducting power as a column of saturated so¬
li on of sulphate of copper 3^ feet in length, and 0-8 inch
ii liameter, from which it follows that the conducting
P or of the platinum is t/co million and a half times
g iter than that of the solution.
i he following table shows the results of his observations,
j conducting power of the copper solution at 59° Fahr.,
h ig taken as unity.
1-000
1-00
0-64
0-44
0-31
Conducting Power.
aturated solution of sulphate of copper,..,.
Bo. diluted with one volume of water...
Bo. do. two do., 
do. four do., 
Bo. Jo, sulphate of zinc,  0-417
'“tilled water, 0-0025
°' with 55C5C of nitric acid,  0-015
r Marmnini has obtained a great number of interesting
‘ ts respecting the conducting power of water holding
1 ’° '‘tj00 different acids, alkalis, or salts, compared with
t o distilled water, at the temperature of 3° of Reaumur,
oilowing is a selection from his results.
Distilled water, temperature, 3° Reaumur, 
Hydrocyanate of soda,   10-96
Hydrocyanic acid,  j g.27
Liquid ammonia,    24-4^
feocla>  32-06
Phosphate of potash,  44*74
 of Soda,  46.00
Tartrate of potash and antimony,  50-07
Sulphate of zinc,  51.59
P°tash> .- 55-68
Nitrate of lime,  57-00
Acetate of potash,  59-02
Nitrate of Baryta,  60-02
Carbonate of potash, neutral,  66-07
Benzoic acid,  70-67
Sulphate of soda,  74-02
Sulphate of potash,  80-00
Citric acid,  85-71
Tartrate of potash,  92-00
Tartaric acid,  98-66
Sea water,  100-00
Hydrochlorate of lime,  110-00
Oxalate of potash,  149-00
Acetate of copper,  154-00
Oxalic acid,  179-00
Sulphuric acid,  239-00
Nitrate of silver  298-00
Nitric acid,  358-00
Hydrochlorate of platinum,  418-00
The conducting power of solutions increases as the quan¬
tity of salts dissolved, but more slowly as the solution ap¬
proaches to saturation. The preceding table shows that the
acid solutions have the greatest, and the alkaline and neut¬
ral solutions, the least conducting power.
The relation between the contractibility of non-metallic Faraday,
bodies in the solid state, and that of the same bodies in the
liquid state, has been investigated by Dr Faraday, with his
usual ability and success. Having found that a thin plate
of ice stopped the electric current, while the same current
passed when the ice was converted into water, Dr Fara¬
day examined a great number of non-metallic solids, and
found that they assumed the conducting property during
liquefaction, and lost it during congelation ; but what was
remarkable, all those bodies underwent decomposition when
1 B’ Electricity, vol. iii. p. 91.
Phil. Trans. 1833, p. 95.
s Phil. Trans. 1817.
* Traite de Physique ii. p. 315.
3 Canib. Trans. 1823, p. 63.
67 o
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Conditions
of electric
conduction.
Volatic fluid, with the single exception of the periodide of mercury,
Electricity, which, though it insulated when solid, and conducted when
fluid, was not decomposed in the latter state. Dr Faraday
found also a great variety of bodies, which acquired no con¬
ducting power in the fluid state, such as sulphur, phospho¬
rus, &c., and they were not decomposed in this last state.
The relation between conduction and decomposition is a
very important one; but no less so is the relation of the
conducting power for electricity to that for heat. “ As the
solid becomes a fluid,” says Dr Faraday, “ it loses almost
entirely the power of conduction for heat, but gains in a
high degree that for electricity; but as it reverts back to the
solid state, it gains the power of conducting heat, and loses
that of conducting electricity.”
Dr Faraday has given the following summary of the con¬
ditions of electric conduction in bodies:—
“ 1. All bodies conduct electricity in the same manner
from metals to lac and gases, but in very different degrees.
“ 2. Conducting power is in some bodies powerfully in¬
creased by heat (such as in sulphuret of silver, fluoride of
lead, periodide of mercury, and corrosive sublimate), and in
others diminished, yet without our perceiving any accom¬
panying essential electrical difference, either in the bodies,
or in the changes occasioned by the electricity conducted.
“ 3. A numerous class of bodies, insulating electricity of
low intensity, when solid, conduct it very freely when fluid,
and are then decomposed by it.
“ 4. But there are many fluid bodies which do not sensibly
conduct electricity of this low intensity; there are some
which conduct it, and are not decomposed, nor is fluidity
essential to decomposition.
“ 5. There is but one body yet discovered (periodide of
mercury, to which Dr Faraday subsequently added corrosive
sublimate), which, insulating a voltaic current when solid,
and conducting it when fluid, is not decomposed in the lat¬
ter case.
“ 6. There is no strict electrical distinction of conduction
which can, as yet, be drawn between bodies supposed to be
elementary, and those known to be compounds.”1
Sir Humphry Davy2 has shewn, that, as a class, metals
have their conducting power diminished by heat; and Mr
Snow Harris has proved, that heat does affect gaseous bo¬
dies, or at least air.5
Sect. II.—On the Intensity and Direction of Voltaic
Currents.
Intensity The two electricities of the pile, when disengaged by the
and direc- chemical action of its elements, tend continually to reunite
taic C°u V01" and <orma neutral fluid, by entering the conducting bodies
ri c l' in their vicinity. The quantity of electricity which remains
free, constitutes the tension of the pile, or the intensity of
the current, as we have already explained.
Intensityof I he tension of the pile is affected by various causes,
currents. When its two extremities are united by a metallic arc, the
tension at first diminishes rapidly, but the diminution be¬
comes slower and slower, till it reaches its limit, beyond
which the tension no longer decreases, however great is the
length of time during which the circuit is closed.
The loss of tension in a given time increases with the
number of voltaic couples, and the pile is longer in reaching
the limit beyond which the tension does not decrease.
The loss of tension is more rapid when the liquid exer¬
cises a more powerful chemical action on the oxidable metal
of the voltaic couple, and the longer it is in reaching the
limit of decrease. In these experiments, which we owe to
Marianini, the conducting power of the metallic arc has no
influence.
The electric tension lost under the preceding circum-
taic cur
rents.
Marianini’s
experi¬
ments.
stances, is again restored by opening the pile, that is
versing the metallic arc which united its extremities •'b
it requires more time to recover its primitive tension' f
longer the circuit has been closed.
In studying the change produced upon the tension wli,
the circuit is not closed by a metallic arc, M. Mariani
found, that a battery with new plates loses less tension in
given time, than one with oxidated plates, the new appai
tus reaching its limit sooner than the old one. In piles co
sisting of gold and zinc couples, tension diminishes mo
rapidly than in the ordinary pile, and reaches its limit i
very short time ; whilst in piles with lead and zinc,
tension diminishes less rapidly than with copper and zinij
The direction sis well as the intensity of electric currenjlirtJ
depends on the degree of chemical action exerted by tlf**
liquid on one of the metals, particularly the most oxidall
one. When the liquid and the metals are therefore know
the direction of the current can be predicted. The me
most acted upon takes away from the liquid negative ele
tricity. Zinc, for example, is more attacked by brine th,
copper, and therefore takes from the brine its negative ele
tricity ; but if the liquid is a solution of sulphuret of pots
sium, which affects the copper more than the zinc, the co
per will take from the solution its negative electricity, ai
the current will take an opposite direction. Hence, in
pile with brine, the zinc extremity will give positive ele
tricity; whereas, in a pile with a solution of sulphuret j
potassium, the zi?ic extremity will give negative electricij _
M. Delarive obtained the following interesting resulKluip
by immersing difterent voltaic couples in nitric acid of dlwii
ferent strengths. Each metal in the two columns is /w *
tive in relation to the one which precedes it.
In Dilute Nitric Acid.
In Concentrated Nitric Acid.
Oxidated iron.
Silver.
Mercury.
Lead.
Copper.
Iron.
Zinc.
Tin.
Silver.
Copper.
Oxidated iron.
Iron.
Lead.
Mercury.
Tin.
Zinc.
ills.
M. Becquerel mentions arsenic and iron as a remarkabj
example of a change of polarity produced by the chemid
action of the fluid. With a voltaic couple of iron aij
arsenic, the iron is strongly positive compared with ti
arsenic, when they are immersed in diluted acid, whij
acts slightly upon the arsenic ; but when they are immersi
in potash kept in fusion, the arsenic, upon which the pota
acts powerfully, becomes positive.
M. Delarive has illustrated this branch of science with [. D(
number of valuable experiments on the changes produci w81
upon electric currents, while passing through liquid co
ductors, interrupted by metallic plates. The following a
the results at which he arrived :—
1. One or more metallic laminae (platina), placed pe
pendicularly to the direction of the electric current, in |
liquid conductor, diminish the intensity of the currei!
which traverses them.
2. This diminution is almost nothing when the electr
current is very energetic, and proceeds from a pile contan
ing a great number of couples ; but the intensity diminish!
the more rapidly in passing through the same number'
plates, as its original intensity is less energetic.
3. If one or two electrical currents of the same intensit
the one an original one, and the other one which has p»
viously passed through several metallic plates, the first"1
have its intensity much more diminished by the interpO’
tion of a plate than the second. Hence, these currents na>
Researches, § 44-1—449.
2 Phi!. Trans. 1821, p. 431.
3 Id. 1834, p.
i
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
C>77
t • same property, (not by polarisation, as stated by Bec-
My.( Tel), as light and heat which have passed through ab-
c bing media.1 We have no doubt, therefore, that cur-
i its which have passed through plates of metals, will have
t is acquired, or have possessed previous to their separa-
t [1) other properties than that of passing more freely
t o’ugh other metallic plates.
From the preceding results, M. Delarive has explained
t ■ difference between the effects of a pile with a small
r nber of couples, and a pile with a larger number. The
f t produces more easily the effects which took place when
t: circuit is closed by a very good conductor, while the
s ond may be best employed in producing phenomena
v ich take place in the circuit of an imperfect conductor,
s:h as a fluid, the transmitted currents in the latter case
1 iing acquired, in passing through a greater number of
I tes, a greater facility of traversing an imperfect con-
c;tor.
As the intensity of the electric current had been found
(increase with the surface, acted upon by the fluid, M. De¬
rive endeavoured to determine the law of increase. He
find that an increase of surface facilitated the transmission
(the current; that the augmentation of intensity produced
, a greater extent of surface, increased in a greater ratio
[ m the surface when the current is feeble, and in a less
i io when the current is intense ; so that we gain more
1 increasing the surface when the current is weak than
i ,en it is strong.
With regard to the influence of fluid conductors in di-
■ nishing the intensity of the electric current, M. Delarive
ind that nitric acid diminishes the intensity least, then
iriatic acid, then sulphuric acid. Nitric acid, pure and
eatly diluted, produces a less diminution than concen-
ited acid. The contrary takes place with sulphuric acid,
fnich is a had conductor. The silver solution came next,
en potash and ammonia, which differ little from each
her.
j For further information on the subject of this section,
J e Marianini, Saggio di Experience Electromotriche, Ve-
:e, 1825 ; Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. xxxvi. p. 33;
jxvii. p. 256 ; xxxviii. pp. 49, 337 ; xlv. p. 2 ; Delarive’s
Ujuisse Historique des Principales decouvertesfuites dans
^Itdricite, Geneva, 1823; or in the Bibl. Universelle tor
133. See especially BecquereFs Traite de I’Elect. et
mnet. tom. iii.
:ct. Ill On the Production of Light, Heat, and Cold
by Voltaic Electricity—the Ignition of Wires.
ical |The phenomena of light and heat, and the ignition of
Fat, itals and wires by ordinary Electricity, having been
jlly described under that article, we shall here confine our-
hes to the analogous phenomena produced by voltaic
irrents.
J ( Soon after the discovery of the pile, Van Marum, Pfaff,
J d Tromsdorff discovered that thin leaves and fine wires of
etal placed between the poles of a pile, became incandes-
nt, and even burned w hile conducting the electrical cur-
nt; and some time afterwards, M.M. Fourcroy, Vauque-
h and Thenard observed that piles with large plates de¬
bated metals more powerfully than piles with a great
nnber of plates of smaller surfaces.
LhV°' — L"c "* 11 aversmg different plates, acquires a ^ ^ jt ,oses a Ctrtaill pou.on of us
*ht ^.through a certain tb.ckness of any coloured medm.n^or any 1 ^ tluoUgh'the same number of the same plates,
ted light is led. I^ow,   ..u ruv« bur the red. and havintr the uro-
posed of 2000 couples, and exposing 28,000 square inches, Voltaic
enabled Sir .H. Davy to produce light and heat of the high-Electricity-
est intensity. When the ends of the wire from each pile
terminated in two charcoal points, the most dazzling light ^avy‘
passed from the one to the other, and continued for several
hours. Platina, sapphire, quartz, and lime, &c., when exposed
to this source of heat, were instantly melted, and the dia¬
mond and charcoal disappeared, as if they were completely
volatilised ; and these effects were produced in vacuo as well
as in air.
By means of the splendid battery described in a preced- children,
ing part of this article, Mr Children obtained many impor¬
tant and curious results. His experiments commenced in
1809, but it was in 1815 that he brought into play the
powerful instrument which we have already mentioned. He
found that metallic wires connecting the two piles of the
battery became red-hot in the following order
Platinum.
Iron.
Copper.
Gold.
Zinc.
Silver.
And hence Mr Children concluded, that the conducting
power of these metals was in the inverse order, silver being
the most conducting, and platinum the least.
With this battery, five feet six inches of platinum wire,
0T 1 inch in diameter, were brought by Mr Children to a
red heat throughout, so as to be visible in day-light.
Eight feet six inches of platinum wire, 044 inch in dia¬
meter, were heated red.
A bar of platinum ^th of an inch square, and 2-25 inches
long, was heated red, and fused at the end.
The oxides of tungsten, uranium, cerium, titanium, and
molybdenium, were fused. Having filled an opening in an
iron wire with diamond powder, the diamond disappeared,
and the iron was converted into steel.2
At the same time that Mr Children was constructing the Wollaston,
greatest voltaic battery ever made, Dr Wollaston was occu¬
pied in constructing the smallest. He took a small thimble,
and having removed the bottom, he flattened the remaining
cylinder, till its sides w ere about £th of an inch distant. He
then placed between these two surfaces a small plate of
zinc, which did not touch either side of the thimble. With
a platinum wire about 3]5th of an inch long, and j^gdth
of an inch in diameter, he united externally the plate of
zinc with this thimble ; and when this little galvanic couple
was immersed in acidulated water, the platinum wire be¬
came red-hot, and was melted ! This important result led
Dr Wollaston to the valuable conclusion, that in order to ob¬
tain powerful calorific effects, we must increase the surface
of the copper in negative metal.
In repeating the experiments of Davy on the light oe- Braudes,
veloped by charcoal points, M. Brandes discovered that this
light, like that of the sun, affected the combination of chlo¬
rine and hydrogen, and the decomposition of muriate of sil¬
ver and other bodies.
By means of the powerful voltaic battery, which Dr Hare Hare,
calls a deflagrator, and which w e have already described,
this able chemist obtained some splendid results. A bril¬
liant light, equal to that of the sun, was produced be¬
tween charcoal points ; and plumbago and charcoal were
jjiatco ui biiiautri suijcu-co*
It was in England, however, that the calorific and lumi-
ius effects of the pile were principally developed. In
A3, the immense battery of the Royal Institution, com-
usion of
the experiments with charcoal, the charcoal on the copper charcoal,
side had no appearance of fusion, but a crater-shaped ca-
i , , hi ir.aahtorl fnr the latest and best information on this subject, asks, “ if we will from
-VI. llecquerel, to whose excellent work we are indebted tor tne late . u^hr ” CVrtainlv not When white
emr- “ref^ * u*.»p—™ * *•
ys, say 9-10ths, and the transmitted light is red. .Now, this rea ngm “‘“J T^‘“a^bed iiii'the" rays but the red. and having the pro-
:,rvr ww. «f»» »- r°,BT r; hro«Bh £i ***«, a. t,.,,,,™.
rty of transmitting the red rays freely and more copiously than any othe , X P _ b & * See Phil Trans 181a.
^areall at a vertical incidence, polarisation can have nothing to do with the matter. ^e Phil. I runs.
678
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Peltier.
Chemical
effects of
voltaic
electricity.
Nicholson
& Carlisle,
Voltaic vity was formed within it, indicating that the charcoal was
Electricity, volatilised at this side, and transferred to the other, where
v ^' it was condensed and fused, the piece of charcoal at this
pile being elongated considerably. This fused charcoal was
four times denser than before fusion.
Owing to its superior conducting power, a continued vol¬
taic current will maintain, in a state of incandescence, a
greater length of silver wire than of platinum or iron ; but
if we form a wire of short pieces of silver and platinum wire
alternately, the platinum portion will become red-hot, while
the silver ones remain cold. In this case, the current which
passes readily along the silver wire, encounters the degree
of obstruction in the platinum which produces the red heat.
This fact is no doubt connected with the very remarkable
one observed by M. Peltier, in the passage of weak currents
through metallic circuits, where cold was produced at the
points of junction of certain crystallizable metals.
Sect. IV.— On the Chemical Effects of Voltaic Electricity.
In a preceding article we have given a full account of
the general chemical effects of ordinary electricity. We
shall therefore confine ourselves at present to the chemical
effects of the voltaic pile. No sooner was this apparatus
made known in England, than Messrs Nicholson and Car¬
lisle applied it to chemical inquiries. Although Volta had
inferred from the shock, that the action of the pile was elec¬
trical, yet it was to the above inquirers that we are indebt¬
ed for determining by means of the revolving doubler, that
the silver end of the battery was in a negative, and the zinc
end in a positive state of electricity. In the course of their
experiments, they observed a disengagement of gas, which
smelt of hydrogen, from water which happened to be in the
circuit; and on the 2d of May 1800, they discovered that
water was decomposed into its elements, viz. oxygen and
hydrogen, when the water formed part of the circuit be¬
tween the positive and negative ends of the pile. Mr
Cruickshanks of Woolwich confirmed this result, and found
that hydrogen was always emitted from the silver or copper
end of the pile, and oxygen from the other. He discover¬
ed also the important fact, that metals could be revived from
their solutions, under the same circumstances, the reduced
metal being deposited at the end of the wire; and he suc¬
ceeded in decomposing some of the neutral salts. Dr Henry
decomposed the nitric and sulphuric acids and ammonia;
and he reduced the oxymuriatic to the state of muriatic
acid.
The attention of our illustrious countryman, Sir H.
Davy, was about this time attracted to the subject. So
early as 1802, he had made experiments on the chemical
agency of the pile ; but in 1806, in his first Bakerian Lec¬
ture, he was led to the conclusion, that chemical attraction
and repulsion were produced by the same cause, acting in
the one case on particles, in the other on masses, and that
the same property, under different circumstances, ivas the
cause of all the phenomena exhibit edby diferentvoltaic com¬
binations. In October 1807, he decomposed potash and soda,
and proved that they were oxides of two new metals, potas¬
sium and sodium. With a voltaic battery of 2000 plates,
he decomposed several of the earths, and discovered their
metallic bases, barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium.
In attempting to decompose the proper earths, he was less
successful. He succeeded in proving, however, that they
consist of bases united to oxygen, but the completion of the
inquiry was left to Wohler, Bussy, and Berzelius, who
found that all the bases of these earths, except silica, were
metallic, and capable of uniting with iron.1
Our narrow limits will not permit us to give an account
of the successive labours of different philosophers, in ef¬
fecting decompositions by the voltaic battery. We shall
tent ourselves with giving a brief account of the re^r? V°
of our distinguished countryman, Dr Faraday, to whom
branch of science owes its greatest acquisitions. ,
The phenomena of electro-chemical decomposition W
been generally ascribed to two opposite powers residing
the two poles of the voltaic battery. Grotthus2 5
regards th
Decompo¬
sition of
water.
Cruick¬
shanks.
Henry.
Davy.
pile as an electric magnet with attracting and rendlin
poles, the one attracting hydrogen and repelling oxveer
and the other attracting oxygen and repelling hydroL
I he force exerted upon each molecule of the body is sun
posed to be inversely as its distance from the poles and
succession of decompositions and recompositions is sun
posed to exist among the intervening molecules. Sir H
Davy adopts the idea of attractions at the {wles, diminish
ing to the middle or neutral points, and he thinks a succes
sion of decompositions and recompositions probable. Messr
Riffault and Champre regard the negative current as col i,
lecting and carrying the acids on to the positive pole, and tin ,
positive current as doing the same, with the bases toward
the negative pole. M. Biot attributes the effects to the op
posite electrical states of the decomposing substances inthi
vicinity of the two poles. M. de la Rive considers the por
tions decomposed to be those contiguous to both poles, thi
current from the positive pole combining with the hydrogel
or the bases which are there present, and leaving the oxy
gen or acids at liberty, but carrying the substances inuniot
with it across to the negative pole, where it is separata
from them, entering the conducting metal, and leaving or
its surface the hydrogen, or its bases. Dr Faraday regard
the poles as exercising no specific action, but merely as sur
faces or doors by which the electricity enters into or passe:
out of the substance undergoing decomposition. He sup
poses that “ the effects are due to a modification of thi
electric current, and the chemical affinity of the particle
through or by which that current is passing, giving then
the powder of acting more forcibly in one direction than it
another, and consequently making them travel by aseriei
of successive decompositions and recompositions inoppositi
directions, and finally causing their expulsion or exclusior
at the boundaries of the body under decomposition in tin
direction of the current, and that in larger or smaller quan¬
tities, according as the current is more or less powerful.'’
In resolving a compound body into its elements, liquidity
is an essential condition of the body. A plate of iron, the
16th of an inch thick, placed between the two sides of tht
pile, will stop completely the most powerful electrical cur¬
rent.
When the elements of a body are separated by electric
action, the current communicates to each a definite direc¬
tion, the oxygen travelling towards the zinc, and the hy¬
drogen towards the platina pole.
By an irresistible body of evidence, Dr Faraday has es¬
tablished the important proposition, “ that the chemical
power of a current of electricity is in direct proportion to
the absolute quantity which passes and this is true ot all
bodies capable of electro-chemical decomposition.
The same eminent philosopher has also deduced, from a
variety of facts, the following conclusion, “ that the quan¬
tity of electricity, which, being naturally associated with the
particles of matter, gives them their combining power, is
able, when thrown into a current, to separate these particles
from their state of combination; or, in other words, that
the electricity which decomposes, and that which is evolved
by the decomposition of a certain quant ity of matter, are
alike.” According to this theory, “ the equivalent weights
of bodies are simply those quantities of them which contain
equal quantities of electricity, or have naturally equal elec-
'Otlliu.
See our articles Chemistry and Davy, for a full account of Sir Humphry Davy’s electro-chemical researches.
Ann. de Chim. 1806, tom. Iviii. p. 61.
Mprc,
1
tr powers, it being the electricity which determines the
ty. ci ivalent number, because it determines the combining
^fce; or if we adopt the atomic theory or phraseology,
t) i the atoms of bodies which are equivalents to each
0l >r in their ordinary chemical action, have equal quanti-
ti of electricity naturally associated with them.”
Vhen exposed to the voltaic current, bodies are decom-
p( id with different degrees of facility. Dr Faraday found
b'ixperiment, that the following bodies were decomposed
w i currents of different intensities, those at the top of the
li, being decomposed by currents of lowest intensity.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Calcium  20‘S
Magnesium  12’7
Manganese  27-7
Zinc  32-5
Tin  37-7
Lead 103-3
Iron  28
Bismuth  71
Mercury 200
Silver 108
Platina  98-6?
Gold ?
Ammonia  17
Potassa  47-2
679
Alumina? Voltaic
Protoxides generally. Electricity.
Quinia 171-6
Cinchona 160
Morphia 290
Vegeto alkalies
generally.
lo le of potassium (solution.)
C iride of silver (fused.)
p o-chloride of tin (fused.)
C iride of lead (fused.)
Iodide of lead (fused.)'
Muriatic acid (solution.)
Water acidulated with sulphuric
acid.
Periodide of mercury.
Ammonia.
.11 compound bodies are not decomposable by electric
ci ents. The following bodies are not decomposed under
or nary circumstances :—
Cprides of sulphur, phospho- I Boracic acid,
s, and carbon. | Iodide of sulphur.
'he following bodies are not decomposed :—
0 wide of antimony.
I Iro-carbon.
A tic acid.
ill solid non-conductors which become conductors when
li ified by heat, with the exception of periodide of mer-
ci /, are decomposed.
Ir Faraday is of opinion that all binary compounds, one
ol hose elements goes to the negative, and the other to
tli positive pole, are decomposable, but not ternary com-
[)i nds.
he followingbodies, being non-conductors of electricity,
ai not decomposed by it.
S Imric acid.
Plsphoric acid.
Aenic acid.
I o-nitrous acid.
he perchlorides of mercury and of antimony, being
factors when liquid, are decomposable, but periodide
nrcury, though a conductor when liquid, is not decom-
phble.
he following bodies are not decomposable by voltaic
el tricity:—
ate of ammonia,
hurous acid,
rotluoric acid,
’rides,
tates.
Tartaric acid
Tartrates.
Benzoides.
Sugar.
Gum.
he following table contains a list of the elementary
tituents of decomposable bodies, with their electro-
el nical equivalents1 :—
Elements which go to the Positive Pole.
me.
8
35-3
 126
mne  78-3
Iri|ie  18-7
^ ’,0gen  26
turic acid.. 40
Selenic acid 64
Nitric acid 34
Chloric acid 73'5
Phosphoric acid.. 33-7
Carbonic acid....22
Boracic acid 24
Elements which go to the Negative Pole.
Copper  31-6
Cadmium  33-8
Cerium  46
Cobalt  29-3
Nickel  29-3
Antimony. ... 64-6
In the course of his electrical researches, Dr Faraday 2 Combina-
discovered the very remarkable fact, that metals and other tion of
bodies had the power of promoting the combination ofSases by
gaseous bodies. When a plate of clean platinum was putmetals*
into a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas, the two gases
gradually disappeared, in consequence of having united and
formed water. When the platinum plate was made very
clean, by placing it in sulphuric acid, it acted with such
energy on the gases, that the tube became warm, the pla¬
tina became red-hot, and the residue of the gases was in¬
flamed. A solution of tartaric or acetic acids gave the pla¬
tinum plate the power of producing explosion in the mixed
gases, but strong sulphuric acid was most certain and power¬
ful. Gold and palladium, wdien acted on by hot oil of vitriol,
possess also the power of combining oxygen and hydrogen.
Dobereiner had previously discovered the remarkable pro- Dobereiner
perty possessed by platinum, which,in the state of a fine black Instantane
powder, or spongy, became hot, and ignited a jet of hydro-0Us light
gen. This is the well known instantaneous light apparatus, apparatus.
The following is the theory of these remarkable facts. The
particles of hydrogen repel each other, so do those of oxygen;
but the strong adhesion of the gaseous particles to the pla¬
tina suspends, as it were, upon its surface, the above repul¬
sive forces, and brings the particles of oxygen and hydro¬
gen within the influence of their mutual affinity.
Spongy platinum also decomposes ammonia, and its salts
when mixed with atmospheric air, and passed over the me¬
tal at 572° of Fahr. Non-metallic bodies, such as pounded
glass and charcoal, have, at 600° Fahr., the same property
as platinum.
Sect. V—On Electro-chemical Decompositions by weak
Electric Currents.
The precipitation of metals from their solutions, by the Effects of
presence of other metals, has been long known. A plate weak elec-
of copper, for example, will throw down metallic silver fiomtric cur'
a solution of the nitrate. Ritter, Sylvester, and Bucholz rents‘
found that these precipitations were owing to electric cur¬
rents, and obtained some interesting results. It is to M. Discoveries
Becquerel, however, a distinguished member of the Insti-of M. Bec-
tute of France, that we owe the successful investigation of<luere1’
this curious subject. In 1826, he found that, by very feeble
electric forces, metals easily reducible were precipitated
from their solutions, by plates of the same metal as that
held in solution. In 1627, he formed chlorides and iodides
in the same way, and also double chlorides and double io¬
dides. In 1829, he succeeded in forming sulphurets, io¬
dides, and bromides by similar methods; and when the elec¬
tric energy of the apparatus was exceedingly feeble, and
the decomposition slow, the sulphurets had time to assume
a regular crystalline form, and he thus obtained crystals of
Oxalic "acid 36 alraost metals. In a similar manner, he obtained
Sulphur ..16 distinct crystals of the metallic iodides.
In 1830, M. Becquerel found that new compounds were
formed during these processes, by the reaction of the oxide
of the metal at the positive pole of a solution. By the re¬
action of two solutions, one of which was the sulpho-carbo-
nate of potash, and the other the sulphate of copper, and
by employing an arc of copper and lead, the copper plung¬
ing into the sulphate, and the lead into the sulpho-carbo-
nate, he succeeded in depositing on the lead small octohe-
dral crystals of sulphur, with rhomboidal faces, exactly si-
Nitric acid.
Chloride of sulphur.
Proto-chloride of phosphorus.
Proto-chloride of carbon.
Acetic acid 31
Tartaric acid 66
Citric acid 58
Selenium ?
Sulpho-cyanogen
Soda  31'3
Lithia  18
Baryta  76 •?
Strontia  31-8
Lime  28'3
Magnesia  20-7
1 I'araday’s Experimental Researches, p. 247, § 846.
2 Id. Id. p. 193, § 364, &c.
680
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
querel.
Voltaic milar to the natural crystals of this substance. In this
Electricity, manner, by a skilful combination of solutions and metallic
arcs, and a profound knowledge of the reactions which arise
. from the contact of these different substances, he succeeded
of M^Bec8 *n Staining* *n a crystalline state, compounds which had
1 ' ’ never been procured under that form.
M. Becquerel has been equally successful in reducing the
bases of certain oxides, and in obtaining immediately from
their solutions, in their metallic, and even crystallised state,
iron; zirconium, glucium, and magnesium. In 1832, he also
obtained crystals of metallic oxides, such as those of the
anhydrous black oxide of copper, of the red oxide, of the
protoxide and peroxide of lead, and the oxide of cobalt.
The same distinguished philosopher has employed the
effects of weak electric forces to explain the process of ce¬
mentation, by which iron is converted into steel, by the
combination of carbon with all the interior molecules of the
iron ; and that remarkable mineralogical process by which
the elements of many rocks are transferred from within to
without, and replaced by others without any disintegration.
The process of cementation is the consequence of the op¬
posite electric state of the carbon and the iron, which, with
the aid of high temperature, produces electric currents that
convey the atoms of carbon from molecule to molecule to
the very interior of the iron. In like manner, pieces of
iron, which have been buried in the metallic state, are al¬
most wholly oxidated; and ancient copper medals have
been found changed entirely into the protoxide of copper.
By studying this class of phenomena, M. Becquerel has
been led to an explanation of the phenomena of phospho¬
rescence, which he ascribes to the recomposition of the na¬
tural electricities of each molecule, which have been sepa¬
rated by heat or some other cause. The restoration of
phosphorescence to bodies that have lost this property, or
that never possessed it, by repeated electrical discharges,
as ascertained by Mr Pearsal, confirms the ingenious expla¬
nation of M. Becquerel.1
Our countryman, Mr Andrew Crosse of Bromfield, by
Phosphor¬
escence.
Mr Crosse’s
experi-
meats.
processes differing from those of Becquerel, arrived at simi¬
lar results, not long after the publication of the discoveries
of the French philosopher. There can be no doubt, however,
that Mr Crosse was unacquainted with these discoveries; and
that his results were entirely independent of them. By
means of voltaic electricity, he obtained the following sub¬
stances, namely, calcareous spar, arragonite, quartz, red oxide
of copper, arseniate of copper, blue carbonate of copper,
phosphate of copper, sulphuret of copper, carbonate of lead,
sulphuret of silver, carbonate of zinc, chalcedony, oxide of
tin, yellow oxide of lead, the sulphurets of antimony and
zinc and iron, protoxide of iron, and crystals of sulphur.
Sect.
Nobili’s ex-
Fig. 46.
VI.— On the Coloured Tlings formed on Polished
Metallic Plates by Voltaic Currents.
periments This new class of phenomena are remarkable from their
on metallic beauty and singularity, as discovered by M. Nobili. They
colours. may be produced by a small
battery like that of Wollaston,
with twelve elements of an inch
square, in the manner shown in
fig. 46. A small apparatus, not
shown in the figure, is construct¬
ed so as to move up and down
the pincers R S, which hold two
pieces of large platinum wire P
N, pointed at their extremity, the
one communicating with the po¬
sitive, and the other with the ne¬
gative pole of the battery. A polished metallic plate A B,
oltlit
U..V
intended to receive the coloured rings, is placed horizont 114
in a saucer or plate which contains the fluid to be m H*
suppose a solution of sulphate of copper.
When the solution of copper is poured into the saucei
above the silver plate AB, and the point of one of the wires!
N brought as near as possible to n, while the other point6,)
is plunged in the solution, there will be formed round the
point n, four or five concentric circles, alternately bri-ht
and dark. When the point p is used, there will be formed
round it three small circles of copper. The two extreme
circles are of a deep red colour, and the middle one of a
higher colour; sometimes four or five are formed, which al¬
ternate like the preceding.
When a solution of acetate of lead is used, and the plate
of gold or silver is positive, while the point is negative, the
concentric rings are as brilliant as the coloured rings ol
Newton. When we increase the number of negative
points, there are formed as many systems as there are points
of concentric wires or rings which never cross each other
but which, when they meet, extend outwards so as to fora
only one exterior ring.
The effects are the reverse with a solution of acetate o
copper, that is, the concentric rings are formed only whei
the plates are negative, while positive plates exhibit nothin'
remarkable.
When the fluid is urine and the plate silver and posi
tive, several orders of very brilliant-coloured rings are form
ed round a dark centre. M. Nobili has obtained very re
markable effects of colour by using different animal sub)
stances, such as milk, white and yoke of an egg, saliva, &c
and vegetable substances, such as the juice of carrots
onions, parsley, grapes, apples, &c. Animal and vi
substances yield colours more beautiful and brilliant that
ordinary chemical solutions. The colours produced by tin
leaves of plants are more marked than those arising iron
the decomposition of the roots. In some chemical solo
tions the phenomena are equally beautiful on the positivt
as on the negative plate; but when the circles meet, the tm
figures experience, as it were, a sort of compression, am
when the coloured rings are impressed only on one plate
they maybe made to disappear, if not wholly, at least in part
by inverting the direction of the current.
M. Nobili has drawn the following conclusions from a grea
number of experiments;—1. Certain electro-negative sub
stan ces possess the property, in some circumstances, of attach
ing themselves to the surface of some of the less oxidablj
metals, in layers so thin and regular as to exhibit under at
infinity of varied forms, the beautiful phenomena ofcolouret
rings. 2. That when electro-negative substances do not de
posit themselves in thin layers on polished metals, they at
tack their surface, not uniformly, but at regular intervals.
The most varied and remarkable appearances were ob
tained by M. Nobili when the polished metal was positive
but he succeeded in obtaining equally remarkable pheno
mena when the metal was negative, either by augmentinj
the force of the current, or by using compound solutions.
He took, for example, a mixture of acetate of copper am
nitrate of potash, and upon a negative plate of silver m
formed a series of concentric rings, the centre ofwhic!
retained the metallic brilliancy. The two next circles wen
green, then came rings of white, red, and green, then a zone
This zone was surrounded
of copper of a fine red colour,
with a blue circle, marked with radiating lines, like a gra¬
duated circumference, its rays extending even to the circ <
of copper : Then came a second copper zone wider than tit
first, but equally brilliant, surrounded with a circle of beau
tiful green, which terminated the figure. The same appea'
ances were obtained on gold and platina.2  
1 See Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. tom, xxxiv. p. 152; xxxv. 126 ; xlii. 225; xliii. 131; xlvii. 5, 13; xlviii. 337; Hi. 18I1 liii‘103
243. See also Becquerel’s Traitd de 1’Electricity, &c. tom. iv. v.
* See Ann. de Chim. &c. tom. xeiv. p- 210, and Becquerel’s Traitd, &c. tom. iii. pp. 274—287.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
681
tecr. VII-
-On the Physiological Effects of Voltaic
Electricity.
whole body shuddereo as with cold. The left side was Voltaic
most powerfully convulsed; and upon moving one of the -Electricity,
rods from the hip to the heel, the knee being previously
he effect of voltaic electricity on animal bodies is ana- bent, the leg was thrown out with such violence as nearly
]0 us to that of ordinary electricity, a subject which we to knock over one of the assistants. By acting upon the Dr Ure’s
ha i already treated at considerable length.1 nerves connected with the respiratory system, a laborious experU
he galvanic shock is not conveyed through the skin of breathing instantly commenced, and the*chest heaved andments'
th human hand in the same manner as the electric shock, sunk. When a communication was made between the super-
X,; arises from its low intensity, in consequence of which orbital nerve and the heels, “ most extraordinary grimaces,”
it .n be transmitted only through good conductors. The saysDrllre, “were exhibited, by running the wire inmyhand
over the edges of the plates in the last trough, from the
220th to the 278th pair. Thus, fifty shocks, each greater
than the preceding ones, were given in two seconds. Every
muscle of his countenance was simultaneously thrown into
fearful action. Rage, horror, despair, and anguish, and
pi ing a piece of silver between the gums and the upper ghastly smiles, united their hideous expression in the mur-
li[ wd inserting a silver probe into the nostrils. If a piece derer’s face, surpassing far the wildest representations of a
Fuseli or a Kean. At this period, several of the specta¬
tors were obliged to leave the room, from terror or sick¬
ness, and one gentleman fainted.” The last experiment
made by Dr Ure consisted in transmitting the voltaic cur¬
rent from the spinal marrow to the ulnar nerve. “ The
fingers now moved nimbly, like those of a violin performer.
An assistant who tried to close the fist, found the hand to
open forcibly in spite of his efforts. When one rod was
applied to a slight incision on the top of the fore finger,
the fist being previously clenched, the fingers extended
instantly; and from the convulsive agitation of the arm,
he seemed to point to the different spectators, some of
whom thought he had come to life.” In these experi¬
ments the positive wire communicated with the nerve., and
the negative with the muscles.
M. Becquerel mentions .he effect produced by a pile ofBeCqUerel.
100 plates, upon the head of a person who had been guil¬
lotined. The two poles of the pile communicated with the
two ears, wetted with salt water. The muscles of the face
experienced the strongest contractions, and the action of
the eye-lids was extremely distinct. Aldini obtained an¬
alogous, though feebler effects, in experiments on a body
after a natural death. Experiments of a similar kind have
been made upon insects and fishes. M. Zanotti of Bolog¬
na, having killed a cigala, (grasshopper,) he placed it in
contact with the two extremities of the pile, when it im¬
mediately moved, and emitted the sounds which are pecu¬
liar to it. M. Becquerel mentions also, that a fish whose
The influence of voltaic electricity upon the muscles of head had been cut off half an hour before, struck the table
ainals after death, is very remarkable. This subject has with its tail, when excited by the voltaic current, and its
b n recently investigated by Marianini, Nobili, Peltier, whole body leaped about the table.
ai Becquerel; but our limits will not permit us to give „ ,TxrT ^ 7 c i a r-ni , • n
■ • 1 — ° Sect. VIII Onthe Secondary Agency ojElectric C ui'rents.
be way is to grasp with both hands wet, two silver spoons,
or vo metallic belts, and by means of them form a connec-
tie between the poles of the battery.
luminous spark is produced by voltaic electricity, when
th eye forms part of the circuit. This may be done by
of inc is then laid upon the tongue, and the two metals
Might into contact, the flash will be seen. This, and
at r affections of the eye, w'ere observed by Ritter, who
e d( ares that when the positive pole was inserted, in his
ev he saw objects darker and less, and when the negative
pi acted upon the eye, he saw the same objects brighter
at larger. But according to Purkinje, the only differ¬
ed is, that the positive pole excites less light than the
native pole. Purkinje also observed, that by the appli¬
es: in of the positive pole to the eye, a yellow light was
e> ted, while the negative pole excited a violet light,
bi, liter and more abundant than the yellow. He also ob-
se,ed that the luminosity was excited principally at the
b; ■ of the optic nerve, and at the foramen centrale of the
raia. With the positive pole the base of the nerve ex-
bi ted a bright violet light, and the dark foramen was sur-
reidedwith a double rhomboidal limb of yellow light;
In with the negative pole the base of the nerve was black,
ar:; the foramen was violet, and surrounded with a violet
ri nboidal limb, at a little distance from the foramen.
II noticed also, that when the voltaic circuit was broken,
tlipreceding colours passed into their opposite or comple-
m tary ones.
a living leech, or an earthworm, is placed upon a
qvn piece, laid upon a piece of zinc of a larger size, it
eipriences no uneasiness while it touches the silver only ;
b when it stretches itself, and touches the zinc, it in-
st tly draws itself back, as if it had received a shock.
e i the shortest account of their labours.2 We must
ci :ent ourselves with mentioning a few interesting facts.
B ip negative and positive wires are inserted in the ears
° in ox or sheep taken from the body of the animal recent-
b bled, strong convulsive motions will be excited in the
nl cles of the face, whenever the circuit is completed,
P ided the battery have an hundred pair of plates. Life
Slns to be restored, and the animal to be under great
81 ring. The eyes open and shut, and roll in their sock-
cl the pupils dilate; the nostrils expand and vibrate;
ai die jaws move as in mastication. If a horse is sub-
Dr Faraday has shown that many cases of voltaic decom- gecon(jarv
position of substances held in solution by wmter, such as agei)Cy o{r
nitric acid, ammonia, &c., are due not to the direct action electric
of the current, but to the secondary agency of the ele-currents,
ments of decomposed water. He, however, conceived that
the hydracids in solution are directly decomposed by the
current. Mr Connell has endeavoured to show that the Experi-
decomposition of these substances also is secondary. This merits of
he did by connecting them by asbestus with distilled water, Professor
and making the acid negative and the water positive, when Connel.
jjd to powerful galvanic action, when recently killed, it was found that no chlorine or iodine was carried to the
h struggles of its limbs can scarcely be restrained by se- positive pole until after some time, when the acid itselt had
1 J been carried over; whereas, when the battery was revers¬
ed so as to cause evolution of oxygen in the acid solution,
chlorine or iodine immediately appeared by the combina¬
tion of the nascent oxygen with hydrogen of the hydracid.
From an extensive series of experiments on solutions in
Connell has been
Vl ‘l persons.
j innlar experiments were made in Glasgow in 1811, by
h Ure, on the body of a criminal after execution. He
1 a battery of 270 pair of four inch plates. When the
SI| ib marrow and sciatic nerve were made the points of
c< munication with the positive and negative poles, the water, alcohol, and other solvents, Mr
41—     ^     —     —
1 See Electricity, vol. viii. p. 609, &c. and p. 638, &c. , . , .
! See Becquerel’s Trait^, &c. tom. iv. p. 211—255, for full and interesting details on tins branch of the subject.
0L- XXI. 4 R
682
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Experi¬
ments of
Professor
Connell.
Voltaic led to the general conclusion, that “when solutions of
Electricity, primary combinations of elementary bodies in water, and
in those liquids, such as alcohol and pyroxylic spirit, which
contain water as such as an essential constituent, are sub¬
mitted to voltaic agency, the dissolved substance is not
directly decomposed by the current, but only the water of
the solvent.” The rule of course does not include solu¬
tions of combinations of the second order, such as ordinary
salts, consisting of an acid and an alkali, but those of prim¬
ary compounds of elementary bodies, such as acids, alka¬
lies, &C.1
When absolute alcohol, holding a minute quantity of
pure caustic potash in solution, such as is subjected to
moderate voltaic agency, hydrogen gas is evolved from
the negative pole, and no elastic fluid from the positive;
and if a powerful battery, such as 200 pairs of four-inch
plates, is employed, the same effect is obtained with ab¬
solute alcohol holding nothing in solution. A long inves¬
tigation showed that this result is due to the direct voltaic
decomposition of the water entering into the constitution
of absolute alcohol; its hydrogen being evolved at the ne¬
gative pole, and its oxygen being engaged in producing
various secondary changes on the hydro-carbon of the
alcohol. The effect of the potash is merely to give con¬
ducting power to the alcohol, and to favour the secondary
action by its affinity for some of the secondary products.
The addition of a minute quantity of potassium answers
better than that of the hydrate of potass, because we thus,
by the oxidation of the potassium, in effect add anhydrous
potass, and avoid any addition of water, although in reality
the water of the hydrate has no influence whatever on the
result. Even of potass has a very decided effect in
promoting the voltaic agency, and various other saline
bodies when dissolved promote the action by increasing
the conducting power. These experiments, it is conceived,
prove directly what had previously been very generally in¬
ferred, that water as such enters into the constitution of ab¬
solute alcohol. A similar conclusion was drawn from similar
experiments on the analogous substance, pyroxylic spirit.
It was found that pure rectified ether showed no symp¬
tom whatever of decomposition, when acted on by 200
pairs of four-inch plates; nor did the previous solution in
it of as much caustic potass as it could take up, lead to
any action of the voltaic current. It was therefore con¬
cluded that ether is not a hydrate.2
Sect. IX— On the Application of Voltaic Electricity to
the Arts.
There is perhaps no science, not even excepting che¬
mistry, which has made such donations to the fine and use¬
ful arts as voltaic electricity. Those which depend on gal¬
vanism are the art of protecting the copper sheathing of
ships ; the galvano-plastic art, or that of multiplying works
of art in metals, electro-metallurgy, and the reduction of
the metals, the electrotype, or the art of copying and mul¬
tiplying engravings, and galvanic etchings.
1. Protection of Copper Sheathing. This art, invent¬
ed by S<r H. Davy, has been already sufficiently described
in our article, Davy, vol. 7, p. 662.
2. Fhe Art of Multiplying Works of Art in Metal. This
beautiful art seems to have been invented about the
same time by Mr Jacobi of St Petersburg, and Mr Spencer
of Liverpool. Mr Jacobi, who announced his discovery in
October 1831, called it the galvano-plastic process, and Mr
Applica¬
tion of vol¬
taic electri¬
city to the
arts.
Protection
of copper
sheathing.
Voltatype,
or electro¬
type.
life
%
K
z
Spencer had, previous to the knowledge of Mr Jacobis’ 1
hours, executed medals in copper, which were called 1 a"
trotypes or voltatypes. Both Mr Jacobi and Mr SpenmiLb
had confined their invention to the deposition of conn ^
upon metallic bodies ; but Mr Murray announced in JarT
ary 1840, that non-conducting substances, such as n/a7"
of Paris, tvax, wood, fyc., might have metallic copper
thrown down upon them by previously metallism tiL
surface with black lead.
The single cell apparatus for taking casts of coin and
medals is shewn in fig. 47, which consists of
an outer vessel A, containing a saturated so- Fig 47,
lution of sulphate of copper, and some un¬
dissolved crystals of the sulphate suspended vf~\
near the upper surface of the fluid. The
medal m, to be copied, is suspended in the
copper solution. The inner vessel B, made
of porous earthenware, contains the usual
dilute acid, which acts upon a rod or plate
of zinc Z, the upper end of which is con¬
nected with the bent wire iv which sus¬
pends the medal m. When the medal has
remained two or three hours in the copper
solution, the copper will be found to have  
deposited itself on every part of its surface,
so as to afford a perfect intaglio or hollow impression of the
medal. If the surface of the medal or any part of it is greas¬
ed, no copper will be deposited on the greased part. The
obverse and reverse of the coin or medal being thus copied,
and the two retained at their proper distance, the next step
is to place them at m in the copper solution, and Me obtain
in the same manner a raised impression from the intaglio
one, accurately resembling the original.
Instead of obtaining the intaglio cast directly in copper
it is thought best to take it either in fusible or type metal,
or in some non-conducting substance, such as sealing wax,
bees’ wax, rosin, plaster of Paris, stearine, &c. When non¬
conducting substances are employed, those which are ab¬
sorbent, such as plaster of Paris, must be prevented from
absorbing the fluid, by rubbing the surface of the intaglio
mould with tallow or spermaceti; they are then to be me¬
tallised by covering their surface with black lead.
When we wish to form gold and silver medals, a gold
or silver surface is necessary, as non-conducting bodies are
not well fitted for this branch of the art. For a gold
medal, a strong nitro-muriatic solution of gold should be
used, and the medal to be copied should, according to Mr
Smee, be connected with the zinc end of a series of from
four to twelve batteries. A very fine platinum wire, ac¬
cording to the same author, immersed in the solution3 to a
trifling depth, must be united to the platinised silver ot
the battery, and the deposit of gold will then take place.
For silver medals a solution of the nitrate, sulphate, or
acetate, may be used. The solution should be weak at
first, and then gradually increased. If we do not wish to
have the whole medal of solid gold and silver, a thin lawr
may be deposited, and the rest completed by copper. On
the same principles medals of platinum or palladium may
be formed from their solution. Great care must bo taken
to prevent bubbles of air from forming on the mould.
The difficulty of coining large medals gives great va ue
to this art. Mr Smee mentions a very fine meda 0
Boulton, about four inches in diameter, which requira no
less than 300 blows to insure a perfect impression.
Scab,
* Transactions ot the Royal Society of Edit!., vol. xiii., xiv , and xv.
* Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin., vol. xiii., and xiv., and Lond. and Ed. Jour. Dec. 1841. jn
3 In Mr Sniee s ingenious battery, the negative plate which be makes of platinum or sliver is roughened with •eaI'^ Tp.
the case ot silver, with nitric acid, and this roughened surface is covered by galvanic agency, with the finely divided black powder 0 P
rnim for the purpose of increasing the solution ot hydrogen. For these purposes platinized silver is now manufactured lor sale.
8inee’s Elements of Electro mctuUuryy. Lond. 1841, p. 17,18.
i
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
ess
iter casts, and various other works of art, may be copied
•r .opper and other metals by the above process.
✓ ; ()n the Multiplication of Engraved Copper Plates.
Xs difficulty of procuring good and pure copper plate for
’ ei raving, has been entirely removed by this new art. A
’■ i )areli copper plate with a good surface may have copper
I), osited on its surface, so that the deposited plate has the
S£ e perfect surface, with the additional advantage of con-
s| ng of pure copper. It is advisable, however, to ham-
m and prepare with charcoal the deposited plate to give
it asticitv, &c., and such plates have been found superior
tell others for the purposes of engraving.
'he method of copying engraved copper plates, of the
m t delicate execution, is shewn in fig. 48, where D is a
vnel,a gallipot for
etmple, about Fig. 48.
ei it inches high
at six inches in¬
foal diameter.
Tp dotted line,
E , is a copper cy-
liier six and a half
in ies high and five
in diameter, and
0 0 is a porous
ct ider, which may b
hi made of brown
pi t when a quick action is wanted, but, in general,
a tin unglazed gallipot is preferable. A cylinder of
zi , Z Z, as large as possible, is then placed within the
pi rns cylinder without touching it, nearly at the dis-
ta :e of one-8th of an inch. A perforated cover, S S of
e." henware, is made to rest either on the copper cylinder
E , or upon a rim in the gallipot about an inch from its
t( The object of it is to hold crystals of sulphate of cop-
p for keeping the solution in a state of saturation. Wires
>i f, are soldered to the cylinders of copper and zinc, and
tl ;e are connected with the wires in the other vessel by a
b ling screw fig. 49, used by Mr Spencer, uniting the two
w ,'s M, N. The square cell A B, contains
tl engraved plate fo to be copied, and Fig. 49.
onected by the wire, b x, wdth the zinc s
ci nder of the battery ; and c b is the plate
kpe oxydised and to be attached to the
7 ' cylinder of the battery. The second- ^^
ai cell, or precipitating trough, which
n be made of earthenware, wood, or glass, is fill-
e< pith a saturated solution of sulphate of copper. In this
w a reverse copy of the plate itself is obtained in relief,
at from this copy, or relief, another copy in intaglio is
t( je taken by the same method. It is considered prefer-
a! , however, to take a perfect mould from the engraved
pie in white wax or plaster of Paris. When this mould
isj iibbed with black lead, an electrotype plate is then de-
H fed up00 it. In like manner steel plates may be copied
’ 'rst taking moulds from them in lead, wax, or plaster,
i a curious fact, that the deposited plate is always superior
t( he engraved plate. Mr Palmer has succeeded in thus
fH’ing the works of our finest engravers. For farther
11 Tmation on this subject, see Spencer’s Instructions for
H ’Multiplication of Works of Art inMetals, &c.,in Griffin’s
• cell,my, Glasgow, 1840; Jacobis Die Galvanoplastih,
ersburgh, 1840; Annales de Chimie et de Physique,
Mfteniber 1840, tom. Ixxv. p. 24; and Smee’s Elements
"'Icctro-Metallurgy, Loud. 1841.
Voltaic Etching. In this new art, which is fully
cubed by Mr Smee, the copper plate having the design
j,N upon the etching ground, as in ordinary etching, and
11 inhr its back and sides coated with wax, is connected,
by means of a wire, with the silver plate of one of Mr Smee’s Voltaic
batteries. “ A piece of copper,” says Mr Smee. “ of the Electricity,
same size as the plate, should then be connected to the
zinc, when both the copper plate and the piece of zinc are
to be placed in a solution of sulphate of copper. Immedi¬
ately copper will be reduced from the solution on the nega¬
tive plate, and copper from the etching plate will be dis¬
solved to keep up the strength of the solution. Whatever
is favourable to the increase of electricity causes the cop¬
per to be more quickly acted upon, and whatever dimin¬
ishes the galvanic current retards the solution of the metal;
so that the nearer the etching plate, forming the positive
pole, and the piece of copper, forming the negative, are ap¬
proximated, the more rapid will be the action. In the
same way the intensity of the battery also affects the rate
at which the plate is bitten in. The negative plate of cop¬
per, however, should not exceed in size the copper plate
on which the etching is executed, or else there is a risk of
some of the lines being more deeply bitten in ; and, in like
manner, it any considerable part of the plate has a great
deficiency of lines, compared with other parts, that part
must be stopped out rather before the other, to ensure a
uniformity of depth, or else the negative copper opposite
the part must be so bent, that it is at a greater distance.
The advantages of galvanism for etching are, the absence
of poisonous nitrous fumes, which are evolved in the ordi¬
nary process; the greater uniformity of action which takes
place than when acids are used, and that the rapidity of
biting may be regulated to the greatest nicety. The lines
may be made of any depth, and are sharper and clearer
than when acid is used ; and lastly, no bubbles are evolved,
which the engraver well knows are apt to tear up the
ground, or to cause unequal action.”1
4. Voltaic Gilding and Plating. We owe the art ofy0jtajc
gilding upon silver and brass, by electricity, to M. de La-gi]di)ig and
rive, who was led to it by witnessing the dreadful effects plating,
which are produced at Geneva by the use of mercury in
gilding. Gold, platinum, palladium, silver, copper, and
carbon, when their surfaces are smooth and chemically
clean, and freed from adhering air, may be gilt by means
of a feeble voltaic current which deposits the gold from a
weak nitro-muriate solution of that metal, and in this way
a coating of any thickness can be obtained. By a similar
process, metals may be platinated or palladinated by using
the nitro-muriate solution of those metals. Metals may, in
like manner, be covered with nickel by means of its nitrate.
By similar means fruit, vegetables, leaves, seeds may be
coated with copper; and crystallised copper may be depo¬
sited on wicker work, baskets, &c., after they are blacklead-
ed, or upon articles of earthenware. Mr Smee has succeed¬
ed in coating copper with almost every other metal; but
for an account of De Larive’s and Mr Smee’s processes we
must refer to the Bibliotheque Universelle, April 1840, the
Comptes Rendus, &c., 1840, No. 14, p. 578, and to the work
of Mr Smee, already quoted, book iii.
PART II.—ON ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
Various insulated facts and experiments, observed and j?iectro.
made by Franklin, Van Marum, Cavallo, Ritter, Mojon, magnetism,
and Maschmann, led to the belief that electricity produced
magnetical effects; and this opinion was strengthened by
the magnetical changes which had been repeatedly ob¬
served in compass needles struck by lightning. It was not,
however, till 1820, that electro-magnetism was discovered
by Professor H. C. Oersted of Copenhagen. In the month Oersted,
of July of that year, after obtaining several feeble magne¬
tical effects from wires conducting the galvanic current, he
at last succeeded, by using larger wires, in establishing the
1 Smee’s Electro-Metallurgy, p. 138, 139.
684
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Ampere.
Arago.
Seebeck.
Savary.
Thermo¬
electricity.
Fundamen
tal experi¬
ments in
electro¬
magnetism
fundamental law, that the magnetical effect of the electrical
current has a circular motion round the current.
Soon after this important discovery was made, M. Am¬
pere established a second fundamental law of electro-mag¬
netism, that the tw'O conducting wires from the poles of the
battery, when conveniently suspended, attract each other
when they transmit electrical currents moving in the same
direction, and repel each other when tne currents which
thm/ transmit have opposite directions.
On the 25th September 1820, M. Arago communicated
to the French Institute the important discovery, that the
electrical current possesses, in a very high degree, the
power of developing magnetism in iron and steel. Sir H.
Davy communicated a similar fact to Dr W ollaston on the
12th November 1820, and Dr Seebeck laid before the
Royal Academy of Berlin a series of experiments on the
same subject. M. Savary of Paris has more recently found
that steel needles, placed at different but small distances
from a wire conveying an electrical discharge, are not all
magnetised in the same direction.
The most important addition to voltaic electricity, since
the discovery of Oersted, is that of Dr Seebeck, who found
that electro-magnetic currents can be produced by heat
alone, a subject w'hich will be treated in a separate chapter
on Thermo-electricity.
When we join the two poles of a galvanic battery by a
metallic wire, this wire is called the conductor, or the unit¬
ing wire, and the galvanic circle is said to be closed when
this wire is single and unbroken, or when it consists of two
wires in contact. When these two wires are not in coil',
tact, the circuit is said to be open, in wdiich case the wires
have no action upon magnetic needles.
Let A B, fig. 50, be the conducting wire of a closed
galvanic circuit, along which electri¬
city is carried from A to B, A being Fig. 50.
the positive end, and B the negative d
end; then, if a delicate magnetic ^ /V e
needle is suspended near A B, its di- EB ' ‘ a
rection is changed in the following U
manner; ^
1. When the needle is above the ware, its north pole will
Revolving
magnetism
the actions at e and f B
being similar, and also
those at g and h.
O,
■f
This action of revolving magnetism was at first opposed
by Professor Schweigger, on the ground that if it !!fr
x  -  4.  • U4. j... ,
true, a magnet might be made to revolve rouml'tT'r^
Dr Wollaston drew the same concliKiJ' ^
uniting wire. Ur Wollaston drew the same conclusion
but for the purpose of producing such a revolution, fie-
      i 1  r  o —— *v/»vjiuiiuii*
fore he had effected his purpose, however, Dr Faradav
went a step farther, and found experimentally not only
n rvYi n I'ld ’YY! fl fl ,1 ± L •
*' ~   7   — —  1 **»*\^ll 1J |J
that a magnet could be made to revolve round the
wire, but that a moveable uniting ivire might be made to
revolve round a magnet. An apparatus for exhibiting these
remarkable nrnnprties is
Fig. 52.
properties is
shewn in fig. 52. A wire
a, from the voltaic bat¬
tery, passes into the glass
vessel M, through a hole
in its bottom, so as to com¬
municate with mercury
contained in the vessel.
The lower end of a small
magnet b, of the form of a
cylinder, is fixed by a
thread to the bottom of the
vessel, so that it floats al¬
most vertically in the ^ ‘
mercury. A wire Ced, communicating with the other enc
until!
eilikit.
go from the observer as at d, in the upper part of the
ellipse, c d ef, fig. 50.
2. When the needle is beloio the wire, its north pole
will approach the observer, as at/in the lower part of the
ebipse.
3. When the needle is in the same horizontal plane as
the wire, and stands between the observer and the wire, its
north pole is elevated, as at c.
4. When the needle is in the same plane, but on the
other side of the conductor, its north end is depressed, as
at e.
Hence, it appears, that the direction of the magnetic
current is c d ef, when the electrical current is in the
direction A B.
If the uniting wire is bent into parallel directions, as in
fig. 51. the two exterior
surfaces of the branches Fig. 51.
AC, BD, will exercise
similar actions on a  r
needle NS, and so will A k^f__  
the two interior surfaces,
From these experiments, Professor Oersted concluded,
that the magn tical action of the electric current describes
circles round the conductor, and hence he gave the name
of revolving magnetism to this magnetical action.
of the battery, by means of the brass pillar C, dips will;
its lower end d into the mercury in M ; and as soon as tht
voltaic current is established in the direction of the arrows
or adeQ, the pole b of the magnet will revolve rount
the fixed conductor deC.
The revolution of the conductor round a magnet is ex
hibited in the same figure, where N is a glass vessel con
taining mercury, and having a small cylindrical magnet 1
fixed to its bottom, and projecting a little above the sun
face of the mercury. The wire d, being attached by ahool
to the horizontal arm C, will commence its revolution!
round, as soon as the voltaic current passes in the directiot
of the arrows, or xY,dC. If we make the current passu
the direction adeCYx, from the zinc to the platinumen(
of the battery, both the above revolutions will go on simul
taneously. When the current was made to pass in tin
opposite direction, the direction of the rotation was like
wise changed. . . c..
The rotation of a magnet round its own axis was tirs
effected bv M. Ampere. The magnet was made to to
vertically in mercury, by a platina weight at hs lower en
When the electrical current descended through the upp
half which stood above the mercury, it was carried ott
the mercury without entering the otherhalf of the g
Had a positive current entered the other halt, af f
through the first half, it would have tend¬
ed to make the upper pole revolve from
left to right, and the under pole fiom
right to left, and these contrary forces
would have balanced each other; but
when it is prevented from entering the
lower half, the positive current pro¬
duces a rotation in the magnet from
left to right. Mr Watkins1 has con¬
structed the apparatus in fig. 53, for
shewing this experiment in a better way.
A flat bar magnet M is supported ver¬
tically by the bent wire WSW, fixed
to the stand AB. The lower end of the
magnet, which is pointed, rests in an
agate cup C, while its upper end is a
pivot, turning in a hole in the screw S.
At the centre and lower end of the mag¬
net are circular grooves containing mei
Fig. 53.
likin'
jariini.
Popular Sketch of Electro-Magnetism.
o- c
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
685
V into which dip small bent and pointed wires, fixed A, passes horizontally through a glass tube AB, and is then Electro
t, lie magnet, as seen in the figure. When the voltaic wrapped round it to form a helix or spiral, returning to A. magnetism.
cuit ^completed in the usual manner, the current It then passes to C, where it is wrapped in a similar manner
C ses only through the lower half of the magnet, and round the glass tube CD; and when it reaches the end D, it Ampere’s
[ n<r a moveable part of the circuit, it turns round on returns through the tube to C, when it descends verti-
i two pivots with a velocity depending on the strength cally with its steel point into another mercury cup N.^ers. ^ *
he ma<met, the power of the battery employed, and the This instrument is a complete imitation of a magnetic cy-
(edom from friction at the pivots. A current from another finder, and, while an electric current is passing through
I tery might be passed from the top of the magnet to it, it possesses all the properties of a magnet, and may in
. centre, which, by producing a rotation in the same di- every case be substituted for one.
i tion, would increase the velocity of revolution. Another electro-dynamic cylinder, invented by Ampere, Marsh’s
k
or. i
[Jpoll the same principles, a conductor may be made to and improved by Mr Marsh, is
/olve round its axis. An instrument for shewing this shewn in fig. 56. It consists of a
\ s invented by Professor Barlow, and which has been im -
ived by Mr Watkins, by applying it to the horse-shoe
Fig. 56.
improve¬
ment.
ugnet.1
coil or helix of wire AB, the ends of
which return along its axis to its
middle point C, and are there fixed
to the wires, n, p, of a small voltaic
battery MN, which consists of a sin-
fhe rotation of liquid conductors may likewise, as Sir
1 Davy has shewn, be produced by the pole of a magnet.
,rs mercury is placed in a shallow dish, between the two gle plate of zinc surrounded by a
||es 0f a battery, a magnet placed either above or below plate of copper cc, and floating in a
i > mercury, will cause the mercury to revolve round the basin of diluted acid, in which it can
ints from which the currents issue. The rotation of the freely move. This spiral ACB, will
: me produced by the passage of a powerful voltaic charge place itself in the magnetic meri-
tween two charcoal points, arises from the same cause, dian, when acted upon by the mag
i ofessorDaniell gives the following pleasing method ofshew-
r this effect. He makes a powerful horse-shoe magnet part
the conducting wire of a constant battery of a moderate
[mber of cells; the flame which may then be drawn from
e of its poles will revolve in one direction, while that
m the other will revolve in the opposite direction.2
Soon after the discovery of electro-magnetism, M. Am-
ikc. :re made the important discovery, that the conductors
• tract each other when they are transmitting electrical
irrents having the same direction, but repel each other
hen the currents have opposite directions. This may be
oved experimentally by the
- - ■ ’ Fig. 54.
Fig. 57.
iparatus in fig. 54, invented
/ M. Ampere. It consists
a bent wire, ABCDEFGII,
e parts of which at B and G,
lie kept insulated by a non-
mducting substance m, to
!iich they are tied. The
tremities A, H, with steel
ints dip into iron cups of
ijercury, K, M, at the ends of
e brass wires, JK, LM, fixed
to a piece of wood, NO.
^hen the electric current en-
rs at J, passes along the conductor ABODE, &c., and
sues at L, the conductor is put in motion by means
a magnet. When the south pole of a magnet is di¬
eted against the side BCD, it will repel the conductor,
i ut will attract it when directed against the opposite side.
The conductor in the above apparatus may also be
oved by the earth’s magnetism. For this purpose the
imagiAne, CDEF, must stand per-
ndicularly to the magnetic
endian. When the current
nters at A, the vertical part
E will be placed towards the
est, but if the current enters
! H, the part FE will be
laced towards the east.
Ampere’s electro-dynamic
[cylii ylinder is shewn in fig. 55,
ybere M is the extremity of a
‘ire, with a steel point rest-
no m a cup of mercury. The
Fig. 55.
M €
after descending to
netism of the earth, and will like¬
wise yield to the action of another
magnet placed near either of its
poles.
Various forms have been given
to these electro-dynamic cylinders.
In some the coils all fie in one
plane, as in Fig. 57, where one
face of the coil has north, and
the other south polarity, the mag¬
netic poles being as it were si¬
tuated in the centre of each disc,
i When the helix is constructed, as in fig. 58, its power is
so great, that a small
steel bar SN, placed Fig. 58.
within it, and support¬
ed perpendicularly,
will, as soon as the
connection is made
with the voltaic bat¬
tery, by means of the
mercury cups P,jo, start
up, and place itself in the air, where, like Mahomet’s coffin,
it will remain suspended without any visible cause, and in
opposition to the power of gravitation.
We owe also to M. Ampere the
very interesting apparatus of a
small voltaic battery made to re¬
volve round a magnet. This is
shewn in fig. 59, where ABCD,
abed exhibits a section of two cy-
lindersof coppersolderedto a cop¬
per bottom, so as to hold a fluid.
This double cylindrical vessel is
suspendedbyabent wire aF6(ha-
ving a cavity at F,) upon the north
pole N of a vertical magnet NS.
A light cylinder of zinc zz is al¬
so suspended by a bent wire zEz,
and a steel pivot at E upon the
same pole N of the magnet. The
evlinder zz can therefore re¬
volve upon this pivot. When
the cylinder ABD^acCA, is filled with dilute acid, so
as to constitute a small battery, the cylinder zz will re-
Ampere’s
revolving
battery.
1 Popular Sketch of Electro-Magnetism.
Introduction to Chemical Philosophy, § 815.
686
Electro¬
magnetism
VOLTAIC ELECTRICI
Mr Wat-
kin’s im¬
provement
upon it.
Fig. 60.
Delarive’s
apparatus.
Fig. 61.
Marsh’s im
provement
upon it.
Mr Wat¬
kins’ re¬
volving he¬
lices.
volve from left to right when N is the north end or south
pole, and from right to left when N is the south end or
north pole. Owing to the attraction of the fluid, the cylinder
of zinc is often drawn to one side, and prevented from mov¬
ing; but this may be avoided by making the space Ac suffi¬
ciently wide. Mr Watkins has ingeniously applied this con¬
trivance to the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, as in fig. 60.
It consists of a horse-shoe magnet AB,
fixed to a stand SS. Above each pole
is suspended a double cylindrical cop¬
per vessel, with a bent metallic wire
fixed to the top of the inner cylinder,
and a vertical wire pointed at each ex¬
tremity, fixed in the middle of the
bent wire. The lower ends of the
vertical wires of each cylinder rest in
the holes at each pole of the magnet.
Within the above double copper ves¬
sels are placed two hollow cylinders of
zinc, having similar bent wires with
holes in the lower side of each, in which
holes the upper ends of the vertical wires are inserted.
When the copper cylinder is filled with dilute acid, the vol¬
taic action begins, all the four cylinders revolving round
their respective axes. The copper cylinders turn slowly
and heavily, from their weight, in opposite directions to one
another, and the zinc cylinders, with great velocity, in op¬
posite directions to the copper ones. Very delicate sus¬
pensions are necessary to ensure the rotation of the copper
cylinders.
A very simple apparatus for show¬
ing the magnetic state of a single
coil, is shown in fig. 61, where Z and
C represent the elements of a small
galvanic battery of one zinc and one
copper plate attached to a cork which
floats on dilute acid. Each plate is
half an inch wide, and two inches
long. A piece of copper wire W,
with silk thread wrapped round it, is
bent into a ring, one end of wdiich
is soldered to the zinc, and the other
to the copper plate. An electric current
now passes in the direction of the arrow,
and the ring W becomes a flat magnet,
having its poles in the centre of its two
surfaces, the one being north and the
other south. This floating magnet will,
when acted upon by a real magnet, exhibit
the usual magnetic attractions and repul¬
sions. Mr Marsh has improved this ap¬
paratus by doubling the copper plate, as
in fig. 62, and converting it into a vessel
for holding the dilute acid. The plates
are then placed in a glass cylinder which
may float in water.  
A very beautiful apparatus for exhibiting helical rota¬
tions has been constructed by Mr Watkins, and is shown
in fig. 63. A horse-shoe magnet, with its poles uppermost,
is fixed upon a wooden box S. Two helices of copper,
having slender bars across their summit, with needle or
steel points in their centre, move in conical holes drilled
in the poles of the magnet, with small platina cups to hold
a small portion of mercury. The lower extremities of
each helix terminate in steel points, which dip into the
mei cui y in wooden cups below, screwred to the legs of
the magnet. A wire likewise goes from the. lower end
of each cistern, and being bent upwards, terminates in a
small cup with mercury. The brass rod R, fixed to the
Fig. 62.
stand, carries a forked
piece MN, the ends
of which are twm points
which dip in the mer¬
cury in the platina
cups. On the top of
the coil, another mer¬
cury cup is placed on
the fork MN; and
when the voltaic cur¬
rent is made to pass
through the apparatus,
the helical coils will
revolve rapidly in op¬
posite directions, the
directions changing
with the disposition
of the wires which
connect them with
the voltaic battery.
We have already
mentioned the fine
discovery of M. Arago,
of the power of
electrical currents to
develope magnetism in iron and steel. M. Arago found that
the uniting wire of a powerful voltaic battery attracts iron
filings often with such force as to form a coating round the wire
ten or twelve times thicker than itself. This attraction, as,,
he found, did not originate in any magnetism previously,, ^
possessed by the iron filings, which he ascertained would not k t»
adhere to iron; and that it wras not a case of common electri¬
cal attraction, was evident from the fact that copper and
brass filings were not attracted by the uniting wire. M.
Arago likewise found, that the iron filings began to rise be¬
fore they came in contact writh the uniting wire, and hence
he drew the conclusion, that the electric current converted
each small piece of iron into a temporary magnet. In fol¬
lowing out this view, the French philosopher converted
large pieces of iron into temporary magnets, and also small
steel needles into permanent ones. Sir H. Davy and Dr
Seebeck obtained analogous results without knowing what
had been previously done in France. M. Savary of Paris
obtained also some very important results relative to the
magnetic action of the uniting wires at different distances,
but w e have already given a brief account of them, as well
as of the experiments of Professor Erman, in our article,
Electricity, vol. viii. p. 574.
The next step in the progress of discovery, was that ofP rfu!
making magnets of extraordinary power by means ofavol-ml ®
taic battery. This seems to have been first accomplished® ^
by Professor Moll of Utrecht and Professor Henry of'
Princetown College, who was able to lift thousands of
pounds’ weight by his apparatus, but as we have already
given a full account of the construction of such magnets,
and of the experiments of M. Quetelet of Brussels, and Mr
Watkins of London, in our article Magnetism, in Sect,
xiii. p. 761, vol. viii., we must refer our readers to that part
of the w ork. - ;; H|
Since these important discoveries, however, were made, jj
an electro-magnet of extraordinary power has been
structed by the Rev. N. J. Callan,1 Professor of Natural^
Philosophy at MaynoothA It has the form of a horse-shoe,ro,
and is thirteen feet long, two and a-half inches in diameter,
and weighs fifteen stone. The distance between its poles
is seven inches, and a copper wire one-sixth of an inch in
diameter, is wrapped round thebar from one pole to the other.
The total length of this thick ware is 490 feet, but it is di¬
vided into seven parts, each 70 feet in length. A copper
1 See Sturgeon’s Annals of Chemistry, &c., July 1837.
✓ -ff ?
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
a? a
lical
, re) about the fortieth of an inch in diameter, is soldered
i one of the thick wires, about a foot from one of its ex-
cmities, and is wrapped round the horse-shoe bar in the
sne direction as the thick wire, and in one continuous he-
] When the opposite ends of the seven thick wires are
(inected with the opposite poles of a voltaic battery, the
1 rse-shoe bar is converted into a magnet of extraordinary
I *ver, and when the battery communication is broken, an
( ctric current of singular intensity is established in the
1 ig coil of small wire. The armature or keeper of Mr
I Han’s magnet was a horse-shoe bar of iron 20 inches long,
t o and a-half in diameter, and weighing 28 lbs. Its poles
i re seven inches apart, and the apex of the arch seven
i dies high. Such was the power of the magnet that it was
j ind impossible to separate the keeper from it by any force
i ing in a direction perpendicular to the touching surfaces.
' ie calorimotor, consisting of a single pair of plates, with
square feet of copper, and 16 of zinc, was found by Mr
bad more effective in exciting the magnetism than a
jollaston battery of 100 double pairs highly excited,
lien the connexion was broken between the battery and
18 charcoal points fixed to the thick wires, the succession
i sparks formed a continued blaze of brilliant light, and
uen a succession of sparks was sent rapidly through a
, ge fowl, they produced instant death.
The idea of applying the powerful agency thus deve-
ied in a bar of iron, as a mechanical power, naturally
ggested itself; but there is reason to believe that Mr
'lomas Davenport of Brandon, in the county of Rutland,
d state of Vermont, was the first person who thought of
plying it in producing rotatory motion. This uneducat-
individual, by trade a blacksmith, having, in 1833, acci-
ntally seen one of Professor Henry’s electro-magnets,
rchased it with the idea of employing it as a mechanical
wer. In July 1834, he is said to have constructed a vol-
c engine; and on the 16th March 1837, he took to New-
ven two machines; one a rotatory machine, composed of
'olving electro-magnets, with fixed permanent magnets;
d the other, a rotatory machine, composed entirely of elec-
b magnets in its fixed and revolving members, which being
tolly made of soft iron, may be magnetised in an instant by
>ery small battery.1 Professor Henry,2 however, had pre-
msly, and so early as 1831, produced a reciprocating mo-
n by magnetic attrrction and repulsion, aided by electro-
ignetic action; and as the contrivance seems to have
en overlooked in this country, we shall lay before our
iders his own drawing and description of it.
In Fig. 64, AB is an electro-magnet of soft iron, about
687
J1 iven inches long, and moveable on an axis at the centre
1 Its two extremities, when placed in a horizontal line,
i* about one inch from the north poles of the upright
r Jnets C and D. G and F are two large tumblers con-
1 hng dilute acid, in each of which is immersed a plate
I 'iiic, surrounded with copper. I, m s, t, are four brass
"hies soldered to the zinc and copper of the batteries,
II tilled with mercury.
“ The electro-magnet AB is wound with three strands of Electro¬
copper bell wire, each about twenty-five feet long. ThemaKnet’sra-
similar ends of these are twisted together, so as°to form
two stiff wires, which project beyond the extremity B, and
dip into the thimbles s, t.
1 o the w ires q, r, two other wires are soldered, so as to
project in an opposite direction, and dip into the thimbles
/, m. The wires of the electro-magnet have thus, as it were,
four projecting ends ; and by inspecting the figure it will
be seen that the extremity m, which dips into the cup at¬
tached to the copper of the battery in G, corresponds to
the extremity r connecting with the zinc F.
“ When the batteries are in action, if the end B is de¬
pressed until q r dips into the cups s, t, AB instantly be¬
comes a powerful magnet, having its north pole at B. This
of course is repelled by the north pole D, while at the
^ same time it is attracted by C. The position is conse¬
quently changed, and o p comes in contact with the mer¬
cury in l, m. As soon as the communication is formed,
the poles are reversed, and the position again changed. If
the tumblers be filled with strong dilute acid, the motion
is at first very rapid and powerful, but it soon almost en¬
tirely ceases. By partially filling the tumblers with weak
acid, and occasionally adding a small quantity of fresh
acid, a uniform motion, at the rate of seventy-five vibra¬
tions in a minute, has been kept up for more than an hour.
With a large battery, and very weak acid, the motion
might be continued for an indefinite length of time.
“ The motion here described is entirely distinct from that
produced by the electro-magnetic combination of wires
and magnets. It results directly from the mechanical ac¬
tion of ordinary magnetism—galvanism being only intro¬
duced for the purpose of changing the poles.”
Professor Green, to whom Professor Henry first exhib¬
ited this machine in motion, recommended the substitution
of electro-magnets for the tw o vertical ones C, D. Though
Professor Henry described this apparatus as a toy, yet he
distinctly states, that in the progress of discovery, the same
principle, or some modification of it on a more extended
scale, might hereafter be applied to some useful purpose.
These contrivances have been followed by several others Rev. Mr
of great ingenuity. The Rev. J. W. Macgauley exhibited M'Gau-
a working model of an electro-magnetic machine, to the ley’s elec*
British Association at Dublin in 1835; and in the sixth
report of the Association he mentions his having “in hiSp0wer>
possession a machine of not inconsiderable power.” Mr
Sturgeon of Woolwich mentions that he had a galvanic ma¬
chine in use on his premises, for pumping water, and for
other mechanical purposes.3 Mr Jacobi has some time ago
employed electro-magnetic machinery for impelling a boat
on the Neva at St Petersburg ; and Mr Davidson of Aber¬
deen has made a similar application to a turning lathe.
A series of beautiful instruments, of great practical Schweig-
value, have been invented for increasing minute voltaic ger’s
effects, by electro-magnetic action. The first of these waselectro-
constructed by Professor Schweigger of Halle, immediately nia^!e';C
after the discovery of electro-magnetism. It is exhibited p
in fig. 65 where a magnetic needle SN, is placed or sus¬
pended within several
bendings of the unit- Fig. 65.
ing wires ABODE.
Now, as each of the
branches of this wire
acts upon one of the
poles of the needle in
the same direction, the effect will be quadrupled; and
hence the direction of the needle becomes a means of mea¬
suring any minute voltaic effects produced in the uniting
SN intan’s American Journal of Science, April 1837, vol. xxxii- No. 65, P1
July 1831, vol. xx. p. 340. RePort on’ vo1* V P' 24*
688
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Electro¬
magnetism
Professor
Oersted's
improve¬
ment upon
it.
Nobili’s
multiplier.
wires. The power of multiplication does not, as Dr See-
beck proved in 1820, increase with the number of wind¬
ings in the uniting wire, as the resistance to transmis¬
sion increases with the length of the wire, thus dimin¬
ishing the conducting power of the wire. Professor
Orested improved the multiplier1 by adding a bent mag¬
net, as shewn at JKL, fig. 66, which can be placed so as
to repel the nearest end of the needle, or index, or to
attract it. In the position in the figure the first of these
effects is produced ; but by turning the angle of the bent
magnet towards the needle, the second effect is produced.
By causing the pillar which carries this magnet to approach
to, or recede from the needle, the directive power of the
needle may be made scarcely sensible. In this state the
instrument will shew the difference in the voltaic effects
produced by two pieces of metal, which differ only by ys^th
of alloy when a powerful liquid is used. Professor Gum¬
ming, we believe, first suggested the idea of neutralizing
the directive force of the needle, arising from the earth’s
magnetism, which he did by placing a magnetized needle
immediately beneath the moveable or index needle.2
M. Nobili has improved this instrument by using two
needles, as in fig. 66 ; but he fixed the neutralizing needle
S'N', to the
Fig. 66.
moveable one
NS, placing the
one above the
other, with their
poles reversed.
The two needles
are fixed in a
Lebaillif’s
multiplier.
Fig. 67.
Dr Rit¬
chie’s
torsion
galvano¬
meter.
piece of straw GH, and suspended by a silk fibre at G.
The needles were twenty-two lines long, three wide, and
one-fourth thick, and GH was five lines. The wire was
a copper one, one-fifth of a line in diameter, and thirty feet
long, and covered with silk. It made seventy-two evolu¬
tions round the frame.
M. Lebaillif has extended this principle by using four
needles in place of two, each pair being exactly the same
as in fig. 66, the one being brought near the upper surface
of the coil, and the other near the under surface. In this
instrument the increased weight of the needles may com¬
pensate any additional sensibility possessed by the approxi¬
mation of the needles to the sides of the coil. The instru¬
ment is shewn in fig. 67, where ab, ab are the four needles,
mnop the square bobbin, around which
the wires are coiled, one or two feet
of their length at each end being left
free, as at gi, gf, that the electric
current may enter at the one, and is¬
sue from the other. Instead of a
single wire 300 feet long, M. Lebail¬
lif employs Jive parallel ones, each
end of which is stripped of the silk,
and united by strong pressure into a
bundle. The electric current thus
divided into five parts, flows in five
channels, which, according to M.
Pouillet, transmit a proportionally
larger quantity of electricity, while
the diminished intensity produced by transmission through
a great length of wire, is avoided.5
A torsion galvanometer invented bv Dr Ritchie,4 is
shewn in fig. 68. Having covered a fine copper wire with
a thin coat of sealing wax, he rolls it about a heated cy¬
linder, an inch or two in diameter, ten, twenty, or any
mimnor r\f rFl  • i ^ J
Fig. 68.
are then pressed together, till they become parallel amta
about one or one and a half inches long. The Co’ii ("',•
is then fixed on a proper sole, and the ends of the wir T
connected with two metallic mer-
cury cups C, C. A graduated disc
of paper is then placed horizontally
on the upper half of the coil, hav¬
ing a black line drawn through its
centre, parallel with the middle
line of the coil. A small magnet
SN, made of a common sewing
needle, is then fixed to the lower
end of a fine glass thread, while
the upper end is securely fixed
with sealing wax, in the centre
of a moveable index I, as in the
torsion balance. This is inclosed
in a glass tube T, fitted into a
disc of thick plate glass, which
forms the upper surface of the box. When a voltaic
current passes through the coil W, the needle SN is
deflected. The glass thread is then twisted by turning
the index I, till the needle is brought back to its formei
position, and the number of degrees of torsion will be ai
accurate measure of the quantity of electricity, whose de¬
flective power over the needle is exactly balanced by the
torsion of the glass fibre.
A very ingenious galvanoscope, for ascertaining mere!; ^
the existence and direction of an electric current, is de- m
scribed in the Library of Useful Knowledge.5 It is shewfpe,
in fig. 69, where M is the
Fig. 69.
needle, T the suspending
fibre, placed between four
vertical spiral coils, the
centres of which are
brought very near the
poles of the needle. The
same voltaic current is
made to circulate through
all the four spirals, which
have their turns such as
to produce repulsion of
the contiguous pole on
the one side, and attrac¬
tion of the same pole on
the other side. The wire
of the four spiral discs
proceeds from the mer¬
cury cup P, and terminates
in another cup N. In this
admirable instrument, the
current is brought as near
as possible to the needle,
so that its action is very powerful. The whole force oi
the four discs is quadruple that of a single one, as they al
concur in giving the needle a deviation in the same direc¬
tion.
Gold-leaf has been employed in the formation of thf
gold-leaf galvanoscope, which is similar in construction tc
Rennet’s gold-leaf electrometer. The strength of the cur-
v/1V4 Cltv/LI L/illC LC. 1 • -L 1IC OL1 1 ^
rent is indicated by the curvature of the strip of gold-leal
^   - ^ —J A,
1 p . 7  7 ~ I* I, J J WJL 1*11 Y LUC IIGIICO 1YX j //tj
mim er ol times. I he opposite sides of the circular coil net. When the electric current passes
U v LUC CUlVaiUIC Cl LUC OLIip v/i ^ 
fh, fig. 70, which is held loosely by forceps at / and
each forceps terminating in a mercury cup, the one, f
being above, and the other, N, below. The gold-leaf is
enclosed in a glass case, the middle of which is placed
equidistant between the poles M, m, of a horse-shoe mag¬
net. When the electric current passes through the go
fig. /j°r a PersPectlve drawing on a large scale, of this instrument, see Edinburgh Encyclopedia, art. Thermo-Electricity, plate 522,
* Pnnillef’c Trio™ j 2 Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc- vol. i. p 279.
4 S .Too® de^ Exp' llV' v' chaP' i' sect' H2, and Library of Useful Knowledge, art. Electro-Magnetism, p- 44.
. p. 218. s ^rt Electro-mayvetism, part ii. chap. viii. p. 4-4, fig. 82.
Wio-
pe.
i
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Fig. 70.
p
M
I f, the leaf is bent, or attracted and repelled, laterally
(i. j the poles of the magnet, according as the current
* f ends or descends, the broad surface of the leaf becoming
(ivex towards the magnet in the
c j case, and concave in the other.
I the degree of curvature is easily
a ertained, Dr Roget considers this
i trument as affording “ the most
(1 icate test possible of the existence
a 1 direction of a weak voltaic cur-
r t”1
We shall now conclude this part
o the article with an account of
a ery ingenious contrivance of Am-
p>e’s for quickly altering the direc-
II of the electric current in vol-
t ; batteries. Two grooves R,
1 fig. 71, are made in the
tile TT, some lines in depth,
all also four similar cavities vv', tt',
c nmunicating diagonally by means
c the plates of copper ll, mm,
v ich are kept separate at
t ir crossing by a non-con-
t ;ting substance. Mercury
i hen placed in the grooves
a 1 cavities, after they have
t:n varnished with mastic.
1 he positive wire of a bat¬
ty is immersed in the groove
1 and the negative one in
li grooveR',thecurrent will
r flow until a metallic
c imunication is made be-
t'-cn each of the grooves, and
o of the cavities. To do
t , b, U are two
p cs, fig. 72, for
ttksmitting the
crent; the plate
b nay become po-
stve or negative,
a» [ording as the
c ity R communi-
c s with t, and Rr with t', or when R communicates with
«|nd R' with v'.
1 the first case, the current follows the direction ID, bb',
, in the second it goes from R to v, then traverses the
P e //', and afterwards goes from b' into bt, and from d
ii R. Now, these communications may be easily made or
ii irrupted, by means of a wooden rod BB', which turns
r iid its axis in the holes o, o'. Four metallic arcs bb',
(i are fitted to this rod, so that by merely raising or de-
Hssmg it, the communications are changed. When b and
hre depressed, R and v communicate through rbc, and R
a * ^ hy r'b'c', and when d and d' are depressed, R and t,
V and tr communicate by means of the corresponding
t ^ ‘ Fi^-73
dr Edward Clarke
1 improved this in-
* iment, and, we
; leve> given it the
1 no of electripeter.
s shown in fig. 73,
' L'rea.a,a', a'are four
1 rcuryeups,commu-
d mg with wires be-
‘■ '•i the stand SS'.
Ji (rp  
689
mercury cups A, A', B, B', are similarly con-
Cumming’sManiwl of Electro-dynamics, p. 178.
load’s Lectures, p. 319.
ul. XXI.
structed for conveying the current from the battery Electro-
to a machine to be set in motion. The wires CC'maSnetisn>-
are moveable about a horizontal axis. Suppose them to'^*^^**^
be in the position in the figure, and that the current is
passing from A to B, and back again, from any apparatus
from B' to A, then, by merely pressing the other ends of
the wires CC' into their respective cups a,a, the direc¬
tion of the current will be immediately changed, and it
wall pass from A beneath the stand, to B', and back from
B to A. By retaining the wires horizontally which keep
their ends out of the cups, the passage of the current will
be stopped.3
Among the applications of FJectro-magnetism, two of the -Applica-
most interesting are the Electro-magnetic Telegraph, and dims of
the Electro-magnetic Clock, invented by Professor Wheat- e*ect!'°*
stone, of King’s College, London. magnetism.
Wheatstone's Electro-magnetic Telegraph.
Although the idea of conveying signals along wires by Wheat-
means of electric currents, must have occurred to many storm’s
persons, yet the value and success of the invention mustelectro*.
depend on the principles and methods by which that idea01!^116'1?
is carried into effect. Professor Wheatstone and Mr Cookte e8'ap
have taken out a patent for this invention, and, in March
1840, it was in practical operation on the Great Western
railway, throughout a distance of 14 miles from Padding¬
ton to West Drayton. It is also in operation on Blackwall
railway. Professor Wheatstone has recently made an en¬
tirely new arrangement for his telegraph, which possesses
great advantages over the old one: It is extremely port¬
able ; and any child can both read and send the messages
with scarcely a minute’s instruction. It requires only a
single pair of wires, and 30 or 40 letters can be successively
sent by it in a minute. The telegraph with its accompany¬
ing alarm, is included in a case not larger than that of the
smallest table clock. From the utility, simplicity, and
cheapness of this new contrivance, we are convinced that
its application will not be confined to long telegraphic lines,
but will also be extensively employed in public and private
establishments.
Wheatstone's Electro-magnetic Clock.
To the same ingenious author we owe one of the most Wlmat-
beautiful inventions of modern times, the electro-magnetic^”"® *
clock, the detailed construction of which has not yet been nia,TIlet;c
published. The following is a brief abstract of the account dock,
of it which was read at the Royal Society on the 26th No¬
vember 1840.
The object which Professor Wheatstone had in view was
to enable a single clock to indicate exactly the same time
in as many different places distant from each other as may
be desired. In an observatory, for example, every apart¬
ment may be furnished with a cheap and simple clock,
scarcely liable to derangement, and giving the time so ac¬
curately, that it will beat dead seconds audibly with as
great precision as the standard astronomical timepiece
with which it is connected. Hence the necessity is avoid¬
ed, in such scientific establishments, of having several
clocks, and of being at the trouble of winding them up
and regulating them individually. “ In like manner, in
public offices and large establishments, one good clock will
serve the purpose of indicating the precise time in every
part of the building where it may be required, and an ac¬
curacy ensured which it would be difficult to obtain by in¬
dependent clocks, even putting the difference of cost out
of consideration. In the electro-magnetic clock, which was
exhibited in action in the apartments of the Society, all the
parts employed in a clock for maintaining or regulating the
power are entirely dispensed with. It consists simply of a
2 Becquerel, Traite D’Electricit^, &c. tom. iii. pp. 9, 10.
4 s
690
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Wheat¬
stone’s
electro¬
magnetic
clock.
Magneto- face with its second, minute, and hour hands, and of a. train
Electricity. 0f wheels which communicate motion from the action of
the second hand to that of the hour hand, in the same man¬
ner as in an ordinary clock train; a small electro-magnet
is caused to act upon a peculiarly-constructed wheel (scarce¬
ly capable of being described without a figure) placed on
the second's arbor, in such a manner that whenever the
temporary magnetism is either produced or destroyed, the
wheel, and consequently the second’s hand, advances a six¬
tieth part of its revolution. It is obvious, then, that if an
electric current can be alternately established and arrested,
each resumption and cessation lasting for a second, the in¬
strument now described, although unprovided with any in¬
ternal maintaining or regulating power, would perform all
the usual functions of a perfect clock. The manner in
which this apparatus is applied to the clocks, so that the
movements of the hands of both may be perfectly simultane¬
ous, is the followingOn the axis which carries the scape-
wheel of the primary clock a small disc of brass is fixed,
which is first divided on its circumference into sixty equal
parts; each alternate division is then cut out and filled
with a piece of wood, so that the circumference consists of
thirty regular alternations of wood and metal. An extreme¬
ly light brass spring, which is screwed to a block of ivory
or hard wood, and which has no connection with the me¬
tallic parts of the clock, rests by its free end on the cir¬
cumference of the disc. A copper wire is fastened to the
fixed end of the spring, and proceeds to one end of the wire
of the electro-magnet; while another wire attached to the
clock-frame, is continued until it joins the other end of that
of the same electro-magnet: A constant voltaic battery, con¬
sisting of a few elements of very small dimensions, is inter¬
posed in any part of the circuit. By this arrangement the
circuit is periodically made and broken, in consequence of
the spring resting for one second on a metal division, and
the next second on a wooden division. The circuit may
be extended to any length ; and any number of electro¬
magnetic instruments may be thus brought into sympa¬
thetic action with the standard clock. It is only necessary
to observe, that the force of the battery and the proportion
between the resistances of the electro-magnetic coils, and
those of the other parts of the circuit, must, in order to
produce the maximum effect with the least expenditure of
power, be varied to suit each particular case.”
In Professor Wheatstone’s paper, of which the above is
an abstract, he has pointed out several methods of effecting
the same purpose. In one of them he substitutes Dr Fa¬
raday’s magneto-electric currents, in place of the voltaic
battery, and he likewise describes a modification of his
clock which will enable it to exercise its controlling power
with a weaker electric current than when constructed on
the plan above described. Professor Wheatstone has like¬
wise pointed out other most important purposes to which
his invention is applicable.
PART III,—MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY.
Magnpto- ^ie preceding chapter, we have detailed the leading
electricity, phenomena produced by electric currents, or electricity in
motion, for no magnetic effects are produced by accumu¬
lated electricity. We come now to give an account of the
new science of magneto-electricity, which we owe to Dr
Dr Fara- Faraday. Although certain effects of the induction 1 of elec-
day's re- trical currents had been discovered, it had always appeared
searches. p)r unlikely that these could be the only effects
which induction by currents could produce ; and whatever
theory of the phenomena might be adopted, it still seemed
to him “ very extraordinary, that as every electric current
was accompanied by a corresponding intensity of magnetic 1
action, at right angles to the current, good conductors ofl
electricity, when placed within the sphere of this action v
should not have any current induced through them, or
some sensible effect produced equivalent in force to such a
current. With these views, and under the expectation of
obtaining electricity from ordinary magnetism, he investi¬
gated experimentally the inductive effect of electrical cur¬
rents.”
If the uniting wore of a voltaic battery is placed parallel
to the wire connecting the two ends of a delicate galvano¬
meter, the most powerful current along the uniting wire
will produce no deviation in the needle. But if the cur¬
rent along the uniting wire is stopped, by breaking the cir¬
cuit, a momentary deviation of the needle takes place, as if
a wire passed in the same direction as that of the voltaic
current. When the needle has become stationary, a simi¬
lar impulse is given to it in the opposite direction, by re¬
storing the circuit. Dr Faraday found that similar effects
took place, when the current along the uniting wire being
uninterrupted, the uniting wire was made to approach or
to recede suddenly from the wire of the galvanometer, the
approximation inducing a current in the direction contrary
to the inducing current in the uniting wire, and the divi¬
sion inducing a current in the same direction as the in¬
ducing current.2 To this inductive action of the voltaic
current Dr Faraday has given the name of volta-electric
induction.
As the preceding effects were clearly produced by a
transverse action of the current, in the first case at the in¬
stant where the current was annihilated or generated, and
in the second by the mechanical motion of the uniting wire,
Dr Faraday expected to obtain similar results, by the sud¬
den induction and cessation of the same magnetic force,
either by means of a voltaic current, or by that of a com¬
mon magnet. By various experimental arrangements, Dr
Faraday verified these anticipations ; but in order to con¬
nect his experiments on volta-electric induction with the
present ones, he constructed a combination of helices upon a
hollow cylinder of pasteboard. The wire was l-20th of an
inch in diameter, and the different spires were prevented
from bending by a thin interposed twine. Each helix was
covered with calico. Eight lengths of copper wire were
used, or nearly 220 feet of wire. “ Four of these helices
were connected end to end, and then with the galvano¬
meter ; the other intervening four were also connected
end to end, and the battery of 100 pairs discharged throng
them. In this form, the effect on the galvanometer was
hardly sensible, though magnets could be made by the in¬
duced current. But when a soft iron cylinder, jftt s o an
inch thick, and 12 inches long, was introduced into the
pasteboard tube, surrounded by the helices, then tie m
duced current affected the galvanometer powerfully,
possessed also the power of making magnets wit mo
energy apparently than when an iron cylinder was e
When the iron cylinder was replaced by an equa cy m
of copper, no effect beyond that of the helices a one w
produced.” “Similar effects,” continues Dr Faraday, "
produced with ordinary magnets. Thus, the hollow
just described had all its elementary helices conn
with the galvanometer, by two copper wires eac
long; the soft iron cylinder was introduced into i
a couple of bar magnets, each 24 inches long, u ^
ranged, with their opposite poles at one end in co >
as to resemble a horse-shoe magnet, and^then con ^
between the other poles and the ends of the iron } ^
so as to convert it for the time into a magnet, Y
the magnetic contacts, or reversing them, the mag
1 By induction Dr Faraday intends to express the power of electrical currents “ to induce any particular state upon matter m
mediate neighbourhood otherwise indifferent.” Experimental Researches, p. 1. 2 Experimental Kesearc es, p.
i
TJT
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
t > iron cylinder could be destroyed or reversed at plea-
>jty. c e. Upon making magnetic contact, the needle was de-
’p^ted; continuing the contact, the needle became indif-
tent, and resumed its first position: on breaking the con-
tit, it was again deflected, but in the opposite direction to
t first effect, and then it again became indifferent. When
t • magnetic contacts were reversed, the deflections were
r ersed. When the magnetic contact was made, the de-
fgion was such as to indicate an induced current of elec-
t ;ity in the opposite direction to that fitted to form a mag-
r, having the same polarity as that really produced by
citact with the bar magnet.”
But in order to show that it was by the approximation
c the magnets that the momentary induced current was
e:ited, Dr Faraday substituted for the soft iron cylinder
aylindrical magnet inches long, and fths of an inch in
t meter. He introduced one end of this magnet into the
a s of the helix, and then, the galvanometer needle being
s tionary, the magnet was suddenly thrust in, the needle
ils then instantly deflected in the same direction as if the
ilgnet had been formed by any of the two preceding pro-
t ises. “ Being left in, the needle resumed its first posi-
I n, and then the magnet being withdrawn, the needle was
< fleeted in the opposite direction. These effects were not
pat, but by introducing and withdrawing the magnet, so
t it the impulse each time should be added to those pre-
' msly communicated to the needle, the latter could be
nde to vibrate through an arc of 180° or more.1”
Although the law which governs the evolution of elec-
r city by magneto-electric induction, is very simple, yet Dr
raday has found it rather diffi-
( t to express it, except in refer- Fig. 74.
e:eto diagrams. We shall there-
ftp give it in his own words. n
‘fin fig. 74, PN represent a /  
I izontal wire passing by a mark-
£ magnetic pole, so that the di- \ p.
rtion of its motions shall coin- \s \ L
t s with the curved line proceed- ^ \
i from below upwards ; or if its \n
r tion parallel to itself be in a
II tangential to the curved line, but in the general direc-
11 of the arrows ; or if it pass the pole in other directions,
1 : so as to cut the magnetic curves2 in the same general
fection, or on the same side as they would be cut by the
’ e if moving along the dotted curved line ; then the
«Tent of electricity in the w ire is from P to M. If it be
1 'Hed in the reverse direction, the electric current wrill
I from N to P. Or if the wire be in the vertical position,
i at P'N', and it be carried in similar directions, coin-
1 ing with the dotted horizontal curve, so far as to cut the
i gnetic curves on the same side with it, the current will
from P' to N'. If the wire be considered a tangent to
I curved surface of the cylindrical magnet, and it be car-
II ‘ r°und that surface into any other position, or if the
1 gnet itself be revolved on its axis, so as to bring any
1 t opposite to the tangential wire ; still, if afterw ards the
v e be moved in the directions indicated, the current of
L ctricity will be from P to N; or if it be moved in the
(>osite direction, from N to P ; so that as regards the mo-
1 is of the wire past the pole, they may be reduced to two,
1 -ctly opposite to each other, one of which produces a
C ^rom P to N, and the other from N to P.
he same holds true of the unmarked pole of the mag-
| »except that if it be substituted for the one in the
,ire’ then, as the wires are moved in the direction of
arrows, the current of electricity would be from N to
691
P, and wiien they move in the reverse direction, from P Magneto-
to ?S. Electricity.
“Hence the current of electricity which is excited in'"-
metal when moving in the neighbourhood of a magnet, de¬
pends for its direction altogether upon the relation of the
metal to the resultant of magnetic action, or to the mag¬
netic curves, and may be expressed in a popular wav, thus :
Let AB (fig. 75) r
represent a cy- Fig. 75.
Under magnet, A
being the mark¬
ed pole, and B
the unmarked
pole ; let PN be
a silver knife-
blade resting a-
cross the magnet,
with its edge up¬
ward, and with
its marked or notched side towards the pole A ; then in
whatever direction or position this knife be moved edge
foremost, either about the marked or the unmarked pole,
the current of electricity produced will be from P to N,
provided the intersected curves proceeding from A abut
upon the notched surface of the knife, and those from
B upon the unnotched side. Or, if the knife be moved
with its back foremost, the current will be from N to P
in every possible position and direction, provided the
intersected curves abut on the same surfaces as before.
A little model is easily constructed, by using a cylinder of
wood for a magnet, a flat piece for the blade, and a piece
of thread connecting one end of the cylinder with the other,
and passing through a hole in the blade, for the magnetic
curves; this readily gives the result of any possible direction.
“ When the wire under induction is passing by an elec¬
tro-magnetic pole, as for instance, one end of a copper
helix traversed by the electric current the direction of
the current in the approaching wire is the same with that
of the current in the parts or sides of the spirals nearest to
it, and in the receding ware the reverse of that in the parts
nearest to it.
“ All these results show that the power of inducing
electric currents is circumferentially exerted by a magnetic
resultant, or axis of power, just as circumferential mag¬
netism is dependent on, and is exhibited by an electric
current.”3
Dr Faraday has made several experiments with the large
compound magnet of Dr G. Knight, belonging to the Royal
Society, and consisting of 450 bar magnets, each 15 inches
long. The electrical effects which it exhibited were very
striking. When a soft iron cylinder, 13 inches long,
was put through the compound hollow helix, with its ends
arranged as two general terminations, and these connected
with the galvanometer ; then, when the iron cylinder was
brought in contact with the two poles of the magnet, so
powerful a rush of electricity took place, that the needle
whirled round many times in succession. When Dr Fara¬
day brought the helix alone near to or between the poles,
the needle was thrown 80°, 90°, or more, from its natural
position.
Dr Faraday failed in obtaining evidence of chemical
decomposition by the magnet, or any sensation on the
tongue, or any effect on a frog, but he afterwards, by an
armed loadstone of Professor Daniell’s, lifting 30 pounds,
not only thought that he perceived a sensation on the
tongue, and a flash before the eyes, but was able to produce
a very powerful convulsion in the limbs of a frog, every
pXPenmental Researches, p. 11, or Phil. Trans. 1832, p.
t y magnetic curves, I mean the lines of magnetic forces, however modified by the juxtaposition of poles, which would be depicted by
1 Mugs, or those to which a very small magnetic needle would form a tangent. 3 Experimental Researches pp. 32, 34..
692
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
a magnet.
Magneto- time that magnetic contact was made, the convulsive effect
Electricity, increasing with the suddenness with which the contact was
broken and restored.
Dr Faraday, as we have now seen, was the first person
nock from w^° obtained, in November 1831, the electric spark from a
magnet. The spark which he obtained was got from a soft
iron magnet, made by the influence of a voltaic current.
Professor Nobili1 and Antinori afterwards obtained the elec¬
tric spark from a soft iron magnet, made by the influence of
a common artificial magnet; and Professor Forbes (March
1832) obtained the electric spark from a soft iron magnet,
made by the influence of a natural loadstone.2 The method
adopted by Professor Forbes is shewn in fig. 76, where A is
Rotatory
magneto-
dectric
apparatus.
Fig. 76.
a suspended natural magnet. A cylindrical keeper or arma¬
ture,* has a helix, c, coiled round it, about 7b inches
long, and consisting of about 150 feet of copper wire, about
1 -20th of an inch in diameter; the helix consisted of four layers
in thickness, separated by insulating partitions of cloth and
sealing wax. The branch bde of the wire terminates in the
bottom of the glass tube h, containing mercury, with a pure
surface. The other branch f of the helix communicates by
means of the mercury cup i, with the iron wire g, the fine
point of which is brought by the hand into contact with the
surface of the mercury in h. and is separated from it the in¬
stant the keeper ab is brought into contact with the poles
of the magnet; the spark is then produced in the tube h.5
That the action of magneto-electricity is the converse of
that of electro-magnetism, is well shown in the rotatory ap¬
paratus in fig. 77.
Fig. 77.
It consists of a
copper disc C, re¬
volving round a
horizontal axis by
means of the han¬
dle H. A power¬
ful horse-shoe
magnet, AB, is so
placed that the
edge of the disc C,
can revolve be¬
tween its poles
n, s. Two conducting wires w, ?//, are so placed, that two
of their extremities terminate in the mercury cups of a gal¬
vanometer g, while the other end of the first is kept in
perfect metallic contact with the axis, and the other end
of the second is in contact with the circumference of the
disc at the point between the poles n and s of the magnet.
When this disc revolves from right to left, an electric
current proceeding from the centre to the circumference
of the disc, is generated in the direction of the curves, and
the needle of the galvanometer is deflected. If the disc
revolve from left to right, the electric current moves in the
opposite direction.
For further information on the subject of magneto-el
trie induction, see Mr Faraday’s recent papers in the Ari
notes de Chimie et de Physique, tom. li. p. 404, &Ct
and Ed. Phil. Mag. October and November 1840, vol.xvii
p. 281 and 356, and Dr Golding Bird’s Elements of Nahi
ral Philosophy, Lond. 1839, p. 243.
2
Description of Magneto-Electric Apparatus.
After Dr Faraday’s great discovery of magneto-electric'L
and volta-eleclric induction, various machines were cun '
structed for experimental investigation and exhibition. M
Hippolyte Pixii of Paris exhibited to the Academy 0f
Sciences in 1832, his magneto-electric machine. A power¬
ful magnet was made to revolve with great rapidity before
its keeper or armature, which had round it a coil of copper
wire about three thousand feet long. By this means sparks
and severe shocks were obtained, a feeble charge was ac¬
cumulated in a Leyden phial, the gold leaves of an electro¬
meter were made to diverge, and water was decomposed.
A very ingenious and complete machine was exhibited
by Mr Saxton, at the meeting of the British Association in'
June 1833, as shewn in fig.
aitot'i
line.
Fig. 78.
78. The magnet A is a
horse-shoe one of great
power, composed of many
steel plates, closely applied
to each other, or it may be a
soft iron electro magnet of
the same shape. A keeper,
CD, of the purest soft iron,
has each of its ends bent in¬
to a right angle, and is so
mounted that the surfaces of
their ends are exactly oppo-  
site and close to the poles of the magnet. In this position
the keeper CD may be made to revolve round the horizon¬
tal axis EF, by means of the wheels C and E, and band
GE fixed to the upright pillar B. Hound each end, C, D,
of the keeper, are coiled two series of copper wires, cover¬
ed with silk, so as to form compound helices. The ends
of these wares, w'hich have the same direction, are joined
together, and are likewise connected with a circular disc,
revolving with the keeper in a cup of mercury, with which
in every position of the disc it is in metallic communica¬
tion. The other ends of the w ires are joined, and passing
together without metallic contact through the spindle El,
terminate in a slip of copper, with two opposite points, as
at i, at right angles to the axis. These points alternately
dip into, and rise above the mercury, in another cup, K,
which may be connected with the first by means of a cop¬
per wire. Now, whenever the ends of the keeper are op¬
posite the poles of the magnet, the keeper becomes a tem¬
porary magnet, and it ceases to be so when the line joining
them is at right angles to the line joining the two poles
The instantaneous generation and extinction of the mag¬
netic force, which takes an opposite direction in the keeper
according as its opposite ends are close to the same poms,
and induce corresponding opposite electric currents in die
copper wire, provided the circuit is complete by the immer¬
sion of the points at i. The arrangement of the pointsat |
is such, that they just rise from the mercury as the ends
the keeper come opposite to the poles of the magnet;
hence the sudden breach of the circuit makes the curren
pass in the form of a brilliant spark. If a fine platinum
wire, instead of the dipping points, forms the communication
between the revolving disc and spindle, it may be kept a
a red heat, its light slightly intermitting from the alterna
of the currents. If a communication is fbrmtu “
tion
Ann. de Chim. December 1831, and Antologia, November 1831.
8ee Phil. Mag. June 1832, p. 401, and Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. November 1834.
3 Edin Trans, vol. xm
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
693
tven the two cups of mercury by two copper cylinders
. er ped in the hands, a strange sort of shock will be expe-
'ri' Ced, which is sometimes almost intolerable. Chemical
(li impositions are also readily effected, and the amount
w be proportioned to the quantity of electricity in circu-
'a 'he magneto-electric machine has been greatly improved
Mr E. M. Clarke, magnetical instrument maker, Lon-
d( It is represented in fig. 79, where A is the battery
oi ent bar magnets rest-
in against the vertical Fig. 79.
b< rd B, and by means of
a ir of brass C, with a
hi and screw-wheel,the
m;nets can be drawn
fn dy to the board B, or
ta ,n from it. One of
tl keepers or armatures
E s screwed into a brass
mjidrill between the
pi:s of the magnets, and
it made to revolve by
tl multiplying wheel E.
7 s armature has two
ci s of fine copper wire
1, 0 yards long wrapped
ri nd its cylinders, the
b inning of each coil
b ig soldered to the
a iature D, from which
a i projects a brass stem carrying the break piece H, which
c be fastened in any required position by a binding screw.
/ mllow brass cylinder K, to which the ends of the coils
a soldered, being insulated by means of a piece of hard
v )d attached to the brass stem. An iron wire spring O
p sses at one end against the cylinder K, and is kept in
c tact with it by a screw in a brass strap M in the wooden
1 ck L. A square brass pillar P fits also a square opening
i he other brass strap N on the other side of the block L.
/metallic spring Q, rubs gently upon the break piece H,
s I is retained in perfect metallic contact with it by a screw
i the pillar P, the two straps of brass M, N, are connect-
c by a piece of copper wire T, and in this state the parts
1 H, Q, P, N are in connexion with the commencement
c each coil, and the parts K, O, M with the termination of
i ;h coil. The perfect metallic contact thus obtained by
t ■ spring and break, enables Mr Clarke to dispense entire-
I with the use of mercury, which is at all times a trouble-
5 ne accompaniment of machinery,
but the great superiority of Mr Clarke’s machine arises
1 in his employing two different armatures, and thus being
i ibled to produce the separate effects of quantity and in-
1 isity to the full extent of the power of his battery.
I 'Ving, in November 1834, tried the effects of coils of wire
(j different thicknesses, he found that the thick copper bell
' o gave brilliant sparks, but no perceptible shock, while
’ y fine wire gave powerful shocks, but very feeble sparks.
means of the intensity armature, which is that shewn in
* 79, the various experiments made with a number of
s arate galvanic plates may be performed, while the in-
’ <se agony produced by its shocks is intolerable: It can, at
t' same time, electrify the most nervous person without
| 'asioning the least uneasiness. It decomposes water and
neutral salts. It deflects the gold leaves of the electro-
s pe, charges the Leyden jar; and by an arrangement of
es from the mercury box to the battery, the electricity is
de visible, passing from the magnetic battery to the ar-
''ire, and sparks and brilliant scintillations of steel can be
S nined.
armature.
The quantity armature differs greatly from the inten- Magneto-
sity one, as is shewn in fig. 80, which exhibits the method Electricity,
of producing the
spark. The Fig. 80. Quantity
weightoftheiron
in the cylinders
is much great¬
er than in the
intensity one,
the copper wire
is much thicker,
and its length
is only forty
yards. By this
armature all the
experiments can
be made which
are usually per¬
formed by a sin¬
gle pair of vol¬
taic plates of
large surfaces, or by a calorimotor; but it will not do for
any of the intensity experiments. It produces such large
and brilliant sparks, that a person can read small print from
the light it produces. It ignites gunpowder and platina wire,
without enclosing the wire in a hermetically sealed glass
case. It deflagrates gold and silver leaf, and produces
brilliant scintillations from a small steel file. It produces
also rotatory motions in delicately suspended wire frames
round the poles of a vertical horse-shoe magnet,1 and all
the other effects of voltaic electricity. MrClarke’s
Several very curious and unexpected results were ob-j^^ ma_
tained on a magneto-electric machine of very large dimen-
sions, which Mr Clarke exhibited at the meeting of the
Electrical Society. The battery was separated into two
parts connected by the armatures, the quantity armature
being at one side, and the intensity one at the other. The
quantity armature had a short coil of thick insulated cop¬
per wire, and the intensity one had 15,375 yards of fine
copper wire. The intensity arrangement, to the surprise of
every body, gave no decomposition, but gave an excru¬
ciating, and even dangerous shock, while the quantity ar¬
rangement gave one cubic inch of the mixed gases in four
minutes. Considering these unexpected results as owing
to a compound action produced by the rotation of the two
armatures, he arranged the magnets as in his first machines,
the only difference being in the size of the new machine,
and in the armatures being moved by a crank and treadles.
The battery was composed of ten cut and polished steel
bars, each four feet long, the whole weighing 156 lbs. Ac¬
cording to Mr Noad,2 the novel results of the experiments
were the great amount of gas given by the quantity arma¬
ture, viz. one cubic inch in one and a half minutes, and the
trifling decomposing effect of tlie intensity armature. The
intensity spark was long, straggling, and noiseless, like a
spark at the striking distance from the prime conductor of
an electrical machine, while the quantity spark had the
usual stellar form, but was attended with a loud snapping
noise, as in the discharge of a Leyden jar. Both the sparks,
however, were equally luminous. By employing a second¬
ary coil, Mr Noad has given shocks with the quantity ar¬
mature, almost as powerful as those obtained from the in¬
tensity one, by using the form of coil first proposed by Pro¬
fessor Callan of Maynooth, and the contact-breaker of Dr
Golding Bird.
The following arrangement (fig. 81)for producing powerful Dr Bird’s
shocks, and strong chemical action by secondary currents, method of
was first given by Dr Golding Bird. Upon a reel, with ah,'eakinS
hollow axis three inches long, wound about 60 feet of cop-LOntacu
' «e Loud, and Edin. Phil. Mug., Oct. 1836, No. 54, vol. ix. p. 262, and Noad’s Lectures, p. 344.
Lectures on Electricity, p. 352.
694
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Magneto- per wire, IVth
Electricity, thread. The
inch in diameter, covered with cotton
two ends of the wire are connected with
jo.p', by means of binding screws. Over this primary coil
sf is wound a second insulated copper wire, ^th inch in dia-
breaking0 niet'er> an^ &bout 1500 feet long, and the two ends of this
contact. w^re are connected with s, s', by means of binding screws.
From the law of electro-dynamic induction, it is evident
Fig. 81.
that, if the ends p,p, of the thick coil are
connected with a single pair of voltaic ele¬
ments, as at a, a current of electricity is set
in motion in the thin coil, and, in breaking
contact, a second current in another direction
traverses the same coil, sufficiently intense to
give a powerful shock, by grasping the handles
d, d, communicating with the extremities s, s',
of the thin coil. The intensity of the second¬
ary or reduced current is greatly increased, by inserting a
bar i, of soft wire, or what is better, a bundle of soft iron
wires in the hollow axis of the steel, which becomes mag¬
netic.
The ingenious method of breaking contact in this arrange¬
ment, which we owe to Dr Golding Bird, though shewn in
fig. 81, is more
distinctly re- Fig. 82.
presented in
fig. 82. It con¬
sists of a base
of wood, eight
inches long and
three broad,
having at both
ends a piece of
hard wood, A,
B, each piece
having two
holes excavated in it to hold mercury. The holes in A
communicate with those in B, by thick copper wires D, D.
A piece of soft iron wire EF, five inches long, and one-
eighth inch diameter, supported with screws with milled
heads, moves in a vertical plane upon the upright stem C.
Round the wire EF are wound two helices of thin insu¬
lated copper wire in the same direction from right to left,
so that the two ends of one helix may terminate in the
copper points G, H, and those of the other in the points
KNL. The small ho'c&e-shoepermanent magnets, shewn in
fig. 82, are fixed on proper supports, near the ends of the
bar EF, so that in depressing the end F of the bar, it may
be opposite one, suppose the south pole of one magnet, and
consequently the end E will be opposite the other, the
north pole of the second magnet. On raising the end F,
the contrary will take place, and to effect this the similar
poles of the magnet should be in the same direction. Up¬
on connecting the mercury cups in A or B, as shewn in
. %
• s.
fig. 81, with the small voltaic battery at a, the wire EF H
become a temporary magnet, if the ends of either her
are allowed to dip in the mercury; and if connection with i ''
the battery is properly made, the ends or poles of the tem ^
porary magnet will be repelled by the poles of the per
manent magnet to which they are opposed; the bar EF
will therefore move, and make the ends of the second he
lix dip in the other cups of mercury,—repulsion will again
take place, and so on ;—in this way, about 300 oscillations
of EF can be obtained in a minute* Upon connecting the
ends p, p, of the thick helix with a single voltaic pair, by
means of this contact-breaker, a series of powerful induced
currents will be obtained from the extremities s, s1 *, of the
larger helix. This connection is best made, as in tig. 82,
where R is a section of the reel, S one end of the short
helix, connected with a cup of mercury in the piece B
Z the other end of the short helix, connected with one
plate of the battery, while the wire C connects the other
cup of mercury in B with the other plate of the voltaic
pair. When the points G, H, K, L, leave the mercury, very
brilliant sparks are produced. A loud snapping noise ac¬
companies them, and a vivid combustion of the mercury,
clouds of the oxide of mercury being largely evolved. If
the ends P, R, fig. 82, or s, s', fig. 81, have platinum points,
and are immersed in water, acidulated with sulphuric acid,
torrents of minute bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen are
evolved; and if, instead of water, the points are pressed
upon paper, moistened with iodide of potassium, iodine and
oxide of potassium are separated. Solutions of sulphate
of potash and soap, chloride of potassium, sodium, antimo¬
ny, and copper, are also rapidly decomposed. Dr Page
was the first person who suggested the application of per¬
manent magnets for the purpose of breaking contact,
though Dr Bird afterwards, and without knowing this,
made the same application.1
We shall now conclude this chapter with a brief notice Lr,.t
of some very recent investigations of Dr Draper of New
York, on the electromotive power of heat. The apparatus
which he employed is shewn in fig. 83, where AA is a
Fig. 83.
glass vessel about three inches in diameter, with a neck
wide enough to receive a mercurial thermometer J, and the
extremity of a pair of thermo-electric wires about a foot
long, and the -j^th of an inch in diameter, soldered aU
with hard solder. The free extremities of these wires dip
into the glass cups d, d, filled with mercury, and immersed
in a trough e, containing water and pounded ice. B)
means of the copper wires f f £th of an inch in diameter,
the apparatus is connected with the mercury cups of the
galvanometer, the coil of wdiich is of copper wire, Jth o
an inch thick, and making only twelve turns round the ae
tatic needles, whose deviations are determined by the tor¬
sion of a glass thread, as invented by Dr Ritchie. ^‘ien
a copper and iron wire are used, they indicate temperatures
with a promptitude and accuracy quite surprising.
1 See Lend, and Edin. Phil. Mag., Jan. 1838, vol. xii. p. 18; Noad’s Lectures, p 364; and Dr Golding Bird’s Elements of Nat
Phil. chap. xvii.
—
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
uf (t this apparatus, the vessel AA is filled two-thirds with
st, the bulb of the thermometer being in the middle of
yggse], and the soldered extremity s of the wires in con-
ta with it. The wiresare then placed in the cups, and
ti trough e filled with water and pounded ice, and carefully
Si ounded with flannel. The water in AA is then brought
tc he boiling point with a spirit-lamp, and kept at that
u perature till the astatic needles and thermometer are
st dy. For temperatures above 212°, Dr Draper substi-
tl ,s for the glass vessel a tubulated retort containing
(ji ksilver. Dr Draper’s experiments were all made with
tl metals in the form of wires, and he obtained the fol¬
ic ing general results:—
. Equal increments of heat do not set in motion equal
q' ntities of electricity.
1The tension undergoes a slight increase with increase
o emperature.
The quantity of electricity evolved at any given tem-
p Rure is independent of the amount of heated surface,
CHAP. IV.—ON THERMO-ELECTRICITY.
695
Thermo-¬
Electricity.
While investigating the influence of heat in voltaic com- Seebeck’s
binations, Dr Seebeck of Berlin was led to the important discoveries
discovery that magnetism was developed in two metals
forming a circuit, when the equilibrium of temperature in
that circuit was disturbed.
If A B C D, for example, fig. 85, be a
metallic circuit, consisting of an arch of
bismuth, ABC, and an arch of copper,
ADC, then if one of the junctions, A, is
heated, an electrical current is established,
passing into the heated junction from the
bismuth to the copper. From many ex¬
periments, Dr Seebeck found that, in vari¬
ous circuits formed with bismuth and other
metals, the current always passes from the bismuth to the
other metals, the bismuth losing positive electricity, or
abint being as efficacious as an indefinitely extended sur- becoming negative with all the other metals
fife.
, The quantities of electricity evolved in a pile of
p;“g is directly proportional to the number of the ele-
ra its.
)r Draper has been led to the following forms of con-
s iction, which give peculiar advantages to thermo-elec-
t combinations.
n fig. 84, A, let a be a bar of an-
t ony, and b one of bismuth, sol-
d ed at c d, and let the temperature
t raised at d, a current is excited,
v ich does not pass round the bars
t, but in a shorter and readier
p h, through the metals between c
t circulating as shewn by the arrows.
The order of the metals, beginning with galaena, in
which they are negative in reference to those which pre¬
cede them, is given in the following table, which, excep¬
ting some additions and alterations, was drawn up by Pro¬
fessor Oersted.
Fig. 84, A.
‘v'V~v1
rvVI
Q
The combination A
Fig. B.
Nor will the whole
c rent pass round the bars till the temperature of the sol
(:ied surface has become uniform,
v 1 therefore be improved, by giving
in he form in fig. B, a part being cut
< at the dotted lines. In this form
t whole current will be immedi-
t ly forced to pass along the bars,
i 1 in such a pair the temperature
ill change very quickly. Dr Dra-
] • considers the form in fig. C, as
i ‘ best for a thermo-electric couple,
this form a is a semi-cylindrical bar of
imony, b one of bismuth, united to-
! ;her by the opposite corners of a lo-
: Ige-shaped piece of copper c. From
i extent of surface, the copper becomes
idily hot and cold, and may be made
7 thin. With a pair of bars, three-fourths of an inch thick,
d a circular copper plate c, with both surfaces blackened,
' Draper repeated the greater part of those experiments,
'ich M. Mellon! made with his multiplier. Dr Draper
md that thermo-electric currents, evolved by pairs of dif-
Copper placed here by Professor
Gumming.
Silver purified by cupellation,and
also that produced from the
chloride.
Uranium.
Molybdenium.
Rhodium.
Iridium.
Zinc, pure and that occurring in
trade.
Wolfram.
Cadmium.
Charcoal.
Plumbago.
Steel.
Iron, pure iron and that occur¬
ring in trade.
Arsenic.
Antimony.
Tellurium.
Galaena placed above bismuth by
Professor Gumming.
Bismuth.
Mercury placed here by Profes¬
sor Gumming, but beside lead
by Oersted.
Nickel.
Platinum, very variable in its
results.
Palladium.
Cobalt.
Uranium.
Manganese.
Titanium.
Tin, English and Bohemian.
Lead,1 pure lead and that occur¬
ring in trade.
Brass, different specimens give
different results.
Gold purified by antimony, Oer¬
sted, and also that reduced
from the oxide.
Although Dr Seebeck found that most of the metals
which stand near each other in the above series produce
feeble thermo-electricity, and those more distant a more
powerful effect, yet this law did not always hold. Tet-
lurium, for example, is less thermo-electric with bismuth,
and most of the other metals, than antimony is; and with
silver it is more effective than most of the metals above it.
Antimony, too, is more effective with cadmium than with
mercury; while iron is very feebly thermo-electric with
most of the other metals, especially nickel and cobalt.
The effects of the sulphurets Dr Seebeck found to be
   ^      remarkable. Sulphuret of lead becomes negative even in
1 ent rnTtaEdo” nor^ffeT specTficallyrhke' the “rays of contact with the bismuth. The sulphurets ofiron,arsemc,
i In and heat» 1 cobalt and arsenic, and copper, all of which have a maxi-
We regret 'that our limits do not permit us to give an mum of sulphur, stand near to bismutfr; while ^
-ount of some interesting experiments of Mr Noad, on phurets, wit i a of sul^^h ^ &
a place even below antimony
Fig. C.
1 xmnt of some interesting experiments
1; effects of strong and weak electrical currents,2 on long power as antimony. I ne s
t coils of considerable breadth of surface, and of vari- mum of su P ur> occupies ctand above his
I’iw
1 See Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., June 1840, vol. xvi. p. 451.
3 Professor Daniel places lead before tin.
3 Lectures, p. 356.
J
696
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Thermo- and the conducting power of the metals perform a part in
Electricity. the thermo-electric phenomena; but this is not established
by observations yet made.
The following table, by Professor Gumming, shews the metals
relations of the thermo-electric and voltaic series, and f
the series of conductors of heat and electricity. To th ° ll
we have added two columns on the optical properties oftl^
Thermo-Electric Series. Voltaic series by acids.
SERIES OF CONDUCTORS.
Of Electricity, Of Heat.
try. )
1- i
-}
Galaena.
Bismuth
Mercury.
Nickel
Platinum.
Palladium
Cobalt.
Manganese
Tin.
Lead.
Brass.
Rhodium.
Gold.
Copper.
Silver.
Zinc.
Cadmium.
Charcoal. 1
Plumbago, j
Iron.
Arsenic.
Antimony.
Potassium.
Borium.
Zinc.
Cadmium.
Tin.
Iron.
Bismuth.
Antimony.
Lead.
Copper.
Silver.
Palladium.
Tellurium.
Gold.
Charcoal.
Platinum.
Iridium.
Rhodium.
Silver.
Copper.
Lead.
Gold.
Brass. £•
Zinc, j
Tin.
Platinum.
Palladium.
Iron.
Silver.
Gold.
Tin.
Copper.
Platinum.
Iron.
Lead.
Order of Metals in their
degrees of Elliptical
Polarization, l
Pure silver.
Common silver.
Fine gold.
Jeweller’s gold.
Grain tin.
Brass.
Tin plate.
Copper.
Mercury.
Platina.
Bismuth.
Speculum metal.
Zinc.
Steel.
Iron pyrites.
Antimony.
Arsenical cobalt.
Cobalt.
Lead.
Galsena.
Specular iron.
Order of Metals in their Re.
tractive Power.
Grain tin,2
Mercury.
Galtena.
Iron pyrites.
Grey cobalt.
Speculum metal.
Antimony, melted.
Steel.
Bismuth.
Pure silver.
Zinc.
Iron plate, hammered.
Jeweller’s gold.
Binary
combina¬
tions.
The structure or the crystalline arrangement of the par¬
ticles of bodies seems to exercise some influence over their
thermo-electric powers. In a thermo-electric combination
of zinc and silver, for example, the electricity increases with
the temperature up to about 250° of Fahrenheit, when it
ceases altogether, and by increase of temperature the elec¬
tric current is re-established in an opposite direction.
In order to measure the thermo-electric power of differ¬
ent binary combinations of metals, from the same differ¬
ences of temperature, a compound circuit must be formed
of all those which we desire to compare. The junctions of
the metals must be kept at the temperature of melting
ice, excepting the junction which is to be made active,
and which is to be plunged into hot oil. In this way the
mere conducting power of the circuit is the same in every
experiment, and the results obtained become strictly com¬
parable.
The following table, given by Becquerel,3 exhibits
the quantities of the currents for a difference of tempera¬
ture of 36°, of pairs of eight metals differently arranged.
The lengths of the metals were 7’88 inches, and their dia¬
meter about the 200th of an inch. The sign -|- indicates
the metal from which the electric current proceeds.
Thermo-Electric Power of Different Metallic Couples.
+ Iron and — tin  68°
+ Copper and — platinum  68
+ Iron and — copper ...
+ Silver and — copper ,
+ Iron and — silver 
+ Iron and — platinum
+ Copper and — tin ...
+ Zinc and —copper ...
+ Silver and — gold ....
Tempera¬
ture of
junction.
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
Deviation of
needle.
36-°50
16- 60
34- 50
00
00
00
00
00
00
Intensity of
currents.
31-
8-
>24
55
27- 96
2* 00
26- 20
36- 07
3- 50
1- 00
0* 50
If we compare the numbers in the last column, we shall
find, as M. Becquerel states, that, for a temperature of 36°,
each metal acquires such a degree of thermo-electric
1 See Phil. Trans. 1830, p. 294. 2 Id. p. 324.
4 Biblioth. Univers. tom. xxxvii. p. 54.
power that the intensity of the current, produced by the
contact of the two metals, is equal to the difference of the
quantities which represent each of these actions in each
metal. Thus, if we call the potver of each metal p, we
shall have, in the case of the iron and copper junction,
p. iron —p. platina = 36*07. Substracting the first from the
second, we have p. copper —p. platina = 8*11, instead of
8*66, given by experiment. The iron and tin junction
gives 31*24, and that of copper and tin 3*50. The differ¬
ence in that of iron and copper is thus 27*74, in place of
27*96 by experiment. The intensity of the thermo-elec¬
tric current being, therefore, equal to the difference of the
thermo-electric action produced in each metal by the same
temperature, we shall obtain the powers of each ot these
metals as follows: Calling the power, or thermo-electric
action of iron at 36° Fahrenheit, x, we shall have,
p. Iron x p. Copper   — 27'96
p. Silver x — 26*20 p. Tin    3I'21
p. Gold x — 26*70 p. Platina  36*
p. Zinc x — 26*96
Hence, if x were known, we should obtain p upon the
supposition that the thermo-electric powers are propor¬
tional to the radiating powers of the metals. M. Becquerel
has obtained the following numbers :—
Th?0sKr“,t
Iron 5*
Silver  4*07
Gold 4*052
Zinc  4*035
Thermo-Electric
Metals. powers.
Copper J
Tin  .
Platina ’3b8
These values will suit any thermo-electric circuit,
cases where the thermo-electric power increases with t ie
temperature, that is for all temperatures below 122° I a1-
renheit.
M. Nobili4 formed similar circuits, with substances w i^e
conducting power was inferior to that of the metals. na'
ing made cylinders of porcelain clay, about two and a
inches long, and three and a half lines in diameter, hecoi
ed round the ends of each of them cotton steeped in aeon
ducting liquid, by which they were made to commumca
directly with the galvanometer.
re maue
One end of the cylinder
3 Traite Exp. de L’Electricite, tom. ii- P*
53.
er One side of the hexagon was placed in the magnetic
diction, and a compass put below it. One of the junc-
tid; was then heated, then two, not adjacent, then three, al-
wai leaving one junction not heated between the two heat¬
ed les. By heating one junction the needle deviated some
de. ees, still more by heating tivo, and still more by heat-
inp three junctions. When three junctions w'ere cooled
wi ice, the other three having the ordinary temperature
of ie atmosphere, effects still more distinct were produc¬
ed When three alternate junctions were heated, and the
ot! r three cooled with ice, the needle deviated sixty de-
gns.
i a rectangular circuit, with twenty-two bars of anti-
mey, and twenty-two of bismuth soldered together, the
sat! effects w'ere obtained. After dissolving one of the
ju tions, a little mercury cup was soldered to each of the
di: ined bars, so that the circuit could be re-established
by ifferent means. A copper wire, four inches long, and
1- th of an inch in diameter nearly re-established the
Client; and it was comj)letely re-established by two paral¬
lel lieces of the same wire. A wire of the same diame-
tei but three feet long, was found a tolerably good con-
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 697
W brought to a point, and after it was made red hot by When one of the junctions in fig. 86 was heated or cooled, Thermo-
•a lamp, he pressed it against the cold extremity of and two of the junctions at the extremities of the diagonals E1ectricity.
'thother cylinder, when he found that a current was esta- in fig. 87, heated or cooled to the same degree the devia s—-
blued from the hot extremity to the cold one. This ef- tion of the needle was 22° in the first case and 30° in the
ft. as M.Becquerel states, arises from the mutual reaction second.
offie two portions of water of different temperatures. In like manner, open circuits, as in figs. 88 89 havine
did not escape the sagacity of Dr Seebeck, that the each the same & > > g
th mo-electric current might be increased, by forming a length, but Fig. 88.
co pound thermo-electric current, and arranging the me- double that of
ta.c couples in a series analogous to those in the voltaic the preceding
cinit. Having met, however, with some obstacles in two, had, the
th part of his inquiry, he discontinued the investigation, one one junc-
wl,h was taken up without their knowing that he had en- tion, and the
te d upon it, by Baron Fourier, and Professor Oersted, other three
T y first employed a hexagonal combination of three junctions, heat-
pitjes of bismuth, and three of antimony, soldered togeth- or cooled equal¬
ly, the first gave
a deviation of a
about 14°, and Fig. 89.
the other nearly
32°.
“ In several
complex circuits,”
says Professor
Oersted,1 “ it is
found that the
heating or cool¬
ing of one junc¬
tion only produces tw ice the angular deviations of that add¬
ed by the addition of one active junction more. The effect
of one active junction, when the others are at rest, is, by
experiment, found to be twice the effect of all the arrange¬
ments divided by the sum of the elements -f- one. The effect
of each addition of a new active junction is only half this
quantity, and seems even to be in a decreasing ratio wrhen
the number of junctions is great.”
From these and other observations, it appears that the
^ thermo-electric current produces a prodigious quantity of
(In or; but a platina wire, about sixteen inches long, and electricity, but in a state of very feeble intensity, while
1-th of an inch in diameter, scarcely transmitted athe voltaic current has a very great intensity. The for-
ewartofthe effect. Acids, and solutions of alkalies, and mer is impaired by the resistance opposed to it by a long
ot r metallic oxides, though good conductors in the vol- multiplying wire, while the latter is increased in surmount-
ta or hydro-electric circuit, insulated entirely the thermo- ing this resistance. M. Pouillet has endeavoured to com- m poll^
( I' ric current. The same effect was produced by two pare the intensity of these two currents, by passing the hy-let’s re-
di > of silver, separated by the thinnest blotting paper, dro-electric current through a platinum wire long enough to searches,
m tened with sulphate of copper. In these experiments, reduce it to an intensity which will just balance the thermo-
di ntensest current produced no chemical effects, no ig- electric current. In one case he found that 590 feet of
n of the wires, and no electric condensation ; but a platinum wire, -006 of an inch in diameter, including the
ured frog was made to palpitate. resistance of the battery, reduced a hydro-electric current,
thermo-electric currents, which differ only in lengths, produced by twelve pair of plates with double coppers, to
shortest is the most powerful, a circuit of double an equilibrium with that of one thermo-electric pair of bis-
th
th having little more than half the effect. In order to muth and copper, in a circuit of 65*6 feet of copper wire,
fii the law of increased effect, as depending on the num- *039 of an inch in diameter, with a difference of tempera-
Nff junctions, Professor Oersted composed circuits of ture of 76° Fahrenheit. By computing the rotation be-
etil 1 length with different numbers of junctions. tween the electro-motive forces and the resistance in these
^ %• 86, is shewn a simple circuit consisting of one two cases, he found that the hydro-electric current had an
« a, of antimony, and one, h h, of bismuth, and in fig. intensity 114,000 times greater than that of a single pair of
i complex circuit of the same length and materials, bismuth and copper, produced by a difference of tempera¬
ture, between the two junctions, of 108° of Fahrenheit.'2
In order to compare the conductibility of metals for Conducti-
thermo-electro currents, M. Pouillet5 employed two equal bility of
thermo-electric currents. The first was weakened by metals for
making it traverse the metallic wire submitted to experi- ^enno-
ment, and the secotid was weakened precisely the same t
quantity, by traversing lengths, more or less great, of an¬
other wire, which served as the term of comparison. The
following table shews the results of this comparison, the
conductibility of pure mercury being reckoned 100.
Fig. 86.
Fig. 87.
T
Wflf
'Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, Art. Thermo-Electricity, vol. xviii- p. 585.
Elem. Phys. Exp. liv. v. chap. v. § 4-26.
'L- XIi.
2 Becquerel’s Traitd, tom. v. p. 27.
4 T
698
Thermo-
Electricity.
Conducti-
bility of
metals for
thermo¬
electricity.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
Names of Sub¬
stances.
Palladium 
Silver 983, pure.
_ 900 
— 857 
— 747 
Gold, pure 
- 951 
- 751  
Copper, pure ....
- unmelted.
Platinum 
Brass 
Steel, melted
Iron.
Diameter
of wire.
Millim.
0-176
0-174
0-194
0 178
0-179
0-176
0-176
0-176
0-182
0-182
0-186
0-182
Length of wire submitted
to experiment.
Millim.
1900
2000
2000
1200
1200
1000
600
400
2000
2000
800
Millim.
1200
1500
1500
800
600
500
300
206
1000
1000
600
Millim.
500
200
200
400
500
500
300
Limits of conductibility.
Ditto
Ditto
ditto.
ditto.
Conductibi¬
lity, that of
mercury being
100.
5791
5152
4753
4221
3882
3975
1338
714
3838
3842
855
f 1260
4 900
j 800
\ 500
)' 700
t 650
Intensity of
thermo¬
electric
currents.
Hence it appears that 'palladium is the best conductor
of thermo-electricity, and mercury the worst, having sixty
times less conductibility than palladium. That which has
a slight effect on the conductibility of mercury produces a
prodigious variation in that of iron or steel. Even the heat
of the hand produces very sensible effects, and what M.
Pouillet justly thinks still more wonderful, the heating to
redness of some millimetres of the length of a wire of iron
or steel, is sufficient to make its conductibility three or four
times less.
When thermo-electric currents are produced by a single
element, and the thermo-electric power remains the same,
M. Pouillet found that the intensity of the current which
it produces, is inversely as the length of the circuit, and
directly as the conductibility of the wire or rod which forms
the current. He found, also, that in a thermo-electric cir¬
cuit, composed of wires of different sections, the elemen¬
tary force of the current is the same in all powers, if we
take equal intervals on these different wires the direct cur¬
rents will be found to have different intensities, which are
nearly in the inverse ratio of the sections of the wires in
the intervals of deviation. M. Pouillet succeeded, also, m
establishing the curious fact, which had been recognised
by M. Marianini,1 that several electric currents propagate
themselves in the interior of bodies, as if they were alone,
like light and heat.
The first persons who succeeded in constructing thermo¬
electric piles, were MM. Nobili and Melloni, who employ¬
ed them successfully in their experiments on radiant heat.
This instrument, however, has since been improved by
Melloni, and we shall, therefore, describe it in preference af-
Melloni’s. ter M. Becquerel. M. Melloni constructed his thermo-elec¬
tric pile of fifty small bars of bismuth and antimony placed
in a bundle, as shewn in fig. 90, the length of the bundle
Fig. 90>
Thermo.
electric
piles.
being 30 millimetres, and its section 96 centimetres square.
The two terminal faces are blackened. The bars of bis¬
muth, which alternate with those of antimony, are soldered a. me oamt — 
at their extremities, and separated throughout their whole bili’s galvanometer, a very energetic current was  ^
3 Bibliotfceque Uuivtrselle, Sept.
lengths by an insulating substance. The first and the last k.
bar have each attached to them a copper wire, abuttin - In!?'
against one of the pins c, c', of the same metal, passing'lyv
through a piece of ivory fixed in the ring A A'. The in J il
terval between the interior surface of this ring and the ele- l!l-
ments of the pile is filled with insulating matter. The
free extremities of the two wires communicate with the
ends of the wire of a multiplier, the needle of which indi-
cates when the temperature of the anterior face of the pile
rises or falls above that of the posterior face. Two metal¬
lic tubes B, B, polished without, and blackened within, are
fitted to the two ends of the pile, to protect them from la-
teral radiations. The
multiplier is shewn in Fig. 91.
fig. 91, where ABc is
the frame enveloped by
the copper wire, whose
extremities abut against
the metallic tubes FF\
fig. 92. This frame is
fixed on a horizontal
stage DE, which can
turn in its own plane,
and round its centre,
by means of a toothed
wheel and pinion placed
below, and moved by
the milled head G.
MN is the support of
the astatic system of the
two magnetic needles,
suspended by the silk fi¬
bre VL, and the cylinder
of glass RS covers the
apparatus, and rests on
the base KI. Fig. 92
is a section of the ap¬
paratus, by a plane
passing through the sup¬
port, and one of the
tubes of communica¬
tion. The needles are
53 millimetres long, the
diameter of the copper
wire is 0.76 mm., and it
is doubly covered with
silk, and makes 150 cir¬
cumvolutions round the
frame, which is 6 mil¬
limetres high, having
its length a little great¬
er than that of the
needles.2
W e have already seen
that thermo-electricity
possesses the same ge¬
neral characters as common and voltaic electricity- Altnoug
Oersted failed in obtaining chemical action from his tnermi
electric combinations, yet Professor Botto3 of Turin su sli j(jl
quently decomposed acidulated water. His apparatus coi ^
sisted of a metallic wire or chain, composed of 120 Pieces
platinum wire, each an inch long, and Togth of an me tCtrlcit).
diameter, alternately with the same number of piece8 0 ,
wire of the same dimensions. This chain was wrappe 8P‘
round a wooden rule 18 inches long, so that the join
placed alternately at each side of the ruler, rece mg ^
the wood at one side to the distance of four hnes.^ ^
using a spirit -lamp the same length as the helix, an
Fig. 92.
i Ann. de Chim., &c. tom. xlii. p. 131.
Becquerel’s Traite', &c. tom. iii. p. 425.
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY
699
and the decomposition of acidulated water mps in- found that electrical currents were generated whose direc- Thermo-
^ >d by substituting copper in place oi platinumqpoles, tions no longer followed thesimple law, butvaried in the most
case hydrogen only was set free. An increased singular and perplexing manner, passing first from the hotv^,V^*/
^ni aature augmented the current and the decomposition, to the cold wire, then by more heat from the cold to the
)t|.0 obtained still more powerful effects by a pile of hot, and by more heat still from the hot to the cold wire,
v,; ith and antimony, consisting of 140 elements forming Professor Andrews obtained similar currents, by inter¬
im illelopiped, with a base of 2] inches, and a height of posing certain minerals between unequally-heated platina
? r ^ wires. Mica, heated very strongly, caused a deflection in
/listinct electric spark has also been obtained from the the needle of 7°, and Stilbite a deflection of 25°, the cur-
lier 0_eiectric pile, by the Chevalier Antinori of Florence, rent being in both cases from the hot to the cold wire3.
Pro >sor Linari1 of Sienna verified this result with a No- Thermo-electric rotations were, we believe, first pro-Thermo-
bili’oile of 25 elements and temporary magnet, with an duced by Professor Gumming, by means of a very simple electric
elecb-dynamic spiral 805 feet long. With this appara- apparatus. He formed a rectangle of silver and platina, as r0tat'0,ls-
ur . . , , -n- .. — shewn in fig. 93. The three upper
sides are formed of silver, and the
lower of platina. When suspended, as
The same thermo- shewn in the figure, and when one of
the junctions was heated, it revolved
from left to right, when the pole of a
magnet was presented to another
junction. When the rectangle was J
suspended upon the loadstone itself, $
tus obtained a brilliant spark visible in open day, when-
evci he contact was broken. With this pile and tempe-
ratn s from freezing to boiling water, he readily decom¬
pose water, and also nitrate of silver,
electic current magnetised an unmagnetic needle, and
prm ced the phenomenon of the palpitation of mercury.
Prohsor Wheatstone verified these experiments in 1837,
by : hermo-electric pile of 33 elements of bismuth and
tnticny, forming a bundle three-fourths of an inch in diame¬
ter, id Uth long. The poles were connected by two thick and heat applied to one of the junc
wire with a spiral of copper ribbon 50 feet long and tions, the rectangle soon began to turn
inebroad the coils being insulated by brown paper and When a chain or wire, consisting of alternate links, or
silk, One face of the pile was heated by red-hot iron pieces of platinum and silver, is made part of the voltaic
broi ht near it, and the other cooled by ice. Two strong circuit, the links or portions of platinum wire will become
win connected the poles of the pile and the spiral, and red-hot, while those of silver remain dark, and compara-
tbe intact was broken, when necessary, in a mercury cup, tively cold.
beWen one extremity of the spiral and one of these wires. In studying the effects of thermo-electric currents, peltierV
A d inct spark was seen in open day whenever the con- M. Peltier made the interesting discovery, that coW, researches,
tact,as broken.2 instead of heat, is produced at the points of junction of
13 thermo-electric pile has been greatly improved by certain crystallisable metals. The instrument by which
Mr fatkins, who employs a flat copper ribbon coil. In he obtained these interesting results is shewn in fig. 94,
pilefarying from 15 to 30 pairs of elements, he obtains where A B are two
briliint sparks, by merely pouring hot water on one end, thermo-electric
whi ‘the other has the temperature of the air, couples in bis-
4 Hjfessor Andrews of Belfast has recently succeeded in muth and anti-
* dev< iping thermo-electric currents, by simply bringing mony, C a copper
two ctallic wires at different temperatures into contact wire which unites
“•*1 ^ i • ■ i - —j .1 : the antimony a'of
the upper couple
to the bismuth b
of the lower cou¬
ple. D, E, cop-
Fig. 94.
if,
witli, fused salt, between which and the wires no chemi¬
cal tion takes place. This result he first obtained by
mea of fused borax. He took two similar wires of pla-
tinaij.nd connected them with the extremities of the cop¬
per ire of one of Gourjon’s galvanometers, and fused a
sraai globule of borax in the flame of a spirit-lamp on the per wires corn-
free xtremity of one of the platina wires, and having in-^municating with
trod :ed tho free extremity of the other into the flame, he dhe galvanome-
brorht the latter, raised to a higher temperature than theater G of 84 coils,
forirr, into contact with the fused globule. When this and completing
*as! one, the needle of the galvanometer was instantly i the circuit be
drivii with great violence to the limit of the scale. The (tween the uppei
direj ion of the current was always from the hotter platina bismuth Band
"ini through the salt, to the colder wire. Professor An- the lower anti-
drev- obtained a permanent electric current in the same mony oh bjHare
din
ion,
i,y Simply fusing the globule between the two the free
w,r' and applying the flame of the lamp in such a man- , which press against each other by a spring.
Hmt the kites, at their points of contact with the fused formed by a bar of antimony a"', and of bismuth J .which
•alt ad different temperatures. Fused carbonate of soda ought to traverse the electric current. L, M, M a, e tonduc-
similar, but more powerful currents than borax. Car- tors of the pde P, N a plate of copper, wi h a graduated cicle
l>«' of potash, chloride and iodide of potassium, sulphate and magnetic needle O, for measuring the quantity of elec-
«l .la, chloride of strontium, heated glass, &c produced trici^ who* Pa?es
r currents; and even boracic acid, though such an a , a , _ r-
city produced by the variations of temperature of the ends
resulting from those of the bars J, K, the closed cir-
cuitof this electricity being a,1, C,a'", E',c, D,b",a'. The ball
A of an air thermometer (with its capillary tube E plunged
sim
tha
lml feet conductor, deflected the needle 40°.
e currents thus produced have an intensity inferior to
the hydro-electric currents, and they are capable of
to a'vessel d of coloured alcohol) is crossed bya compound
1 L’lndicatore Sanese, No. 50, Dec. 1836.
1 bond, and Edin. Phil. Mag. vol. x. p. 433> June 1837.
bond, and Edin. Phil. Mag. vol. x. p. 415, May 1836.
700
VOL
VOL
Peltier’s
researches.
Thermo- bar of aiv, 6iv, of bismuth and antimony united at S'. A
Electricity, graduated scale is placed behind the thermometer tube E'.
The current of the pile P is received by copper conductors
F, G.
If we now place wires of different metals between the
thermo-electric pincers F, H, and vary the intensity of the
current, we shall observe a rise of temperature when the
conductors are homogeneous, the heat being the same
throughout the whole length of the wires, with the excep¬
tion of their extremities, where it increases or diminishes
according as the pincers which retain the wire are worse
or better conductors than itself. When copper pincers
are used, a depression of temperature is felt at the distance
of two or three centimetres, according to the intensity of
the current. M. Peltier has found that when the current
has double the intensity, or when the section of the con¬
ductor is one-half, the temperature is tripled. The results
obtained by M. Peltier tend to prove that the two elec¬
tricities produce heat by their union, however feeble be
their intensities.1 2
Peltier’s We shall now conclude this article with a description of
thermo- two thermo-electric instruments, viz. M. Peltier’s thermo¬
electric hy-electric hygrometer, for determining by the change of
geometer, temperature whether a solution or a chemical combination
has taken place when two bodies are brought into con¬
tact, and Mr Locke’s thermoscopic galvanometer. M. Bec-
querel had long ago shewn that when a simple solution
takes place, no electrical effect is produced, but that when
two substances chemically combine, positive electricity
passes from an alkali to an acid, and negative electricity
from an acid to an alkali. The nature of the electric
wires therefore determine by means of a multiplier, whether
combination or simple solution has taken place. But as a
change of temperature also takes place, M. Peltier has
employed this as the means of deciding whether solution
or combination has taken place, cold being produced in the
one case, and heat in the other. This hygrometer is
shewn without the galvanometer in
fig. 95, where A is a wooden disc for
supporting the thermo-electric
couples, being itself supported by a
rod and a bar; B, B, B, three couples
of bismuth or antimony forming the
thermoscopic support; W, W, the
w ires leading to the multiplier;
D, a platina capsule filled with dis¬
tilled water, which is to be placed
on the couples; E E, a cylinder of
card ; and F F, a glass receiver open at top, but surrounded
with paper to prevent radiation. When distilled water is placed
in the capsule, itsspontaneousevaporation produces adepres-
sion of temperature which varies ordinarily from 40° to 60°*.
As this apparatus is very sensible, the needle of the mul¬
tiplier arrives rapidly at 90°; but this inconvenience is
removed by placing in the circuit supplementary conduc¬
tors, which diminish the intensity of the current, and
bring back the needle to the first 20°. Tables are then
Fig. 95.
formed which give the ratio between the deviations of
needlljs, the intensities of the current, and the differen
a very extended scale is thus formed which ■
very extended scale is thus termed which may be<hn
150° above zero, and descend indefinitely. To comn
this instrument, we have only to determine the extre
dryness produced with muriate of lime placed in a do
vessel. When the saturation of the air produces no evano
tion, the capsule remains at the surrounding temperitui
and the needle at zero. When we have determined t
force corresponding to the number of degrees given bye
treme dryness, we divided this force into 100 parts, com
ponding to 100 degrees of ordinary hygrometers.
Dr Locke, professor of chemistry in the medical colle uk
of Ohio, has lately constructed a new thermoscopic ^ C
vanometer, the peculiarity of which is the massiveness'jfrl
the coil, which affords a free passage to currents of f rLa
most feeble intensity, and enables them to deflect a ve
heavy needle. The coil is made of a copper fillet about
feet long, one-fourth of an inch wide, 9^ thick, and weigh
between 4 and 5 pounds. This coil is not made in ap
at the diameter of the circle in which the needle is to i
volve, but is opened out, the several turns lying side
side, and covering almost the whole of that circle abo
and below. It is wound closely and in parallel turns or
circular piece of board 11^ inches in diameter, and half
inch thick, covering the whole of it except two small c
posite segments of about 90° each. The board being t
tracted, leaves a cavity of its own shape, to be occupied
the needle. The copper fillet is not covered with silk
any other coating, but the turns of it are separated at th
ends by veneers of wood just so far as to prevent cents
throughout. The coil is supported on a wooden ring wi
brass feet and levelling screws, and surrounded by a brs
hoop with a flat glass cover, in the centre of which is i
serted a brass tube for suspending by a silk fibre, one of N
bili’s double astatic needles, each part being about 11 inch
long, one-fourth of an inch wide, and s1gth thick. The km
part plays within the coil, and the upper part above it,and t
thin white deal placed upon it. This instrument is pet
liarly fitted for experiments in a class. It is very sensil
to a single pair of thermo-electric metals, to the action
which it seems peculiarly adapted. With a battery of fi
couples of bismuth and antimony, the radiation of a pers
12 feet distant, without any reflector, and when the tei
perature of the air was 72°, moved the needle sensibly,
a thermo-electric pile, massive in proportion to the coil,
used, this thermoscope would exhibit the experiments
Melloni satisfactorily to a large class. A more detail
account of this instrument will be found in the bond
and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, October 18.
vol. xi., p. 378.
For further information on thermo-electricity, and I
other subjects of which this article treats, the reader is i
ferred to M. Beequerel’s admirable work, entitled Ira
Experimentale de L’Electricite et du Magnetisme, et
lews rapports avec les phenomenes naturels. Five volumi
i. and in, Paris 1834 ; hi., 1835 ; iv., 1836; and v., 18.
VOLTAIRE, Francois Marie Arouet be, one of the
most celebrated writers of modern times, was born at Paris
on the 20th of February 1694. His father, Francois Arouet,
was “ ancien notaire au Chatelet,” and treasurer of the
chamber of accounts ; his mother was Marguerite d'Aumart.
At the birth of this extraordinary man, w'ho lived to a great
age, there was little probability of his being reared, and for
a considerable time he continued remarkably feeble. In
his earliest years he displayed a ready wit and a sprig’
imagination ; and, as he said of himself, made verses e (
he was out of his cradle. He was educated under H
Pore, in the College of Louis the Great; and sue "
his proficiency, that many of his essays are now exis u
which, though written when he wTas between twelve j*
fourteen, show no marks of juvenility. The famous i ‘i
de 1’Enclos, to whom this ingenious boy was introi u
1 M. Becquerei’s Traite, &e., tom. iii., p. 165, awl v., p. “286.
2 The degrees of the galvanometer we presume. M. Btequerel’s Traite, &c., tom. v., p. 243.
^0,
VOLT
]t him a legacy of 2000 livres to purchase a library.
H/ing been sent to the schools of law, he was so disgusted
w i the dryness of the study, that he devoted himself
ei rely to the muses. He was admitted into the com-
y of the Abbe Chaulieu, the marquis de la Fare, the
(ji’e de Sully, the grand prior of Vendome, Marshal Villars,
ar the chevalier du Bouillon ; and caught from them that
eai' taste and delicate humour which distinguished the
tt t of Louis XIV. Voltaire had early imbibed a turn
fo satire; and, for some philippics against the govern-
m t, was imprisoned by the regent, the duke of Orleans,
al jst a year in the Bastille. He had before this period pro-
duedthe tragedy of Oedipe, which was represented in 1718
wi i great success ; and the duke of Orleans happening to
se it performed, was so delighted that he obtained his
re ase from prison. The poet waiting on the duke to re-
tu thanks, “ Be wise (said the duke), and I will take
ca of you.” “ I am infinitely obliged (replied the young
); but I entreat your royal highness not to trouble
vfrself any further about my lodging or board.”
’ i 1722 he made an excursion to Brussels, where he
hdame acquainted with Jean Baptiste Rousseau; but
K isseau was jealous of a rival, and the poets soon became
di; usted with each other. On his return to Paris in the
sae year, he produced his tragedy of Mariamne, which
w not very favourably received. He began his Henriade
hi ire he was eighteen. Having one day read several
a ;os of this poem when on a visit to his intimate friend,
tit young president de Maisons, he wras so teased with
okctions, that he lost patience, and threw his manu-
sopt into the fire. The president Henault with difficulty
rt :ued it. “ Remember (said Mr Henault to him in one
o his letters) it was I that saved the Henriade, and
tl; it cost me a handsome pair of ruffles.” Some years
a r, several copies of this poem having got abroad,
vi le it was only a sketch, an edition of it was published,
wi many chasms, under the title of “ La Ligue.” It gave
gf it offence to the bigots ; and the poet was considered
an ighly criminal for praising Admiral Coligny and Queen
Eiabeth.
lis reckless vivacity and frequent attacks on religion,
si| jected him to many mortifications ; and he was a second
ti j imprisoned in the Bastille, in consequence of a broil
w i the Chevalier de Rohan. After an imprisonment of
si months he was released on condition of quitting the
k L'dom, on which he chose England for his retreat, and
t« v with him the Henriade, in order to finish the work,
a republish it in aland of liberty. He was favourably re¬
el ed by George I., and still more so by the princess of
Vies, afterwards Queen Caroline, who procured for him
a -eat many subscriptions, which laid the foundation of his
)( une; for, on being permitted to return to France in
1 8, he put the money he had acquired, into a lottery
e blished by M. Desfortes, comptroller-general of the
f nces, by which, and other fortunate speculations, he
r' >zed considerable property.
lis Lettres Philosophiques, abounding in bold expres¬
s'is and indecent witticisms against religion, having been
h at by a decree of the Parliament of Paris, and a warrant
issued for apprehending the author in 1733, Voltaire
P dently withdrew, and was sheltered by the marchioness
'' Chatelet, in her castle of Cirey, on the borders of
f impagne and Lorraine, wdio entered with him on the
* ly of the system of Leibnitz, and the Principia of
• uton. A gallery was built, in which Voltaire formed a
" d collection of natural history, and made an infinite
Pnber of experiments on light and electricity. He
'ured in the mean time on his Elements of the New'-
V.in Philosophy, then totally unknown in France, and
' ch the numerous admirers of Des Cartes were little
uous should be known. In the midst of these philo-
A I R E.
701
sophic pursuits he produced the tragedy of Alzire. He Voltaire,
was now in the meridian of his age and genius, as was
evident from the tragedy of Mahomet, first acted in 1741;
but it was represented to the procureur-general as a per¬
formance offensive to religion; and the author, by order
of Cardinal Fleury, withdrew it from the stage. Merope,
played two years after, 1743, is a species of tragedy, un¬
precedented on the French stage, being without any inter¬
mixture of love, yet abounding in pathos. It was at the
representation of this tragedy, that the pit and boxes were
clamorous for a sight of the author ; yet it was severely
criticised when it came from the press. He now became
a favourite at court, through the interest of Madame
d’Etoiles, afterwards marchioness of Pompadour. He was
appointed a gentleman of the bed-chamber in ordinary,
and historiographer of France. He had frequently at¬
tempted to gain admittance into the Academy of Sciences,
but could not obtain his wish till 1746, when he was the
first who broke through the absurd custom of filling an
inaugural speech with the fulsome adulation of Richelieu ;
an example soon followed by other academicians. From
the satires occasioned by this innovation he felt so much
uneasiness, that he was glad to retire with the marchioness
du Chatelet to Luneville, in the neighbourhood of King
Stanislas. The marchioness dying in 1749, Voltaire re¬
turned to Paris, where his stay was but short. The king
of Prussia now gave Voltaire an invitation to live with
him, which he accepted towards the end of August 1750
On his arrival at Berlin, he was immediately presented
with the Order of Merit, the key of chamberlain, and a
pension of 20,000 livres. Here great respect was paid to
him. His apartments were under those of the king, whom
he was allowed to visit at stated hours, to read with him
the best works of either ancient or modern authors, and
to assist his majesty in the literary productions by which
he relieved the cares of government. But a dispute which
arose between him and Maupertuis soon occasioned his
disgrace. Maupertuis was at some pains to have it re¬
ported at court, that one day while General Manstein
happened to be in the apartments of M. de Voltaire,
who was then translating into French the Memoirs of
Russia, composed by that officer, the king in his usual
manner sent a copy of verses to be examined, when Vol¬
taire said to Manstein, “ Let us leave off for the present,
my friend ; you see the king has sent me his dirty linen to
wash, I will wash yours another time.” It was about this
time that Maupertuis published his very strange Philo¬
sophical Letters ; and M. de Voltaire did not fail to
heighten, with his utmost powers of raillery, every thing
which he found, or could make ridiculous, in the projects
of Maupertuis, who was careful to unite his own cause
with that of the king, and succeeded in provoking his dis¬
pleasure against Voltaire, who was considered as having
failed in respect to his majesty; and therefore, in the most
respectful manner, he returned to the king his chamber¬
lain’s key, and the cross of his Order of Merit, accom¬
panied with four lines of verse, in which he, with great
delicacy, compares his situation to that of a jealous lover,
who sends back the picture of his mistress. The king re¬
turned the key and the ribbon ; but this act was not fol¬
lowed by an immediate reconciliation. Voltaire now paid
a visit to her highness the duchess of Gotha, who honour¬
ed him with her friendship as long as she lived. While
he remained at Gotha, Maupertuis employed all his batte¬
ries against him : Voltaire was arrested by the king’s or¬
ders, but was afterwards released.
He now wished to obtain permission to reside at Paris,
which might have been granted, had not his witty and licen¬
tious poem,“ La Pucelle d’Orleans,” caused a great clamour
against him. He therefore purchased a country house near
Geneva ; but his restless disposition having afterwards in-
702
V O L
V 0 R
\roltaire. volved him in the party squabbles of the place, he found it
'necessary to quit the republic; and he purchased the castle
of Ferney in France, about a league from the lake of Geneva.
It was here that he undertook the defence of the well-
known family of Galas ; and not long after he had a second
opportunity of vindicating the innocence of another con¬
demned family of the name of Sirven. It is somewhat re¬
markable, that in the year 1774, he had the third time a
singular opportunity of employing that same zeal which he
had displayed in the fatal catastrophe of the families of
Galas and Sirven.
From this retreat he poured out an exhaustless variety
of works, which were extensively circulated and eagerly
read. They generally breathed a spirit of hostility to civil
and ecclesiastical tyranny; but his attacks on priestly
domination too often degenerated into insidious and flagi¬
tious attacks on revealed religion, and pure morality. Here
Voltaire long continued to enjoy the pleasures of a rural
life, and the admiration of the wits and philosophers of
Europe. He could number among his correspondents and
pupils some of the greatest sovereigns of the age. The king
of Prussia renewed his correspondence with him, and
Catherine II. of Russia sent him valuable presents. Paris
was filled with his admirers, and his principles were daily
making progress in that capital. Wearied at length with
his isolated situation, or yielding to the importunities of
friends, he came to Paris about the beginning of the year
1778. On his arrival, the French Academy deputed three
of their members to congratulate him, and placed his bust
beside that of Corneille. His bust was also crowned in the
theatre on the sixth representation of his new tragedy of
Irene. He did not long survive this farce: for having
overheated himself with receiving visits, and exhausted his
spirits by supplying a perpetual fund of conversation, he was
first seized with a spitting of blood; and at last becoming
restless in the night-time, he was obliged to use a soporific
medicine. Of this he one night took so large a dose, that
he slept thirty-six hours, and expired a very short time after
awakening from it. He died on the 30th of May 1778, in
the eighty-fifth year of his age.
When near his end, the marquis of Vilette, with whom
he resided, sent for the rector of St Sulpice to visit him.
Of this interview various very contradictory accounts have
been published; but it is certain that he did not receive
the last ceremonies of the catholic church. In conse¬
quence, it is said, of the refusal of the archbishop of
Paris to allow him Christian burial, he was interred
secretly at Sellices, a Benedictine abbey between Nogent
and Troyes, whence his remains were in 1791 removed
by order of the national assembly, and interred in St Ge¬
nevieve.
The following is a sketch of his character as drawn
by Marmontel: “ He had sought glory by all the roads
that are open to genius, and had deserved it by immense
labours and brilliant successes. The arm of ridicule was
the instrument of his vengeance, and he wielded it most
fearfully and cruelly. But the greatest of blessings, repose,
was unknown to him. It is true that envy at last appeared
tired of the pursuit, and began to spare him on the brink
of the grave. On his return to Paris, after a long exile,
he enjoyed his renown, and the enthusiasm of a whole peo¬
ple, grateful for the pleasures that he had afforded them.
The weak and last effort that he made to amuse them.
Irene, was applauded as Zaire had been ; and this repre¬
sentation, at which he was crowned, was for him the most
delightful triumph. But at what moment did this tardy
consolation reach him, the recompense of much watching ?
The next day I saw him in his bed. ‘ Well,’ said I, ‘ are
you at last satiated with glory ?’ ‘ Ah ! mv good friend,’
he replied, ‘ you talk to me of glory, and I am dying in
frightful torture.’ ”
The works of this extraordinarv man are very nrm
and various. Voltaire is beyond dispute the most po^
lar writer in the French language; and his genius andwil
are at least equalled by his levity and profaneness As'
author, he was most anxious for his reputation as a an
.it .in.; .i ., n:it.    ' / * I.. . srm«
.. . , . tt* tt • , ; i as a an
tist antn.i poet. ^ His Hennade is probably the best epic
in the French language, though little distinguished^
fancy or invention. As a dramatist he ranks after C
neille and Racine. In comedy he was not very success"
ful. In history he is rather agreeable and ingenious than
accurate and profound. His style in prose is ]ive]v
pointed, and unaffected, admirably adapted for the nume’
rous smaller works that came from his pen in the forni
of tales, romances, dialogues, and pasquinades. His I
raillery was of the most poignant character, and his power
of exciting ridicule unbounded. Scarcely any writer ever
launched into the world publications so voluminous and
various, which followed one another with unexampled ra¬
pidity. The first collective edition of his works was pub¬
lished at Geneva in 1768, in 30 volumes 4to. A more
complete collection appeared at Basel, 1784-9, 71 tom, 8vo.
Of his more popular works, editions are continually multi¬
plying at all prices and in all sizes.
VOLTERRA,a city of Italy in the Grand Duchy of Tus¬
cany, the capital of a circle called a vicarate, of the same
name, and the seat of a bishop. It stands on a hill, and is
surrounded with walls of Etruscan construction. It has
a cathedral and several churches, and contains 6200 inha¬
bitants. Volterra is celebrated for its salt springs, from
which culinary salt is manufactured. Near the city are
quarries of marble and of alabaster, and some mines of
fossil coal.
VOLUME, a book or writing of a just bulk to be bound
by itself. The name is derived from the Latin volvm,“\.o
roll up ;” the ancient manner of making up a book being
in rolls of bark or parchment. See Biblioghaphy.
VOLUNTARY, in Music, means properly an extempore
composition played upon the organ, or some other instru¬
ment. In Great Britain, from want of thorough musical
education, there are very few performers who can safely at¬
tempt any thing of this kind. In Germany there are many.
VOLUTE, in Architecture, a kind of spiral scroll used
in Ionic and Composite capitals, whereof it makes the
principal characteristic and ornament.
VOMITING, a retrograde spasmodic motion of the
muscular fibres of the oesophagus, stomach, and intestines,
attended with strong convulsions of the muscles of the ab¬
domen and diaphragm ; which when gentle create a nausea,
when violent a vomiting.
VORALBERG, a circle of the Austrian province of
Tyrol, which touches on the lake of Constance. This lo¬
cality renders it of some importance to the imperial do¬
minions. It extends over 1628 square miles, and compre¬
hends three cities, seven market towns, and 412 villages,
with 79,600 inhabitants. It is a mountainous and highly
picturesque district, yielding little besides Alpine pasture
for cattle. The capital is the city of Bregentz, built on a
hill overlooking the lake of Constance.
VORSTIUS, Conrad, born at Cologne on the 19th oj
July 1569, was the son of a dyer who had secretly adopted
the Protestant faith. Having received a good preliminary
education, he in 1587 entered the College of St Lawrence
at Cologne. After lecturing at Geneva, he was appointe
professor of theology at Steinfurt, where he continued ti
1610, when he succeeded Arminius in the professorship
of theology at Leyden. Here he composed his “ Trac-
tatus Theologicus de Deo, sive de Natura et Attributis
Dei.” This brought on him the accusation of heresy, an
engaged both individuals and universities in the contro
versy. James the First drew up a large catalogue of t
heresies which it contained, and caused the work to
i
VOS
j b ned in London. He moreover informed the States that
ii. it leydid not dismiss Vorstius, none of his subjects would
• fc/j,,permitted t0 visit Leyden; and such was the odium
r' gj against him from other quarters, that he was ulti-
^ ely dismissed from his office, and banished, by the States
I o( Holland, from their territory. After spending two years
in oncealment, frequently changing his abode for fear of
hi life, he received an asylum from the duke of Holstein,
w i bad assigned to the dispersed followers of Arminius a
• .e of ground for building a town. He died shortly after
atfoningen, on the 29th of September 1622, at the age of
ft'-three.
tQSGES, a department in the north-east of France,
fc ned out of the southern part of the ancient province of
L raine, and extending in north latitude from 48° 31' to
4' 7', and in east longitude, from 5° 30' to 6° 12'. It is
b nded on the north by the departments of the Meuse
ai the Meurthe, on the east by those of the Upper and
o the Lower Rhine, on the south by that of the Upper
Sine, and on the west by the Upper Marne. It contains
2>;8 square miles, and returns three members to the Cham-
b of Representatives. Vosges is divided into five arron-
d ements, thirty cantons, and 547 communes, and in 1836
h a population of 411,034 souls. They all adhere to the
t holic church, are of German origin, and though active
a careful, are for the most part excessively poor. The
s face of the department is for the most part mountainous
a woody. The Vosges mountains, which are a prolonga-
11 of the Jura, stretch in a direction from east to west
fi nBeford toLangres, and in the north join the Hundsruck.
I these are vallies of greater or less extent, and capable
c cultivation. The highest point of the mountains is the
1 ch, whose summit rises to the height of 4320 feet. Con-
s crably more than one-third of the land is covered with
v )ds. The soil in the eastern part is a mixture of sand
a 1 stones, and is very unproductive. In the western parts
iis calcareous, and covered with a heavy clay, and though
I djicult to work, is the most productive division ; but the
vole does not grow sufficient corn for the consumption.
i the mountains are covered with snow during the greater
\ t of the year, the climate is raw and cold, but is not
ciimed unhealthy. The mountains are the sources of
s eral streams. The chief of them is the Moselle, which
t es a northerly direction, and soon enters Meurthe, and
f illy falls into the Rhine. The other rivers are the
- use, the Meurthe, the Saone, the Breusch, and the Ma-
1 1 ii; and there is a great number of smaller streams.
The productions of the land are cattle, chiefly cows and
s ne, fruit, wax, honey, corn, wine, flax, and hemp ; but
t: most important are from the forests, which supply by
i ans of numerous saw-mills a vast quantity of wood, both
1 building and for fuel. There are quarries of marble,
*1 mines yielding silver, lead, and copper in small por-
t is; but the iron mines are the most important. Some
*1 ^l articles of manufacture are produced ; but the po-
% of the inhabitants is such, that they have little power
‘ consuming luxuries of foreign growth, and have no other
t tie than that of selling the few low-priced commodities
' ich their soil produces.
VOSSIUS, Gerard John, a writer of great and varie-
! ed erudition, was born near Heidelberg in the year
117. His father, John Voss, and his mother, Cornelie de
J 3, were both natives of Roermund, a town in the Nether-
j ds. Having embraced the doctrines of the Reformation,
! emigrated to thePalatinate, wherehestudieddivinity,and
j 1575 became a minister in the vicinity of Heidelberg ;
• t on refusing to adopt the Lutheran creed on the subject
( the eucharist, he found it advisable to revisit his own
1 mtry. Here he successively discharged the duties of a
!,tor in different places. His wife died at Dordrecht in
^ He afterwards married Anne de Witt, but scarcely
VOS
survived for three months. His son, who was thus left an V<
orphan, received his early education at Dordrecht, and at
the age of eighteen, was sent to the university of Leyden,
where he studied Greek under Vulcanius/mathematics
under Snell, and other branches of learning under other
able professors. At the age of twenty, he published a
Latin panegyric on Maurice prince of Nassau. After having
taken the degrees of master of arts, and doctor of philoso¬
phy, he applied himself to the study of divinity and the
Hebrew language under Gomarus and Trelcatius. From
his father he inherited a library well stored with books of
divinity and ecclesiastical history; and at an early period
of his life, he acquired a very extensive knowledge in both
departments.
At the age of twenty-two, he was appointed director of
the College of Dordrecht. In 1602 he married Elizabeth
Corput, the daughter of a minister. After bearing three
children, she died on the 6th of February 1607 ; and on
the 18th of August ensuing, he married Elizabeth du Jon,
the daughter of an eminent theologian, bqtter known by
his Latinized name of Junius. By this second marriage,
he had five sons and two daughters, but he had the mis¬
fortune to survive all his children except one son. In 1614
he was appointed director of the Theological College es¬
tablished at Leyden ; but in 1618, he relinquished this
office for the professorship of eloquence and of chronology.
Vossius, whose sentiments were moderate and peaceful,
was anxious to shun the theological strife which at that
time agitated the Dutch republic. But his Historia
Pelagiana, published in 1618, involved him in some trials
and difficulties. In that elaborate work, he discussed the
doctrine of predestination and grace in a strain which the
Calvinists considered as much too favourable to the tenets
of Arminius. In 1620 the synod of Tergou deprived
him of his professorship ; but another synod, held at Rot¬
terdam in the following year, permitted him to be rein¬
stated, under the condition of his retracting the errors con¬
tained in his history, and promising neither to do nor say
any thing in opposition to the decrees of the synod of
Dordrecht. These he doubtless considered as very hard
terms, and for some years he declined to comply with them.
In the mean time he was prohibited from teaching either
in public or in private; and in one of his letters, he esti¬
mates his pecuniary loss at six thousand livres a-year. In
1624 he made such concessions or explanations as led to -
his reinstatement. ’?
What exposed him to persecution at home, recom¬
mended him to favour abroad. Archbishop Laud, a very ,
zealous patron of Arminianism, was so highly satisfied with
his work, that he procured him a prebend at Canterbury,
which he was permitted to hold as a mere sinecure. He
proceeded to England in 1629, and was installed. On ,
paying a visit to Oxford, he was created LL. D. Here
he discovered and encouraged the talents of Dr Pocock,
who became so eminent as an orientalist. A college or
Athengeum having been founded at Amsterdam, Yossius
was appointed professor of history in the year 1633. Here
he continued his learned labours till the time of his death,
and produced a variety of works, distinguished by the
extent and solidity of their erudition. He died on the
19th of March 1649, at the age of seventy-two.
He was highly esteemed by his contemporaries for his
moral worth, as well as for his talents and learning. He was
not only an able grammarian and critic, but was likewise
skilled in history and theology. He has written treatises on
history, poetry, rhetoric, logic, and the mathematical scien¬
ces. His work entitled “ Aristarchus, sive de Arte Gram-
matica,” is not only very elaborate, but likewise very able
and judicious. An edition of it is now printing at Halle
under the superintendence of Fortsch. In this department,
we must not overlook his “ Etymologicon Linguae Latinae,”
704
VOS
V U L
\ ossius. and his work “ De Vitiis Sermonis.” His “ Institutiones
Oratorise,” are also very elaborate. His “ ArsHistorica,”and
his treatises “ De Historicis Grascis,” and “ De Historicis
Latinis,” are valuable specimens of his labours as a profes¬
sor of history ; and the last of them is still held in much
estimation. In the nine books “ De Idololatria,” he dis¬
plays the same unlimited research that characterises all his
larger works. Of his theological learning he has exhibited
no mean specimen in his “ Historiae de Controversiis quas
Pelagius ejusque Reliquiae moverunt, libri septem.” Of
the entire works of Vossius, a great treasure of erudition,
a complete collection was published at Amsterdam in 1701,
in six volumes folio.
Vossius had five sons, who were all known by their
literary productions. Their names were Dionysius, Francis,
Gerard, Matthew, and Isaac. The last was the only one
who survived him.
Vossxus, Isaac, the son of this learned and estimable
man, was born at Leyden in the year 1618. He was
trained undervthe domestic superintendence of his father,
and became one of the most learned men of his own age.
In 1639. when he had only reached his twenty-first year,
he distinguished himself by an edition of the Periplus of
Scylax. In 1642 he made a journey to Italy, and visited
Rome. He became one of the literary correspondents of
the queen of Sweden, and, like some other scholars of
eminence, was invited to her court. It appears from his
letters, that he was at Stockholm in 1649, 1650, and 1651.
His misunderstanding with Salmasius however exposed
him to the queen’s displeasure ; and in 1652, when he re¬
turned from Holland, accompanied by Bochart and Huet,
he was not admitted to her presence. But she soon re¬
newed her correspondence with Vossius, and saw him dur¬
ing her visit to Holland. On the death of his father, he
was offered the professorship of history at Amsterdam ;
but he preferred a life of studious retirement, and he ap¬
pears to have been sufficiently independent to follow the
bent of his own inclination. In 1663 he received a hand¬
some present from Louis the Fourteenth. In 1670 he
came to England; and having visited Oxford during the
same year, he was created LL. D., and, as Wood states,
was “ with great humanity and friendship entertained by
some of the chief heads of houses, as his father had been
before in 1629.” He had now acquired a high reputation ;
and in 1673 the king bestowed upon him a canonry of
Windsor. Both he and his father must have held their
preferments as lay-sinecures. Fie died in Windsor Castle
on the 10th of February 1689, in the seventy-first year of
his age. On his death-bed, he was visited by the dean of
Windsor and one of the canons, who urged him, but in
vain, to take the sacrament. “ Dr Vossius, if you will not
do it for the love of God, at least do it for the honour of
the chapter ” This appeal was ineffectual; and to one of
the dean’s pious admonitions, he replied, “ I wish you
would instruct me how to oblige the farmers to pay me
what they owe me: that is what I would have you to do
for me at present.” King Charles sometimes observed,
that there was nothing which he refused to believe, ex¬
cept the Bible. Some of his works indeed display suffici¬
ent credulity. Of this we find abundant evidence in his
“ Variarum Observationum liber,” in which he avers that
ancient Rome was twenty times as large as Paris and
London together, and estimates its population at fourteen
millions. Of the population of China, he has given an
account still more extravagant. His judgment is on most
occasions greatly inferior to his learning, and the spirit of
paradox very seldom deserts him. In his usual strain, he
wrote various tracts on the Septuagint, and w’as opposed
by Father Simon and Dr Hody. On the age of the world
he maintained with Hornius a controversy which involved
the chionology of this version. Another curious work he
published, “ De Sibyllinis aliisque qute Christi nat l
praecessere Oraculis.” Oxon. 1680, 8vo. This is the s a
edition. One of his most able and pleasing works k Tr
led “ De Poematum Cantu, et Viribus Rythmi.” o"11
1683, 8vo. Among other ancient authors, he publiS
editions of Catullus and Pomponius Mela, which, if he U
produced no original work, would have been sufficient t
recommend him to the notice of posterity as a man ofi °
common erudition. , r1'
VOTIVE medals, those on which are expressed the
vows of the people for the emperors.
VOURLA, a sea port of Asia Minor, on the site of the
ancient Clazomene, one of the twelve great cities of Ionia.
It is built on two eminences ; and one division is inhabited
by Christians, wdio occupy about 500 houses, and possess
two churches; the remainder of the town is inhabited bv
Turks. It is now of little importance. Vourla is twenty-
five miles west of Smyrna. J
VOW, a solemn religious promise or oath. The use of
vows is found in most religions. They form a considerable
part of the Pagan worship, being made either in conse¬
quence of some deliverance, under some pressing neces¬
sity, or for the success of some enterprize. Among the
Jews, all vows were to be voluntary, and made by persons
wholly in their own power; and if such person made a
vow in any thing lawful and possible, he was obliged to
fulfil it. If he appointed no particular time for accomplish¬
ing his vow, he was bound to do it instantly, lest by delay
he should prove less able, or be unwilling to execute his
promise. Among the papists, a person is constituted a
religious by taking three vows, that of poverty, chastity,
and obedience. Vows among the Romans, signified sac¬
rifices, offerings, presents, and prayers made for the Caesars,
and emperors, particularly for their prosperity and the
continuance of their empire. These were at first made
every five years, then every fifteen, and afterwards every
twenty, and were called quinquennalia, decenmlia, and
vicennalia.
VOWEL, in Grammar, a letter which affords a com¬
plete sound of itself, or a letter so simple as only to need a
bare opening of the mouth to make it heard and to form
a distinct voice. The English vowels are six in number,
viz., A, E, I, O, U, Y.
VUKOVAR, a market town, the capital of a district of
the same name in the Sclavonian province of Hungary. It
stands on the river Danube, and contains 700 houses, and
5820 inhabitants. Lat. 45. N. Long. 19. E.
VULCAN, in Pagan worship the god of subterraneous
fire and metals, was the son of Jupiter and Juno ; and was
said to be so remarkably deformed, that his father threw
him down from heaven to the isle of Lemnos, in which fall
he broke his leg, and there he set up his forge, and taught
men how to soften and polish brass and iron. Thence he
removed to the Liparian isles, near Sicily, where, by the as¬
sistance of the Cyclops, he made Jupiter’s thunderbolts, and
armour for the other gods. Notwithstanding the deformi¬
ty of his person, he had a passion for Minerva, and by Ju¬
piter’s consent paid his addresses to her, but without suc¬
cess. He was however more fortunate in his suit to Ve¬
nus ; but after their marriage she chose Mars for her gal¬
lant, and Vulcan exposed them to the ridicule of the other
gods, by taking them in a net.
VULCANO, one of the Lipari islands in the Mediter¬
ranean sea, to the south of the principal island. It is a
lofty island about fifteen miles in circuit, and possesses
two small ports on its northern coast, where Valcanello is
joined to it by a low rock formed of its own lava. Long'
14. 55. 56. E. Lat. 38. 23. 49. N. 4 . . <
VULGATE, a very ancient Latin translation °’ ll<j.
Bible, and the only one acknowledged by the churc °
Rome to be authentic.
Kin
k
w
705
WAG
Tlf or w, is the twenty-second letter of our alphabet;
r 9 and is composed, as its name implies, of two v’s.
It ts not in use among the Hebrews, Greeks, or Romans,
but,chiefly among the northern nations, the Teutones,
Sa>(is, Britons, &c. It is not employed by the French,
Ital;ns, Spaniards, or Portuguese, except in proper names,
and ther terms borrowed from languages in which it is
oriptally used, and even then it is sounded like the single
v, this letter is of an ambiguous nature; being a conso-
nanjat the beginning of words, and a vowel at the end. It
ma'itand before all the vowels except u ; as water, wedge,
wonder: it may also follow the vowels a, e, o, and
unik with them into a kind of double vowel, or diphthong ;
as [.saw, few, cow. It also goes before r, and follows s and
th; in wrath, swear, thwart: it goes before h also, though
in r lity it is sounded after it; as in when, what. In some
worn it is obscure, as in shadow, widow.
^ AAG, a river of Hungary, which rises in the Carpa-
thid Mountains, and falls into the Danube opposite to the
islaj of Schut.
^ A.AL, a river of the Netherlands, being one of the
braihes of the Rhine. Running from east to west through
Gulerland, passing by Nimeguen, Tiel, Bommel, and
Go im, and uniting with the Maes, it falls into the Ger-
BiaiDea below the Briel.
1 i\.DEY Abassi, a small river of Arabia, which falls
intrehe Red Sea ten miles south-south-east of Hodeida.
1 \dey el Arkik, a small river of Arabia, which waters
theiity of Medina.
1 idey el Kebir, a small river in Arabia, which in rainy
seaiJis reaches the Red Sea near Mocha.
1 vdey Elmahan, a small river of Arabia, which loses
itse in the sands, unless in the wet season, when it reaches
the led Sea twenty-five miles south-south-east of Hodeida.
1 \dey Farun, a small river of Arabia, which falls into
theied Sea twenty-five miles north-west of Tor.
1 pEY Zebid, a river of Arabia, which passes by Zebid,
ancnt a particular season overflows and fertilizes its banks.
It I illy loses itself in the sands.
1 AD JO, or Waju, a state or confederacy in the island
of ‘lebes, situated to the north of the Buggess territories
nar :1 Boni.
1 AF ERS,or Sealing Wafers, are made thus. Take very
findour, mix it with glair of eggs, isinglass, and a little
vea; mingle the materials; beat them well together; spread
thei alter, being made thin with gum-water, on even tin
Pja , and dry them in a stove; then cut them out for use.
Yopay make them of what colour you please, by tinging
the iste with Brazil or vermilion for red; indigo or verditer,
i ,r ^ue > saffron, turmeric, or gamboge, &c., for yellow.
AFTIB, a small low island in the Eastern Seas, on
t'o .est coast of the island of Waygiou, covered with
AGEEO, or Waygiou, one of the Papuan islands,
ited by Dampier’s Strait from New Guinea to the
sou • It may be estimated in length at ninety miles,
renty-two miles in average breadth. The island is
ghout mountainous at a small distance from the coast,
very woody, being covered with an immense forest
lng to the water’s edge. The trees grow to an im-
™ e height; and vegetables are in great variety, namely,
“ jes, cocoa-nuts, sugar-canes, sago, and pimento. On
i orth coast of this island is a harbour formed by the
u xxi.
W A I
island of Rawak, on which grows the ambong tree, the heart Waggon
of which is an excellent cabbage. On the north-west coast II
of Waygiou there is another harbour named Piapis, situated ^ aigatz.
in latitude 0° 5’ south, long 130° 15’ east. It is formed by V“"~v "
two capacious bays, where there is fresh water, and abun¬
dance of tall timber fit for masts. Both bays have good mud
soundings; and on a small island named Sisipa is a pond of
fresh water, with sago trees growing close to it. Here the
cabbage tree also abounds. The gigantic Kima cockle is
found in plenty among the coral reefs. Turtles of large
size are found on the shore, and numbers of wild hogs in
the woods. Here are seen many rare and beautiful birds,
namely, the black cockatoo, the bird of paradise, &c. The
natives are of a very suspicious disposition, probably from
their being trepanned as slaves. They are barbarous in
their habits, going almost entirely naked. The chiefs only
have jackets and trousers of Chinese stuffs, and wear a hat
and turban. The colour of their skins is not black; their
hair is thick and curled, and grows to a considerable length.
Their houses, which are built on posts, consist of bamboo,
and are elevated above the ground. The aborigines inha¬
bit the interior, the Mahommedans the sea-coast. The
island is situated about the 131st degree of east longitude,
and within the 12th degree of south latitude.
WAGES. See Taxation.
WAGGON, a wheel-carriage, of which there are various
forms, accommodated to the different uses for which they
are intended. The common waggon consists of the shafts
or rods, being the two pieces which the hind horse bears
up; the welds; the slotes, or cross pieces, which hold the
shafts together; the bolster, being that part on which the
fore-wheels and the axle-tree turn in wheeling the waggon
across the road; the chest or body of the waggon, having
the staves or rails fixed thereon; the bales, or hoops which
compose the top; the tilt, the place covered with cloth, at
the end of the waggon. See Mechanics.
WAGNAGUR, a town of Hindustan, possessed by in¬
dependent native chiefs, on the sea-coast of the Gujerat
peninsula. Long. 71. 58. E. Lat. 21. 3. N.
WAGUR, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Cutch, of which it forms the eastern boundary. The inha¬
bitants are Mahommedans, and predatory in their habits;
and the country is elevated and woody, and intersected by
a number of streams which fall into the Runn.
WAHI, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Beja-
poor, long the residence of an illustrious Mahratta family,
about fifty miles south of Poonah.
WAIFS, Bona Waviata, are goods stolen, and waived
or thrown away by the thief in his flight, for fear of being
apprehended. These by the law are given to the king, as
a punishment upon the owner for not himself pursuing the
felon, and taking away his goods from him. And therefore
if the party robbed do his diligence immediately to follow
and apprehend the thief (which is called making fresh suit),
or convict him afterwards, or procure evidence to con¬
vict him, he shall have his goods again.
WAIGATZ, a large island belonging to the Russian
oovernment of Archangel. It is situated between 69° 21/
and 70° 5' north latitude, and between 47° 20' and 50° 13'
east longitude. It is separated from the mainland by the
straits of its name. It is low, stony, destitute of woods,
and almost of vegetation ; but being well stocked with wild
animals, especially such as yield valuable furs, it is inhabited
706 W A K
W A K
Waigatz by some families, who are almost exclusively occupied in
Straits their chase and destruction. Its shores abound in fish ; and
11 immense flocks of birds frequent the island, whose feathers
„ a J e ( *are of considerable value, and in pursuit of which many
persons repair to the island in the appropriate season, lo
the south-west of this large island are three others, called
Malvijef, Dolgoi, and Bilinov, whose products are of a simi¬
lar kind.
Waigatz Straits, situated between Nova Zembla and
Russia, through which the Dutch sailed to the north, as
high as 76°, in order to discover a north-east passage to
China and the East Indies.
WAINFLEET, a market-town in the Lindsey division
of the county of Lincoln, in the hundred of Candelshoe,
132 miles from London. It is situated on a creek of the
sea, only navigable for small vessels. The town compre¬
hends two parishes, All Saints and St Mary’s, with each a
church. There is a weekly market on Saturday, and three
annual fairs. The population amounted in 1821 to 1422,
and in 1831 to 1795.
WAINSCOT, in building, the timber-work that serves
to line the walls of a room, being usually made in panels,
and painted, to serve instead of hangings.
WAKE, the track impressed by the course of a ship on
the surface of the v/ater. It is formed by the re-union ot
the body of water which was separated by the ship’s bot¬
tom while moving through it; and may be seen to a con¬
siderable distance behind the stern, as smoother than the
rest of the sea. Hence it is usually observed by the
compass, to discover the angle of lee-way. A ship is said
to be in the wake of another when she follows her on the
same track, or a line supposed to be formed on the continu¬
ation of'her keel. Two distant objects observed at sea are
called in the wake of each other, when the view of the
farthest is intercepted by the nearest, so that the observer’s
eye and the two objects are all placed upon the same right
line.
WAKEFIELD, a large market-town of the wapentake
of Morley, in the west riding of the county of York, 380
miles from London and nine from Leeds. It stands on
the river Calder, is well built, with wide streets, in which are
many very handsome brick houses. Besides the churches,
the other public buildings are, the free grammar-school, the
house of correction for the county, the cloth-hall, and a
theatre. The chief trade of this town formerly was the
manufacture of woollen cloths, and at one period the
clothing for the Russian army was fabricated here; but
that branch has been lost, and the other branches of the
woollen trade have not advanced at the same pace as in
Leeds and other neighbouring towns. Wakefield has now
the largest corn-market in England next to London. The
corn is brought mostly by canals from the south-east part of
the county, and the foreign corn from FIull, which is chiefly
used by the densely peopled districts near Leeds, Halifax,
Fluddersfield, and Barnsley, with all of which places there is
a water-communication. The corn-market is on Friday, and
there is one for wool on Thursday. The quarter-sessions
for the west riding are held here. There is also a weekly
petty-session. The population amounted in 1801 to 8131,
in 1811 to 8593, in 1821 to 10,764, and in 1831 to 12,232.
This is one of the new boroughs created by the reform act
of 1832, and returns one member to the House of Commons.
WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, a commentator and critic of
some celebrity, born at Nottingham on the 22d of Febru¬
ary 1756, was the son of the Rev. George Wakefield,
rector of the parish of St Nicolas. He was observed in
his earliest infancy to be of a serious turn of mind, and he
made a rapid progress in the first elements of literature.
At the age of seven, he w^as sent to a free school at Not¬
tingham, and remained there two years, chiefly under the
tuition of Mr Beardmore, afterwards master of the Charter-
house : he was then sent to a school kept by the Rev s
Pickthall, at Wilford, an institution which seems to hie
been only distinguished by the regular imprisonment oftT '
boys for no less than eleven hours a day. After this wh 6
his father obtained the vicarage of Kingston in Sun. n
with the chapelry of Richmond, he was placed under til'’
care of his curate, who kept a school at Richmond; hewr
however, removed in 1769 to a better conducted establish
ment in the same neighbourhood, kept by the Rev R
Wooddeson, of whom he speaks in his Memoirs with hbh
approbation.
At sixteen he went to Jesus College, Cambridge, where
his classical studies still continued to be the principal ob¬
ject of his attention, although he was so fortunate as to ob¬
tain the rank of second wrangler at the termination of his
academical studies in 1776. He has indeed the candour
to observe, that the year was below mediocrity with regard
to the performances of the candidates in general; and that
when he obtained the second classical medal, on the Duke
of Newcastle’s foundation, he had only one competitor.
Still it must not be denied, that to be both second wrangler
and second medallist in any year implies no ordinary por-
tion of application, as well as some considerable talent.
Mr Wakefield -was however distinguished, throughout his
life, by a singular mixture of opposite habits; and, in the
midst of his studies, he confesses that “ he sometimes felt
himself almost incapable of reading a single page formonths
togetherand in summer especially, he could only wander
about the fields in a state of perfect inactivity. On the
other hand, he says that, “ for five years he rose, almost
without exception, by five o’clock, winter and summer, but
never breakfasted, drank tea, or supt [supped],” or of
course dined, “ alone half a dozen times during all that
space, enjoying society, from the first, beyond measure.”
He became a fellow of Jesus College in 1776, andhe gain¬
ed, in two successive years, the second bachelor’s prizes given
by the chancellor. In 3778 he was ordained by the bishop
of Peterborough, though he did not subscribe the articles
without great reluctance. Fie obtained a curacy first at
Stockport in Cheshire, and then at Liverpool. The yeai
after, he married Miss Watson, a niece of the rector o:
Stockport, and thus vacated his fellowship. His domestk
life appears to have been happy and harmonious, though
the only merit of his wife, that he has left upon record, i;
the singular hereditary qualification, that her great-grand¬
father and great-grandmother had lived together as mar
and wife for seventy-five years. Soon after his marriage
he became classical tutor in the dissenting academy a!
Warrington, though he did not professedly unite wit!
any specific community of dissenters as adopting all theii
opinions; but he soon began openly to attack those o
the established church, in a multitude of controversy
writings, and especially in the notes accompanying hi
new translations of some parts of the Scriptures; a nor
for which he had diligently laboured to prepare himsel ,
the study of various dialects of the oriental languages
After the dissolution of the academy of Warrington,
lived at Bramcote in Nottinghamshire, at Richmond, ani
at Nottingham; partly occupied in the instruction ora e\
pupils, and partly in pursuing his owrn studies and nusra
tions of antiquity. In 1786, and for two or three yo
after, he suffered greatly from an acute pain in hisstmu
which interfered materially with the prosecution of is |C
logical investigations. _ l:
In the year 1790, he accepted the classical protesso
at Hackney. Here his lectures and instructions were g
nerally approved and admired, but he carried his i ^
from the articles of faith of any established socie -ji2
Christians so much farther than any of his colleagueSt ^
he was thought too independent to continue in his si u ^
and he consequently left the institution in lifft, a,1(
WAR
•sim ir reason he failed of obtaining the charge of two pri-
''vat'pupils whom he expected to have been placed with
jii,T He continued to reside at Hackney, employing him¬
self artly as an author and editor, and partly in the educa-
tior'if his own children. Among his original productions
wer several polemical and political pamphlets, relating to
the rar with France, and to the various controversies of
the Of these the most remarkable for its consequences
to 1 nself was his Reply to the Bishop of LandafFs Ad-
drer which occasioned a prosecution to be brought by the
att( iey-general, against his publisher first, and then against
hiir If; and he was sentenced to be confined for two years
in jrchester jail; a punishment which was probably in¬
tern d to be somewhat severe, but which was most fortu-
nntiin its operation on his subsequent comfort, since it
Ivasnie cause of his obtaining, by the exertions of his friends
and iis partisans at large, a subscription of about L.5000;
a si which not only alleviated the rigour of his imprison-
meif but also enabled him to leave his family in a state
of cinparative affluence.
1 was principally occupied during his confinement in
coaming his literary labours for the press, and in pre-
parig a series of classical lectures, beginning with the il-
(ustjtion of the second book of Virgil’s dEneid, the first
cone of which he delivered in London immediately after
his aeration in May 1801. The effect of unusual exertions
of hly and mind, after so long a cessation of exercise, and
in lit summer weather, appears to have predisposed his
Coratution to a typhus fever, of which he died, after a
(brejght’s illness, on the 9th of September 1801, leaving a
widw and six children, four sons and two daughters. His
broier, the Rev. Thomas Wakefield of Richmond, also
surfed him, and died in 1806. The catalogue of his li¬
ter:!'offspring is so multitudinous, that it partly tells its own
stoi by its length, and admits of very few particular re-
pia«.
1 Poemata ; quibus accedunt quaedam in Horatium Ob-
serdones. Cantab. 1776, 4to.
2 A plain and short Account of the Nature of Baptism.
Wa-ington, 1781, 12mo.
FAn Essay on Inspiration. Warr. 1781, 8vo.
4 A new Translation of the first Epistle to the Thes¬
salians. Warr. 1781, 8vo.
A new Translation of the Gospel of St Matthew.
W;l 1782, 4to.
( Directions for the Student in Theology. Lond. 1784,
12i .
'I A Sermon Preached at Richmond on the Peace.
Lo . 1784, 8vo.
1 An Inquiry concerning the Person of Jesus Christ.
Li . 1784, 8vo.
i On the Origin of Alphabetical Characters. Man-
fWer Mem. i. 1785. Life, ii. Attempting to cut the
Knijof their invention by referring it to inspiration.
Several Letters signed Nepiodidascalos, in the Thco-
Md Repository. Lond. 1785.
The Poems of Mr Gray, with Notes. Lond. 1786,
8v(
Virgilii Georgica. Cantab. 1788, 8vo.
1 Remarks on Dr Horsley’s Ordination Sermon. Lond.
12mo.
■ Four Marks of Antichrist. Lond. 1788, 8vo.
■ A new Translation of Parts of the New Testament
gly translated. Lond. 1789, 8vo.
. • An Address to the Inhabitants of Nottingham.
L> • 1789, 8vo.
• Remarks on the Internal Evidence of the Christian
1((pn. Lond. 1789, 8vo.
■ Silva Critica. i. 8vo, Cantab. 1789. ii. 1790. iii.
, ’ iv. Lond. 1793. v. 1795. Intended for the il-
us hon of the Scriptures from the Greek and Roman
17!
W A K
707
writers. The last two parts were printed at the expense ofWakefield.
the Rev. Robert Tyrrwhit, ^
19. An Address to the Bishop of St David’s. Birm»
1790, 8vo. On the Liturgv.
20. Cursory Reflections.” Birm. 1790, 8vo. On the
Corporation and Test Acts.
21. An Inquiry into the Expediency and Propriety of
Public or Social Worship. Lond. 1791, 8vo. Ed. 3, 1792.
22. Memoirs of his Life. Lond. 1792, 8vo. Ed. 1804,
2 vols. 8vo. Continued by Mr Rutt and Mr Wainewright.
23. A Translation of the New Testament. Lond. 1792,
3 vols. 8vo. 2d ed. 1795, 2 vols. 8vo.
24. Strictures on Dr Priestley’s Letter concerning Public
Worship. Lond. 1792, 8vo.
25. Reply to the Arguments against the Inquiry. Lond.
1792, 8vo.
26. Evidences of Christianity. Lond. 1793, 8vo.
27. The Spirit of Christianity compared with the Spirit
of the Times. Lond. 1794, 8vo. Two editions.
28. An Examination of the Age of Reason. Lond.
1794, 8vo. Two editions.
29. Remarks on the General Orders of the Duke of
York. Lond. 1794, 8vo.
30. Horatii quae supersunt. Lond. 1794, 12mo.
31. Tragcediarum Graecarum Delectus. Lond. 1794,
2 vols. 8vo. The Eumenides, Trachiniae, Philoctetes, Fler-
cules, Alcestis, and Ion.
32. Pope’s Works, with Remarks and Illustrations. Vol.
i. Warr. 1794, 8vo.
33. A Reply to Paine’s second Part of the Age of Rea¬
son. Lond. 1795, 8vo.
34. Poetical Translations. Lond. 1795, 12mo. Espe¬
cially from Horace and Juvenal.
35. Bionis et Moschiquae supersunt. Lond. 1795,12mo.
36. Virgilii Opera. Lond. 1796, 12mo.
37. Observations on Pope. Lond. 1796, 8vo.
38. A Reply to the Letter of Edmund Burke, Esq.
Lond. 1796, 8vo. Twice reprinted.
39. Homer’s Iliad by Pope, with Notes. Lond. 1796,
11 vols. 8vo.
40. Lucretius de Rerum Natura. Lond. 1796-7, 3 vols.
4to and 8vo. A splendid book, with some collations of
manuscripts, and some notes of Bentley. But the colla¬
tions are said to be inaccurate, and the commentary more
prolix than judicious. See Person in Br. Critic, 1801, xvii.
p. 452, and Elmsley in the Classical Journal. He received
however many grateful panegyrical acknowledgments from
his German correspondents. The edition is dedicated to
Mr Fox, with whom he commenced an acquaintance on the
occasion.
41. In Euripidis Hecubam Diatribe. Lond. 1797, 8vo.
On Person’s Hecuba.
42. A Letter to Jacob Bryant, Esq. on the War of Troy.
Lond. 1797, 4to.
43. A Letter to William Wilberforce, Esq. Lond. 1797,
8vo. Reprinted.
44. A Reply to some parts of the Bishop of Landaff’s
Address to the People of Great Britain. Lond. 1798, 8vo.
Twice Reprinted.
45. A Letter to Sir John Scott, his Majesty’s Attorney
General, on the subject of a late Trial. Lond. 1798, 8vo.
46. Defence delivered in the Court of King’s Bench.
47. Address to the Judges in April. 48. Address to the
Judges in May. Printed, but not published.
49. The first Satire of Juvenal Imitated. 1800, 12mo.
Life, vol. ii.
50. Correspondence with the late Right Hon. C. J. Tox.
Lond. 1813, 8vo. Chiefly on subjects of Classical Li¬
terature.
But few of the characters that have ever employed the
pen of a biographer have exhibited more remarkable con-
708 W A K
Wakefield, trasts, either in a moral or a literary point of view, than that
of Gilbert Wakefield; and he has accordingly been depicted,
by critics and historians of various sentiments, in colours
the most opposite and the most discordant, “ Of his parti¬
cular modes of thinking on religious and political subjects,”
says Dr Lindsay, “ different men will form different opi¬
nions : concerning the integrity of his heart, and the con¬
sistency of his character, there can be but one opinion
amongst those who enjoyed the happiness of his acquaint¬
ance.” It would indeed be difficult to find a more splen¬
did example of high honour and self-denial, and of magnifi¬
cent liberality, even under actual pecuniary embarrassment,
than Mr Wakefield displayed, at a time when he had to sup¬
port himself, with a wife and six or seven children, on about
L.150 a year, in voluntarily paying the expenses of Mr
Cuthell on his prosecution for publishing the Reply to the
Bishop of Landaff’s Address, which exceeded the whole
yearly amount of his income. “ His devotedness to study,”
says his friend Dr Aikin, “ was by no means attended with
a reserved or unsocial disposition; for no one could delight
more in free conversation, or bear his part in it with a more
truly social spirit; and if, in controversial and critical writ¬
ings, he was apt to indulge in the contemptuous and severe
expressions which he found too much sanctioned by pole¬
mical use, in disputation by word of mouth he was singu¬
larly calm and gentle, patient in hearing, and placid in re-
plying.. To conclude the topic of [his] moral character, it
was marked by an openness, a simplicity, a good faith, an
affectionate ardour, a noble elevation of soul, which made
way to the hearts of all who nearly approached him, and
rendered him the object of their warmest attachment.” But
“ he wanted time or patience,” says Dr Parr very justly,
“ for that discrimination which would have made his con¬
jectures fewer indeed but more probable, and his principles
more exact: [yet] I shall ever think of him as one of the
best scholars produced by my own country in my own
age.” The compliments of Heyne, and of his pupil Jacobs,
are still more elaborate; but it is well known, that when
Porson was one day asked for a toast, with a sentiment from
Shakspeare, he gave “ Gilbert Wakefield, What's Hecuba
to him, or he to Hecubaand there was quite as much of
truth as there was of neatness in the application. A reviewer
of his Life in the British Critic, by no means favourably
disposed towards him, readily admits that “ he was strictly
and enthusiastically honest, and seems to have acquired
even a passion for privations: these feelings, added to his
pride of independent thinking, led him, we doubt not,” he
says, “ to abstain from wine; to have relinquished in part, and
to be tending entirely to give up, the use of animal food,
with various other instances of peculiarity. Knowing his
own assiduity, and giving himself ample credit for sagacity,
he thought that he was equal to the decision of every pos¬
sible question: and thus he became bigoted to almost every
paradox which had once possessed his very eccentric under¬
standing. Lie was as violent against Greek accents as he
was against the Trinity, and anathematized the final n as
strongly as episcopacy. Whatever coincided not with his
ideas of rectitude, justice, elegance, or whatever else it
might be, was to give wray at once, and to be rescinded at
his pleasure, on pain of the most violent reprehension to all
opponents; whether it were an article of faith, a principle
of policy, a doctrine of morality, or a reading in an ancient
author, away it must go, oiuvoks/ rs itacsi, to the dogs
and the vultures. These exterminating sentences wrere
also given with such precipitancy, as not to allow even a
minute for consideration. To the paper, to the press, to the
[public], all was given at once, frequently to the incurring
of the most palpable absurdity. Thus the simple elegance
of O beate Sexti, in Horace, was proposed, in an edition of
that author, to be changed to O bea Te Sexti, though the
alteration, besides being most bald and tasteless, produced
W A K
a blunder in quantity so gross, that no boy, even in
middle part of a public school, would have been tho if
pardonable in committing it. By faults [either] origif j
or habitual, his sincerity became offensive, his honest
haughty and uncharitable, his intrepidity factious, his acute!
ness delusive, and his memory, assisted by much diligenc'
a vast weapon which his judgment was totally unable to
wield.”
h '
' \v'
It is not impossible that Mr Wakefield might have been
more successful in his studies, if he could have found suffi
cient motives for directing them rather to scientific than to
philological pursuits; for he seems to have been fully im.
pressed with the superior dignity of science to that of am
department of philology. “ Compare‘d with the nobit
theories of mathematical philosophy,” he says, “ our c/assi i
cal lucubrations are as the glimmering of a taper to tht
meridian splendour of an equatorial sun.” He would, how.
ever, scarcely have had perseverance enough to distinmiisl
himself in that solitary labour which is required for tht
minute investigation of natural phenomena: and it is seldon
that any collateral encouragement is held out, in this comv
try, for the continued cultivation of abstract science; whilt
the classical scholar, though he is supposed to be principall]
occupied with nouns, and verbs, and particles, is, in fact
unconsciously, and therefore most effectually, learning th<
arts of poetry, and rhetoric, and logic, which have furnished
in all ages, the spur and the reins for urging on and direct
ing the mighty bulk of the body politic, in church and it
state, at the will of its leaders. The young man, on thi
other hand, who commences the pursuit of science will
ardour, obtains, if he is most successful, and untormentet
by unnecessary scruples, a quiet fellowship, a comfortabli
apartment, and an excellent plain dinner for the remainde:
of his life; and if he fails of these, he may chance to b(
made an exciseman; or, in the improved arrangements o
the present auspicious days, a computer or an assistant as
tronomer ; but with respect to any influence that his pur
suits might be supposed to have on the elevation of his rani
in life, or in the independent provision for a family, he mus
lay no such flattering unction to his soul, but must at al
times place his pride and his happiness in the reflection tba
at mihi plaudo ipse domi, which is, in truth, the best sub
lunary support of the wise and the good in every circum
stance of human life. (L-Li)
WAKES. Mr Whitaker, in his History of Manchester
has given a particular account of the origin of wakes an(
fairs. He observes, that every church at its consecratioi
received the name of some particular saint; that thiscus
tom was practised among the Roman Britons, and continue!
among the Saxons ; and that in the council of Cealchythe, u
816, the name of the denominating saint was expressly re
quired to be inscribed on the altars, and also on the wall
of the church, or a tablet within it. The feast of this sain
became of course the festival of the church. Thus Chris
tian festivals were substituted in the room of the idolatrou
anniversaries of heathenism. Accordingly, at the first in
troduction of Christianity among the Jutes of Kent, Pop
Gregory the Great advised, what had been previously don
among the Britons, viz. Christian festivals to be insti
tuted in the room of the idolatrous, and the suffering n
of the martyr whose relics were reposited in the churc |0
the day on which the building was actually dedicated, to
the established feast of the parish. Both were appom61
and observed ; and at first they were clearly distinguisj}
among the Saxons, as appears from the laws of the Cone,
sor, where the dies dedicationis, or dedicatio,is rel^a,e,
discriminated from the propria festivitas sandi, °r^
sancti. They remained equally distinct till t^e.^e?rcJ
tion. In 1536 the dedication-day was ordered f°r 1 e,
ture to be kept on the first Sunday in October, an ^
festival of the patron saint to be celebrated no longer.
W A K
W A L 709
j.lt r was, by way of pre-eminence, denominated the church's
'ylo'ay, or its peculiar festival; and while this remains in
y parishes at present, the other is so utterly annihilated
jn I that Bishop Kennet, says Mr Whitaker, knew nothing
0f s distinct existence, and has attributed to the day of
,1c :ation what is true only concerning the saint’s day.
Tl s instituted at first, the day of the tutelar saint was
0b rved, most probably by the Britons, and certainly by
tlnSaxons, with great devotion. And the evening before
ev v saint’s day, in the Saxon Jewish method of reckoning
tlkhours, being an actual hour of the day, and therefore,
lik that, appropriated to the duties of public religion, as
tin reckoned Sunday from the first to commence at the
su iet of Saturday, the evening preceding the church’s ho-
jid. would be observed with all the devotion of the festival.
Tl people actually repaired to the church, and joined in
thi iervices of it; and they thus spent the evening of their
g- ter festivities, in the monasteries of the north, as early
j gS ,ie conclusion of the seventh century.
hese services were naturally denominated, from their
lat'hours, wcecan or wakes, and vigils or eves. That of the
. an versary at Ripon, as early as the commencement of the
eij th century, is expressly denominated the vigil. But
th of the church’s holiday was named eyrie wcecan, or
chxh-wake, the church-vigil, or church-eve. And it was
tli! commencement of both with a wake, which has now
cased the days to be generally preceded with vigils, and
tin church-holiday particularly to be denominated the
ckxh-wake. So religiously were the eve and festival of
tl patron saint observed for many ages by the Saxons, even
asjite as the reign of Edgar, the former being spent in the
cl'*ch, and employed in prayer. And the wakes, and all
tli other holidays in the year, were put upon the same foot-
in with the octaves of Christmas, Easter, and of Pentecost.
Wen Gregory recommended the festival of the patron
sait, he advised the people to erect booths of branches
al.it the church on the day of the festival, and to feast and
benerry in them with innocence. Accordingly, in every
pi sh, on the returning anniversary of the saint, little pavi-
lii 3 were constructed of boughs, and the people indulged
in icm to hospitality and mirth. The feasting of the saint’s
d® however, was soon abused; and even in the body of
tl:, church, when the people were assembled for devotion,
j tl# began to mind diversions, and to introduce drinking.
T f growing intemperance gradually stained the service of
tl vigil, till the festivity of it was converted, as it now is,
in the rigour of a fast. At length they too justly scanda-
lil 1 the Puritans of the seventeenth century, and numbers
c ol he wakes were disused entirely, especially in the east
ai some w’estern parts of England ; but they are commonly
: ol jrved in the north, and in the midland counties.
his custom of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the
ol rch, on the days of particular saints, was introduced into
hi ;land from the continent, and must have been familiar
^ elally to the Britons and Saxons; being observed among
tlj churches of Asia in the sixth century, and by those
o he west of Europe in the seventh. And equally in Asia
a Europe, on the continent and in the islands, those cele-
b1 ies were the causes of those commercial marts which we
d ominate fairs. The people resorted in crowds to the
ft ival, and a considerable provision would be wanted for
t fiir entertainment. The prospect of interest invited the
h e traders of the country to come and offer their wares ;
a thus among the many pavilions for hospitality in the
•j ftibourhood of the church, various booths were erected
ft the sale of different commodities. In larger towns, sur-
rj nded with populous districts, the resort of the people to
t] wakes would be great, and the attendance of traders
C $nerous ’ and this resort and attendance constitute a fair.
1 ;d expressly mentions the numerous appearance of traders
8 hese festivals in Asia, and Gregory notes the same cus¬
tom to be common in Europe. And as the festival was Walachia,
observed on a feria or holiday, it naturally assumed to itself,-y——
and as naturally communicated to the mart, the appellation
of feria or fair. Indeed several of our most ancient fairs
appear to have been usually held, and have been continued
to our time, on the original church-holidays of the place:
besides, it is observable, that fairs were generally kept in
church-yards, and even in the churches, and also on Sun¬
days, till the indecency and scandal were so great as to need
reformation.
WALACHIA, a principality situated between the Da¬
nube, the Moldau, and the Hungarian province of Sieben-
biirgen, the capital of which is Bucharest. In the time of
the Romans it was a part of Dacia. In the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, it received from the court of Byzan¬
tium princes who were tributary to it. After the fall of that
government, Walachia became dependent first on Hungary
and afterwards on Poland, which was the period of its great¬
est prosperity; but it terminated in 1421, when the country
submitted to the Turks. This submission was voluntary;
and in return the princes nominated from Constantinople
were allowed to enjoy their ancient constitution, religion,
and privileges. These grants however benefited only the
princes or hospodars, and the nobility or bojares; for the
peasants and the rest of the inhabitants were retained in a
state of severe feudal slavery. In consequence of this aris-
tocratical oppression under the hospodars and bojares, the
country rapidly declined both in numbers and in cultivation.
Those who obtained power paid large sums for it at Con¬
stantinople, and extorted from the inhabitants the means
of reimbursement during their temporary and dependent
exercise of sovereignty. During this period, the Turks re¬
tained in their own hands Brahilow, Giurgewo, and Thur-
nut, the strong places which protect the navigation of the
Danube.
In 1716 the first Greek was appointed hospodar; his name
was Nicholas Maurokordatus. When he attained the sove¬
reign power, the country was in the most depressed condi¬
tion, the larger portion of the land uncultivated, and the
people almost in a state of savage ignorance. Though no de¬
gree of freedom was introduced by the accession of a Greek
prince, yet many improvements were introduced which ad¬
vanced civilization. By this prince a printing-press wras
established, and some schools founded, in which the ancient
Greek and Latin languages were taught, as well as the
Sclavonic. Under his brother and successor Constantine,
the peasants were lightened of a great part of their slavish
burdens. He introduced a better course of agriculture,
and first brought in the cultivation of maize, which has
gradually become the chief aliment of the people. His
successor caused the Bible and the liturgical books of the
Greek church to be translated into the vernacular language.
The hospodars Alexander Ypsilante, Ghika, Kallimachi, and
Karadza, attended to education, or affected to do so, and
during their rule books embodying the ancient laws were
printed and generally circulated. As the rulers however
had unlimited power, subject only to the payment of an
annual sum of 300,000 thalers, great., oppression, and fre¬
quently great cruelty, were exercised towards all under their
authority. These hospodars were sometimes suddenly de¬
posed, and in some cases suffered violent deaths, under
charges of treachery, which commonly consisted of negocia-
tions, real or pretended, with Russia or with Austria. After
wars between Turkey and Russia, followed by the successive
treaties of Kancardschi, Jassy, and Bucharest, the hospodars
were dechxred to be under the protection of Russia, to which
nation the Walachians were much attached, from similarity
of religion. When hospodars were appointed, however, the
Turkish pacha in command of the fortresses on the Danube
put up to auction the revenues paid on the trade by the river,
and thus sold a monopoly of the whole commerce in the pro-
“10
W A L
WHlacliia. ducts of Walachia and Moldavia. This led to great inter-
’'"" ''''“"“'’nal distress, which was augmented by the contemporaneous
demands made by the bojares or landed proprietors on the
peasants. Amidst this unfortunate concurrence of evils, the
hospodar Prince Karadza, under apprehension of being de¬
posed, or perhaps of being executed, withdrew himself with
his family and his treasure, and passing through Hungary,
took refuge in Geneva and Genoa in October 1818. In Ja¬
nuary 1819, the Porte nominated as his successor Prince
Alexander Suzzo, who died two years after. His death
seemed to be the signal of a general insurrection, which,
though it broke out first in Walachia and Moldavia, speedily
extended to the whole of European Greece, as well as to
the islands, and produced those transactions which more
properly belong to the history of that country than of Wa¬
lachia.
The insurrection in Walachia wasfirstcommenced byana-
tive bojar, Theodore Wladimirsko, who had in the Russian
service acquired the reputation of a brave and skilful officer.
He had retired from the army, and carried on an extensive
trade in corn, by which he had acquired considerable wealth,
and had formed connections and obtained confidence among
the peasantry and smaller proprietors. The interregnum ap¬
peared a favourable moment, and he at first collected fifty
adherents in Little Walachia, where he was soon joined by
more than 1000 peasants. In the mean time the Porte had
nominated a new hospodar, Kallimachi, who sought to form
an alliance with W ladimirsko, by means of which he expected
to be enabled to raise the sum necessary to be paid at Con¬
stantinople as the purchase of his dignity. The negociation
was proceeding, and might have been concluded, if not to
the honour, to the advantage of the two aspirants; but
Alexander Ypsilante, a descendant of him who had been
hospodar in 1806, and who had obtained the rank of gene¬
ral in the Russian army, appeared on the scene with a body
of Greeks, and took possession of Jassy. This caused a
most bloody civil war, by which Walachia and Moldavia
were dreadfully ravaged and wasted by alternate victors.
The lurks at length sent an army sufficiently strong to
suppress the several contending parties, when submission
was thus enforced. The sultan, instead of a Greek, no¬
minated a native as viceroy, and in 1822 placed Gregory
Ghika on tho throne, who, surrounded by Turkish guards,
had little or no power, and felt that his dignity was of very
uncertain duration. He continued to hold it, such as it was,
tdl 1828, when a new war between Russia and Turkey
broke out, and the former took possession of both the prin¬
cipalities, and established in Bucharest a plan of Russian
civil organization.
In its present state, Walachia extends in north latitude
from 43° 44' to 46° 17', and in east longitude from 22° 52'
to 27° 5P, and is in extent 24,640 squai'e miles. It is di¬
vided into two portions, viz. Eastern or Little Walachia,
and Western or Great Walachia, and these are again sub¬
divided into circles, of which the number in the former is
five, and in the latter twelve. In the whole are comprehend¬
ed twenty-two cities or fortified places, twenty-five market-
towns, and 2548 villages and hamlets. The number of the
inhabitants is very doubtful; some accounts make them
amount to more than 1,000,000, while others state them
not to exceed 600,000. Nearly the whole of them adhere
rigidly to the Greek church, and are under the ecclesiasti¬
cal authority of the archbishop of Bucharest, and of the
bishops of Rimnik and of Busco. There are numerous
monasteries, but the occupants of them are very few. The
people are strict in observing the great number of holi¬
days which the Greek church enjoins, and which are said
to exceed 200 in each year, and on which no one works.
lere are a lew Roman Catholics, who own as their suffra¬
gan the bishop of Nicopolis. The people are of mixed races,
Walachians, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Gipsies. The
W A L
latter, amounting to 50,000 persons, are chieflv cm i
in flm ~^  jA  mi J ^nplOjHf
CPrl r., * ^
ed in the more servile occupations. These mixed'; 'P
have formed a common language, composed partly of fvi L
somewhat more of Latin, and abounding in words 0f of ^ S '
derivation. It has been seldom acnnirerl h,, c ?lni ^ '
It has been seldom acquired by any W;,,
nor has it been much studied or grammatically anahJ
A portion of the Carpathian Mountains, through
are several passages leading to the Austrian territories I
rounds Walachia on the west and north-west sides. F
these, mountains project towards the Danube, and betwe'
them are beautiful and fruitful vales, containing soils caDahl
of producing most abundant crops. From the termination
these spurs from the mountains there is a level district d
dining gradually to the great stream, and on its border h!
coming marshes and morasses, in some parts covered irit
wood.
If the inhabitants were industrious, the government pro
tective, many of the holidays abolished, and capital coal
be accumulated, few parts of Europe would produce s
much of all that contributes to life and comfort as this prin
cipality. With its ignorant and inactive occupation! th
land yields great crops of maize, wheat, and barley. Th
first two are the exclusive food of man, and the latter ofth
cattle. Hemp and flax are flourishing products. Fruit t
every kind is plentiful; the sides of the hills are covere
with vines, and the wine made from them is equal to tha
of Hungary. The land is watered by numerous brooks, an
the meadows yield excellent pasture for black cattle, whil
there are plains well adapted for the breeding of horses. Th
export of horses and cows is the chief trade between th
principality and the surrounding countries. The climate i
temperate, though colder in winter than in the districts to th
south of the Balkan Mountains, but the winter scarcely en
dures more than two months. There are no mines at work
and no manufactures except those of the domestic kind.
WALAJA, or Abadnagur, a town of the south of India
in the province of the Carnatic, situated on the north side
of the Palar river. It is a place of considerable conse
quence, regularly built, rich and populous. By means o
bullocks, it carries on a considerable trade between the sea
coast and Mysore. Long. 78. 5. E. Lat. 12. 40. N.
WALCHEREN, an island, forming part of the provinci
of Zealand, in the kingdom of Holland. It stands on th(
north entrance of the western Scheldt, is highly fertile
though unhealthy to foreigners, especially in the autumn
when they are liable to be attacked by that description o:
fever which takes its name from the island, and whicl
proved so ruinous to the British army after its capture ir
1809. It contains the populous cities of Middleburg and
Flushing, and many large villages, and about 33,000 inha¬
bitants.
WALDAI, a circle of the Russian government of Novo-
gorod. It extends in north latitude from 57° 3V to 58'
16', and in east longitude from 33° 24' to 38° 4', and con¬
tains one city and 507 villages, in 100 parishes, with 5!,64C
inhabitants. It is abundant in streams, and has upwardsol
150 small lakes, some of them five or six miles in length.
It contains little wood, and the chief pursuit is agriculture.
The capital has the same name, a city of 325 inhabitants,
224 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 32. 19. E. Lat. 57.
44. N.
WALDECK, a small principality of the north oi Get-
many, deriving its name from a mountain castle, the ruins
- ’ ’ ’ •   1 '',0 31'of
of which still exist. It is between 51° 4' and 511 -- -
north latitude, and between 8° 26' and 9° 7' east longitude,
as regards the chief part of the territory; but a small por¬
tion of it, the Graffshaft, or county of Pyrmont, is detached
from it, and lies between the Prussian and Hanoverian do¬
minions. The entire extent is 480 square miles, or about
307,200 English acres. The whole of Waldeck is a moun¬
tainous and woody district, the soil generally is poor and
W A L
W A L
711
gt01, and in the best years scarcely yielding sufficient
•or for home consumption, although potatoes form a large
I "Cor ,n 0f the food of the labourers. It has no large rivers,
* -f ut nany small streams, which ultimately fall into the river
AVt'er. In some parts there are large flocks of sheep, which
]ia\ been improved by mixing with Spanish and Saxon
ran and now produce fine wool. The horned cattle yield
abi dance of butter and some cheese, which are the only
aicts 0f the soil that are sent out of the country in ex-
Ljj^e for the few foreign luxuries that are needed. The
for ts abound with game of all kinds, and some of the wild
anials, especially the wild hogs, are a great annoyance to
th( ultivators. The mountain-streams abound in fish, and
thhrout in them are reported to be of excellent flavour.
Tlte are mines of iron and of copper worked, and the
pu jeds manufactured on the spots where they are drawn.
Tl : annual quantity of iron is about 200 tons, that of copper
: no (exceeding forty tons. There are salt springs, which
pn.ale the quantity needed of culinary salt; and there are
gor;, quarries of good marble. The countship of Pyrmont
coists only of a single valley, surrounded on all sides with
loft hills, through which the river Emmer runs, and on its
bals are some rich meadows and a few' corn-fields. The
mkral spring is the great attraction ; and accommodations
anwell provided for the numerous guests that repair to it
in arch of health. The government of Waldeck is vested
in jie prince alone, though, on the ancient principle, the
stas at times assemble, and form a single chamber, at
Alien, to make laws, but have little business to do. The
ca<cai of the principality is a town of 2060 inhabitants.
T| other towns are Pyrmont, with 4500, and Arolsen, with
lit). The whole population is 54,000, scattered in ten
towns and 105 villages. They adhere to the Lu-
th in religion, with the exception of 800 catholics, 600
refrmed, and 500 Jews, with a very few quakers. The¬
re, nues of the prince amount to about L.40,000, of
with L.7000 arises from the wate-r of Pyrmont, and the
gr ter part of the remainder from his landed property;
bn the revenue is loaded with a heavy debt. At one
peod the military force was raised to 1700 men, but at
jn ent the contingent to the German confederation is 518
f ALDEGRAVE Islands, two small rocky islands lying
of jhe southern coast of New Holland. Captain Flinders
in qdes them under the title of the Investigator’s Group.
E g. of the largest, 134. 44. E. Lat. 33. 35. S.
fALDENSES. See Valdenses.
fALDO. See Valdo.
fALES, a country situated in the south-west part of
B ain, into which the ancient Britons retired from the
pt'jecution of the Saxons. Anciently it was of greater ex-
t( than it is at present, and comprehended all the country
b ond the Severn ; that is, besides the twelve counties in-
cl led in it at present, those of Herefordshire and Mon-
n! ithshire, which now are reckoned a part of England,
"fe then inhabited by three different tribes of the Britons,
n icly the Silures, the Dimetae, and the Ordovices. The
li nans were never able to subdue them till the reign of
rlpasian, when they were reduced by Julius Frontinus,
w > placed garrisons in their country to keep them in awe.
I Jugh the Saxons made themselves masters or all England,
fly never could get possession of Wales, except the coun-
tj of Monmouth and Hereford. About the year 870,
1 leric king of Wales divided his territories among his
flee sons; and the names of these divisions were, De¬
in, or South Wales; Povesia, or Powis-Land; and Ve-
otia, or North Wales. Another division is aftervyards
boned in the records, viz. North Wales, South \\ ales,
West Wales; the last comprehending the counties
0 Monmouth and Hereford. The country derived the
1 ne of IVaks. and the inhabitants that of Welsh, from
the Saxons, who by those terms denote a country and people
to w'hich they are strangers; for the Welsh in their own
language call their country Cymry, and their language
Cymraey. They continued under their own princes and
laws from the above-mentioned period, and were never en¬
tirely subjected to the crown of England till the reign of
Edward I., when Llewellin ap Gryffith, prince of Wales, lost
both his life and dominions. Edward, the better to secure
his conquest, and to reconcile the Welsh to a foreign yoke,
sent his queen to lie in at Caernarvon, where she was deli¬
vered of a prince ; to whom the Welsh, on that account, the
more readily submitted. Ever since that time, the eldest
sons of the kings of England have commonly been created
princes of Wales, and as such enjoy certain revenues from
that country.
Wales is bounded on all sides by the sea and the Severn,
except on the east, where it joins to the counties of Chester,
Salop, Hereford, and Monmouth. Its length, from the
southernmost part of Glamorganshire to the extremity of
Flintshire north, is computed at about 113 miles; and its
breadth, from the river Wye east to St David’s in Pem¬
brokeshire west, is nearly of the same dimensions, being
about ninety miles.
After the conquest of Wales by Edward I. very material
alterations were made in their laws, so as to reduce them
nearer to the English standard, especially in the forms of
their judicial proceedings; but they still retained very much
of their original polity, particularly their rule of inheritance,
viz. that their lands were equally divided among all the
issue male, and did not descend to the eldest son alone. By
other subsequent statutes their provincial immunities were
still further abridged: but the finishing stroke to their
dependency was given by the statute 27 Henry VIII.
c. 26, which at the same time gave the utmost advance¬
ment to their civil prosperity, by admitting them to a
thorough communication of laws with the subjects of Eng¬
land. Thus were this brave people gradually conquered
into the enjoyment of true liberty; being insensibly put
upon the same footing and made fellow-citizens with their
conquerors.
It is enacted by 27 Hen. VIII. 1. That the dominions
of Wales shall be for ever united to the kingdom of Eng¬
land. 2. That all Welshmen born shall have the same
liberties as other king’s subjects. 3. That lands in Wales
shall be inheritable according to the English tenures and
rules of descent. 4. That the laws of England, and no
other, shall be used in Wales; besides many other regula¬
tions of the police of this principality. And the 34th and
35th Flen. VIII. c. 26, confirms the same, adds further regu¬
lations, divides it into twrelve shires, and in short reduces it
to the same order in which it stands at this day; differing
from the kingdom of England in only a few particulars. See
England.
WALES, New South. Under this title are included
the various British settlements which have been established
in the island of New Holland. A description of that island
will be found under the article Australasia, together with
a short account of its first settlement by the British, and ot
the early progress of the colony. We now propose to add
such further information, and recent statistical details, as
will exhibit a view of its progressive increase and its pre¬
sent condition ; and to conclude with a short account of the
other settlements which have arisen on its western and
southern shores, on Swan River, King George’s Sound,
and more recently at Port Philip.
It was after the separation of the United States from this
country that it was first proposed to establish a colony for
the reception of convicts from Great Britain on the eastern
shore of New South Wales ; and in the year 1787 prepara¬
tions were completed for carrying the design into effect. In
1787 a fleet consisting of eleven sail of ships, including a fri-
.
Wales,
New
South.
'flit -fry £tfW**'* ,
vV'^i^vw' v ^
4^— - ^
712
Wales,
New
South.
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
gate and an armed tender, and having on board 565 male
and 192 female convicts, with 200 troops, and several of
their wives and children, set sail from Portsmouth in May ;
and after a voyage of eight months, in the course of which
they touched at Teneriffe, Rio Janeiro, and the Cape of
Good Hope, where they spent a month, they arrived at
their destination on the 18th, 19th, and 20th of January 1788.
Captain Arthur Philip of the royal navy was appointed the
first governor of the colony. Botany Bay, where it was pro¬
posed to fix the settlement, was found ill adapted for that pur¬
pose, being exposed to the fury of the east winds, which roll
a tremendous sea on the beach. In seeking for a more eli¬
gible situation, Captain Philip entered the inlet to which
Cook had given the name of Port Jackson, which he found
one of the most capacious and safe harbours in the world,
navigable for vessels of any burden fifteen miles from its en¬
trance, indented with numerous coves, sheltered from every
wind, and possessing the finest anchorage. Within this
harbour, on the shores of Sydney Cove,'thinly wooded, and
the haunt of the kangaroo, but now marked out as the ca¬
pital of the future empire, the British ensign was hoisted
on the 26th of January 1788. They immediately proceed¬
ed to clear the ground, to land the live stock and the stores,
and to establish the colony, amounting to 1030 souls. In its
early progress the settlers encountered numerous obstacles,
which it required extraordinary courage, and perseverance,
and untiring industry to overcome. These arose from va¬
rious causes, from the extremely sterile soil around Sydney
Cove, from which no industry could extract a sufficient
supply of grain for the wants of the people; from the
profligate habits of the convicts, which occasioned continual
disorders among themselves; from their outrages on the
natives, and the retaliation which these produced. It was
some years before an adequate supply of provisions for the
maintenance of the colony could be derived from the un¬
grateful soil. The settlers consequently depended on fo¬
reign supplies, which did not arrive, and they experienced
the severest privations. The loss of the store-ship the
Guardian, under the command of Captain Riou, when pro¬
ceeding to their relief with a large supply of provisions and
stores, was a severe blow to the prosperity of the colony; and
the general distress was greatly aggravated by the unseason¬
able arrival of a convict ship with 222 female convicts on
board, thus increasing the number of consumers without any
addition to the stock of provisions. The consequence was
a severe scarcity, during which the weekly rations were, in
April 1790, two and a half pounds of flour, two pounds of
rice, and two pounds of pork; the governor sharing equally
with others in the common calamity. Even this allowance,
barely sufficient for the wants of nature, could not have been
alforded if the governor had not sent off upwards of 200
convicts and troops to Norfolk Island, which is about twenty-
one miles in circumference, with a fertile soil. Here the set¬
tlers, with even smaller allowance than at Sydney, would pro¬
bably have perished, but for an unlooked-for supply from a
flight of aquatic birds alighting on the island to lay their
eggs. Owing to the length of their pinions, they take wing
with difficulty; and they were so numerous that from 2000
to 3000 were taken every night, besides an incalcul¬
able quantity of eggs, which was a seasonable supply, and
saved the lives of this detachment from the main body.
Every effort was made to obtain supplies from China, India,
and the Cape of Good Hope. There were not at one pe¬
riod four months’ provisions in the store on the most re¬
duced scale, and several persons had already perished.
Shortly after, three other vessels arrived with convicts, a large
number of whom perished of the scurvy during the voyage.
I or about three years the settlers were in danger of starvation,
and it was not till June 1790 that relief was afforded bv th
arrival of three transports from the Cape; and in the foil ^
ing year a ship of war arrived at Sydney, conveying ten vet
sels, with 1695 male and 68 female convicts, after losing IPS',
on the passage. The arrival of this fleet changed the as”
pect of affairs, and gave the necessary stimulus to the in"
dustry of this rising community. Amid the difficulties with
which the colony had to struggle, its improvement was not
altogether neglected. Cultivation was begun, farms were
established at Rose Hill (Paramatta), at other places two
towns were commenced, and a few convicts were emanci-
pated, and obtained grants of land as settlers.
Governor Philip embarked for England in December
1792, when Lieutenant-governor Grose succeeded to the
government. He was succeeded, on the 15th December
1794, by Captain Paterson ; and on the 7th September i
1795 Governor Hunter arrived, and immediately entered
on his important office. From the year 1792 the improve¬
ment of the colony was decisive and rapid. It was in 1789
that the first harvest was reaped at Paramatta; and in 1793
the settlers were enabled to sell corn to the public stores,
which was purchased at a given price. Trade began to make
its appearance ; passage-boats were established between
the towns of Sydney and Paramatta, and the settlers visibly
increased. The bulls and cows that had been originally
brought to the new settlement had, by the carelessness
of the keeper, been suffered to stray into the woods, and
every subsequent search had proved ineffectual, when a
fine and numerous herd of wild cattle was at length dis¬
covered in the interior of the country, evidently the pro¬
geny of the animals which had been so long lost to the
settlers. At the close of the year 1795, the public
and private stock of the colony consisted of 57 horses, 227
head of cattle, 1531 sheep, 1427 goats, 1869 hogs, be¬
sides a numerous breed of poultry. The total quantity
of land in cultivation amounted to 5419 acres. At this
period the storehouses were so completely exhausted that,
on the arrival of Governor Hunter, there were no salt pro¬
visions in store; and the settlement was, as before, reduced
to rations. The colony was in danger of falling back; and
it was only the speedy arrival of a store-ship at this critical
and distressing moment that saved it from destruction in
the eighth year of its establishment.1 At the commence¬
ment of the year 1800, the inhabitants had increased to
6000. The stock consisted of 203 horses and mares, 10R
cattle, 1024 sheep, 2182 goats, and 4017 hogs. Thequan-
tity of land sown with wheat was 4665 acres, with Indian
corn 2930 acres, and with barley 82 acres.
Governor Hunter quitted the colony in the year 1800,
and was succeeded by Captain King, who had effected the
settlement on Norfolk Island. His administration lasted
six years, and was distinguished by what is termed the
“ Irish rebellion,” which broke out about the year 1801.
Several hundred convicts attached to the government esta¬
blishment at Castlehill, about twenty miles from Sydney,
struck work and demanded their liberty; having armed
themselves with pikes, they prepared for resistance. They
were however overthrown after a brief contest by the troops
at Vinegar Hill, a few miles from Paramatta, on the Hawkes-
bury road ; a few were shot by the troops; the leaders were
apprehended; three of them were led to instant death ;t"0
others were executed the following day at Sydney, three
others at Castlehill, and the remainder returned quietly to
their labour. There is no other instance of any insurrec¬
tion in the colony by the convict population.
A printing-press had been established in the colony abou
the year 1795, by Governor Hunter, and in March 1
the Sydney Gazette was published by authority. In
1 Mann’s Present Picture of New South Wales, p. C.
wales, new south.
71;
c per coin was issued by the government. The colony
■V.t this time governed by general orders issued by the
. nment. Captain King does not seem to have been
' tic iate to the magnitude of the trust committed to him.
}le uitted the colony in August 1806, and was succeeded
<, ,ptain Bligh, who was even less qualified than his pre-
deusor. He had given ominous proofs of his incapacity
wh, he acted as commander of the Bounty, where by his
tynnical conduct he provoked the men to a mutiny; and
his lection for the delicate task of rearing up this infant
coli y, by providing for its various interests, fostering the
incftrious, repressing the unruly, and discouraging and
reciming the profligate, evinced a marked indifference to
its elfare, which merits decided condemnation. His ad-
mii tration produced exactly the consequences which might
Imv been expected. So unwarrantable was his tyranny,
aIlt,specially his persecution of one influential person, not¬
ed ike for his public spirit and for his private virtues, that
thesolonists, with all the honest indignation of freemen, de-
clad against his authority; and being aided by the officers
an<}nen of the New South Wales corps, they deposed him,
andmarching up to the government-house, they dragged
hin.rom his concealment behind a bed, and carefully pro-
tecifig his person and property, sent him on board a sloop
of 'tr, in which he set sail for Europe, after he had been
govnor for eighteen months. He was succeeded by Ge-
nei; Macquarrie, on theTst January 1810 ; thegovernment
ha'jig in the mean time, from 1808 to December 1809, been
suciissively administered by Lieutenant-colonels John-
gtoFoveaux, and Colonel W. Patterson. During the
go rnment of General Macquarrie, which lasted for twelve
ye;:i, the settlement made great progress in wealth and
inLJvement. The population was increased by the influx
of lumerous convicts, and some new settlers; though it
wa lot till a later period that the full tide of emigration
ben to set in towards New Holland. By aid from the
Br'sh treasury, many public buildings were erected, roads
we constructed, and the colonists, compelled by a season
of ought in 1813, and animated by the spirit of discovery,
mats their way over the barrier of the Blue Mountains, hi-
thl -o deemed impassable. It was in search of new pastur-
ag and by following the course of the Grose river, that a
pap was at last found, and a road commenced in the follow-
in; year, over this mountain range, whose summits were
co idered by the aborigines to be inaccessible, and who
of i declared that there was no pass into the interior.1 One
grit principle of Governor Macquarrie’s administration was
toficourage and^bring forward the convict population. It
w: his maxim to consider the European life of every con-
v> as past and forgotten; their arrival on the shores of
A tralasia as a new era in their existence, in which the er-
ro ot the past might be entirely redeemed. It was a most
er ghtened and benevolent policy; and if he erred in carry-
10 it into effect with too little discretion, as was alleged,
itias the error of a generous mind. Under his rule the
’ ctpicts were patronised ; some were chosen to be magis-
tr is; he conferred on others colonial situations of trust,
al g with liberal grants of land. But his further endea-
'1‘s to introduce into respectable society those who had
hfi branded as felons, were opposed by the invincible an-
f1: ^ies ot the European settlers, who, though they agreed
ln °untenancing and rewarding good conduct in the con-
v| population, could not be persuaded that any after-purity
fe could thoroughly efface their original disgrace. To force
f u into the society of men of honour and character, w as
u efore a vain and useless attempt. Such an intermixture
*4 lasses could only be effected by the debasement of Euro-
P| i manners, and by lowering the moral tone of society
11 ie colony. Those who have been transported for felony
Wales,
New
South.
can hardly ever aspire to the distinction that belongs only
to moral worth. They may and ought to be treated kindly
and indulgently ; but a certain degree of disgrace attaches
to their crimes, from which they cannot be freed; and it " —
could hardly be expected that the new settlers would lay
aside all at once their European prejudices in New Hol¬
land, and associate on familiar terms with men whose so¬
ciety they would have abhorred in Britain.
Sir Thomas Brisbane, a man of science and talent, suc¬
ceeded General Macquarrie in 1821. His successor, Ge¬
neral Darling, also possessed ability, but he was too’ jea¬
lous of the comments of the press, and involved himself in
disputes and difficulties, some arising from his own indis¬
cretion, others from the intemperate violence of his op¬
ponents. The present governor, General Bourke, has en¬
deavoured to steer a middle course between these extremes,
and has encountered opposition from both parties.
The British settlements in New South Wales were at
first along Port Jackson and the Hawkesbury river. They
have since extended backward into the country, and across
the Blue Mountains, long deemed the barrier of the colony.
They are divided into the following nineteen counties, name¬
ly, Cumberland, Camden, St Vincent, Northumberland,
Gloucester, on the sea-coast; Durham, Hunter, Cook, West¬
moreland, Argyle, Murray, farther into the interior; and still
farther westward, Brisbane, Bligh, Philip, Wellington, Rox¬
burgh, Bathurst, Georgiana, King. These nineteen comprise
all the counties that have already been settled. They ex¬
tend along the coast about 250 miles, and into the interior
180 miles. These nineteen counties, with the exception of
Cumberland, Argyle, and Bathurst, have been but very im¬
perfectly explored.
On the sea-coast, along which the great Southern Ocean General
rolls its tremendous surge, the country is bold and rugged, a*pect of
and for five or six miles from the coast it wears in some^y C0Un'
parts a bleak and barren aspect; the soil is poor and swampy,
and clothed with stinted trees. In other parts, however, the
country on the coast, as at Illawarra in Camden, a mari¬
time county to the north of Cumberland, has a different
aspect; being, as described by Martin, romantic and beau¬
tiful, adorned with tall ferns, umbrageous cedars, graceful
palm trees, with numerous creeping vines, throwing around
in wild luxuriance their flowery tassels, here and there
interspersed with flights of red-crested black cockatoos
and purple couries, which present to the spectator the
appearance of some tropical region, with the opposite pro¬
perty of a temperate climate. Beyond the girdle of the
coast the country begins everywhere to improve, extend¬
ing in gentle undulations for ten miles, clothed with stately
forests, which, where cultivation has made progress, are
diversified with farms and tenements, and intersected by
broad and excellent turnpike roads. The forest is extremely
thick, but there is little or no underwood. A poor kind of
grass, which is too effectually sheltered from the rays of the
sun to be possessed of any nutritive qualities, shoots up at
intervals. This description of country, with few exceptions,
forms another girdle of about ten miles in breadth, so that,
generally speaking, the colony, for about sixteen miles into
the interior, possesses a soil by no means fertile, but requir¬
ing both skill and industry to render it productive. At the
distance however of twenty or twenty-five miles from the
coast, the country begins greatly to improve.
To the northward, in about 28° south latitude, and se¬
venty-seven miles from the settlement on Brisbane river,
the country stretches out into vast plains, with rising downs,
at an elevation of about 1800 feet above the level of the sea.
They consist of a rich black and dry soil, timbered, and
covered with the most luxuriant herbage, interspersed here
and there with valleys, open woodlands, and forests. The
4 x
0L XXI.
1 See History of Australasia, by R. Montgomery Martin, F. S. S.
714:
Wales,
New
South.
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
height of the ground tempers the climate, which is genial
and salubrious. Between the parallels of 34° and 27°, there
is a vast area of depressed country, the course of the rivers
being to north-north-west and north-west; which agrees
with the opinion and the report of the natives, that there
is a great lake in the interior, discharging its waters on
the north-west coast. To the west and south-west of
Sydney, the plains extend for 130 miles, destitute of trees,
and not having a greater elevation of surface than 250 feet
above the level of the sea. To the southward of the colo¬
ny there are also vast plains, discovered in 1823, and called
the Brisbane Downs. These fine pasture-lands extend up¬
wards of forty miles south of the parallel of 36° 15', which
is their southern limit. They are enclosed on the east by
the coast-range of hills, and on the west, towards the in¬
terior, by the lofty chain of the Australian Alps, known by
the name of the Warragong chain, whose peaks are covered
with snow all the year round. The table-land thus enclosed
by mountains cannot be less than 2000 feet above the level
of the sea; and possessing abundant pasturage, and a tem¬
perate climate, it affords an unlimited scope to the breed
of fine-woolled sheep.1
To the westward of that portion of the country that has
been settled or explored, various ranges of mountains are
visible, down whose western declivities the streams descend,
and afterwards taking a southerly course, fall into the ocean
on the southern shore. The first discoveries of travellers
in this direction were extremely imperfect. The Lachlan and
the Macquarrie, both rising on the western side of the Blue
Mountains, were, the first in 1817, and the latter in 1818,
traced by Mr Oxley, the surveyor-general of the colony, to
what he considered a swamp, spreading far and wide over
a flat, where there was no outlet for the collected waters,
and the whole country beyond he concluded to be an un¬
inhabitable marsh. But in 1824, a journey westward was
undertaken by Messrs Howell and Hume, which terminated
in the discovery of several large rivers, the tributaries of
another larger river, the Morrumbidgee, flowing in a di¬
rection nearly west. In 1830, Captain Sturt embarked on
this river, which had been named after himself by Hume,
and which he named the Murray, and descending the
swelling stream, found that it joined the Murray river,
which has its estuary by the shallow lake of Alexandrina
in Encounter Bay, on the southern coast. In 1831 Major
Mitchell, on the report of a bush-ranger, of a river which
he had followed in a north-western direction from Liver¬
pool Plains to the sea-coast, being sent by the governor on
an expedition westward from that point, discovered a
fresh-water river, the Karaula or Darling, in latitude 29°,
flowing first westward and afterwards in a southern direc¬
tion, and joining, along with the Mormmbidgee, the Murray
river in Encounter Bay. As the structure of the country
is gradually brought to light by these discoveries, we ob¬
serve the broken fragments of its geography gradually
pieced together, and at last united into one great whole.
Mr Oxley traced the course of the Lachlan and Macquar¬
rie westward a certain length. Other streams that take
their rise north of the colony, namely, the Peel and the
Namoy rivers, which flow down the western declivity of
the coast-range, with a westerly or southerly course, were
also traced a certain distance, and were then lost. The
descent of the Morrumbidgee, and finally of the Murray,
by Captain Sturt, was a valuable discovery, as it threw’
light on the interior structure of the country, and afford¬
ed data for geographical inferences of great importance;
and, finally, the journey of Major Mitchell, in which he
discovered the great stream of the Darling running almost
southward, converted inference into fact, and would seem
to point out the river Murray in Encounter Bay as tlT
centre to which, from the nature of the ground, all th
waters flow that rise in the great basin formed by the coast
range or the Blue Mountains on the east, and fart)
north by the Australian Alps, or Warragong range, and i"
terior mountains not yet discovered, on the west; andth"
the Peel, the Namoy, the Macquarrie, the Lachlan th
Darling, with the Oxley, the Hume, the Goulburn'
which descend westward from the Warragong chain, what
ever might be the direction of their upperestreatns, must
finally terminate in the common embouchure at Encounter
Bay.
This hypothesis, however, though it seems plausible, is not
quite certain, and it is open in some points to objections.
From the direction of the river Darling, which was disco¬
vered by Captain Sturt in 1829, and traced for forty miles
through a level country to the south-west as far as 30° Iff
south latitude, 144° 50' east longitude, it would seem to
have no other outlet but in the Murray in Encounter Bar
and the fact of a large river falling into the Murray from
the south, exactly the course the Darling would take in its
progress to the sea, appears a further confirmation of this
conjecture. Between the point however to which the Dar¬
ling has been traced by Captain Sturt in its upper course,
and that portion of the river which has been explored by
the same traveller, there are 400 miles of unknown coun¬
try. But the greatest objection is, that the Darling was
found by Captain Sturt to be perfectly salt, especially as it
was farther traced; while the river that he found to fall
into the Murray was quite sweet to the taste. This fact
seems sufficient to disprove the identity of the two rivers,
though it seems certain that the Darling river must find
its way to the southern shore; on which, however, though
it has been carefully explored, no large river has been
found, except where the Murray joins the sea at Encounter
Bay.
The valley which is watered by these streams, is of
great extent. Its declivities, according to the course of the
streams, is to the south ; and it is diversified throughout by
ridges of mountains, diverging westward, some of them of
great height. All this extensive country southward from
the river Murray to the coast, Major Mitchell denominated,
from its agreeable aspect and its fertility, Australia Felix.
It is well watered ; and the Snowy Mountains not only
temper the climate, but they afford a supply of moisture
throughout the summer to the large rivers to which they
give birth ; while the great Southern Oo^an on three sides
throws up clouds of moisture, which descend in abundant
rains. Extensive downs occur, which are covered with the
best kind of grass, or are gracefully wooded. From Mount
Macedon Major Mitchell says he reconnoitred Port Philip
at the distance of sixty miles. “ In this region,” he adds,
“ the party crossed ranges of granite, others of trap-rock,
the woods forming open forests, which only partially cover¬
ed the country. This, even in its present state, seems
nearly all available for the purposes of agriculture and
grazing; and being almost without any aboriginal inhabi¬
tants, it is consequently in the best state for the reception
of British emigrants.”2
The Blue Mountains, which run along the shore of he"
Holland at the distance of from thirty to ninety miles, an
rise to a perpendicular elevation of from 3000 to 4000 feet,
and farther south the Warragong range, or Australian
Alps, which are covered with perpetual snow, and extern
without interruption to Wilson’s Promontory, the sout
extremity of New Holland, form each, in the country w >c
1 History of Australasia, by Montgornt ry Martin, chap. iii. , rr di*
2 See Account of Major Mitchell’s Expedition into the Interior of Australasia. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society c 015
vol. vii. 1837.
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
the')ccupy, the dividing ridge between the rivers which
■ow'astvvard to the ocean, and those which, with a west-
er]v ind afterwards a southerly course, and a larger and
broi er stream, terminate in the Southern Ocean, chiefly
in e Murray river, at Encounter Bay. To the first
clas belongs the Hawkesbury, which is a continuation of
the epean river, after the junction of the latter with a
com lerable stream called the Grose, and issues from a re-
Diar tble cleft in the Blue Mountains, in the vicinity of the
t0H of Richmond, about forty miles from Sydney. It is
ant overflow its banks, from the sudden swelling of the
m0i tain torrents by which it is fed; and in one instance
ro^t-near the town of Windsor, ninety-seven feet above its
ordary level. It falls into Broken Bay, fourteen miles
to te north of Port Jackson, where it forms an excellent
bar ur. Hunter’s river, about seventy miles to the north
of 1 rt Jackson, falls into the sea at the harbour of New-
cast. It is sufficiently safe and capacious for vessels of
3000ns burden, and navigable for small craft of thirty or
fort tons burden for fifty miles above Newcastle. Man-
ninjifiver, still farther to the north, enters the sea by se¬
ven mouths, in about latitude 31° 25' south. Hastings
rivf:enters the sea at the large harbour of Port Macquar-
rie, 20 miles north-east of Port Jackson; it rises in south
latiide 33^°, and 150° east longitude. Brisbane river
falhnto Moreton Bay, in latitude 27° 1' south, longitude
15S 26' east. It was discovered in 1823. Its source is in
tlieiountain ranges to the north, and its course is through
a lii'e extent of fine country. Among the rivers that
talc their rise on the western ridge of the Blue Moun¬
tain is the Darling, which has its rise between the pa-
rallte of 27° and 331°, and of which the course has been
trail for about forty miles through a level country, and
is soposed, as already stated, to be the same river which
unijs its waters with the Murray and Morrumbidgee,
on ne southern coast, though this is not certain. The
Ma uarrie river has likewise its origin in the torrents
whip descend the western ridges of the mountains. It has
a v ding course to the north-west, in some places deep,
brcrl, and navigable for large boats, in others rapid, and
obructed by falls. It was seen by Mr Oxley to expand
ovi the adjacent country, which had the appearance of a
sea.out which was found in 1829, by Captain Sturt, after
thr years drought, to be converted into a vast expanse of
aripoil. Its termination has not been distinctly traced,
bu ft is supposed to be a tributary of the Darling. There-
art umerous streams which rise in the northern mountains,
antsvhich all terminate, as is most probable, in the main
tni;;, whether of the Darling or any other river which
coiteys the waters of this valley to their termination in
Erlmnter Bay. The Lachlan river has its origin on the
boprs of Argyle county, between 34° and 35° of south
latide. Like the Macquarrie, it loses itself in a marsh,
fro which it emerges to join the Morrumbidgee in 34^°
i latitude. The Morrumbidgee river has its origin in
tin .Varragong range, 200 miles south-west of Sydney, in
lat ide 35° south, and about eighty miles from the eastern
(:o; • It pursues a westerly course, and joins the Murray
in i .itude 34° 15' south, and longitude 141° east, after pur-
sui i a tortuous course of 800 or 1000 miles. The Mur-
ra! is the central channel through which are conveyed
to ie ocean all the various streams which descend the
srn declivity of the great chain of mountains that runs
? die coast. It has not been traced to its source, but
reives, as already stated, another river, supposed to be
. fading, and a second considerable stream which enters
ft bank from the south-east. Mr Cunningham is of
°lj on that it is formed by the Hume and the Ovens
sttIns, which take their rise in the Warragong Moun-
and flow west.
ew Holland being situated in the southern hemisphere,
its seasons are exactly the reverse of those in Britain.
July is the middle of winter, and January of summer. The
festivities of Christmas and of the new year are celebrated
here, not, as in the old country, with doors and windows
shut, a#Sd a cheerful fire to dispel the winter cold, but amid
the oppression and heat of summer, with doors and windows
thrown open to invite the refreshing breeze. We no longer
hear in this Australian climate of the “ gentle south wind,”
nor of “ rude Boreas, blustering railer.” The north is
here the region of heat, as the south is of cold. Every
thing is changed. Nature no longer wears a European
dress, and poetry must conform and reverse its images. The
summer extends from the 1st of December to the 1st of
March. The mean heat during the three months of De¬
cember, January, and February, is about 80° at noon. This
great heat is tempered along the sea-coast by a regular sea-
breeze, that sets in regularly about nine o’clock in the
morning, and blows with considerable force till about six or
seven o’clock in the evening, when it is succeeded by a land-
breeze from the mountains, which varies from west-south¬
west to west. In very hot days the breeze often veers round
to the north, and blow s a gale. The hot winds to which the
country is exposed, especially in the interior, three or four
times every summer, blow from the north-west, like a cur¬
rent of air issuing from a heated furnace, raising the ther¬
mometer to 100° in the shade, and to 125° when exposed
to their influence. They imbibe their heat from the tro¬
pical regions of the north, which they traverse, and which,
like certain portions of Africa, are probably arid deserts.
They are generally succeeded by a cold southerly squall,
and by a thunder-storm and rain, which cools the air. The
spring months are September, October, and November. In
the beginning of September the nights are cold, but the days
clear and pleasant. The thermometer varies from 60° to
70° towards the end of the month; and light showers oc¬
casionally prevail, with thunder and lightning. The days
become gradually warmer, and in October the hot and
blighting winds from the north begin to be apprehended.
The three autumn months are March, April, and May.
The first is rainy, and more fertile in floods than any other
in the year. Towards the end of April the weather be¬
comes perfectly clear and serene. The thermometer varies
from 72° at noon to 60°, and in the mornings is as low as
52°. During May the thermometer varies from 50° at sun¬
rise to 60° at noon, with a perfectly cloudless sky. During
the three winter months of June, July, and August, the
mornings and evenings are cold; hoar frosts are frequent,
and become more severe in advancing into the interior. At
Sydney the thermometer is rarely below 40° ; at Paramatta
it is frequently as low as 27° in the course of the winter.
As the land rises from the ocean, the temperature declines.
The winter at Bathurst, where snow falls in its season, is
much colder than on the sea-shore. On the loftiest hills
heavy falls of snow take place during the winter, and it re¬
mains for many days on their summits; and some high ranges
penetrate the level of perpetual snow. In the valleys how¬
ever the snow does not lie. The greatest defect in the
climate is the prevalence of periodical droughts, during
which the vegetation is parched for want of moisture, a
general failure of the crops follows, and numbers of the
cattle perish. Although in general a large quantity of rain
falls throughout the year, yet the colony has hitherto been
subject to severe drought every twelve years. A drought
took place in 1826, which continued to 1829 ; and more re¬
cently, in 1839, another severe drought took place, which
occasioned general distress in the colony. The climate is
however on the whole highly salubrious and agreeable.
Out of a community of 1200 persons, it has been known
that only five or six have been sick at a time ; and at some
of the military stations, seven years have elapsed without
the loss of a man.
Wales,
New
South.
Soil and
climate.
716
WALES, NEW SOUTH,
Wales, Wheat, maize, barley, oats, and rye are all grown in the
New co]ony of New Holland ; but the two former are most cul-
^ J '' , tivated. The heat at Sydney appears to be too great for
Vegetable t^e common species of barley and oats, though they are
produce, produced of a tolerable quality on the poorer soils. * What
is called the Siberian wheat arrives at very great perfec¬
tion, and is greatly superior to the common species of
barley; but being only used in the breweries, the de¬
mand is limited. The Indian corn, or maize, is of more
general use, being much better adapted for the food of
horses, oxen, pigs, and poultry. The produce is also much
more abundant than that of barley and oats; and it has
this additional recommendation to the settler, that it may
be planted two months later than any other grain. The
best months for sowing wheat are April, May, and June,
though it may be sown from February to July, and even
so late as August if that month happens to be moist. Oats
and barley may be best sown in June, though they may be
sowTn in the middle of August with a fair prospect of a
crop. Indian corn may be planted from the end of Sep¬
tember to the middle of December; but the best month
is October. The wheat harvest generally commences
partially about the middle of November, and is gene¬
rally over by Christmas. The maize is not ripe till the
end of March, and the gathering is not complete till the
end of May. The culinary vegetables in Australia are
numerous, and they thrive admirably in the climate. Po¬
tatoes, cabbages, carrots, parsnips, turnips, pease, beans,
cauliflowers, lettuces, cucumbers, and in fact every species
of vegetable known in this country, are produced in the
colony. Many of them attain to greater perfection than
in Europe, as the cauliflower and the brocoli, and the dif¬
ferent varieties of the pea ; and a few also degenerate, as
the bean, for which the climate appears too hot, and the
potato, which is not nearly of so good a quality as in this
country. The colony is justly famed for the goodness and
variety of its fruits. Peaches, apricots, nectarines, oranges,
grapes, pears, plums, figs, pomegranates, raspberries, straw¬
berries, and melons of all sorts, attain the highest degree of
maturity in the open air; and even the pine-apple may be
produced in a common hot-house. The climate at Sydney
is not however so congenial to the fruits of the northern
climate, as the apple, the pear, the currant, the goose¬
berry, and the cherry, which, though they are produced,
do not equal in flavour those produced in this country. To
the westward of the Blue Mountains, where the climate is
colder, they attain to the same perfection as in Europe.
Grapes of the finest quality are produced in New Hol¬
land ; and some not wholly unsuccessful attempts have been
made to manufacture wine, which might in time become a
valuable export, and staple of commerce. Oranges, lemons,
citrons, guavas, and other fruits, are so abundant that during
part of the year swine are fed on peaches and apricots.
Animals. The animal kingdom in New Holland is extremely curi¬
ous and interesting. There are no large animals, such as
elephants, lions, tigers, &c.; and there are few varieties.
But the animals of New Holland are peculiar to the coun¬
try, and are not found in any other quarter of the globe.
The most remarkable animal found here is the kangaroo, of
which there are very many varieties, from the kangaroo-rat
to the forester, which stands from four to five feet high.
The kangaroo, from its peculiar structure, the fore legs
being so much shorter than those behind, does not run;
but it advances by springs or bounds, the length of which
is sometimes prodigious, exceeding twenty paces ; at which
rate they will proceed for some time, and outstrip the fleet¬
est greyhounds. The abdominal pouch which this animal
possesses, and into which, as in a burrow or nest, the mother
“ shelters her helpless young, letting them out by day to
graze on the tender herbage, or carefully conveying th
across rivers and through forests when pursued by ene ^
until they are able to provide for their own sustenance
safety, is extremely curious. The kangaroo is very timid v
and it is only when it is hard pressed that it turns upon th’
hunters, when it will set its back against a tree, and boldf
awaiting the dogs, will rip them up with its hard claws or
will give them such a hug with its fore-arms as to cause
the blood to gush from the hounds’ nostrils; and sometimes
taking to the water, it will drown every dog that comes
near it. These animals are fast disappearing before the
progress of civilization; and it is a saying of the abori-
gines, “ where white men sit down, kangaroo go away.”1
The opossum tribe are very nutnerous, and resemble those
found in America. They take up their residence in the hol¬
lows of decayed trees, frorn which they are chased by the
natives. The hyena opossum, or tiger, is very destructive
among flocks. He sometimes measures six feet from the
snout to the tail. He has a mouth like the wolf, with large
jaws opening almost to the ears. The female carries its
young in a pouch, like most of the other quadrupeds in
the country. The native dog, which, next to the kangaroo
and the opossum, is the animal most frequently met with,
resembles the Indian jackal. It is about two and a half
feet long, two feet high, with a head like a fox, and erect
ears, and is of a reddish-brown colour. It preys on the
sheep and poultry, making great havock among them; and
is hunted without mercy by the settlers, who are fast extir¬
pating the breed. The wombat is a kind of badger, weigh¬
ing forty pounds ; is good eating, and is in consequence
quickly disappearing, as is also a species of sloth. The
porcupine ant-eater is a small animal. A specimen men-
tionecl by Mr Martin measured from the snout thirteen
inches, the quills two inches long. It preys upon ant-
eggs. There are varieties of the flying squirrel, fox, and
mouse. The platypus is a singular animal, which it is dif¬
ficult to know whether to class as a beast or as a bird.
It has four legs like a quadruped, and a bill like a duck,
and according to general belief lays eggs and suckles its
young. It is about fourteen inches in length, and resem¬
bles an otter, though inferior in size ; is covered with a very
thick, soft, and beaver-like fur. It has a small flat head, and
short legs terminating in a broad web. It has five claws;
and in the male there is a perforated spur, through which is
discharged a poisonous secretion. Of the domestic ani¬
mals, there are those that are common in Britain, from
which they have been imported. The breed of horses has
been greatly improved, and is now excellent, insomuch that
they are exported to India for the purpose of supplying
the East India Company’s cavalry and artillery. The
horned cattle are in many instances of a gigantic size; and
in this congenial climate and abundant pasture the sheep
have an improved fleece, and are of a delicious flavour.
Swine are abundant; goats are not numerous; and asses
and mules are seldom reared, though a fine breed of the for¬
mer has been introduced from South America. The camel
would be a valuable addition to the domestic animals, as
by his patience of thirst and fatigue he would be admirably
fitted for long journeys in the interior of the country.
The ornithology of New South Wales is rich and vari¬
ous. The birds are numerous, and many of them of t e
most beautiful plumage. The emu, or cassowary, is one®
the most remarkable of the feathered race, both foi lts
great size, being six feet in height, and for its singular pro¬
perties. Its covering is more like hair than feathers,1
cannot fly, and being thus confined to the earth, has it e
of the character of birds. It is wonderfully fleet, outstrip
ping the swiftest dog, and kicking with such violence as
break a man’s leg. It is easily tamed, and becomes qm
1 History of Australia, by Montgomery Martin, chap. v.
y * * —
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
elf estic. It is, like all the other wild creatures, fast disap-
pt ing before the progress of cultivation. The “ gigantic
I cr ic,” or “ native companion,” is a stately bird, about six
"/fe high, of a pale ash colour, with a reddish tinge on the
hd. It is gregarious and carnivorous, and haunts the
hi lers of rivers and lakes, where also the black swan is
fold. The bustard, or native turkey, is a large bird,
w,(rhing from fifteen to eighteen pounds, and is good eat-
in ^ Eagles and hawks are to be found in all their va-
1 rj.jeg> Some are white and very large ; the eagle-hawk
imsures nine feet from wing to wing, and is feathered to
th toes. There are about thirty varieties of the pigeon ;
ai the parrot species is in boundless variety, and of the
m t brilliant plumage. The cockatoos are easily domes-
ti ted, and taught to imitate sounds. Some of them are
oi milk-white ; others black, richly variegated on the tail
w i red, and adorned with superb crests. The lories,
gum, red, crimson, and purple, are in great variety ; and
tire are numerous birds not yet described by naturalists.
spotted grosbeak is, of a light slate colour above, bill
aij tail deep crimson, throat black, and the sides are marked
wn snow-spots on the dark ground. The rifle-bird is
rvrly the size of a jay, its bill long and sickle-shaped, and
ccmrarich dark green, like velvet. The ring oriole is of
a dden yellow and the deepest black, the feathers on the
h d resembling the softest velvet. The doves, in variety
ai beauty of plumage, surpass those in any other part of the
w Id. The spur-winged plover is noted for a large spur
u n the shoulder of each wing, with which it fights fiercely.
Tare are two kinds of pheasants, and three of magpies,
la common crow and the swallow' are everywhere to be
fchd ; also the Australian sparrow', with varied plumage, in
w ch a scarlet tinge is intermixed ; the butcher-bird, or
Ughing jackass, which destroys snakes and other reptiles,
si aalled from the resemblance of its note to a coarse and
bUterous laugh ; the coach-whip, a small bird, whose
me resembles the crack of a short whip. Snipes, quails,
kg-fishers, and coots are abundant; also honey-suckers,
u (dpeckers, toucans, fly-catchers, warblers, cuckoos, and
v ious species of small birds. Here are likewise to be
f< nd the pelican, penguin, goose, duck, teal, widgeon, fri¬
ge-bird, noddy, peterel, gull, and other sea-birds.1
nsects are numerous, and of every variety. Locusts
a common in some parts of the colony. The butterflies
a neither abundant nor beautiful. Of bees there are
t ee kinds, all without stings. The flies are a great nui-
s ce in summer, particularly one species, which taints and
pirefies every thing it touches. The mosquitoes are dis-
a tearing with the progress of civilization. The spiders
a very large; and caterpillars, at intervals of several years,
s irm in incredible numbers, blighting in a few hours the
Lst fields of wheat. Measures have been taken to stop
t ravages of this mischievous creature. Whence they
§ ope in such myriads, and almost in a single night, is un¬
it >wn.
jleptiles are not at all in such numbers as they are
i: general in marshy countries. There are several varie-
t ■ of the snake, some of them poisonous, namely, the
f adder, which resembles the puff adder of America.
I is thick, short, swelling out in the middle, with a flat
1 d, and a cleft tail which opens and shuts like a for¬
k's; its back is beautifully variegated with row's of red and
v ite specks; and w'hen irritated it seizes a stick as tena-
1 u$ly as a cur dog. The diamond snake, which grows
the length of twelve or fifteen feet, is not poisonous,
ere is a small hazel-coloured snake, with two little flaps
I its sides like fins; it darts along with great rapidity,
II is termed the winged snake. Mr Martin saw a ser¬
pent at Paramatta, resembling the boa constrictor, fourteen Wales,
feet long; its coat of a bright hue, but changing as the New'
animal became irritated. Several water-snakes have been South-
found, and at a considerable distance from the land. Scor-
pions, centipedes, tarantulas, and frogs are found. Lizards
are numerous, but without the varied hues of those in the
east. 1 he guana is also found, of a dirty brown colour, and
about four feet in length.
Fish are plentiful along the coasts ; but they are not so
plentiful in the rivers, especially in those in the eastern de¬
clivity of the Blue Mountains, owing to the rapidity of the
currents. The fish called the cod-fish, though not the
same as that known in Europe, is taken in the fresh-w'ater
rivers west of the Blue Mountains, in great quantities,
of a large size, some weighing seventy pounds, and thirty
pounds being very common. They are of a fine flavour ;
as are also the eels, which are caught of the weight of twelve
or even twenty pounds. Perch, covered with scales and
prickly fins, abound in the rivers on the eastern coast. In
flavour and juiciness they resemble a sole. There are many
varieties of other fish, with which the markets are well sup¬
plied ; and of late sharks have been caught in Sydney
Cove. Shell-fish are abundant. Fresh-water mussels have
been found at Bathurst six inches long and three and a half
broad, and shrimps are in great numbers. Oysters are
found in great abundance around the Australian shores;
every rock is covered with them ; and though generally
small, they are of a delicate flavour.
The country of New South Wales having been hitherto Minerals,
but imperfectly explored, its geology cannot be fully known.
The line of coast, where the nature of the country has been
chiefly ascertained, presents in its general aspect bold
perpendicular cliffs of sandstone lying in horizontal strata,
and interrupted occasionally by sandy beaches, behind
which the country is low and flat. From the sea-coast to
the river Nepean on the west, the sandstone seems to spread
like a level platform ; and although the. country rises into
hills and ridges, these seem to consist of a mass of clay,
worn into inequalities on the surface by the action of the
water, which accounts for the singular fact that the tops of
the hills, which contain most of the original clay, are gene¬
rally more fertile than the valleys, unless they contain allu¬
vial deposits. Westward, or beyond Nepean river, the *
sandstone strata are forced upwards, and extend from north
to south, forming the lofty ridge of the Blue Mountains.
Towards the south the sandstone gives place in many parts
to whinstone. On advancing farther to the south and west,
granite and limestone are abundant, perforated in all di¬
rections with extensive subterraneous caverns, exactly re¬
sembling, in stalactitic decoration, those found in Europe and
America. To the north-wrestward of Sydney occurs a fine
limestone formation, which passes in some parts into a
beautiful close-grained marble, affording materials to seve¬
ral skilful artisans in Sydney. In several other places other
varieties of minerals are to be found. Hunter’s river flows
for a considerable distance over rocks of jasper, and beau¬
tiful agates, opal, and chalcedony; while innumerable pe¬
trifactions are found on its banks. Cornelian and agate
have been found near the burning mountain of Wingen;
some of the specimens crested with copper, and others pre¬
senting a beautiful auriferous appearance. For a more
particular account of the mineralogy of New South Wales,
the reader is referred to the work of Mr Montgomery Mar¬
tin, which abounds in the most important information.
We may add, however, respecting the coal formation, that
this valuable mineral is found in several districts, especi¬
ally in the country to the south of Hunter’s river, about
sixty miles north of Port Jackson, w'hich is an extensive
1 See History of Australasia, by Montgomery Martin, chap. iv.
718
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
Wales,
New
South.
coal-field. In this district is situated the town of New¬
castle, so called from the produce in its neighbourhood.
This district was originally the place of transportation for
^ the most incorrigible class of offenders from Port Jack-
son, who are worked in chains from sunrise to sunset, in
burning lime and in procuring coals and timber. In con¬
sequence of the fertility of the soil and the extent of water-
communication, Hunter’s river being navigable for 200
miles with boats, numerous emigrants reside in good farms
along the shores of the river, and the country resembles the
richest pastoral scenery in Devonshire.
Population. An account of the aborigines of New South Wales will
be found under the article Austkalasia. That they will in
the end gradually disappear, is no longer doubtful. In new
settlements of the Europeans, they generally perish in the
conflicts which take place between them and the intrud¬
ers ; but in New South Wales this enmity has subsided,
and the most humane attempts have been made to reclaim
them from their savage state. These efforts, however
laudable, have been vain. Where the experiment has been
tried under the most favourable circumstances, and they
have been provided with every comfort, they have ' •
ably relapsed into their primitive barbarity; so that
respect New Holland will afford no exception to the ee i
experience, that as the civilized inhabitants increase th
vage race invariably disappears. The British colony wh*"
it was first established in Sydney, consisted of 1030 ind'11
duals, 700 of whom were convicts; and notwithstanding tl'*
discouragement of emigration by some of the authorL'6
the population, owing to the fineness of the climate and th
number of convicts sent out, rapidly increased. A cens/
has been taken at four different times, and the following
the result: h s
1810.
1821.
1828.
1833.
. 8,293
.29,783
.36,598
.71,070
The following is a more particular account and classifi-
cation of the inhabitants in the colony of New South
Wales, according to a census taken on the 2d Sentemlw
1836. ^
COUNTIES.
Argyle 
Bathurst 
Bligh 
Brisbane 
Camden 
Cook 
Cumberland  
Durham 
Georgiana 
Gloucester 
Hunter 
King   
Macquarrie 
Murray 
Northumberland 
Philip 
Roxburgh 
St Vincent 
Wellington 
Westmoreland 
Without the boun-1
daries   j
Road & ironed gangs
Penal settlements....
Colonial vessels at sea
Port Philip 
Total.
PERSONS ON THE ESTABLISHMENT.
Above
Twelve
Y ears
of Age.
668
437
112
220
905
678
12,724
740
192
138
258
194
174
531
1,361
54
595
150
163
182
1,256
19
17
1,175
178
23,121
Under
Twelve
Years
of Age.
155
128
13
51
301
306
4,810
204
50
60
99
35
49
82
466
5
142
21
19
37
103
3
17
7,164
Convict.
1,106
804
219
974
1,168
366
7,254
1,749
■ 227
520
225
207
875
853
1,780
169
891
341
283
260
1,300
2,190
1,493
25,254
Ttital.
1,929
1,369
344
1,245
2,374
1,350
24,788
2,693
469
718
582
436
1,098
1,466
3,607
228
1,628
512
465
479
2,659
2,212
1,527
1,175
186
Free.
Above
Twelve
Years
of Age.
Under
Twelve
Years
of Age.
55,539
276
152
17
81
454
377
8,454
287
65
79
119
61
91
163
704
12
212
44
38
60
190
10
4
23
11,973
176
110
14
36
276
298
4.730
174
36
53
92
38
50
87
507
6
100
25
22
32
104
7
19
15
7,007
Convict
36
98
1
16
57
27
1,825
54
5
4
15
9
61
12
198
1
40
11
5
8
15
1
78
Total.
General
Total.
2,577
488
360
32
133
787
702
15,009
515
106
136
226
108
202
262
1,409
19
352
80
65
100
309
18
101
38
21,557
2,417
1,729
376
1,378
3,161
2,052
39,797
3,208
575
854
808
544
1,300
1,728
5,016
247
1,980
592
530
579
2,968
2,230
1,628
1,175
224
Protes¬
tants.
77,096
1,618
1,243
273
1,004
2,158
1,517
29,090
2,300
339
628
630
327
898
1,089
3,601
147
1,415
430
357
393
1,784
1,394
926
850
210
Roman
Catholics.
54,621
783
485
103
373
982
534
10,270
904
234
222
175
217
376
630
1,398
100
561
162
172
185
1,164
829
697
325
14
21,895
477
100
The total number of white inhabitants now in the colony
is estimated at upwards of 100,000, of whom 25,000 are
convicts, the residue of upwards of 90,000 who have been
transported to the settlement since 1788. The population
is divided into three classes : 1. the free settlers who have
arrived in the colony, and their descendants; 2. those
who have served their legal term, or who are free by par¬
don, the reward of good behaviour, and their descendants;
and, 3. the convicts who are still in bondage. The convicts,
when they arrive in New Holland, are conveyed, the male
and the female prisoners, to different stations or barracks,
which are surrounded by a high wall, and guarded by sol¬
diers and several constables. The convicts are assigned as
agricultural, manufacturing, or domestic labourers, to far¬
mers and townspeople, who, in return for their services, are
bound to provide them with food and clothing. Upwards
of three fifths of all the prisoners in the colony are provid¬
ed for in this manner. After serving a certain time with
an unblemished character, the convict is entitled to a
“ ticket of leave,” which makes him free within the district
over which it extends ; and if he does not forfeit this ticke
by any crime for a certain number of years, he is then en¬
titled to a conditional pardon, which makes him free wit
in the precincts of the colony. And this system is roun
by experience to be attended* with the most beneficia re
suits. “ On every side,” says Montgomery Martin, m
account of this colony, “ the traveller witnesses Pr00,*
an industrious and prosperous community; he beholds s i[ 1
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
719
t louses, steam-engines, farms, &c., the owners of which
ffe, transported from their natal soil, and who, after having
uai the penalty demanded by the laws, have commenced
'1'* n ? ]jfe) setting an example of honesty, morality, and en-
terr se to those from whose abject condition they have
em Ted, and who are thus strongly urged to imitate their
exaple.” The second class consists of those who have
bee once prisoners, and are now free. They are termed
ffnacipists, and by their industry are possessed of great
weih in land, houses, ships, and merchandise; and many
of em are remarkable for probity, benevolence, and
the enterprising spirit. The next and highest class
con sts of emigrants from Europe, either farmers, shop-
ke^rs, merchants, or government officers and function-
aru Some individuals of this class refuse to associate in
pri ite with those who have been once convicted, though
the be now free; and hence has arisen in the colony
the distinction of the two opposite and hostile classes
of xlusionists on the one hand, and emancipists on the
othi.
hen the colony of New South Wales was first esta-
llijjpd, the whole powers of the government necessarily
cer ed in the governor alone. In 1824, a council was ap-
poi ed to aid and to control him in the exercise of his
autjirity. Several alterations have since taken place, and
tht upreme authority is now vested, 1. In the governor;
2. an executive council, which consists of the colonial
gecitary and treasurer, the bishop, and lieutenant-gover-
nowhich office has been recently abolished ; and, 3. in a
legiative council, consisting of the members of the exe-
cul e council, with the addition of the chief justice, the at-
tor y-general, the chief officer of the customs, the audi-
tor eneral, and seven individuals in the colony who are
appinted by the crown for life. The legislative power is
ve! d in the governor and in this legislative council, two
tbits of which must concur before any law can be passed.
IT governor has the initiative of all laws, though any
nietber of the council may request the governor to intro-
dui a bill for the consideration of the council. If the go-
veior decline, he must lay his reasons in writing, together
wi a copy of the bill, before the council; and any mem-
be lisapproving of such refusal, may enter on the minutes
thagrounds of his disapprobation. Every bill passed by
tht council must be transmitted to the supreme court to
benrolled, when, if the judges represent that it is repug-
na to the act 9 Geo. IV., or to the charter, or letters pa-
tet or orders in council, or to the laws of England, it is
agin brought under the consideration of the council, and
it ain passed, proceeds into operation until the pleasure
of ijr majesty be known. For the sole administration of
tb aws there is a supreme court, over which preside a
cb and two puisne judges. The supreme court is a court
of y'er and terminer, and gaol delivery ; it is also a court
ot quity, and a court of admiralty for the trial of crimi-
nauifences within certain limits; it is empowered to grant
lot! rs of administration, and it is an insolvent debtors
co t. From the supreme court lies an appeal for all
ac ns for less than L.500, to the governor or acting
8° nmr, who is directed to hold a court of appeals, from
5e decision lies a final appeal to the king in council.
11 re are courts of general and quarter sessions, which
‘la the same powers as those in England. Courts of
re ests have been established for summarily determining
ckns not exceeding L.10; and their decision is final.
J'l as now sit in civil and criminal cases. A very vigilant
H:e has been established throughout New South Wales.
, re are benches of stipendiary as well as unpaid ma-
pl ates in Sydney and other principal towns, aided by
'^ -constables and a civil and military police-force at
ea station.
The country of New South Wales, recently a pathless Wales,
forest, is now intersected in all directions by excellent Ne'v
roads, some of them carried with equal labour and skill ^ South-
over lofty mountains, and bringing into close intercourse
the remotest parts of the country by a daily increasing traf-inter.
fic. The royal mail proceeds from Sydney to all the dif- course,
ferent towns in the interior, and letters are delivered with
punctuality and despatch. Stage-coaches with four horses
also start from the same place daily, and from other places ;
so that there is every facility of internal intercourse by
land ; while numerous steam-vessels leave Sydney and ply
along the coast to the different seaports.
There is here, as in the mother country, a variety of Religion,
religious sects, a statement of whose respective numbers education,
will be found in the population table already given. But&c*
different modes of faith here mingle in perfect harmony
in all the duties of civil life. No religious distinctions
are recognised; all classes, of w’hatever creed, enjoy
equal rights, and are equally eligible to offices of honour
or emolument; and the government provides equally for
the maintenance of all sects. One seventh of the land
was formerly appropriated to the support of the episco¬
pal church: it is still applicable to the general purposes
of religion and education, but without any distinction of
sects, all of which participate equally in the government
fund. Thus we find the principle of religious tolera¬
tion more fully maintained in New South Wales than
in the mother country, where there still exists a domi¬
nant religion fostered by the state. The episcopalian
church wras until very lately within the diocese of Cal¬
cutta. It is now subject to a bishop who resides in the
country. There are, besides, fifteen chaplains of this
church, who take charge of different districts in the country.
There are four ministers of the established church ot Scot¬
land, and of the Roman Catholic clergy a vicar-general
and six chaplains. The Wesleyan Missionary Society has
four principal stations and upwards of sixty chapels, besides
preaching stations, and five ordained missionaries, with se¬
veral agents under them. There are also five Sunday
schools, with 300 boys and 250 girls.
Great efforts have been made in Australia to promote
education among all classes, and numerous excellent semi¬
naries have been established. In the Australian College,
instituted in 1831, are taught the ancient languages, Eng¬
lish literature, and the sciences. This seminary consists ot
elementary schools, with a provision for the higher branches
of education. Private establishments for education are
numerous. Sydney College w^as instituted in 1830. It is
under the control of a president and committee of manage¬
ment, consisting of emigrants and emancipists; those two
classes joining amicably together in the promotion of know¬
ledge. There are two excellent establishments, the male
and female orphan schools, each containing 125 destitute
children, who are reared from their infancy. There areseve-
ral infant schools, thirty-three primary or parochial schools,
in different parts of the colony; and two king’s schools at
Sydney and Paramatta, with classical teachers. There are
a Mechanics School of Arts, an Australian Subscription Li¬
brary, and various other societies connected with literature
and science. The press, as usual, lends its aid to the diffu¬
sion of knowledge. It is not restrained by any law, nor
by taxes of any description. The newspapers are nume¬
rous ; some of them published every day, and others three
times a week. In the town of Sydney there are six, and a
New South Wales Magazine is published every month. I he
materials of these publications are chiefly supplied by local
topics, though due attention is also given to the politics of
Europe.
The following is an abstract of the revenue of New South Finances.
Wales, from 1826 to 1837.
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
720
Wales,
New
South.
head of revenue.
1326.
Customs 
Duty on spirits distilled in
the colony 
Post-office collections 
Auction duty, and licenses
to auctioneers 
Licenses to retail malt and
spirituous liquors 
Licenses to hawkers and
pedlars 
Crown lands 
Rents of tolls, ferries, mar¬
ket dues, and government
premises 
Fees of public offices 
Fines levied by courts of
justice 
Proceeds of sales of govern¬
ment property 
Collections by the agent of
the clergy and school es¬
tates 
Pew rents 
Miscellaneous 
Total.
L.
49,353
1,890
576
3,063
2,742
3,231
2,713
809
6,178
1,661
72,230
1827.
1828. I 1829.
L.
52,822
2,211
682
4,025
3,814
2,404
1,902
371
10,056
1,018
79,309
L.
69,677
770
598
1,363
4,425
5,437
3,689
3,685
685
3,766
762
L.
79,136
288
1,324
1,276
3,725
3,309
3.221
6,525
786
2.221
968
94,862jl02,784
1830.
L.
81,078
710
1,753
1,463
5,100
1,985
4,138
6,461
758
501
776
104,729
1831.
L.
89,805
1,135
2,153
1,399
6,550
3,617
4,806
7,055
730
1,639
2,172
121,065
1832.
L.
96,262
1,057
2,574
1,455
7,785
13,683
3,387
5,688
74
3,155
786
135,909
1833.
L.
111,124
1,250
2,968
1,586
9,124
26,272
3,271
6,089
190
1,497
688
164,063
1834.
L.
127,598
1,690
3,735
2,395
9,877
45
43,482
3,577
9,194
690
875
1,162
333
876
205,535
1835.
L.
143,352
1,265
4,310
3,219
10,023
14
89,380
4,131
7,400
1,462
531
4,712
388
3,549
273,744
1836.
L
153,681
4,333
4,454
9,505
105,464:
3,339
5,678
2,067
1,948
144
*39,166
1837
L
330,579
* Water supplied to shipping from the dock yard, L.180; repayment of loans, including interest, L.292; ditto of advances to
emigrants, L.96; the king’s share of seizures by the customs, L.205 ; sale of property of convicted felons, chiefly stolen cattle
L.2459 ; surcharges recovered, L.127 ; miscellaneous, L.165 ; total, L.3549. ’
The revenue of the customs chiefly arises from a duty
on the importation of spirits, of tobacco, and of manufac¬
tures ; of L.25 a year on licenses to distil spirituous liquors :
on auctioneers, L.2 per annum ; on butchers, carters, and
carts ; on boatmen and boats; on porters ; on dogs.
The following table contains the total expenditure in the
colony for nine successive years, beginning with 1828.
Expenditure in 1828, L.40,912; 1829, L.55,544 ; 1830,
L.55,980 ; 1831, L.87,046 ; 1832, L.l 10,524 ; 1833,
L.123,817; 1834, L.136,651 ; 1835, L.171,020; 1836,
L.234,210. The revenue for 1837 amounted to L.460,217.
Commerce. The trade of the colony has rapidly increased within the
last few years, with the surplus produce of the country. The
staple products of New South Wales are wool, whale-oil,
cattle, and provisions. The first has become one of the
most valuable articles of export, and now furnishes nearly
one tenth of the foreign wool imported into this country.
The origin and progress of this important branch of in¬
dustry is remarkable. In 1810, only 167 lbs. of wool were
imported into Britain from New South Wales and Van Die¬
men’s Land ; in 1815, 73,171 lbs.; in 1825, 323,995 lbs.;
in 1830, 1,967,309 lbs.; and in 1836,3,564,532 lbs.1 The
colony was indebted for the introduction of this article of
wool to the enterprising spirit of Mr J. M‘Arthur, who be¬
ing convinced, so long ago as in 1793, that the climate and
grasses of New South Wales would suit the Merino sheep,
obtained a ram and two ewes from the Cape of Good Hope,
which rapidly increased. Having afterwards explained
his plans for the improvement of New South Wales to the
privy council, he procured from the Merino flock of George
HI., two ewes and three rams, with which he returned to
New South Wales, where these flocks are now increased
to upwards of a million, of which the wool is highly prized
in the London market, and has been sold as high as 10s. 4d.
per lb. After wool, whale-oil is the chief staple of the
colony. This article is also a recent product, which has
been annually increasing. The number of ships employed
in this trade in the year 1829, was 27; the value of the
produce, L.94,101. In 1836, the number of ships amounted
to 40; the value of the produce to L.126,085. The black
whale is found in abundance along the coast of New South
Wales. But the sperm fishing is the most valuable; andin
prosecution of this adventurous trade, forty vessels sailed out
of Sydney in 1834. The value of the spermaceti and train
oil exported in 1836 was L.141,532; namely, spermaceti,
L.108,794 ; train oil, L.32,738.2 The New Zealand flax
(phormium tenax) is another article of export, which is,
yearly increasing in amount. In its appearance it is similar
to English flax, and is chiefly dressed by the native women,
of New Zealand, who scrape off the outer part of the leaf,
with mussel-shells ; the inner fibres or filaments, resembling
dressed flax, are then exported to Sydney, where it brings,
from L.15 to L.25 per ton. Timber, particularly cedar-
plank, blue gum, and other timber, has been for some time
exported. The value amounted in 1836 to L.14,385. Coals,
which abound, and are w'orked in various parts, will prove
a valuable staple of the colony ; and grain was exported in
1836 to the value of L.9306. The total value of the im¬
ports in 1836, according to accounts laid before parliament,
was L.991,943; of the exports, L.599,893.
The shipping has increased along with the commerce, as
will appear from the following account.
1828.
1829.
1830.
1831.
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
Vessels built and registered.
No.
   18 
 15 
 30 
 38 
 32 
 29 
 19 
 21 
 39 
Tonnage.
... 478
... 512
...1809
...3224
...2143
...2655
...1852
..2267
..4560
t:
i:
K
iij
la
1 See Tables of the Revenue, Population, Commerce, &c. of the United
liament, p. 81.
Kingdom and its Dependencies, presented to
2 Ibid.
both Houses of P^'
Tonnage 65,415 62,834
Par to 1817, the currency consisted principally of the
priv>e notes of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, publicans,
and she amount was sometimes as low as sixpence. In
this :ar the Bank of New South Wales was established, with
aca talofL.20,000, whose notes superseded this objection¬
able, urrency. In 1825 the Bank of Australia was begun,
with, capital between L.300,000 and L.400,000, of which
L.4J00 is paid up. The Bank of Australasia was estab¬
lish! in 1834, with a capital of L.200,000. There is also
the iommercial Bank. All these banks have carried on
a pi iperous business, having paid a dividend from twelve
to twenty per cent. The following is the amount of their
rcsp::tive circulation in 1836.
Bank of New South Wales L.25,665
Bank of Australia  29,245
Commercial Bank  32,731
Bank of Australasia  11,846
WALES, NEW SOUTH.
I e following is an account of the arrivals and departures
i 116.
Inwards. Outwards.
'rom Great Britain  60  32
Iritish Colonies 124.
Jnited States  3.
mreign 
82.
.106
.126
269
264
L. 99,487
Th whole amount of British coin in the colony is esti-
mat; to amount to L.445,000.1 2
F m the preceding account of this prosperous and inte-
restg colony, it will be seen that it has taken root in the
comfy, and that it will progressively and rapidly increase,
untirhe whole island be overspread with a civilized popu-
latk: At the same time, those who have explored the in-
teri< ot New South Wales do not bring back a good report
of fi land. The general testimony is, that the good land
is cl fly confined to the banks of rivers; and, with the ex¬
cept n of these, it bears a small proportion to the poor and
ban i tracts. Many parts are but indifferently watered,
and general water is not abundant; and during the long
droiiits to which the country is liable, great distress must
freq ntly ensue from this cause. To contend with these
dtsa:antages, which will be the lot of succeeding genera¬
tion, will require the full exercise of European skill and
indUry; and still the country, from its nature, will never
supprt a dense population.
T in all new colonies, there is a scarcity both of labour
ttdjipital, and consequently a high rate of wages and pro¬
mts vhich, however inconvenient in some respects, must
°pci e nevertheless as a powerful stimulus to internal im-
pfo^ncnt The hire of mechanics is from six to eight
per day, and of common labour in proportion.
Iboolony thus presents a decided contrast to the mother
^ ":here ^le market is overstocked, where the great
im Ity is to find employment for labour, and w here,
r°n he low rate of wages, the labourer can scarcely main-
‘n fmself and his family. The want of labour in New
0u Wales could be speedily supplied from the over-
j-rov ed community of this country, to the great benefit of
but the expense of the voyage entirely prevents the
j-j™ ation of the poorer class. In this case, there cannot
wser policy than to assist them with the necessary
^1-    
funds, and to this purpose rigidly to apply the sums that are
received by government for the sale of lands in the colony.
I his system has been so far adopted; but the colonists
complain that the emigration fund, as it is termed, which
amounts to between L. 100,000 and L.200,000 annually 2
is diverted from this paramount object, to others less im¬
portant. So essential is an adequate supply of labour to
the improvement of the colony, that the whole sum re¬
ceived for the sale of lands, they insist, should be laid out
in facilitating emigration. The time however is fast ap¬
proaching when the internal administration of this country
must be committed to a legislative assembly of its own in¬
habitants. They are the best judges of their own affairs, and
have the deepest interest in the public welfare; and it is
only by a fiee constitution that abuses can be corrected,
and that the colony can possess any security for the upright
and careful management of its concerns.
Of late years, British colonies have been established on
the western coast oi New South Males, at Swan river, and
on the southern shore, on the Gulf of St Vincent, at Port
Adelaide; and farther west, a new settlement has been be¬
gun at Port Philip, opposite toVan Diemen’s Land. It was
in 1829 that a number of settlers left England for Sw'an
river, and located themselves on the banks of the Swan
and Canning ; and by the end of the year, the new resi¬
dents amounted to 850, and the non-residents to 440. The
settlers received grants of land in proportion to the capital
which they had to invest; and Mr Peel received 500,000
acres on condition of conveying a certain number of emi¬
grants to the colony. Many difficulties and hardships were
at first experienced. The land near the coast was found
poor and sandy ; but in the interior, fine pastoral and agri¬
cultural tracts have been discovered. Thus Western Aus¬
tralia seems to be of the same character as the eastern
coast. A border of inferior land, diversified with rich
tracts near the principal rivers, is bounded on the east by
a range of primitive mountains, rising between 3000 and
4000 feet above the level of the sea, and occasionally show¬
ing the bare granite. Beyond these appears a level coun¬
try, superior to the coast district, without however being
anywhere highly productive, but covered with excellent
pasture, where stock, and especially sheep, thrive well.
The colony which has been established on this western
coast, having overcome the first difficulties, now begins to
prosper and to increase. Several townships have been
established, namely, Freemantle, Perth, and Guildford, on
the Swan river, and Augusta at the mouth of the Black¬
wood. There are several hotels, with excellent accom¬
modations, and the state of society is well spoken of. Sir
James Stirling was the founder, and is the governor. The
coast abounds in excellent harbours, several of which are
much frequented by sealing vessels. The temperature is
warm and dry, and the climate salubrious. The governor
has an executive and a legislative council to assist and to
advise him, and there are about thirty magistrates in the
colony. Several thousand sheep and fine cattle are depas¬
tured in different parts. Roads have been formed, and
public buildings erected ; and a newspaper, first published
in manuscript, now issues every week from the press, which
is in full operation on the banks of the Swan river. Wool
of a superior quality, plaster of Paris, and timber, have been
exported to England.
The coast of South Australia, deeply indented with various
inlets and commodious harbours, presents several advan¬
tageous situations for a settlement ; and accordingly a
charter was granted in 1834, to a colony to be established
between east longitude 132° and 141°, and 26° of south
v xxi.
1 See Tables of the Revenue, &e. of the United Kingdom and its Dependencies, p. 85.
2 It amounted in 1837 to L. 120,427. See Account ordered by the House of Commons, 27tb August 1839.
721
Wales,
New
South.
4 Y
722
W A L
W A L
Walkj latitude from the Southern Ocean. An adventurous oand
of emigrants accordingly proceeded to take possession of
a *ace‘J the country along the shore of St Vincent’s Gulf, where
they founded a settlement and town, which they called
Port Adelaide. They encountered the usual difficulties of
new settlers, but the colony now prospers and increases.
The inhabitants in 1839 amounted to between 8000 and
9000. In 1837, the land sales, at the rate of twenty
shillings per acre, produced L.3300, in 1838 L.37,800, and
in 1839 it was estimated that they would amount to be¬
tween L.50,000 and L.60,000. Between February 1837
and September 1838, twenty-eight vessels arrived, with be¬
tween 500 and 600 emigrants. The greatest care was
taken to obtain a moral and industrious population. Schools
are already established, every effort has been made to
conciliate the natives, several of their tribes being settled
within the colony, and located in fixed habitations, where
there is a school, with an interpreter, who is endeavouring
to train them to civilized habits.' On the 30th June 1840,
the population of South Australia amounted to 14,000. In
Adelaide there were eight churches and meeting-houses,
houses built of brick or stone 816, of wood 1588. The
wages for carpenters were from 12s. to 15s. per day, masons
and bricklayers 12s. to 14s., labourers 6s. to 7s.; men ser¬
vants L.25 to L.60 per annum, women servants L.12 to
L.25. Of the live stock there were, sheep 180,000, bring¬
ing prices from 25s. to 40s.; cattle 15,000, L.12 to L.20 ;
horses 1500, L.30 to L. 150; pigs 3600, L.2 to L.6; goats
400, L.3 to L.6. Of the land selected, there were 1042
acres in the town of Adelaide, 1053 in the port of Ade¬
laide ; of rural lands there were 357,880 acres; total num¬
ber of acres surveyed, 359,975; special surveys of 4000
acres each, 36. The number of ships which arrived in
the colony was 104, tonnage 19,399; number of ships from
Europe 18, now in the harbour 12, tonnage 3059.
A settlement has more recently been formed at Port
Philip, on the southern shore of New Holland, between
144° and 146° east longitude, to which settlers are resort¬
ing in great numbers ; and the original locations have al¬
ready greatly advanced in value. The comparative vicinity
of this settlement to Sydney, with which there is a land
communication, and to Van Diemen’s Land, must give it
a preference to Swan River settlement, with which the
communication is by a long sea-voyage. Nor can the set¬
tlement at Port Adelaide communicate so conveniently
with the parent colony. The sea-coast is also indented
with deep and extensive inlets, which would afford ac¬
commodation, equally capacious and safe, for any number
or size of shipping. These natural harbours are on so
grand a scale, that the most magnificent works of art appear
insignificant in the comparison. (f.J
WALKJ, a circle of the Russian government of Ukraine,
extending in north latitude from 49° 33' to 50° 2', and
in east longitude from 35° 9' to 35° 48'. It compre¬
hends 660 square miles, with one city, eighty-three towms,
many scattered farms and houses, and 65,700 inhabitants.
The chief employments are agriculture, breeding cattle, and
distillation. The capital is a city of the same name on the
river Moscha. It contains 1450 houses, five churches, and
9820 inhabitants, who subsist by trading in the produce of
the soil. It is 1003 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 35.
50. E. Lat. 49. 50. N.
WALLACE, Sir William, the name of one well known
to the readers of British history, as the heroic defender of
Scotish independence against the aggressions of Edward
I. of England. He was the second of three sons of Sir
Malcolm Wallace (or Walays) of Elderslie and Auchin-
bothie, in the county of Renfrew, and not far frnm a
town of Paisley. The earlier years of Wallace apnear 7v
have been spent at Dunipace, in Stirlingshire, in the s ■ 10
of his uncle, a wealthy priest, who gave him an educatf'
far above what was usual in those times, and whose str ^
love of liberty fostered his nephew’s youthful enmity a^; "t
the English. The early rudiments of education thus an
quired were afterwards strengthened by the instructi
which he received at Dundee. At this period of R
he also acquired those hardy and warlike accomplishment
which inured his frame to fatigue, and gave him a read-
command of the weapons of war. His early hatred of
the English led him into many brawls and adventures•*
but it was not till after the battle of Dunbar, when Scot¬
land was completely overrun, that he first came pro¬
minently before his countrymen. In 1297, in a skir¬
mish, in which several were killed, he slew with his da7
ger William de Hesilridge, the sheriff of Clydesdale. For
this deed he was proclaimed a traitor, outlawed, and
driven from home to the wilds and fastnesses of the coun¬
try, where he joined himself to men whose fortunes were
as desperate as his own, and his courage and higher rank-
made them choose him for their chief. From this time
he was constantly engaged against the enemy with va¬
rious results, but ultimately, as his adherents increased
and his plans became more matured, with decided ad¬
vantage. This kind of guerilla warfare was of the utmost
importance in his future proceedings. By it he became
acquainted with the strongest passes and the best positions
for defence in the country; his men were inured to a life
of fatigue and privation, to feel the benefits of discipline
and obedience, and to rest with the most perfect confidence
in the abilities, courage, and great strength of their intre¬
pid commander.
The success which attended his efforts induced him to
undertake an enterprise of greater importance. By a
forced march he surprised Ormesby, the English justiciary,
at Scone, defeated his troops, nearly captured him, and
took a rich booty. This exploit led Bruce and a number
of the nobility to join him with their vassals; and the united
forces, led by Wallace, cleared the country of the English.
This intelligence reached Edw-ard when about to embark
for Flanders. An army of 40,000 foot and 300 horse was
despatched into Scotland, under the command of Henry
Percy, which on the 9th of July 1297 came upwiththatof
the Scots, encamped at Irvine, consisting of nearly the same
strength, and commanded by Wallace. Dissensions had
however broken out among the leaders: the feudal barons,
from pride and jealousy, would not submit to his orders, and
they therefore entered into negociations with Percy, which
ended in their submission to Edward. Sir Andrew Murray
of Bothwell was the only man of rank who adhered to Wal¬
lace ; and with a large body of tried and veteran followers,
they retired indignantly to the north. Percy, considering
that he had put an end to the revolt, retired to England; but
Wallace and Murray, dividing their forces, carried on their
operations against the English, and with such vigour, that
in a short time all the strongholds north of the river Forth,
except the castle of Dundee, were retaken. Wallace
had just laid siege to that fortress, when his scouts in¬
formed him of the approach of a powerful force, under
the command of the earl of Surrey, and Cressingham
the treasurer. He instantly left the siege, to be con¬
tinued by the citizens, and by a forced march took pos¬
session of the high ground on the river Forth, above
Cambuskenneth, at Stirling, before the English forces
reached the south side of the river. The Scotish army,
1 See Third Annual Report of the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia, ordered to be printed by the House of Commons mill
April 1839.
2 See Henry’s Wallace, by Dr Jamieson; and Garrick’s Life of Wallace.
r-T-
—
W A L
W A L
723
con ited of 40,000 foot and 180 horse, while that of the
’Emsh amounted to 50,000 foot and 1000 heavy armed
hor. On the morning of September 11, 1297, against the
adv n of those who knew the nature of the ground, Sur¬
rey -dered his troops to deploy over the narrow bridge; but
*hi only half their number had passed, and before their
ran; could be arrayed on the narrow peninsula which form¬
ed e field of battle, Wallace attacked them with his whole
f„n and nearly every soldier that crossed the bridge was
eitl • slain or drowned. This decisive defeat was followed
bv 12 expulsion of the English from the kingdom. To lessen
the everity of a dreadful dearth and famine v/hich now
gnnd over Scotland, Wallace resolved on an expedition
intern gland, not only to procure subsistence for his nume-
rouarmy, but als0 to retaliate on that country the injuries
whi i Scotland had received. He therefore proceeded as far
as iewcastle, wasting the northern counties with fire and
swol, sparing neither age nor sex, and carrying off a large
invaluable booty. Soon after his return from this success¬
ful .xpedition, he was elected governor of Scotland, and,
gtrigthened by this high title, he proceeded to regulate
thepfairs of the kingdom, which its exigencies required.
Soirm and determined was his rule, so beneficial his
metres, that the powerful nobility were compelled to
submit to his authority, while the lesser barons willingly
gufnrted him. This state did not long continue. Ed-
wai, in July 1298, at the head of an army of nearly
)0lf)00 foot and 8000 horsemen, entered Scotland, while
W;!ace retired before him as he advanced, wasting the
coutry, so as to make Edward depend on his own sup¬
ply This plan of warfare reduced the English army to
sufl straits that the king had to order an inglorious re¬
tro At this critical moment, when the military skill of
W1 ace predicted the most complete success, the treachery
of to Scotish nobles, Patrick earl of Dunbar, and the earl
of trigus, revealed to the English monarch the dispositions
of i/allace. Edward immediately ordered his army to
ad jnee, and by a rapid night-march, came up to the
Sc'sh army at Falkirk; and Wallace, with not one third
th« lumber of soldiers, was compelled by his position to
fig: at disadvantage, and was defeated with great loss.
Shjtly after this defeat, he resigned his high office as go¬
vern, and proceeded to France, apparently with the con-
settof the regents, with the expectation of obtaining assist-
an (for Scotland from its sovereign. In this he was deceived,
as,n arriving at Amiens, he was thrown into prison, and a
let r was written by Philip to Edward, offering to send him
to ondon. In this however there was more policy than
sii :rity; for Wallace was secretly released from prison, and
fm shed with letters, dated November 3, 1298, to the
It ch agents at the court of Rome, ordering them to solicit
Pd; Boniface to give Wallace an attentive hearing regard-
injdie affairs of Scotland. There is no proof that Wallace
" ii it Rome, but certain it is that Boniface, in his bull to Ed-
"i 1, exhibited a knowledge of its history and affairs which
papuld only have derived from such a source as Wallace.
11 noble-minded patriot remained on the continent until
kit in the year 1303, when he returned into Scotland, and
inj ediately commenced active operations in assisting those
"i still defended the liberties of their country. By his re¬
sale career, he rendered himself so obnoxious to Edward,
tin when mercy was extended to the few remaining patriots
°n ertain conditions, Edward excluded this great man, and
se i reward of 300 merks on his head. By the treachery
°l servant who waited on him, of the name of Jack
l^l rt, he was at length betrayed to Sir John Monteith, a
ish baron, who captured him at night in bed in the
1>( ;e of a certain Ralph Rae, at Robroyston, in the neigh-
1K hood of Glasgow', and for which he received from
t! English privy council a grant of land of the annual
Tii e of one hundred pounds. Wallace was conveyed to
London, where he arrived upon Sunday the 22d of August Waller.
1305. On the following day he was tried in Westminster s‘’^ v^“
Hall, with mock splendour and ceremony, by the form of
English law, but without the least regard to its justice. In
accordance with the predetermined resolution of Edward,
he was condemned to suffer death, and the sentence was exe¬
cuted the same day, with disgraceful and revolting cruelty.
Thus ended the career of this noble-minded patriot,
but not without leaving a name which will ever be revered.
He found his country overpowered and disorganized, her
people disheartened, her nobles and leaders in prison, or
in the pay of one of the ablest monarchs that ever swayed
the English sceptre, himself without wealth or influence,
and an outlaw ; yet under all these disadvantages, his love
of freedom and hatred of oppression, his fearless courage
and perseverance, w'hich nothing could subdue, his mili¬
tary skill, his political sagacity, his natural eloquence, and
the ardour with which he animated his companions and fol¬
lowers, all conspired to restore confidence in his country¬
men, and to free them from the invaders ; and had it not
been for the pride, jealousy, and treachery of her nobles, the
measures that he pursued for organizing the strength and
extending the commerce of the kingdom wrould have given
it a stability, which the warlike power of the English, aided
by the experience, military tactics, and judgment of her mo¬
narch, would not have been able to overpower. As it was,
both he and his country suffered from the venality of those
who by birth and power were her natural protectors.
His person was of the most perfect form, and of a stature
approaching the gigantic. In strength he was superior to the
strongest men of his day; and his frame was such, that it was
capable of bearing the greatest fatigue. At his execution it
is probable that he was not above thirty-five years of age.
WALLER, Edmund, a conspicuous improver of English
versification, was born at Coleshill in Hertfordshire, on the
third of March 1605. He was the son of Robert Waller of
Agmondesham in Buckinghamshire, and the nephew of John
Hampden, whose name has been transmitted to posterity
by means very different from those employed by his kins¬
man. Waller’s mother was the cousin of Oliver Cromwell;
and he could trace his pedigree from Richard Waller of
Spendhurst, the sheriff of Kent, who took the duke of Or¬
leans prisoner at the battle of Agincourt. While he was
yet an infant, his father died, leaving him three thousand
five hundred pounds a year, which in those days was a
splendid fortune. He was sent by his mother first to Eton,
and then to King’s College, Cambridge; but we find him
converted into a senator, and frequenting the court of James
the First, in the sixteenth, or, as others say, the eighteenth
year of his age.
About the same period of life he is supposed to have
written his first poem, “ On the danger his Majesty (being
prince) escaped in the road at St Andero.” The prince
landed at Portsmouth in 1623, when Waller was in his
eighteenth year; but, whenever the poem was begun, it
could not have been finished until two years afterwards;
for he predicts the marriage of Charles with Henrietta of
France, and it belonged to the bards of a more remote
age to prophecy any events but such as had already hap¬
pened, or never afterwards occurred. The numbers of
this production are as musical as those of his last; and if
the sense had always been completed in every couplet, few
rhymes of the present day could better satisfy the public
ear. “ We have our lineal descendants and clans,” says
Dryden, in the preface to his Fables, “ as well as other fa¬
milies : Spenser more than once insinuates that the soul of
Chaucer was transfused into his body, and that he was be¬
gotten by him two hundred years after his decease. Mil-
ton has acknowledged to me that Spenser was his original;
and many besides myself have heard our famous Waller own
that he derived the harmony of his numbers from the God-
WALLER.
aller. frey of Bulloign, which was turned into English by Mr Fair-
    fax.” Waller’s second poem was written on the occasion
“ Of his Majesty receiving the Duke of Buckingham’s
Death.” The duke was assassinated by Felton in 1628,
and “ the steadiness,” as Johnson observes, “ with which the
king received the news in the chapel deserved indeed to
be rescued from oblivion.” There are few persons, how¬
ever, who have not had frequent occasion to admire the
philosophic composure with which some of their friends
can listen to the calamities of others. There is sufficient
internal evidence to demonstrate that this poem has no
better pretensions than its predecessor to be considered a
hasty effusion of fancy. He was indeed incapable of pro¬
ducing any thing on the spur of the occasion. The duke of
Buckinghamshire told Fenton, that he spent the greater part
of a summer in composing and correcting ten lines to be
written in a copy of Tasso belonging to the duchess of York.
Waller now pursued an earthly mistress, wdio suffered
herself to be more speedily overtaken than the Muse.
When still very young, he obtained the hand of Miss Banks,
a rich city heiress, in opposition to the addresses of Mr
Crofts, whose suit was backed by the influence of the court.
By this lady he had two children, a son, who died in in¬
fancy, and a daughter, who afterwards became the wife of
one Mr Dormer of Oxfordshire. When Waller was about
twenty-five years of age, his wife died in giving birth to a
child, whether the one last mentioned does not appear.
A rich young widower is more easily reconciled to the loss
which he has sustained, than one who is left in solitary in¬
digence to pine away the evening of his days. Looking
about for another wife, or perhaps only for a poetical mis¬
tress, Waller fixed his eyes on the Lady Dorothea Sidney,
the eldest daughter of the earl of Leicester. He began
to celebrate this lady in verse under the absurd name
of Sacharissa ; but his tuneful gallantry is said to have
been rewarded with contempt, for which he took a severe
though late revenge. Meeting accidentally with Waller
after she had become a wrinkled widow, she asked him, with
senseless and indelicate jocularity, when he proposed to
write some more verses to her ? “ When you are as young,
madam,” he answered, “and as handsome as you were.”
After this disappointment, Apollo laid the following injunc¬
tion on the slighted bard :
On yon aged tree
Hang up thy lute, and hie thee to the sea.
Fenton supposes it possible that he may have diverted his
chagrin by accompanying the earl of Warwick to the Ber¬
mudas ; and the knowledge of whale-fishing as practised by
the inhabitants of that archipelago, displayed in his Battle
of the Summer Islands, lends some strength to this conjec¬
ture. This poem, whether a record of experience, or an
effort of imagination, is so unhappy both in the design and
execution, that it is difficult to determine whether the poet is
in jest or earnest. From 1629 to 1640 no parliament was
assembled, and Waller spent a great part of that interval in
prosecuting his studies, which were directed by Mr Morley,
afterwards bishop of Winchester. He continued to produce
various pieces; but to ascertain the precise order in which
they were written, is of as little interest or utility as to be
informed which was the third, fourth, or fifth bullet that was
cast in some particular mould. In other poets it is curious
to watch the progress of excellence; but Waller’s powers
arrived at sudden maturity, and remained unimpaired to the
last; his first poetical essays exhibit none of the tasteless
crudities of youth, and it is not easy to believe that his latest
efforts were the children of decrepitude.
Having forgotten the cruelty of Sacharissa, he married
a lady of such inferior celebrity that it is not known whether
her name was Bresse or Breaux. It is however certain that
she made him the father of thirteen children, five sons and
eight daughters. In the parliament of 1640 he stood up
in his place and opposed the king’s demand of a supply T
his speech, which still remains, Johnson remarks that h"
quotes Hooker in one passage, and copies him in anoth
without acknowledgment; a proceeding resembling that^f
one who should borrow a sum of money from a man °
afterwards pick his pocket. Notwithstanding the veh
mence of this harangue, the king is said to have sent to 1 ^
to second his demand of some subsidies for the paymenu’
the troops. Waller was not sufficiently flattered by this di«
tinction to decline undertaking the prosecution of Sir Fran'
cis Crawley, one of the twelve judges who bad declared that
ship-money might be legally and equitably exacted from the
subject. This was an employment worthy the nephew of
Hampden, and he executed his task with great dignity and
vigour. The most brilliant passage of a very eloquent
speech, which he delivered, upon that occasion, is the one
in which he compares the atrocious villany of enslaving
and beggaring the nation, under pretence of supplying the
navy, to the barbarity of seething a kid in his mother’s milk'
an act of inhumanity which the Mosaic law forbids, and
which is understood to mean the employing for the destruc¬
tion of any creature what was intended for its preservation.
Crawley escaped unpunished ; but Waller’s speech was so
much admired that twenty thousand copies were sold in one
day. Though a friend of reform, both civil and ecclesias¬
tical, Waller was no enemy either to the church or the king;
for he spoke in favour of episcopacy, and when Charles took
up arms against his subjects, he sent him a thousand broad
pieces. But in times like those, the loyalty or patriotism
of timid contemplation could be of small service either to a
tyrant or a mob; and it was of little consequence whether
a faltering voice muttered prerogative or privilege.
We have seen Waller perform the part of a public
accuser; he has now to appear in the character of an abject
criminal. In an evil hour he turned plotter against the
parliament. Being one of the commissioners appointed to
treat with Charles at Oxford after the battle of Edgehill,
the king said some kind things to him, which are supposed
to have melted his heart, and given rise to the abortive
scheme called Waller’s Plot ; or perhaps his loyalty, wa¬
vering as it was, was transmitted to him by his mother, who,
although the sister of Hampden, was so zealous a royalist,
that her kinsman Cromwell, half jesting and half serious, made
her a prisoner to her own daughter in her own house. This
plot of Waller’s, which, as Hume says, might with more
propriety be called a project, wTas a secret association of
persons disgusted wuth the violence of the commons, to com¬
municate with those of their own principles, who, when
their strength was united, might, as they hoped, be enabled
to make a stand against the progress of treason, by petition¬
ing for peace, and refusing to contribute to the support of
the parliamentary forces. The probability of success in this
undertaking Waller was in the habit of discussing with
his brother-in-law Tomkyns, who was clerk of the queens
council. Lord Conway, who had served in the army, was
one of their confederates, and, as Clarendon supposes, might
possibly have harboured some ulterior design of an appeal
to the sword; but, as far as Waller was concerned, the
scheme was of a nature purely civil, and such as might have
been attempted with perfect safety at any other period.
Infant anarchy however is still more jealous and malignant
than superannuated despotism. About the same time that
Waller’s plans were discovered, there came to light an enter¬
prise of a more martial aspect, projected by Sir Nicholas
Crispe, who had obtained from the king a commission o
array, transmitted to London by Lady Aubigney. Of these
two unconnected schemes it was not difficult to make one
direful confederacy.
Of the discovery of Waller’s plot two distinct accounts
are given. Clarendon relates that a conference between
Waller and Tomkyns was overheard by a servant oi tie
Ik
WALLER.
725
for 3f, who carried the information thus obtained to Pym.
'Or,'of Waller’s relations, who lived in his family, left be¬
lli, him a manuscript, in which it is stated that “ he was
bet yed by his sister Price,1 and her presbyterian chaplain
yirJood, who stole some of his papers; and if he had not
strfgely dreamed, the night before he was seized, that his
gisl - had betrayed him, and therefore burnt the rest of his
pai,rs by the fire left in his chimney, he had certainly lost
bis fe for it.” Whether discovered by the unnatural per-
fjd of a sister, or the ordinary rascality of a domestic, the
pic was published, with every embellishment that could
exoe surnrise and terror. On Wednesday the 31st of May
16 , when a solemn fast was held in St Margaret’s church,
W tminster, a breathless messenger rushed among the
coiiregation, and delivered a letter to Pym, who read it,
loc.;d aghast, whispered to some of the members of the
coiiregation, and left the church, accompanied by those to
wl;,n the awful secret was divulged. On the night of that
da Waller and Tomkyns were apprehended. Nature had
wblield from these associates one quality, without which
a dtected conspirator cuts a figure truly despicable. Per-
ha- the old adage, that the greatest rogue is the first to
tun king’s evidence, is susceptible of some amendment.
Exierience has proved that in desperate coalitions the blood
of’iis comrades is more frequently sold by the greatest
coiird, than by the greatest villain of the gang. In the
ho of meriting a pardon, Tomkyns was willing to sacrifice
thi ife of Sir Nicholas Crispe, that famous London mer-
chit, who raised a hundred thousand pounds for the king
at, s utmost need, and fought at the head of a regiment
wlr.h his own indefatigable loyalty had embodied. The
commission of array Tomkyns had been sent with the ap-
pc ted token to receive from Lady Aubigney, who knew
noting of the nature of the document with which she had
bell intrusted. He had buried it in his garden, where, in
co equence of his information, it was found, and thus was
thifaring enterprise of Crispe identified with the tame cabal
ofrfaller. As for him, he was seized with the most acute
pr xysms of terror, under the influence of which he
bl bed out all, and perhaps more than he knew. No ma-
laj rt urchin in a dark room, the chosen residence of ghosts
ar;goblins, ever petitioned with more frantic importunity
fo enlargement. He confessed not only his own delin-
queies in thought, word, and deed, but all that he had
se , heard, or suspected of others; he divulged even the
cc idential prattle of women; and, for the privilege of pass-
in; the remainder of his days in penury and shame, would
d< btless have consigned the wdiole of his associates to per-
di in. Lord Conway and the earl of Portland were his con-
fe rates in this disastrous scheme; and, to complete the sum
oi iis degradation, he wrote a letter to the earl, imploring
hill with all the eloquence of fear, to secure their mutual
sa ty by becoming as mean a traitor as himself. To the ho¬
rn ' of the peerage, his lordship treated this proposal with
c« contempt. Being unable to find a partner in ignominy,
Her now endeavoured to excite compassion and gain time
b nunterfeiting madness, as Clarendon says, or, according
tc lay the historian of the parliament, the deepest remorse
ol onscience. To the ghostly counsel of the ministers he
limed with every appearance of edification, and rewarded
tj r spiritual services with profuse liberality. No corrup-
ti i person who had the smallest influence on his fate went
w lout a bribe. These desperate struggles were at length
stressful. In the pitiful palinode which he spoke before
expulsion from the house, among many other moving
gs, he said, “ I am of a stock which hath born you better
ftt” But this touching appeal made little impression on
iearers,and he owed his deliverance, not to his eloquence,
but to his purse. Nor could he reasonably expect much Waller,
favour at the hands of the commons. He had remained in
parliament against his own inclination, by the express com¬
mand of the king, and was in the habitual practice of ex¬
asperating the members by venting the most distasteful
sentiments. Clarendon and Whitlocke are at issue on the
mode of his deliverance; the former stating that he w'as
tried by the parliament, according to the earnest prayer of
a speech contained in his works, and the other that he was
delivered over to the council of war, by which he was con¬
demned to death, but reprieved by Essex, the leader of the
parliamentary forces, and was suffered, after one year’s impri¬
sonment, to depart into another country, upon paying a fine
of ten thousand pounds. However his release was effected,
it cost him the whole of his honour, and more than a moiety
of his estate.
Waller now' proceeded to France ; and, judging that the
best way to stop the mouth of ridicule was to fill it full
of dainties, he kept open house, and gave sumptuous en¬
tertainments. His favourite daughter Margaret, who af¬
terwards acted as his amanuensis, wyas born at Rouen in
Normandy. Soon after his exile commenced, he received a
letter from an English lady, whose name has not been disco¬
vered, desiring him to collect his poems and send them to her
from France. With this request he complied, and they were
published in London in 1648. The splendid ostentation in
which he lived terminated in humiliating embarrassments,
to which he had been very little accustomed. He was com¬
pelled to part with his wife’s jewels; and having nothing left,
as he said, but the rump-jewel, he desired his brother-in-
law, Colonel Scroope, to solicit permission from Cronwell
to return. This boon was granted ; and when he arrived in
England, he went to live upon the remains of his fortune at
Hallbarn, a place near Beaconsfield, where his mother resid¬
ed. The protector recognised him as a relation, and, accord¬
ing to Waller’s own account, used to lay aside the mask of
hypocrisy in his society. His condescension was not thrown
away, for Waller testified his gratitude by producing in
1654 the celebrated “Panegyric to the Lord Protector,”
which has always been considered his masterpiece.2 The
panegyric was followed by a poem on the war with Spain,
in which he advises the nation to decorate the head of Crom¬
well with a crown made of Spanish gold. When that crafty
head was laid low, Waller was ready with an epicedium.
Cromwell could now neither benefit nor injure him; but the
verses were probably produced before his son Richard with¬
drew into that obscurity which wras his natural element.
If this poem is a labour of love, it is valuable on that ac¬
count alone; it is very short, begins with common-place,
and ends with hyperbole. Nature is always supposed by
poets to be convulsed when great spirits pass away, and it
happened to be rough weather when Oliver died, a cir¬
cumstance of which Waller has taken a very feeble ad¬
vantage ; but that the goddess should heave one tremen¬
dous sigh, that should despatch the waves as messengers of
woe to distant climes, is the conception of frigid extra¬
vagance. When Charles appeared, Waller’s song of tri¬
umph was not withheld. The verses “ to the King upon
his Majesty’s happy Return,” Charles told Waller that
he thought inferior to the panegyric upon Cromwell.
“ Poets, Sir,” replied he, “ succeed better in fiction than
in truth.” During the whole of this reign, Waller repre¬
sented different places in parliament, and his moments of
relaxation were passed in the most brilliant society. His
colloquial powers must have been great; for although he
never tasted wine, his approach was hailed with delight by
the most debauched wits of the court. Saville said that no
man in England should keep him company without drinking
1 This is probably the woman whom Cromwell appointed to stand sentry over her mothe ...
2 The panegyric on Cromwell is partly translated into French verse in Hennet s PoeUque Anglaw, tom. u,.
'26
W A L
Waller, but Ned Waller. “ It is thought,” says Percival Stockdale,
'' “ that St Evremond returned to England for the sake of
Mr Cowley’s company and Mr Waller’s.”
His life passed thus agreeably away, until, in 1665, he
was urged, by the desire of augmenting his income, now
reduced to L.1300 a year, to petition the king for the pro-
vostship of Eton College. His application to Charles was
successful; but Clarendon refused to affix his seal to the
patent, upon the ground that none but clergymen were
eligible to the office. Waller had no idea of private friend¬
ship being sacrificed to public duty, and this declaration of
Clarendon’s dissolved an intimacy of ancient date. Two
years afterwards, when the chancellor was impeached,
Waller’s animosity was as fresh as ever, and he rushed
among a crowd of assailants to strike an eager and super¬
fluous blow at falling greatness. After Clarendon’s banish¬
ment, the provostship was again vacant, and Waller again
applied for the office ; but the highest legal authorities de¬
clared that laymen were excluded by the act of unifor¬
mity, and the king said that he could not reverse a law
of his own making. Some trifling dramatic efforts of Wal¬
ler’s have yet to be noticed. He wrote anew the last act
of Beaumont and Fletcher’s Maid’s Tragedy, altering the
catastrophe, and distinguishing his work from that of the
confederate dramatists by rhyming verse. Southerne stated
to Fenton, that he had seen the Maid’s Tragedy acted about
the end of Charles’s reign, but without Waller’s alterations.
This is not to be wondered at; for in the heterogeneous con¬
dition to which he reduced it, the play was unfit for repre¬
sentation. A mean version of the first act of Corneille’s
Pompey, of which Lord Buckhurst translated the remainder,
is attributed to Waller; and he is said to have been associ¬
ated with Cowley in the original concoction of that over¬
praised performance, the Rehearsal.
When James ascended the throne in 1685, Waller was
chosen member for Saltash in Cornwall. Being now
eighty years of age, he wrote “ A Presage of the Ruin of
the Turkish Empire, presented to his Majesty King James
the Second, on his Birth-day.” From the perusal of Tasso,
Waller had been inspired with great veneration for the
champions of the cross, and feasted his imagination with the
childish whimsey of a new crusade. His last poems are on
sacred subjects. The chief of these are, “ Of Divine Love,
a poem in six cantos “ Of the Fear of God, in two cantos
“ Of Divine Poesy, in two cantos.” Having completed this
pious task, he began to prepare for death, whose approach
he contemplated with a serenity that could not have been
expected from him. When life wras worth preserving,
Waller clung to it with the energy of despair; but when
the scene grew dark and comfortless, he quitted it with
decent grace. Observing that his legs began to swell, he
asked Sir Charles Scarbrough, the king’s physician, what that
symptom portended. “ Why, Sir,” said he, “ your blood
will run no longer.” By the appalling disclosure thus ab¬
ruptly made, Waller was so little terrified that he repeat¬
ed some lines from Virgil, and w'ent home to await his dis¬
solution, which happened on the 21st of October 1687.
He was buried at Beaconsfield, where a monument was
erected by the executors of his second son Edmund, who
inherited the family estate, his elder brother being a sort of
changeling. Besides these, Waller left other three sons.
Waller’s character may be partly discovered in his poems.
He inquires what ancient bard would not have deduced the
pedigree of the first Charles from heaven ; the power and
piety of Cromwell he traces to the same source. The
rising sun, in compassion to the weakness of mortal eyes,
“ first gilds the clouds,” but the full majesty of the merry
W A L
monarch burst upon his dazzled vision all at once Wl
this orb of glory is obscured, he pays James the Second? 1
original and appropriate compliment of having restnr^ v
golden age. Irritable men are often good-natS ?!
Waller was equally peevish and malignant. His tKm "
ment of contradiction was not found by his associates to h
a mere passing cloud; and his conduct to Clarendon d/
monstrates that revenge was welcome to him, even at tl •
eleventh hour. Atterbury has accused him of literal
envy; and the following passage in one of his letters nW
have been dictated either by malice or stupidity. « fh
old blind schoolmaster, John Milton, hath published a tedious
poem on the fall of man ; if its length be not consider'
ed as merit, it has no other.” Of his shameful, timidity
enough has been already said. To counterbalance these
defects, Waller was a good orator, an elegant poet, and an
agreeable companion. It is said that he wished every verse
of his expunged that did not imply some motive to virtue
His writings, in that case, would be very much defaced'
but he cannot be denied the praise of having written with
decorum in a licentious age, and with elegance and smooth-
ness, when the numbers of most of his brother poets were
nearly as vicious and irregular as the mode of life which
they delighted to illustrate.1
WALLINGFORD, a market and borough town of the
county of Berks and hundred of Moreton, 46 miles from
London. It stands on the river Thames, over which is a
fine stone bridge of 19 arches, 300 yards in length, with
drawbridges to admit the passage of barges. It is an an¬
cient town, once consisting of twelve parishes, now re¬
duced to four. The corporate body consists of a mayor,
four aldermen, and eleven councillors. One member is re¬
turned to the House of Commons by the borough. The
little trade there is depends principally on the river-navi¬
gation. There is a well-endowed free school, four churches,
and several chapels for dissenters; also a county-hall,in
which the assizes were occasionally held. The markets are
on Tuesday and Friday. The population amounted in 1821
to 2493, and in 1831 to 2467
WALLINGTON, a hamlet in the parish of Beddington
and hundred of its own name in the county of Surrey,
eleven miles from London. It is only remarkable for the
printing and bleaching grounds within it, on the banks of
the river Wandle. The great rivalry from the calico-prin¬
ters in the north has suspended the progress of the manufac¬
tures of this place. The population amounted in 1821 to
847, and in 1831 to 933.
WALLIS, John, a distinguished mathematician, logi¬
cian, and grammarian, was born on the 23d of November
1616, at Ashford in Kent, of which parish his father was
then minister. Having been previously instructed in the
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, he was in 1632 sent
to Emanuel College, Cambridge, where he applied himself
with great success to various branches of learning. He
afterwards removed to Queen’s College, of which he was
chosen fellow'. Having been admitted to holy orders, he
left the university in 1641 to act as chaplain to Sir William
Darley ; and in the following year he accepted of a similar
appointment from the widow of Sir Horatio Vere. H was
about this period that he displayed surprising talents in deci¬
phering the intercepted letters and papers of the royalists.
His adherence to the parliamentary party was in 1643 re¬
warded by the living of St Gabriel, Fenchurch-street. In
1644 he was appointed one of the scribes or secretaries of
the Assembly of Divines at Westminster. During the
same year he married Susanna Glyde, and thus vacated his
fellowship ; but the death of his mother had left him in pos'
The best edition of liis works bears the following title, “ The Works of Edmund Waller, Esq. in Verse and Prose: published by Mr
Fenton.” Lond. 1729, 4to.
W A L
iCc 3n of a handsome fortune. In 1645 he attended those
sci itific meetings which led to the establishment of the
]{(il Society. When the Independents obtained the su-
[Ijg jrity, Wallis adhered to the Solemn League and Cove-
. The living of St Gabriel he exchanged for that of
StTartin’s, Ironmonger-lane; and, as minister of that
th ch, he in 1648 subscribed the remonstrance against
pu, ng the king to death. Notwithstanding this act of op-
podon, he was in June 1649 appointed Savilian professor
0f i:ometry at Oxford. In 1654 he there took the degree
Lf _ i). In 1658 he succeeded Dr Langbaine as keeper
of ic archives. After the restoration, he was confirmed
in oth his academical offices, and was named one of the
kin's chaplains in ordinary. He complied with the terms
of tie act of uniformity, a legislative measure unwise, un-
seninable, and unfeeling; but he seems always to have re¬
tard moderate and rational notions of ecclesiastical polity.
“ l hath been my endeavour all along,” says this excellent
peon, “ to act by moderate principles, being willing,
whever side was uppermost, to promote any good design
foil he true interest of religion, of learning, and of the
pu[ic good.” He died at Oxford on the 28th of October
17*!, in the eighty-seventh year of his age. He “was
Jiaijty in the enjoyment of a vigorous constitution of body,
aiuof a mind which was strong, serene, and calm.” His son
J0,i Wallis, who was a barrister, acquired a good estate
bj lis marriage with Elizabeth Harris ; and we likewise
lie! of two daughters, who were both married.
r Wallis was eminently distinguished by the superi-
of his talents, as well as by the variety, extent, and
soi ity of his learning. His works are numerous, and re-
lali to a multiplicity of subjects. Of his scientific genius
he: as left a conspicuous monument in the collection of his
“ pera Mathematica.” Oxon. 1697-9, 3 tom. fol. In
th; collection he did not think it necessary to insert the
trf.s which he published against Hobbes ; because, as he
he himself stated, he had no inclination to trample on the
as. s of the dead, although it was his duty to expose the
falcious reasoning of that writer when alive. His “ In¬
st tio Logicae,” published in 1687, exhibits his proficiency
inmother department of science. In his “ Grammatica
Lituae Anglicanae” we likewise find many indications of
ancute and philosophic intellect. Of this grammar,
oifinally printed in 1653, there are six editions, but the
b( is that published by Bowyer in 1765. Among vari-
oi other works, he produced some theological tracts;
ai ng which are three dissertations on Melchizedek, Job,
ai the titles of the Psalms. He was engaged in contro-
vi ies relative to the doctrine of the Trinity, and to the
ol ;rvance of the Christian Sabbath. In the latter contro-
vi y, his antagonist, Thomas Bampfield, a barrister at law,
roptained that the Sabbath ought to be observed, not on
S day, but on Saturday. Nor must the editorial labours
ol )r Wallis be overlooked. He published several reliques
ofjie ancient Greek writers on science, and thus established
a|ther claim to the regard of his learned contemporaries.
Vallis’s Island, a small island near the north-east coast
o sew Ireland, at the entrance of Gower’s Harbour, call-
0( Isle de Marteaux by M. Bougainville, nine miles north-
"• t ot Cape St George. There are other islands of this
n:ie> discovered by Captain Wallis in 1767, surrounded by
a ef of rocks. Long. 177. W. Lat. 13. 18. S.
\ ALLSEND, a large village, situated between New-
c le and North Shields, in the county of Northumber-
k It is noted for the excellent quality of the coal so
ndant in its neighbourhood, as well as for its connection
i the celebrated Roman wall built by the emperor Se-
‘is, which, as the name of the place indicates, terminat-
f here. There are several building-yards for ships on the
“ ks of the Tyne, and likewise extensive lime-kilns. In ad-
d on to the established church of St Peter's, there are se-
a
v
W A L 727
veral dissenting places of worship. The population of the Wallub-
parish amounted in 1821 to 5103, and in 1831 to 5510. ^ur
WALLUBGHUR, a hill-fortress of Hindustan, in the ,v |
Mahratta territories, in the province of Bejapore and district. a e~.
of Darwar. It was long in possession of the Mahratta
chief Purseram Bhow. On his death it was occupied by
the Colapoor rajah, in whose possession it remained un¬
til 1804, when, by the interposition of the British, it was
restored to the peshwa, and is now held by one of his
feudatories.
WALMER, a neatly-built village, containing many re¬
spectable private dwelling-houses, in the hundred of Cornito
in the county of Kent. It is noted for the castle of the same
name, built close on the sea-shore, and used as the residence
of the lord-warden of the cinque ports. The castle com¬
mands an extensive view of the Downs, the Straits of
Dover, and the French coast. The population of the pa¬
rish amounted in 1821 to 1568, and in 1831 to 1779.
WALPOLE, Sir Robert, Earl of Orford, was born at
Houghton in Norfolk, September 6th, 1674, and was educat¬
ed on the foundation at Eton school. Thence he was elect¬
ed to King’s College in Cambridge ; but on the death of his
elder brother, he resigned his scholarship. He was elected
member for Castle-Rising, and represented that, borough in
the two short parliaments assembled during the last two
years of William’s reign. In 1702 he was elected for
King’s Lynn, and represented that borough in several suc¬
ceeding parliaments. In 1705, he was nominated one of
the council to Prince George of Denmark, lord high ad¬
miral of England; in 1707, was appointed secretary at war;
and in 1709, treasurer of the navy. In 1710, upon the
change of the ministry, he was removed from all his posts,
and held no place during the remainder of the queen’s reign.
In 1711 he was expelled from the House of Commons for
what they called notorious corruption in his office as secretary
at war. The borough of Lynn however re-elected him in
1714; and though the house declared the election void, yet
they persisted in the choice. In the well-known debate
relating to Steele for publishing the Crisis, he greatly dis¬
tinguished himself in behalf of liberty, and added to the
popularity which he had previously acquired.
On the death of the queen, a revolution of politics took
place, and the Whig party prevailed both at court and in
the senate. Walpole had before recommended himself to
the house of Hanover, by his zeal for its cause, when the
commons considered the state of the nation with regard to
the Protestant succession ; and it is not surprising that his
promotion soon took place after the king’s arrival. In a
few days he was appointed receiver and paymaster-general
of all the guards and garrisons, and of all the other land forces
in Great Britain, paymaster of the royal hospital at Chelsea,
and likewise a privy counsellor. On the opening of a new
parliament, a committee of secrecy was chosen to inquire
into the conduct of the late ministry, of which Walpole was
appointed chairman ; and, by his management, articles of
impeachment were read against the earl of Oxford, Lord
Bolingbroke, the duke of Ormond, and the earl of Strafford.
The eminent service which he was thought to have rendered
the crown, by the vigorous prosecution of those ministers who
were deemed the chief instruments of the peace, was soon
rewarded by the extraordinary promotions to the offices of
first commissioner of the treasury, and chancellor and under
treasurer of the exchequer.
In two years time he resigned all his offices, on account
of a misunderstanding which took place between him and
the rest of the ministry about certain supplies demanded
for the support of his majesty’s German dominions. On
the day of his resignation he brought in the famous sinking-
fund bill, which he presented as a country gentleman, say¬
ing that he hoped it would not fare the worse for having
two fathers; and that his successor Mr Stanhope would
728
W A L
^Walpole, bring it to perfection. His calling himself the father of a
v * project, which has since been so often employed to other
purposes than were at first declared, gave his enemies fre¬
quent opportunity for satire and ridicule; and it has been
sarcastically observed, that the father of this fund appeared
in a very bad light when viewed in the capacity of a nurse.
In the next session of parliament, Walpole opposed the mi¬
nistry in every thing; and even Wyndham or Shippen did
not exceed him in patriotism. Upon a motion in the house for
continuing the army, he made a speech of above an hour long,
and displayed the danger of a standing army in a free country,
with all the powers of eloquence. Early in 1720 the ri¬
gour of the patriot began to soften, and the complaisance of
the courtier to appear; and he was again appointed pay¬
master of the forces, and several of his friends were found
soon after in the list of promotions. No doubt now re¬
mained of his entire conversion to court-measures ; for be¬
fore the end of the year, we find him pleading as strongly
for the forces required by the war-office as he had before
declaimed against them, even though at this time the same
pretences for keeping them on foot did not exist.
It was not long before he acquired full ministerial power,
being appointed first lord commissioner of the treasury, and
chancellor of the exchequer; and when the king went
abroad in 1723, he was nominated one of the lords justices
for the administration of government, and was sworn sole
secretary of state. About this time he received another
distinguished mark of the royal favour ; his eldest son, then
on his travels, being created a peer, by the title of Baron
Walpole of Walpole. In 1725 he was made knight of the
Bath, and the year after knight of the Garter. The mea¬
sures of his administration, during the long time he remain¬
ed prime or rather sole minister, have been often canvassed
with all the severity of critical inquiry. It is difficult to
discern the truth through the exaggerations and misrepre¬
sentations of party. He has indeed been accused of em¬
ploying the sinking fund for the purposes of corruption, of
which it was long the fashion to call him the father; but
the man who reflects on the transactions of Charles II. and
his infamous cabal, will acquit him of the latter part of this
charge. He was an enemy to war, and the friend of com¬
merce ; and because he did not resent some petty insults of
the court of Spain so suddenly as the fiery part of the na¬
tion thought he should have done, a formidable opposition
was formed against him in the house, which had influence
enough to employ in its cause almost all the wit of the na¬
tion. Pulteney and Pitt were the great leaders of the
party in the House of Commons; while Bolingbroke, and
Pope, and Johnson, and almost every man of genius, ex¬
erted themselves without doors to enlighten, by pamphlets
in prose and verse, the minds of the people, and show the
necessity of a Spanish war. This he strenuously opposed,
because he knew that the foreign settlements of that power
are very remote, and in a climate destructive to Englishmen;
and that such of them as we might be able to take, we could
not possibly retain. rI he opposition however prevailed. The
nation was indulged in a war. of which it surely had no cause
to boast of the success; and it is now universally known,
that the greater part of those who with honest intentions had,
either in parliament or out of it, been engaged to run down
the minister, lived to repent of their conduct, and do justice
to the man whom they had so pertinaciously vilified.
In order to encourage commerce and improve the revenue,
Walpole projected a scheme for an extension of the ex¬
cise, as the only means of putting a stop to the frauds of
merchants and illicit traders. This was another ground of
clamour to the orators within and the wits without doors;
W A L
and while the opposition represented it as a mea«„rQ ),• „
with public mischief, Swift and Pope occasionally S 2!
to it as an oppression calculated to deprive private life fn
its comforts. The minister was therefore obliged to h
don the scheme ; but in a succeeding administration it
partly carried into execution, at the express solicitation f
the principal persons concerned in that article of trade wh tl
it was suggested would be most affected by it; and afterward
the most popular minister that ever directed the councils nf
this country declared in full senate, that if a time should ev!
arrive which was likely to render the project feasible he
would himself recommend an extension of the excise law-
as a measure of the greatest advantage to commerce to th’
revenue, and to the general interests of the kingdom 6
In 1742 the opposition prevailed; and Walpole, hein*
no longer able to carry a majority in the House of Coni’
mons, resigned all his places, and fled for shelter behind
the throne. He was soon afterwards created earl of Or-
ford ; and the king, in consideration of his long and faithful
services, granted him a pension of L.4000 per annum. The
remainder of his life he spent in tranquillity and retirement
and died in 1745, in the 71st year of his age.1
He wrote the following pamphlets. 1. The Sovereign’s
Answer to the Gloucestershire Address. The sovereign
meant Charles duke of Somerset, so nicknamed by the
Whigs. 2. Answer to the Representation of the House of
Lords on the State of the Navy, 1709. 3. The Debts of
the Nation stated and considered, in four Papers, 1710.
4. The thirty-five Millions accounted for, 1710. 5. A
Letter from a Foreign Minister in England to Monsieur
Pettecum, 1710. 6. Four Letters to a Friend in Scot¬
land upon Sacheverell’s Trial; falsely attributed in the
General Dictionary to Mr Maynwaring. 7. A short His¬
tory of the Parliament. It is an account of the last session
of the queen. 8. The South Sea Scheme considered.
9. A pamphlet against the Peerage Bill, 1719. 10. The
Report of the Secret Committee, June 9th, 1715.
Walpole, Horace, the third son of Sir Robert, was born
in 1717, became fourth earl of Orford in 1791, and died on
the 2d of March 1797, in the eightieth year of his age.
After having been educated at Eton and Cambridge,
Horace Walpole passed two years on the continent, the
greater part of the time being devoted to Italy, where he
acquired that taste for art which afterwards furnished the
main employment of his life. In the autumn of 1741,
he returned to England; and he took his seat in the
parliament which, meeting in the end of that year, drove
his father from power before the close of its first ses¬
sion. He continued to be a member of the House of
Commons for twenty-six years, retiring at the age of fifty-
one. His political career was by no means distinguished.
W e do not hear of his having delivered more than three
speeches in all, and of these the two that have been pre¬
served exhibit no great talent for oratory. For political
business he possessed neither industry nor ambition; and
the character in wdiich he appeared throughout was little
more than that of a spectator, who took greater pleasure
in watching the acts of others, and recording his own im¬
pressions in regard to them, than in endeavouring himself
to act either for his own benefit or for that of others.
As an observer of public men, however, he never allowed
his attention to flag; and his observations were most dili¬
gently set down in a multifarious correspondence with
friends, and, for a part of his life, in political memoirs,
avowedly intended for publication when the writer and his
contemporaries should have quitted the scene. Politics,
however, like all things else, were for Horace Walpole no-
♦r, ^ ^oxe’s Memoirs of the Life and Administration of Sir Robert Walpole, Earl of Orford. Lond. 1798, 3 vols. 4to. An admirable view <
tbe character and policy of this illustrious statesman will be found in the Edinburgh Review, No. exliii.
i
W A L
W A L
tlni more than an amusement. Literature, art, and anti-
j|jui js ministered by turns to the same end, although all
pursuits were followed in the same careless and Epi-
cur.n spirit. But his pen never lay long idle; few themes
thademanded but little study for their treatment proved
alie to it; and among his works there gradually accumulat¬
ed pt only an immense mass of letters, as evidently calcu¬
late for publication as any thing else he ever wrote, but
gpomens of his aptitude for the composition of novels, of
dra as serious and comic, of political tracts and satires, of
m' historical disquisitions, of memoirs for the history of
En sh art and of English aristocratic literature, and of
tho light verses which may be written by gentlemen hav-
iiur ut slender pretensions to the name of poets.
; t alpole’s circumstances however allowed him to indulge,
in ; nore dignified fashion, his taste for art and literature.
On who was ashamed of writing plays and poems, had no
nee: to be ashamed of collecting books and antiques, or of
bui ing baronial castles, and designing romantic gardens.
Altiiugh Sir Robert Walpole himself left his affairs ex-
ceejngly embarrassed, he had carefully provided for the
yoilger branches of his family by grants of public posts.
Seval sinecure offices conferred on Horace made up his
inc ae, during the greater part of his life, to L.4000 at
lea:: or perhaps considerably more. To a bachelor, suffi-
cie:: y methodical and cautious in money-matters, a sum
likeliis offered no inconsiderable facilities for the indul¬
ge! 5 of one or two expensive tastes. Walpole began to
collet a few antiques while in Italy; but his passion for
cofeting did not arrive at its height till much later.
In 747, when he was thirty years old, he purchased a
cot ge and piece of ground at one end of the village of
Twkenham. Subsequent purchases increased the domain
to/.extent of several acres, the whole of which was laid
outte pleasure-grounds; and the “ little plaything house,”
inqteantly altered and enlarged, grew at length into the
Colic castle of Strawberry Hill. Its owner’s taste had
reeled, partly perhaps from his friend Gray, an early
dintion towards this style of architecture, as well as to
the ranches of antiquarian study connected with it.
j the erection and decoration of his mansion, in desul-
torstudy and composition, in the enjoyments of society
wh ji embraced many of the aristocracy, and a very few of
theiterary men of the country, and in several excursions
to iris, which introduced him to the philosophical precur¬
sor of the revolution,—in employments such as these,
yard only by his retirement from parliament, passed the
lifeif Horace Walpole, till he had attained his seventy-
fodi year. The death of his unfortunate nephew then
gav him his father’s earldom, an honour unaccompanied by
an;substantial accession of fortune. He had for many
ye; been a victim of gout, and the short remainder of his
life 'as spent in utter helplessness of body. But the mind
"a inshaken to the last.
lie works in which Walpole exhibits most characteristi-
cal all his qualities of mind, both moral and intellectual,
are is Letters, especially those in which the politics of the
C01 try are the matters chiefly handled. Accordingly his
cot spondence with Sir Horace Mann (which was prudently
lup-essed till the present generation) may be most advan-
tagmsly studied as a likeness of the writer; and to this
esting series other sets of letters, such as those to the
Cq rays, and even the posthumous Memoirs, may be re-
gai ;d as little else than supplementary. The dissection
0 otives, which is the task undertaken with the greatest
ycji ness, is that which is performed least satisfactorily.
analysis of the springs of action is often evidently
Jus but as often it is clearly performed by one who was
lnt ja^e alike of believing that men whom he disliked
act patriotically or nobly, and of even conceiving
1 any Party or any individual could be actuated by mo-
L. XXI.
729
Walsh.
lives of a higher class than those by which, unconsciously Walsall
in part, he himself was led. The selfishness of Strawberry
Hill, though not its refinement, was indeed a fair enough v
measure by which to estimate such statesmen as the Pel-
hams . but both the selfish indolence and the confined thougn
acute intellect were utterly alien to the mind of Pitt, and
utterly incapable of estimating him and the few other spi¬
rits which in that age of intrigue and detail possessed real
strength and elevation. Akin to this temper of universal
censoriousness, and indeed springing from the same source,
is another distinctive peculiarity of all Walpole’s political
sketches; namely, his incapacity for determining the rela¬
tive importance either of principles or actions. An intrigue
which substitutes in the ministry a Holdernesse for a Pel¬
ham, possesses in his eyes equal consequence with the agi¬
tation which decides whether the foreign policy of the
nation is to be swayed by strength and patriotism or by
weakness and corruption—by William Pitt, or by the crea¬
tures who, during the greater part of his life, thwarted and
crippled his exertions. Nay, the politics of the day them¬
selves appear, in Walpole’s eyes, as standing on the same
level with the amusements, the family history, the de¬
bauchery of the fashionable world: Lady Orford is sati¬
rized in the same breath with the Chancellor Hardwicke,
and the king of Prussia is not less a theme of merriment
than “ Prince Pigwiggin” or the duchess of Kingston.
These very qualities, which at once bear unfavourable
witness to the state of the writer’s mind, and diminish the
value of the writings as historical documents, do never¬
theless give a peculiar attraction to them as literary com¬
positions of a certain class. The class is not a high
one, but in it the best parts of this Correspondence oc¬
cupy the very foremost place. The Letters are inimi¬
table pictures of society and of human character, drawn
by the hand of one who was a master in the delineation of
scenes from familiar life ; not, it is true, inspiring his figures
with poetic truth or serious significance, but shedding over
all of them a gaily comic light. They are a kind of satires,
and few compositions claiming that name are equal to them
in lively wit, in striking grasp of character, in picturesque
colouring of incidents, and in apposite, epigrammatic, vi¬
gorous language. They have been criticised at great
length, and with consummate talent, in the Edinburgh Re¬
view, vol. Iviii.
W ALS ALL, a town of the hundred of Offlow and county
of Stafford, 116 miles from London and fifteen from Staf¬
ford. It is a place of great antiquity. It stands on the side
of a hill, and consists of several regular and spacious well-
built streets, which are well paved, and lighted with gas.
The parish church is a spacious building, in the form of a
cross, with an octagonal tower. There is also a handsome
chapel, called St Paul’s, erected in 1826. The town has a
well-supplied market on Tuesday, and three annual fairs.
The trade is very extensive, chiefly in various kinds of hard¬
ware, but especially in what consists in horses’ furniture,
usually called saddlers’ ironmongery. The government is
vested in a corporate body, consisting of a mayor, six al¬
dermen, and seventeen councillors. The suburb, called the
Foreign, is now the largest portion of the place, or at least
contains the greatest number of inhabitants; and by the
late act the whole is made one borough for the purposes of
election, and has received the power of returning one
member to the House of Commons. Walsall contains many
dissenters, who have their respective chapels. The popu¬
lation amounted in 1821 to 11,914, and in 1831 to 15,066.
WALSH, William, an English critic and poet, the son
of Joseph Walsh, Esq. of Abberley in Worcestershire, was
born about the year 1660. He became a gentleman com¬
moner of Wadham College, Oxford, but left the university
without taking a degree. His writings are to be found among
the works of the Minor Poets, printed in 1749. He was
4 z
A.
730
W A L
W A L
Walsham made gentleman of the horse in Queen Anne’s reign, and public interest to his own ; he being so poor, that, except- IV
II J• A * 1 nf\a TT^v ov'i/1 nf ir>cr Ilia liKvarxr wliinVt waa a xrorxr •firm r»rv/z» *.
scarcely
effects enough to defray the expense of his funeral.
WALTHAM ABBEY, a market-town of the county of W
Essex, in the hundred of Waltham, eleven miles from Lon- "*
don. It takes its name from the stately abbey erected
there by Harold, son of Earl Godwin, and afterwards fur¬
ther endowed by Henry II. The present church was formed
out of a part of the ancient building. The town has a mar¬
ket on Tuesday, and three annual fairs. An establishment
has been formed by government for the manufacture of
gunpowder. The population amounted in 1821 to 1883
and in 1831 to 2013.
WALTHAMSTOW, a large parish, with a town of the
same name, in the county of Essex, in the hundred of Be-
contree, five miles from London. It is situated near the
died in 1708. He was the friend of Dryden and of Pope, ing his library, which was a very fine one, he had
Making- tjie forraer 0f whom esteemed him the best critic then
s a^1, _, living; and Pope has celebrated his character in the Essay
on Criticism.
WALSHAM, North, a market-town of Norfolk, in the
hundred of Tunstead, 124 miles from London, and twelve
from Norwich. It is about six miles from the sea-shore,
and consists of three streets, diverging from a central area,
in which is built the church. It has a well-supplied market
on Tuesday, and two annual fairs- There is an endowed
free school, and several dissenting places of worship. The
population amounted in 1821 to 2303, and in 1831 to 2615.
WALSINGHAM, a market-town of the county of Nor¬
folk, in the hundred of North Greenhoe, 117 miles from
London, and four miles from the sea. It was formerly a
large place, when the abbey, whose ruins remain to attest river Lea, in a rich district, and consists mostly of country
its former magnificence, contained an image of the Virgin houses belonging to the rich class of traders of the metro-
Mary, much venerated, and visited by numerous pilgrims, polis. There is a large church, an endowed school, and
and to which Henry VIII. once repaired barefooted, with
the present of a valuable necklace. The reformation caused
the town to decline. It has now a handsome church, and
a good market on Friday. The country around it is highly
fertile, and especially yields abundance of saffron. The po¬
pulation amounted in 1821 to 1067, and in 1831 to 1004.
Walsingham, Thomas, an English Benedictine monk of of Edmund Cranmer, archdeacon of Canterbury, and the
the monastery of St Alban’s, who lived about the year niece of the archbishop. His own occupation was that of
1440. He applied himself to the history and antiquity of a shopkeeper ; but his love of literature, as well ashisup-
his country, in quality of historiographer to the king, and right and amiable simplicity of character, recommended
composed the History of King Henry VI., with other works.
Walsingham, Sir Francis, secretary of state during
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was descended from an an¬
cient family in Norfolk, but was born at Chislehurst in
Kent, in the year 1536. After having made great pro¬
gress in his studies at Cambridge, he was twice sent am¬
bassador to France, and at his return to England was em-
several dissenting chapels. The population amounted in
1821 to 4304, and in 1831 to 4258.
WALTON, Isaac, an early writer of great popularity,
was born on the 9th of August 1593, in the parish of St
Mary and town of Stafford. The condition of his father is
not mentioned, but his mother is described as the daughter
him to the favour and friendship of many individuals dis¬
tinguished by their talents and station. In 1624 we find
him residing on the north side of Fleet-street, two doors
west of Chancery-lane ; and in 1632 he had removed to a
house in the lane. The tradition of his family represented
him as a Hamburg merchant, or wholesale linen-draper;
but, according to Anthony Wood, he followed the occupa-
ployed in the most important affairs, became secretary of tion of a sempster. He married Anne the sister of Thomas
state, and was one of the commissioners for the trial of
Mary queen of Scotland. Sir Francis was undoubtedly
one of the most refined politicians and most penetrating
statesmen that any age has produced. He had an admi¬
rable talent, both in discovering and managing the secret
recesses of the heart. He had his spies in most courts in
Christendom, and allowed them a liberal maintenance; for
it was his maxim, that knowledge cannot be bought too
dear. In 1587, the king of Spain having made vast pre¬
parations, which surprised and kept all Europe in suspense,
Walsingham employed his utmost endeavours for the dis¬
covery of that important secret; and accordingly procured
intelligence from Madrid that the king had informed his
council of his having despatched an express to Rome, with
a letter written with his own hand to the pope, acquainting
him with the true design of his preparations, and begging his
blessings upon him ; which design for some reasons he could
not disclose till the return of the courier. The secret be-
Ken, afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells. While an in¬
habitant of St Dunstan’s in the West, he was a regular at¬
tendant on the ministrations of Dr Donne, then vicar ol
the parish ; and with this witty poet and divine he con¬
tracted a friendship, which was only terminated by death.
Walton visited him in his last sickness, and wrote a cir¬
cumstantial account of his life, which in 1640 accompanied
a collection of the dean’s Sermons. Another of his distin¬
guished friends was Sir Henry Wotton, whose life he also
undertook to write, and finished it about the year I6W.
It was prefixed to the “ Reliquiae Wottonianse,” which he
edited in 1651. It is to be regretted that he did not exe¬
cute his design of writing the lives of other two individuas
connected with Eton, Sir Henry Savile and John Haes,
both very eminent in their generation. About the year
1643, we are informed, he left London, and, with a fortune
very far short of what would now be called a comp^fr
seems to have retired altogether from business.
ing thus lodged with the pope, Walsingham, by means of a resided in the metropolis, angling had been his av®u
Venetian priest, whom he retained at Rome as a spy, got
a copy of the original letter, which was stolen out of the
pope’s cabinet by a gentleman of the bed-chamber, who very pleasing
took the key out of the pope’s pocket while he slept. After
this, by his dexterous management, he caused the Span
recreation, and in that art he arrived at great skill an P™'
ficiency. The result of his experience he embodie in
very pleasing volume, entitled “ The complete Ang
contemplative Man’s Recreation.” Lond. 1653, ovO'
work was so favourably received, that other four e 11.
iards’ bills to be protested at Genoa, which should have were published during the author’s lifetime, nanie.-p
•para- 1655, 1664, 1668, and 1676. To this last impression
supplied them with money for their extraordinary prepara- i»u«   — Cc-trout
tions ; and by this means he happily retarded this formi- second part, containing instructions ^ow t0. an^ett°n Qf
dable invasion for a whole year. In short, he spent his or grayling, was added by his friend Charles Co o • ^
whole time and faculties in the service of Queen Elizabeth, both parts there are many subsequent editions, a
on which account her majesty was heard to say, “ that in popularity of the work continues unimpaired. ° ^
diligence and sagacity he exceeded her expectations.” rate edition, with a life of the author, was pubhs
However, after all his eminent services to his country, John Hawkins in the year 1760. ^a^OI?^avIn&ro^er in
this man gave a remarkable proof at his death, which hap- his biographical labours, published the li-e o jn
pened on the 6th of April 1590, how far he preferred the 1662, that of Herbert in 1670, and that of san
W A L
W A L
731
1 167 His Lives were afterwards collected together, and
k • , s form have repeatedly been printed. An edition,
. T* . nine an account of the author, together with an-
tpotaions, was published by Dr Zouch. York, 1796, 4to.
f Tlit ivork, thus illustrated, reached a third impression.
1 Yor 1817, 2 vols. 8vo. These specimens of circumstan-
^ lal ography are rendered very interesting by the native
; lant-sss of the author’s disposition, and by the garrulous
gim,.city of his narrative. In 1680 he published, but
fwitl-.it his name, “Love and Truth: two modest and
? peadble Letters, concerning the Distempers of the pre-
f gtntrfime'8: written from a quiet and conformable Citi-
ggH ; London, to two busie and factious Shopkeepers in
[fl L0v)try.” Lend. 1680, 4to. This tract was reprinted
f! I Zouch’s edition of the Lives. At the age of ninety,
fie (4ted “ Thealmaand Clearchus ; a Pastoral History in
: smo h and easie verse : written long since by John Chalk-
hill, isqr. an acquaintant and friend of Edmund Spencer.”
l»:Lor 1683, 8vo. As to the author, he states “ that he
f- was.i his time a man generally known, and as well be-
r iovei; for he was humble, and obliging in his behaviour, a
. gen man, a scholar, very innocent and prudent; and in-
1 deeifiis whole life was useful, quiet, and virtuous.” Of this
poerthere is a recent edition. Chiswick, 1820, 12mo. The
namof Chalkhill is otherwise so entirely unknown, that
1 Mr lnger, who published this edition, is inclined to doubt
whc er the poem may not have been a youthful produc-
i tiontf its first editor. Having attained to a healthful and
hap; old age, he died on the 15th of December 1683,
l at V nchester, in the prebendal house of his son-in-law Dr
1 Ha : ins, and was interred in the cathedral of that city,
i Hisinfe died in 1662. Their son Isaac Walton having
k bee educated at Oxford, became rector of Polshot, and
i can: residentiary of Salisbury. He died unmarried, in the
e yea 1716. His only sister Anne was married to William
Ha ::ins, rector ofDroxford, and prebendary of Winchester.
Is flM only son, William Hawkins, was the author of a well-
kncn “ Treatise of the Pleas of the Crown.” (x.)
Tilton, Bryan, a very eminent biblical scholar, was
borinthe year 1600, at Seymour in the district of Cleve-
i. lam in Yorkshire. He is said to have been admitted a
r siz:) of Magdalene College, Cambridge, in the month ot
Jul 1616. In 1618 he became a sizar of Peter House.
Heook the degree of A. B. in 1619, and that of A. M.
I in 23. He left the university for a curacy and the
ma: rship of a school in Suffolk. He next removed to
i the Metropolis, as an assistant at the church of Allhal-
> low Bread-street; and in 1626 he was collated to the
recry of St Martin’s Orgar. On the 15th of January
|6b|-6, he was instituted to the rectories of St Giles-in-
I the fields, and of Sandon in Essex. The former he does
• not bpear to have retained. About this time, he is sup-
pos to have been chaplain to the king, and to have been
colied to a prebend of St Paul’s. In 1639 he took the
i lege of D. D. at Cambridge; and in the public act, he
ma| ained a thesis against the infallibility of the pope.
Is iHh fife, Anne Claxton, died in the course of the follovv-
• hgitear.
j ' 1 Walton was involved in the troubles which ensued ;
; arc 11641 he is supposed to have been dispossessed of both
: |is xtories. Towards the close of the year 1642 he was
01(l ed into custody as a delinquent. Like many other
1,16 )ers of his order, he afterwards sought a place of re-
%at Oxford ; and on the 12th of August 1645 he was
intj porated doctor of divinity. Here, among the learned
'jlfi'S ves, he met with Dr Fuller, dean of Ely, whose daugh-
tcij ine became his second wife. On his return to Lon-
d^he resided in the house of his father-in-law. Undis-
- d by the change of his circumstances, he planned and
( *x<Uted one of the greatest, if not the very greatest, lite-
'■ rar enterprise of which his country can boast. 1 his was
the famous Polyglott Bible, of which the plan appears to Walton,
have been brought to considerable maturity in the year
1652. The design was approved by the Council of State,
who exempted from duty all the paper to be employed in
the edition ; and to the credit of the age it must be record¬
ed, that in the month of May 1653 subscriptions had been
obtained to the amount of L.9000. Dr Walton had va¬
rious coadjutors, but the very laborious task of editorship
devolved upon himself. As a precursor, he published “ In-
troductio ad Lectionem Linguarum Orientalium.” Lond.
1654, 8vo. This introduction was reprinted at London in
1655. The great work itself was completed in the space of
about four years, and made its appearance under the title of
Biblia Sacra Polyglotta, &c. Lond. 1657, 6 tom. fol. In
this edition, nine languages are employed, but not a single
book is printed in so many. The four evangelists are in
six, the other books of the New Testament only in five,
and those of Judith and the Maccabees only in three. The
Prolegomena have been repeatedly printed in a separate
form, and are allowed by the most competent judges to be
a work of great erudition, as well as of great value. The
last edition is that of Wrangham, published at Cambridge
in 1825, in 2 vols. 8vo.
Among those who assisted Walton in his very arduous
undertaking, we must first of all mention the venerable
Archbishop Usher, who not only aided and directed him
by his counsel, but likewise furnished him with a collation
of sixteen manuscripts. His learning was so variegated and
so profound, that it was of no small importance for the edi¬
tor to have access to him on all occasions of doubt and
difficulty. Another able coadjutor was Dr Lightfoot, and
a third was Dr Pocock. The services of Abraham Whee-
lock, Patrick Young, Dudley Loftus, Herbert Thorndike,
Thomas Hyde, Thomas Greaves, and several other indi¬
viduals, are likewise commemorated. Selden, who posses¬
sed a great fund of oriental learning, was a zealous pro¬
moter of the design; and he joined with Usher in signing
a recommendation, which was printed with the prospectus.
He was one of those to be consulted in the progress of the
work, and his valuable library was open to the editor.
One fellow-labourer, Edmund Castell, demands a more
particular notice. He not only rendered important assist¬
ance to Walton, but likewise compiled a most learned and
elaborate work, which is always regarded as a necessary ac¬
companiment of the Polyglott. It was published under the
title of “ Lexicon Heptaglotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum,
Syriacum, Samaritanum, iEthiopicum, Arabicum, conjunc-
tim; et Persicum separatim,” &c. Lond. 1669, 2 tom. fol.
This Lexicon is a work of stupendous labour; and, accord¬
ing to Dr Clarke, it “ is probably the greatest and most
perfect work of the kind ever performed by human indus¬
try and learning.” He was aided by Dr Lightfoot, and by
some other orientalists, one of wfiiom was Beveridge, and
another Golius. In the preparation of this work, and in
labouring at the Polyglott, Dr Castell spent seventeen
years, and generally sixteen or eighteen hours a day. In
the progress of his wwk, he maintained in his own house
seven Englishmen, and seven foreigners, in the capacity of
copyists. He spent the large sum of L. 12,000, and con¬
tracted debt to the amount of L.1800 ; and the recommen¬
dations of the king and the archbishop of Canterbury
only procured him contributions to the amount of L.700.
“ Though I perish,” said this learned and excellent person,
“ it comibrts me not a little to see how holy writ flourishes.”
He was not however left to perish. At the time of his
death, which occurred in 1685, he was professor of Arabic
in the university of Cambridge, prebendary of Canterbury,
rector of Higham Gobion in Bedfordshire, and chaplain in
ordinary to his majesty.
Dr Walton’s next publication bears the title of “ Disser-
tatio, in qua de Linguis Orientalibus, Hebraica, Chaldaica,
732
WAN
WAN
Wan di¬
poor.
^ altofi-on* Samantana, &c. etde Textuum et Versionura quae in Com-
ame» plutensibus, Regiis, Parisiensibus et Anglicanis Polyglottis
Bibliis habentur, Antiquitate, Authoritate et Usu, breviter
disseritur.” Daventriae, 1658, 12mo. This is followed by
- Wower’s “ Syntagma de Graeca et Latina Bibliorum Inter-
pretatione.” His meritorious labours were not duly appre¬
ciated by some of his contemporaries; and he was very unad¬
visedly attacked by Dr Owen, in “ Certain Considerations on
the Prolegomena and Appendix to the late Biblia Polyglot-
tar The writer was himself a man of learning; but the
dangers which he contemplated were imaginary, and he
ventured upon ground which he could not maintain against
such an antagonist. His work was very ably refuted by
Dr Walton, in “ The Considerator considered.” Lond.
1659, Svo.1
At the period of the Restoration, his great and conspi¬
cuous merits could not be disregarded. He was speedily
restored to his former preferments, and was nominated to
the bishopric of Chester. On the 2d of December 1660,
he was consecrated in Westminster Abbey. In March fol¬
lowing he was one of the commissioners at the Savoy con¬
ference ; a conference which so strikingly displayed the
unmitigated bigotry of the triumphant churchmen. The
bishop of Chester however appears to have acted with suffi¬
cient moderation. His new honours were very short and
fleeting. He reached his episcopal seat on the 11th of
September 1661 ; and having soon afterwards returned to
London, he died there on the 29th of the ensuing Novem¬
ber, in the sixty-second year of his age. (x.)
Walton-on-Thames, a town of the county of Surrey,
in the hundred of Elmbridge, eighteen miles from London.
Its name denotes its situation ; and there is a bridge over the
river, near to which are the remains of an ancient bridge, said
to have been erected by Julius Caesar, who is reported to
have passed the stream by it. There are many fine seats
in the parish and vicinity, especially Oatlands, the residence
of the late duke of York. The population amounted in
1821 to 1891, and in 1831 to 2035.
WALURU, a town of Hindustan, province of Mysore.
It consists of 500 houses, and is one of the richest and best
built towns on this frontier, above the Ghauts. It is defended
by a citadel, and has a manufacture of cotton cloth, and an¬
other of blankets. There are also distilleries of country
rum, in which the bark of the mimosa is an ingredient.
A Hindu chieftain, who formerly held this town and the
adjoining territory, is allowed to inhabit the citadel, and
has a pension from the Mysore government. It is situated
a few miles from Bangalore.
WAMAR, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near the
west coast of Aroo. Long, 134. 57. E. Lat. 5. 30. S.
WAND I A, a town of Hindustan, province of Cutch,
district of Wagur, situated on the northern side of the
Runn, immediately opposite the fortress of Mallia. It was
subdued by the British in 1809, when the chief was laid
under tribute. Long. 70. 43. E. Lat. 23. 3. N.
WANDICOTTA, a town and large district of the Ba-
laghaut ceded territories, situated principally between the
fourteenth and fifteenth degrees of north latitude, and now
mostly comprehended in the Cudapah collectorship. The
chief towns are Wandicotta, Tadimery, and Anantapooram,
and the principal river is Pennar. The town was formerly a
very strong fortress, and remarkable for the vicinity of a
diamond mine. It is fifty miles north-north-west from Cud-
dapah. Long. 78. 20. E. Lat. 14. 42. N.
WANDIPOOR, a town and fortress of Hindustan, pro¬
vince of Bootan, in the territories of the rajah. It is a place
of great strength, being situated on the narrow extremity
of a rock, between three rivers, the confluence of whose
streams takes place at its sharpened point,' and form*, •
ofconsiderable magnitude, called the Chantchieu whirl,T? 1 '
into the Brahmapootra. At Wandipoor them\ a!ls 1
bridge of fir, without the least iron in its construction0^1
112 feet span, which is said to have lasted 150 years, wii?^
out exhibiting any symptoms of decay. The climate 1,err
is excessively cold, and subject to high winds. The to
is consecrated, and is the residence of a considerable nun,n
ber of gylongs or priests of the grand lama.
WANDIWASH, a town and fortress of the south of
India, in the province of the Carnatic. In 1759, the Br'.
tish were repulsed in an attack on this place; but in No!
vember following, it was taken by Sir Eyre Coote with
scarcely any loss. It was the scene of a decisive battle in
January 1760, between the French under M. Lally, and
the British under Colonel. Coote, with their respective
allies, in which the former were totally defeated. The for¬
tress was demolished, by order of General Stuart, in 1783.
The town, with the adjoining territory, is now included in
the Arcot collectorship. It is sixty-four miles south-west
of Madras. Long. 79. 40. E. Lat. 12. 20. N.
WANDS WORTH, a town and large parish in the county
of Surrey, in the hundred of Brixton, six miles from Lon¬
don. It stands at the junction of the river Wandle with
the Thames, and contains corn-mills, distilleries, breweries,
and boat-building yards upon a large scale, as well as silk
and printing works. There are two churches, one of recent
erection, some dissenting places of worship, and some cha¬
ritable establishments founded by Henry Smith, who was
buried here in 1627, having left vast sums for benevolent
purposes. There are many fine houses within the parish.
The population amounted in 1821 to 6702, and in 1831 to
6879.
WANKANEER, a town of Hindustan, province of Gu-
jerat, situated on an angle formed by the conflux of the
rivers Muchoo and Patalia. It contains about 5000 houses,
and a very handsome mosque, and belongs to a petty chief,
who is tributary to the Guicowar. Long. 70. 55. E, Lat.
22. 27. N.
WANLOCKHEAD, a village in the parish of Sanquhar
and county of Dumfries, nearly 1500 feet above the level
of the sea. It is famed for the lead mines which have been
worked there from the middle of the sixteenth century to
the present time, with various success, but which are nowon
the decrease. Gold was at one time worked for, and it is
still collected by the miners in small particles. Between
the years 1831 and 1835, two specimens were found which
weighed respectively ninety and sixty grains. The quan¬
tity of lead raised in 1829 was 596 tons, and in 1830, 461
tons, which was sold at L.13 per ton. The number of per¬
sons employed in the works in 1835 amounted to 208. The 1
miners have established a subscription library for their own
use. The population amounted in 1821 to 706, and in
1831 to 675.
WANNY, an extensive district in the island of Ceylon,
situated on the north-east quarter, in the vicinity of Trin-
comalee. It is a flat country, well adapted for the cultiva¬
tion of rice.
WANSTEAD, a parish of the county of Essex, in the
hundred of Becontree, six miles from London. It ^ a
scattered place, containing many fine residences belonging
to the richer class of the inhabitants of the metropolis, n
recently
was chiefly remarkable for the magnificent mansion recent y
destroyed, to the great regret of the public. Thechurci
aesrroyea, to tne great regret ot tne puoiic. nie
is a modern elegant edifice. The population amounte
in 1821 to 1354, and in 1831 to 1403.
WANTAGE, a market-town and parish of the county
of Berks, and in the hundred of the same name, sixty nucs
, * ™s york fbrms the second volume of Todd’s Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Brian Walton. D. D. Lord Bishop of Chester. Lowh
1821, 2 vols. Svo. ’
WAR
WAR
733
frorr ^ondon. This place is celebrated from King Alfred
Jjavit been born in a royal residence which it once contain-
he town stands in the vale of the White Horse ; a name
. -jve to it from the figure of a gigantic horse cut in the side
fi & a halk-hill, to commemorate Alfred’s victory over the
I Dan • It is in a galloping position, and covers nearly
, ^ a‘e 0f ground. Near to the horse are some stones set
(K ere, said to be the burial-place of the Danish leaders
i Who 'll in the battle, which, according to the tradition, was
i-fou" near it. The peasantry in the neighbourhood are
f iccnomed to assemble yearly at midsummer for what is
t calle scouring the horse, when they remove every weed
»and (Stacie that may have obscured the figure, and after-
i: ,rirt: spend the day in various rural sports. It is now a
> plactirf little trade, except that of making flaxen cloth for
jgck "• There is a market on Saturday, and four annual
;> jurs^The population amounted in 1821 to 2560, and in
ill83.;;o 2507.
WAPENTAKE is the same with what is called a hun¬
dred, especially used in the north counties beyond the river
I rent. The word seems to be of Danish original, and to
be so applied for this reason : when first the kingdom, or a
part, was divided into wapentakes, he who was the chief of
the wapentake or hundred, and who is now called a high
constable, as soon as he entered upon his office, appeared in.
a field on a certain day on horseback with a pike in his
hand, and all the chief men of the hundred met him there
with their lances, and touched his pike; which was a sign
that they were firmly united to each other by the touching
their weapons. But Sir Thomas Smith says, that ancient¬
ly musters were made of the armour and weapons of the
several inhabitants of every wapentake ; and from those that
could not find sufficient pledges for their good bearing,
their weapons were taken away and given to others; from
whence he derives the word.
WAPPING. See London.
WAR.
Wapen¬
take
War.
St T vt portion of military science which falls to be treated
und-4 this term, may be conveniently discussed, in a work
like lie present, under the two main and obvious divisions
of Vir by Land, and War by Sea. We shall accordingly
vievthe subject with reference to these divisions.
This is the method of execution, or strategy. The third
is the art of combining the simultaneous application of the
mass of forces on the most important point of a field of
battle. This branch is usually designated by the term
Tactics.1
LRT I.—WARLIKE OPERATIONS BY LAND.
herring generally to the articles Army, Artillery,
Foi ification, and Gunnery, for much that, in a large
vioi belongs to the science of war, we shall under this
diviitm of the present head direct our attention to the
grepprinciples of war ; and shall endeavour to give as full
a vi 7 of their applications and combinations as our limits
wilMow.
J nini has demonstrated that the art of war reposes
upo one governing principle, or what may be termed the
ftnijmental maxim; by the application of which all the
comtnations are good, and without which they are all
. This maxim consists in effecting, with the greatest
of forces, a combined operation upon the decisive
To illustrate the subject, it may be observed, that
the ;cisive point in war, or what has been termed the
prirtive objective point, is obviously that in which resides
the dnciple of strength in an enemy ; and it follows, that
to liable to destroy it in the shortest and most effectual
nuiier, must be the fundamental principle adopted by his
antumist. The mode of effecting this purpose is how-
eye 'he difficult part of the question, because of the infi¬
nite ariety of circumstances to which it is subjected. But
thei eory of war may nevertheless be divided into three
pfii| ive combinations ; because the practice is composed
°t • many branches, each of which depends upon parti-
culr principles: therefore, a great operation, to be perfect,
onp to include the three primitive combinations; be-
ca'i then they produce the complete application of the
fun1 mental maxim. The first of these relates to what
B cpimonly termed forming the plan of a campaign, and
con ts, either in an offensive or defensive view, in the art
oft bracing the lines of operations in the most advantage¬
ous tanner. The second is the art of moving the mass of
yr(l!) in the most rapid manner possible, upon the objec-
bifoint of the primitive or accidental line of operations.
i.—plan of campaign.
A plan of campaign depends upon six essential consider¬
ations : 1st, the political situation of both parties; 2d,
the situation of the moment; 3d, the relative force and
military means ; 4th, the location and distribution of the
armies ; 5th, the natural line of operations; 6th, the most
advantageous line of operations. In forming the plan, it is
not necessary to have regard solely to the exact balance of
the relative means of war between the parties, but to view
them only as they are important. Territorial and manoeu¬
vring lines of operations are the principal object; and
though they are subject to many accessory considerations,
the rules of the art must nevertheless form their basis.
Originality and great boldness are not incompatible with
their application; such, for instance, as the plan which
Napoleon, in 1800, executed in Italy. No enterprise could
be more daring, none more rich in great and decisive com¬
binations, or more prudent and cautious; since, while it
menaced the enemy with ruin, no greater misfortune could
occur, in case of check, than the sacrifice of the extreme
rear-guard.
Before we proceed, it may be useful to fix, by defini¬
tions, several terms, upon the comprehension of which the
most important military reasoning depends.
By a base or basis of operations is meant a frontier, the
course of a river, a coast, a range of mountains or fortresses,
or any topographical or political extent of country, upon
the imaginary line of which the corps of an army assemble,
offensively, to take their departure from thence into the
enemy’s country, and towards which, in case of failure, it
is intended to retreat; defensively, to counteract all the
measures which an invading force may pursue.
Lines of operations are divided into territorial and ma¬
noeuvring lines. By territorial lines are understood those
which nature or art has traced for the defence or in¬
vasion of states. Frontiers covered by fortresses, or de¬
fended by nature with chains of mountains, great rivers, or
li'r the sake of perspicuity, when this term is applied to the instruction of troops, it should be distinguished by the qualifying adjective
lln “ary Tatties. Thus also the phrases, science, and art of war, are used as synonymous, while we should understand by the science o.
ie knowledge of the theory of all its elements; and by the art of war, the skilful application of that knowledge.
of
734
W A R.
Warlike other obstacles, form their constituents. Man-ceuvring
Operations ijnes are the dispositions of the general to traverse them
. -v ^an '. offensively, or cover them defensively. Both these lines of
operations are intimately connected. In offensive war, the
line is an imaginary perpendicular upon the base, along
which an army operates against the enemy; in defensive
war, it is often the same, but still oftener parallel to the
territorial line. A line of communication is either the
same as that of operations, or any other by which the army
receives its supplies, and communicates with the base.
Some examples will render the definitions more intelligi¬
ble. France and Austria have three great lines of operations
against each other ; by Italy on one side, Switzerland and
Tyrol in the centre, and by Germany on the other. In
these the Po, the Maine, the Danube, or a principal road,
constitutes the materiel of lines; which are amenable to
only a few rules prescribed by their nature. Between
Prussia and Austria again are three lines, through Moravia,
Lusatia, and Saxony. Lines of operations are divisible
into collateral or separate points. Frederick entered Bo¬
hemia by his central line, upon four points. The French
invaded Germany in 1796 and 1799 upon two subdivided
lines. Napoleon always operated upon one principal line,
as did the duke of Wellington in Spain.
Thus far no great variety of combinations seems to per¬
plex the view; but in the selection of the particular line,
the problem becomes difficult, because a great multiplicity
of circumstances, many of them not purely military, inter¬
pose. The political situation of the belligerents ; their re¬
lative resources; character and situation of the fortresses ;
accidental strength of their forces ; distance by sea ; course
of a considerable river ; direction of a chain of mountains ;
nature of the country; political state of either party;
jealousy of a neutral, or apprehensions of an ally; all in
their turn claim consideration. In general, however, the
initial application of military masses should be, when the
belligerents are neighbours, upon some part of the frontier
which projects into the hostile state, as Bohemia with re¬
gard to Prussia, or Silesia with regard to Austria. But it
is a maxim that lines of operations have their key as well
as fields of battle : in the former, the great strategical
points are decisive; as, in the latter, the points which
command the weak part of a position constitute the key.
Where there exists a vast superiority of force on one
side, the key, or great strategical point, may be sought at
a considerable depth in the line of operations ; but where
the masses are nearly balanced, it is necessarily reduced to
a relative proportion with the breadth of the base. Thus,
for instance, the destruction of a French army on the
frontier of the Netherlands, would not immediately pro¬
duce the consequence of the victors marching to the capi¬
tal, unless they had sufficient superiority to mask the
principal fortresses which cover her line of defence in that
quarter, or some other accidental circumstance rendered
such a measure practicable. As further proofs of the re¬
lative proportion between the depth and base of a line
of operations, that of Napoleon in Russia failed on both its
pivots, before the summit was defeated ; and those in Spain,
although they were supported by intermediate fortresses,
immediately contracted, when the battle of Salamanca
produced consequences which endangered the western
communication with the base.
Although it is absolutely necessary to move with a mass
of force near the enemy, it is more advantageous to march
in separate corps while still at a distance from him, if he
has not a concentrated mass ready to act, and there be se¬
veral roads leading concentrically towards the point intend¬
ed to be occupied. It is evident that five corps, of twenty
thousand men each, will move forward more rapidly to¬
wards any point, than a hundred thousand men, marching
on the same road, who can only advance with the tardiness
inherent in large bodies, and besides are encumbered va
the immense train of their subsistence. Celerity ofmov C
ment, multiplying the force of an army by enabling th 1
mass to be carried alternately upon every point of the
“4
line, is an advantage of invaluable consequence; but th'
is not the only reason for recommending this metho?
There are two others, viz. the increased facility of subsist
ence, and the uncertainty into which it throws the enemy"
An army of 20,000 men can find subsistence, in central
Europe, on every part of their march, by merely causing the
country within some leagues to contribute to their its-
and if they convey with them biscuit for eight or ten day’’
that is, during the first period, while corps are in position^
or manoeuvring in a contracted area with other columns!
they will be enabled to subsist till the magazines are form¬
ed. Thus military operations are in a great degree eman-
cipated from the necessity of pre-arranged magazines, and
the regular encumbrance of field-ovens.
The army which commences offensive operations takes
the lead in all the movements, and those of the enemy are
necessarily subordinate to them. If therefore it occupies
with a corps each of the great avenues leading to the
enemy, he will be in a state of uncertainty along his whole
line of defence or operations, and remain in suspense as to
the point upon which he ought to collect his masses to op-
pose them. Upon these facts, the following series of
maxims is founded
1. When an army undertakes an invasion, or acts offen¬
sively, it takes the lead (or, as the French term it, finitia¬
tive) in the movements.
2. This advantage precludes the necessity of marching
in mass, until near the point where the enemy is to be
found and attacked. Until then it is preferable to move in
several strong corps, in proportion to the collective strength
of the army, and to direct them upon the communications
which lead concentrically to the point.
3. The general direction can only be upon the centre,
one of the extremities, or the rear, of the hostile line. An
extremity will usually be found most eligible, because
from that point the rear is easily attained; the centre
only in the case where the enemy’s line is scattered, and
his corps separated by great intervals.
4. In this case the greater number of the corps should
advance upon one of the isolated parts, and endeavour to
surround it, while the remainder should occupy a central
point to keep the rest of the hostile army in check.
5. When the principal mass of these corps is directed
into the rear of an enemy, by passing one of the extremi¬
ties of his line, one corps should remain upon that extre¬
mity, in order to keep open the communication with the
line of operations, while the opponent is cut off from his.
This corps serves likewise to attack him in flank, and to
prevent him from withdrawing out of a faulty position by
a secret movement.
6. These operations are most advantageous when the
enemy is at a great distance from his own base. The
principle may however be applied to positions less distant
(two or three marches), provided the different corps have
no greater distance to traverse to the point of reunion,
than that which separates them from those of their own
advanced posts which face the enemy. But this rule shou
not be understood as applying to isolated divisions upon
an extended front of ninety or a hundred miles, unable to
unite on a day of action, and whose movements cannot e
simultaneous upon the decisive point. The difference is
easily perceived between such operations and those o se
veral corps concentrated in a position the depth of w 11
equals the extent of front, and whose simultaneous co-op^
ration is certain before the enemy can make an attemp
upon their line. .
7. By means of this system, the army, occupy me *
.
W A R.
735
gre: ;r space, marches more rapidly, and is enabled to sub-
rist [i the roads. Cattle and biscuit alone will be requir¬
ed t follow each corps, in sufficient quantity to subsist it
•he in the vicinity of the enemy, where the other corps
haviq likewise arrived, they are obliged to live within a
gma ’r periphery. The stock of provision will be suffi-
eienuf equal to the time required for collecting another.
8, Magazines are then formed in the rear as the army
advf ces. They are collected by means of regular requisi¬
tion made on the neighbouring provinces, and enforced by
a fe troops; contracts are entered into with the local ad-
mini rations, and precautionary convoys follow from the
fronts. Cattle, rice, and biscuit are the most useful
prov ions; the easiest to be transported.
Ii this view of the theory of initial operations, such as
jon;u and other authorities consider them, no great re-
garus paid to the waste of human life, by the frequent
war: or irregularity of the issue of provisions, or notice
tak(. of the indiscipline which naturally arises when fa-
mir:drives the soldier to marauding. A relentless con-
scri ion system may indeed supply recruits; but they are
a vly inadequate instrument when compared to formed
sokWs-
I emains to examine the art of forming a plan of cam-
paifi or operations in reference to insular expeditions. In
thebplication of masses on the base line of operations by
Beaur by an insular force, much difficulty occurs, espe¬
cial: if that base is to be obtained by force on a hostile
coai; because the line of communication from the port
wlujce an expeditionary army proceeds to the point where
debikation takes place is lengthened, uncertain, and
brai n. The point of debarkation becomes a secondary
bas and unless a friendly fortress, or a naturally advan-
tagws point, left unguarded by the enemy, can be occu-
pieithe difficulties are nearly insurmountable. It is again
diffilt to despatch a large force in one fleet; it is danger¬
ous)) keep it together, and dangerous to allow great inter-
vali the elements affect the time, connection, and order
off : convoy; an independent and separate service (the
influences the primary organization and execution;
kation absorbs much invaluable time, particularly that
artillery, horses, and stores. ' From these causes, a
ce has arisen of fitting out expeditions not sufficiently
lable, with a view of ascertaining the practicability of
iject, but which by that very system is often ren¬
der impossible ; for the first landing having been effected,
theinemy’s attention is no longer divided; he assembles
bis leans of defence while the second convoy is expected,
ancihe delay becomes decisive of the event. Yet if, in
aminilitary operation, the effect of masses simultaneously
emfiyed be of consequence, it is in those which com-
meje on the sea-shore; for the troops have not only to
dell'k and act oflensively, but also to construct their
meiis of security and retreat in case of failure. If we
cx; ine the primary operations of this class, from the wars
ot ing William to the present period, we shall find that,
wil the exception of such as were favoured by chance or
patiular circumstances, the success or failure was de-
pei Lnt upon one or more of the following maxims, espe-
c>a as applied to continental expeditions.
When an army is directed to make a descent upon an
erHiy’s coast, with the object of penetrating into the coun¬
ty i point of debarkation should be selected, where the
ei% possesses no local means to arrest the progress,
su( as a fortified city or a defensible peninsula. If how-
ev circumstances compel the descent near or upon such
a Ipt, immediate measures should be taken to mask or
c q ire it, and secure the success of ulterior operations.
If the expedition is intended to be confined solely to
fb* :oast, the point of debarkation should possess the indis-
Pe able qualifications of facility of communication with the
fleet, security of retreat and reimbarkation. A point pos- Warlike
sessed of these advantages is a fit spot for a temporary base Operations
of operations. by Land.
3. An expedition intended to operate ulteriorly should ^ v
be ab initio superior to the probable immediate force of the
enemy, so that the success of the landing and march into
the country be not problematical.
^ 4. No combinations of invasion should be made depend¬
ing on the co-operation of corps expected from distant or
opposite quarters. It is important to have them collected,
as much as possible, on or near one point of embarkation,
to proceed from thence in mass to execute the enterprise.
5. In the plan of an expedition, no combinations should
be admitted which include two or more lines of operations
from separate bases. Armies transported by sea are, from
that circumstance, not numerous; division renders them
still weaker, and if on one point a misfortune occurs, the
other division must reimbark.
6. In colonial and insular expeditions, it is only neces¬
sary to combine the means in proportion to the strength of
the object, and with attention to the season and climate.
But on all occasions wdiere the reduction of a fortress is in
contemplation, the engineer department should possess an
adequate materiel as well as the artillery.
All these maxims are in unison with the leading prin¬
ciples of the art of war, or constitute mere modifications to
adapt them to maritime affairs. As examples of the im¬
portance of the first rule, may be quoted the landing of the
emigrants at Quiberon: being confined to a narrow penin¬
sula, they were immediately blocked in by the enemy. The
Helder expedition, though victorious in two battles, could
not penetrate beyond the neck of the Haerlemmer Meer,
which makes a peninsula of North Holland. At Aboukir,
again, a peninsula, similar results would have ensued, but
for the circumstance that a communication could be open¬
ed on the side of Rosetta, which rendered the position cen¬
tral against the two exterior lines of the enemy, namely,
those of Cairo and Alexandria, and enabled the British to
carry their mass alternately upon each, and ultimately, with
inferior numbers, to reconquer that province.
In the second maxim, the causes are pointed out which
allowed the expedition to Cherbourg, in 1758, to reimbark
in safety, although no regular precautions insured the mea¬
sure ; and those which produced the disaster at St Cast,
under General Bligh, notwithstanding every precaution.
The Ostend expedition had the same defects, though per¬
haps on this occasion the object was considered of sufficient
magnitude to allow a disregard of the consequences.
Inattention to the third had a preponderating influence
at the Helder. The first division, having landed, was ob¬
liged to wait behind the intrenchments of the Zyp for the
arrival of the main body. Meantime the enemy, now cer¬
tain of the point in danger, collected his means, and ar¬
ranged the plan of defence. After three battles he was
only thrown back upon stronger ground, in a position where
he could neither be turned nor attacked in front with pro¬
bability of success. In Egypt, the expeditionary force was
likewise inferior to the enemy, and if the hostile commander
had sacrificed the establishments and Institut at Cairo, to
collect his forces on one line, he could have resisted the
invasion with success. The Walcheren expedition, consi¬
dered in its primary combinations and preparatory mea- #
sures, was a model; as also that of the French for the in¬
vasion of Egypt. Both were wrong in the choice of the
point of debarkation ; but the results were different, and,
from an unconquerable propensity in man, by the results
they have been judged.
The expedition to the Helder again furnishes the proofs
of the fourth maxim. Had the two British and the Rus¬
sian divisions arrived in time to act in mass, within a few
hours after the first landing, the enemy could not have ma-
\36
W A R.
Warlike tured an effectual plan of defence. But the combinations
if6LandS rcciu're<^ easterly winds for the Russians and westerly for
v yan the British reinforcements, and both were nevertheless to
arrive if possible simultaneously on the same spot. The
Egyptian expedition was to be sustained by a corps from
India and the Cape, by the Red Sea, which could scarcely
by any chance arrive in proper time. At Copenhagen
indeed the two divisions from Rugen (an island in the
Baltic, where a British corps lay in transports) and from
England did arrive without accident; but the successive
divisions sent to the river Plate, to be successively defeat¬
ed, are a further corroboration.
The fifth maxim is sufficiently obvious. Sir John Moore’s
division was off the coast of Portugal when the battle of Vi-
miera was fought; had it sailed conjointly with Sir Arthur
Wellesley’s, the result of that battle would have brought
the British into Lisbon without a convention. If the divi¬
sion engaged had been defeated, a corps on board of ships
could not have rendered the least assistance. In the next
campaign, Sir John operated on several lines from Portu¬
gal, and Sir David Baird from a different base (Corunna),
with the view of uniting at the distance of more than 200
miles on a point in possession of a formidable enemy. Such
combinations produced their natural consequences; the hard
pressed retreat of the army to Corunna ensued; and, as if
another proof were wanting, no sooner were the troops com¬
pelled to fight a battle, than another division appeared to wit¬
ness the conflict from the ships, and return to England.
To the deficiency of a proper establishment of sappers
and miners, with the materiel required to enable the en¬
gineers to act with effect, many delays and failures may be
ascribed. It has necessitated the severe system of bom¬
bardment, and repeatedly rendered the British arms odious,
without thereby insuring success. Carcasses and rockets
ruin the defenceless inhabitants, but have no decisive in¬
fluence upon the defence of a regular fortress.
If we examine the wars in America by the rules of art,
we find Lord Amherst operating by the line of Lake
Champlain upon Montreal, and Wolfe by the St Lawrence
upon Quebec, both successful, and yet two years without
connection. Next appear isolated expeditions traversing a
vast continent, deficient in numbers, and therefore always
inferior to the local militias on the spot, terminating their
career in defeat or capture; or else dispersed along the
coast, occupied in landings for trivial purposes, and when
reimbarked, leaving the enemy to boast of successful re¬
sistance. In the Canadas we behold the key of defensive
operations left without a fortress. True indeed it is that a
fortress does not defend a state, that an army must be looked
to for that purpose; but an army is a frail instrument, and
if armies defend nations, fortresses defend armies.
Reflecting on the miscarriages produced by dispersing
the forces, it appears that in British military combinations
it should be a maxim, never to act offensively on more than
one point at a time. This rule, a fundamental principle of
the Roman policy in her best days, should have been acted
upon in the wars of the Spanish succession, when that ques¬
tion ought to have been decided in the Netherlands. The
consequence of pursuing a multiplicity of offensive combi¬
nations at the same time, was never better exemplified than
in the failures of the simultaneous expeditions to Buenos
. Ayres, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Rugen. It follows
that small expeditions, hovering along hostile coasts, pro¬
duce no beneficial effects. The local garrisons and militia
of the country are generally superior ; and a momentary de¬
barkation produces in the mind of the enemy, not only na¬
tional union, but also the ideas of victory. The debarka¬
tions at St Malo and St Cast, that under Sir James Pulteney
at Corunna, most of those in America, were fra.mu .,
risks nnf. rnnnrprhakinf’oft hxr ant.  ... , .o^ With
risks not counterbalanced by any prospects of real aril J' n,
Those on the east of Spain were of a different char!^' !
they had a political object of importance, and server]1'
diversion which fixed a whole hostile armv in that „ aSa
. 11 is,a general rule, liable indeed to occasion!] excel'
tions, that the operations of the land forces should be P"
fined to fixed important points, where the object is dom"
to land, but to conquer and maintain themselves Th'
is no instance in the history of the nation where a Brin
mass of forces met with disaster, when that mass acted b
itself, or with sufficient preponderance amono- its all' ’
From the nature of the sea-line of operations, expedition!'
hke other military enterprises, must be liable to miscarriage
but a right use of the forces will at least increase the chances
of success. In the selection of the points, much must be
left to the circumstances of the case, but their importance
should always be in relation to the risk, expense, and time
As these observations apply to great operations only it
is unnecessary to advert to flying corps, or such expeditions
as are merely intended to alarm a coast or distract an ene¬
my ; because these, in most cases of problematical utility
should be very sparingly resorted to, and, at all events,’
never consist of more than a few frigates, with troops on
board. The geographical extent and insular position of
Great Britain afford equal facilities for defence and attack.
Defence, however, when passive, is allowed to be the very
worst that can be adopted in the military policy of a state ;
and when the national superiority at sea is considered, it
becomes evident that British operations ought to be offen¬
sive. With a great number of garrisons stationed in every
quarter of the world, the land forces form nowhere a con¬
siderable body; those in Britain being scarcely adequate
to the local duties, and the relief of such as return from
abroad. At the commencement of a war, although the mi¬
litia is called out, the reinforcements required to place dis¬
tant garrisons on the war-establishment absorb nearly all
the infantry, and leave not only no disposable force, but
even no sufficient elements to create new corps in an effi¬
cient manner. Hence three or four years of war pass in
preparations on one side, and in conquests on the other.
Millions are spent, and vast sacrifices made, to arrest the
progress of the enemy ; humiliating offers are made, wdiich
the opponent, blinded by success, has the imprudence to re¬
ject. Then, forced to still greater expense, other cam¬
paigns follow, to recover what was lost in the first. By a
rational system of preparation, wars might be terminated
in a short period, or altogether prevented; and yet long
wars, the real cause of the prodigious national debt, are
occasioned by an ill-judged prejudice against a standing
army, backed by still weaker ideas of economy. Since re¬
gular armies have been maintained in Europe, the obvious
utility of having at least some disposable force to give
weight to negotiation, requires scarcely an argument. In¬
stead of three battalions, the only applicable troops in
1792-3, which were sent to Willemstadt, had Great Bri¬
tain possessed 25,000 disposable troops, the National Con¬
vention would have paused before it declared war, or this
force would immediately have influenced the reconquest of
Belgium. Even a year later, such a national force could
have averted the consequences of the action of Hooghlede,
the retreat from Dunkirk, and the final evacuation of the
Netherlands. In the late war, the inability of Great Bri¬
tain to act from the first with vigour, compelled her to fight
twenty-one years, with incalculable waste of blood and trea¬
sure, merely to restore the balance of power; and the nation,
which at first had only three battalions for service, ended, m
1814<, with a mass of more than a million of men in arms.
1 According to authentic documents, this mass amounted to 1,116,813, including navy, East India, and local militia force, but exclusively of
yeomanry and volunteers.
Hen
IB(Ie liven circumstances, in time of peace, the army must
Tvc, generally reduced, care should be taken not to de¬
troy ie elements of regeneration. On a war breaking out,
ttth'troops in the kingdom should be brigaded, with their
-enc'»s, staff, field train of artillery, commissariat, and me-
ical dicers, and concentrated as much as possible, for the
wrpip °f vapidity of execution, and creating habits of
|utv large bodies, which the staff and commissariat ge¬
neral. begin to learn when before the enemy, at a period
rhen H parties should be fully acquainted with them, and
utp fessional knowledge, upon combinations entirely poli-
ical. The Austrian government was particularly unfor-
iatiin this system. Plans, calculated with the preci-
ion t| summer manoeuvres, where every march, battalion,
WAR.
In military point of view, the economical system has upon one given extent. They are then double lines
roductive of immense losses to the nation ; but if, great front.
73f
upon a Warlike
Operations
6. Deep or lengthened lines are those which, commencing by Land,
at their base, pass over a great extent of country before ^
they can attain their object.
7. Concentric lines of operations are either several or a
single line subdivided, moving from distant points in order
to arrive at the same object, in front or in rear of their base.
8. Eccentric lines designate a single mass starting from
one point, and dividing itself in order to form several di¬
verging lines upon isolated objects.
_ Secondary lines are those in the great combinations
vhcrjnistakes may be fatal. 1 he orders of government of two armies, which designate their relative connection
re t is executed as soon as issued, and that species of while operating upon the development of the same fron-
lorltson is obviated which all who served in the beginning tier.
if th late war must have witnessed. 10. Accidental lines are produced in the original plan of
tfi the beginning of the present century, plans of ope- campaign, when unexpected events necessitate a new di-
atioi were usually arranged in the cabinet, by superan- rection for the operations. They are of the highest im-
mata officers, on obsolete principles, or by ministers with- portance, and rarely adopted but by generals of the first
abilities.
Formerly lines of operations were considered only as
they effected the materiel of armies : it was even advanced,
that armies encamped near their magazines had no lines
nd dachment were prescribed, without adverting to the of operations ; but an example will prove the fallacy of
neasms of the enemy, tied the hands of the generals, who this opinion. Supposing two French armies encamped,
reretever successful against a formidable enemy but when one on the Upper Rhine in front of Brisac, and the other
hey ;sobeyed their instructions, as Eugene did at Zenta. on the Lower Rhine in front of Dusseldorf, with both their
jut uen Frederick traced his own plans of campaign, al- magazines in the safest place, that is, behind the river.
T hese armies must have either an offensive or defensive
object, and therefore have territorial as wTell as manoeuvring
lines of operations. 1st, The territorial defensive line will
extend from the point of their position to the point which
they are to cover; therefore they vrould both be cut off
if the enemy occupied that point before them. If Melas,
with his army, could have subsisted near Alessandria in
Lombardy after the battle of Marengo, he was no less cut
off from his line of operations as long as his victorious op¬
ponents occupied the line of the Po. ^d, Their manoeuvring
lines would be a double against a simple one, if the enemy
concentrated his masses to crush one of the armies: it
would be a double external line against a double internal,
situann, though under circumstances more unpromising if the enemy formed also two corps, but so directed that
thanijhose which ultimately hurled Napoleon from his they could be united most readily.
The article in the Edinburgh Review on the work of
Jomini makes the following able remarks on lines of ope¬
rations. “ Among all these lines, the simple and interior
are the best, particularly when combined, as being most
congenial to the great principle of carrying a mass of troops
upon the decisive point. A few remarks will make the
hlufi even he was not fully sensible of the laws which
JiBiihregulate territorial and manoeuvring lines of opera-
ionsstill circumstances and superior tact soon led him
nto te true system. Jomini blames, with sagacity, some
if hi Initial operations ; but he does not sufficiently consi-
ler hi circumstances and his era. He compares the ope-
atio ! of Napoleon, with all the resources, fortresses, po-
mlatin, and revolutionary excitation of France, together
vith e adventurous gambling of his hero, to the conduct
)f a vereign who had his native throne to defend, without
mi ary frontier, with a scanty population, a barren soil,
ind pecuniary means but such as arose from his econo¬
my ;:nd yet he rose superior to all the difficulties of his
ihroi ,
II MANCEUVRING LINES OF OPERATIONS.
T1 connection between manoeuvring lines and those
dlicinature has marked out, and the views of the general
•cl if, form separate classes, each named after the nature truth of this apparent. If an army advances from its base
  . • rv Urw^ if io r»lnoi» fnof f no rronofol
if till connection
h Simple lines of operations are those when an army
uperljs in a single direction from a frontier, without form-
ng (f ached corps.
2. )ouble and multiplied lines, when an army acts upon
ffie ij ne frontier with two or three isolated corps, towards
one several objects.
v. nterior lines of operations are formed to oppose se
of operations upon one line, it is clear that the general
commanding will have but two important dangers to pro¬
vide against; first, that of his troops being attacked un¬
awares ; and, secondly, that of being turned and cut off from
his communications with his base. The most effectual
method of guarding against either is, to attack the opposing
enemy first, or, as the author calls it, prendre I'initiative ;
^ ^   ^  and if, in so doing, the assailants can place themselves in
ver;ii iostile lines, and are so directed as to possess internal such a position that a victory will give them the means of
C(§iij<:tion, and enabled to move and approach each other, utterly destroying their adversary, w hile a defeat w ill not
"kill t allowing the enemy to oppose a superior mass to be of material detriment to themselves, the manoeuvie
then vii must be considered as a perfect one. Now, a single and
} fertemr lines, on the contrary, possess the opposite interior line has a manifest advantage over every other in
q*4s. They are such as an army may form at the same aiding such an operation An army which moves upon
fiNupon the two extremities of one or several hostile double, exterior, or multiplied lines, must be weakened m
m - proportion to the number of its divisions. 1 he general has
5- nnes upon an extended front are those which are ar- many combinations to attend, and many dangeis to guard
rf g I upon a Creat contiguous development by isolated against; his columns being on many roads, and unconnect-
dlvi' ns, but still belonging to the same mass of forces, ed, must also be dependent upon many persons and many
a°‘l 'crating upon the same object. Under this head are orders. Obstacles will be multiplied at every step ; and
COm chended, likewise, lines formed by two separate corps errors cannot be known or corrected without much loss of
“■VI.XXI. dA
738
WAR.
■Warlike time. The success of his plan must depend upon the ex¬
onerations aptness and concert between the different divisions; a mis-
v y J11' ', fortune attending any one vitiates or destroys the whole
project, and yet each column, separately, will be too weak
to strike an important blow if a favourable opportunity
should occur. They will suffer severely from mishaps, and
they cannot well take advantage of misfortunes.
“ An army that manoeuvres upon simple and interior
lines gets rid of all these incumbrances; the troops will be
together and well in hand, with the general upon the spot,
ready to rectify errors, and to superintend every movement;
and upon whichever road he marches against an enemy act¬
ing upon double or multiplied lines, his combinations must
be more simple, and his numbers must be superior; he will
have the power of overwhelming whatever division of his
adversary he may meet with, and, by thus disorganizing
his opponent’s plan of campaign, enable himself to cut off
their communications, or to attack their columns in detail.
We will suppose however that, finding their line pene¬
trated, they might, by great exertions, unite the remainder
of their scattered corps by a retrograde movement; but
they will hardly be able to cover their communications,
which must be nearly as numerous as their divisions, and
the attacking army will give battle in the execution of a
preconcerted plan, while they will be in the confusion of a
baffled one. If the great principle, however, of carrying
a mass upon the decisive point has governed the general
who advances upon the simple line, he will, by a victory,
deprive his foe of retreat, and utterly destroy him; while,
if he fail, his communications are still open, and, from want
of a plan, the pursuit cannot be very vigorous.”
These remarks upon manoeuvring lines are well illus¬
trated in modern military history. In the seven years’
war, Frederick had the choice of attacking Austria, on his
left by Silesia into Moravia, in the centre through Lusatia,
and on the right by Saxony, both into Bohemia. His na¬
tural territorial line was undoubtedly the first of these
three; because, while his own flank was covered by the
fortresses of Silesia, he could penetrate at once into the
vitals of the Austrian dominions, and masking Olmutz,
threaten Vienna. He did not feel the advantage of this
line until the third campaign, when he was everywhere
outnumbered by the enemy ; and yet even then he might
have had signal success, if his besieging train, &c. had been
in more efficient order and better applied. From this pe¬
riod he became sensible of the superior utility of central
lines, and from 1758 he operated successively with his
principal mass in Saxony, Silesia, and Brandenburg; the
same troops were victorious in all these quarters, by alter¬
nately reinforcing each corps so as to attain a superiority.
Having missed the opportunity in 1757, of deciding the war
by a successful invasion, he at last gloriously saved his
kingdom by this new system. All these successes belong to
the three first classes of simple, double, and interior lines of
operations. Those of his adversaries, on the contrary,
were always of the fourth and fifth exterior lines, and lines
upon an extended front. For, on looking at the map of
the seat of war, it will be readily observed that he ope¬
rated within the triangle formed by Dresden, Breslau, and
Custrin, while the enemy manoeuvred outside of that figure.
After the battle of Plochkirch, indeed, when this area was
broken in, he made a master-stroke, by uniting his three
armies in Saxony, and thus wresting from Daun the advan¬
tages of his victory. The operations of that crisis belong
to the tenth or accidental lines, in which Frederick has
never been surpassed. To this class belong, likewise, his
invasion of Bohemia, after raising the siege of Olmutz ; his
march into Silesia, and manoeuvres before and after the
battle of Liegnitz, in 1760; and his central position at.Bunt-
zelwitz, by which he kept the enemy divided, in 1762.
I he French operations in Hanover were not more suc¬
cessful. In 1758 they formed two lines of oneratin™ ■ ,
Hessia and on the Wezer, upon a development of V" W
miles. Prince Ferdinand, manoeuvring upon their extreme f
left, had only isolated^corps to contend with, and drove them
across the Rhine.
Marshal Contades, after the battle of
Crevelt, felt the advantage of the line of the Rhine all th
fortresses being in his hands ; but while he acted with *
vivacity on his right, Prince Ferdinand took a central 7
rection, and broke the concert between the two hostil'
armies, who, at the end of the campaign, lost nearly ill
they had gained, having spent their time in disjointed
marches, and in writing projets and counter props. After
the battle of Bergen in 1759, the French, grown wiser
united all their forces in Hessia; they made
conquests,
which even the defeat of Minden did not wholly repair
In 1760, Marshal Broglie, persisting in operations in mass
made a respectable campaign ; but in the next two, armies
were again formed at a great distance ; Prince Ferdinand
again was beforehand with them everywhere. At length
they approached each other to attack, but, for want of con¬
cert, were defeated at Fellinghausen.
In comparing the constant difference of the lines of ope¬
rations which the Austrians, Russians, and French adopt¬
ed, with those of the Prussians and Hanoverians, their op.
posite results are at once discovered.
During the wars of the revolution, the duke of Bruns¬
wick’s march into Champagne was a simple line, but wanted
corps to cover the flanks, and activity in the execution.
The recovery of Belgium by the Austrians was also effect¬
ed by operating in mass; but on the French frontier they
wasted their time in sieges, and acted upon exterior and
eccentric lines. The French operated in a similar man¬
ner, but having a line of fortresses and numerical supe¬
riority, they were at last successful, and expelled the allies
from Belgium. This worthless system was then cried up,
and denominated Carnot’s. Accordingly, in 1795, the
French persisted in acting on double lines. They ma¬
noeuvred on the Rhine, by Dusseldorf and Manheim. Cler-
fait operating centrally, carried his masses alternately from
right to left, gained the decisive victories of Manheim and
the lines of Mayence, and threw the French army of the
Sambre and Meuse back across the Rhine to cover the Mo
zelle, and Pichegru under the cannon of Landau.
In 1796, the French, in their lines of operations on the
Rhine, still copying Frederick’s faulty system of 1757, and
their own of 1794 and 1795, were not more successful
than in the preceding campaign. The armies of the Rhine,
and of the Sambre and Meuse, moved from the extremities
of their base to take a concentric direction on the Da¬
nube. As in 1794, they formed two exterior lines. The
Archduke Charles opposed his own in an interior direction,
to be more readily concentrated, and seized the critical
moment, while the corps of Count Latour was covered by
the Danube, to steal some marches unperceived by Moreau,
and to throw his mass upon Jourdan, who was routed at
Wurtzburg. This decided the fortune of the campaign i»
Germany, and compelled Moreau’s deep lines to retreat
into France.
Meanwhile Napoleon commenced his extraordinary fa¬
re er in Italy, as Frederick had recommended half a cen¬
tury before. His system was to divide the enemy, an
force the Austrians and Piedmontese to take two extenor
lines. They fell into the snare, and he defeated then' sc
parately at Mondovi and Lodi. An army had assemb e in
the Tyrol to relieve Mantua ; it was led on in two jine5,s^
parated by a lake (Guarda). The French general, racing
the siege, hurried with the mass of his forces to meet ^
first column at Brescia, and routed it; the second co
arrived soon after on the same ground, and was i e
driven back upon the Tyrol. Wurmser determine!
cover the two lines of Roveredo and Vicenza; N3PC '
'in
fter efeating the first and driving it into the Lawis, which that victory would not have relieved him, but for the Warlike
han; d his direction to the right, passed through the pusillanimous feelings which signed the peace. Operation*
org(;of the Brenta, upon the left line or the enemy, and Similar manoeuvres towards the sources of the ^aale hy Land.
jrCL the wrecks of this fine army into Mantua, where it produced the disasters of the Prussians at Jena and Auer-' *  
Him ely capitulated. . _ stadt- But in this war Napoleon became still more en-
In ;i99, the system of Carnot again prevailed. F ranee, amoured of deep and baseless lines of operations the bane-
wicepunished for operating with two exterior lines, now ful effect of which he was not destined to feel till the
doptil three. An army on the left observed the Lower campaign of 1812, when he invaded Russia without a true
thin s one in the centre was on the Danube, and a third base nearer than the Rhine. His secondary base on the
ccuji'd Switzerland. These armies could not unite till Vistula bore no relation to the depth of his line of opera-
ley ached the valley of the Inn, eighty leagues from tions, intersected by the Niemen, the Dwina, and a solitary
ieir pise. The archduke uniting his forces in the centre, waste of endless woods and heaths. Although he operated
ainenthe victory of Stockach, and the Helvetian army on a simple line, the immense distance from his base left
as d istrained to evacuate the Grisons and Eastern Swit- him without communications. The extremes or pivots of
erlar.. In their turn the allies committed the same fault, the secondary base were already turned and broken, when
ustci of pursuing the conquest of this central bulwark of Kutusoff moved to the rear of his flank upon Kaluga, to-
iuBop, they formed a double line in Switzerland and on wards the Berezina, and destroyed the greatest army re-
ie liver Rhine. The army in the former country was corded in modern history. The next year, though his
linei at Zurich, while that in the latter was trifling lines were shorter, circumstances were totally altered ; he
boutdanheim. In Italy a double line was formed by the operated with ability in mass; but being greatly inferior in
'rein ; one towards Naples, where 32,000 men were era- horse, and the allies manoeuvring likewise in mass, the first
loyelito no purpose; while the other, on the Adige, was battles were indecisive, till his adversaries, operating upon
^,,,k anH filiffpred severe loss. At length, when the double exterior lines,—on this occasion applicable from
~ ^ "L “ their great superiority in numbers and in cavalry,—moved
WAR.
i 6
9
)0 wik, and suffered severe loss
rmyif Naples returned towards the north, it committed
He frit of taking a direction from that of Moreau. Su-
■anritook an able central position, marched against the
rst c these armies, and defeated it within a few leagues
f thi ither.
In JOO the scene changed again. Napoleon, having re-
nmci from Egypt, displayed a new combination of the
operations: 150,000 men filed oft' on the flanks of
i\vit/j land, opening on one side on the Danube, and on
he o er upon the Po. This masterly combination secured
nmeke advantages. Modern Europe had not as yet pre-
entetsuch operations. The French armies, forming two
item lines, which reciprocally sustained each other,
irctithe Austrians to take a contrary or exterior direc¬
tion, Inch disabled them from communicating together,
lytl arrangement, the reserve army cut off the commu-
icat is of Melas with the base, while it preserved all its
wn th the army of the Rhine,1 which constituted its se-
ond;; line. A reference to the map of that seat of war
dll bw Moreau posted at Stockach and Zurich, and
Jay! icing him on the north side of the Danube ; in
taly, lapoleon on the Po, at Pavia, and Tortona, with a
orps Vercelli, completely insulating Melas at Alessandria;
(|»ile: le French commander, in case of check, had all the
orgi of Switzerland, the St Bernard, Simplon, St Go-
iiard i id Splugen open. The events of that period offer
onvi ing proofs of the decisive effect of a proper choice unite without first risking a battle,
fliti of operations. 2. An army possessing interior lines more connected
hi subsequent campaign, Napoleon, breaking up from than those of the enemy, can, by strategical movements,
ioulmie, and directing several corps through Central Ger- destroy them successively, by carrying the mass of forces
ian\ > approach the Danube, suddenly turned the posi- alternately upon each point; as was exemplified in the cam-
Mack at Ulm, and, placing himself upon his com- paign of 1758, and subsequently at Manheim and the lines
again round the flank, and decided the question at Leipzig.
Meantime, the duke of Wellington, in the peninsula,
cunctando restituit rem. Opposing a single line against a
single line, he’saved Portugal by his masterly position of
Torres Vedras, without a battle. Next he drove the
enemy from the frontier fortresses, by alternately carrying
his masses across the Tagus. His line was shorter from
north to south than that of the enemy, and he caused them
to increase theirs by the destruction of the bridge of Al-
meras. Thus he forced his opponents to operate exterior¬
ly. After the victory of Salamanca, his march into Spain
was by two interior lines; and though this operation has
been blamed, because it ended in a retreat, we forget that
the enemy was obliged to abandon the south, or one half of
Spain, to produce it. The next operation was upon a single
and decisive line. The enemy was encountered at Vittoria
before he could concentrate his forces, cut off from his base,
and driven headlong into Pampeluna.
This comparison of the combinations and results of the^^yan^
most celebrated campaigns shows, that all the lines of opera- geous and
tions that have been crowned with success depended on gene-disadvan-
ral principles, of which the following are the principal heads. *aoe0U3
1. A double line of operations is advantageous if the ines'
enemy has likewise a double line, provided theirs be ex¬
terior, and at a greater distance than yours, and unable to
of Mayence, at Wiirtzburg and Emmendingen, at Lonato
and Castiglione, Trente and Bassano, at Stockach and
Zurich, Abendsberg and Eckmuhl, &c.
3. In order to effect this movement, a corps should be
left before the army which it is intended to keep in check,
with orders not to engage, but merely to retard the march,
by taking posts behind defiles or rivers, and retreating to-
Wlke Charles, after crippling the French army of wards the army.
% iad advanced to the vicinity of Vienna. At this 4. From the above premises, it follows that a double line
J0® t, with only a small reserve at Frankfort, the Austro- of operations against an enemy whose corps are in closer
Mis, who had every interest to temporize, hazarded connection, will always be unfortunate with equal numbers,
he 1 tie of Austerlitz ; and his good fortune and the if the enemy profits by the advantages of his situation, and
®pb ence of the allies saved him from a dilemma from manoeuvres with rapidity within it.
pon, forced him to surrender. But in this cam-
is fortune began to blind him. Forgetting that he
base of operations nearer than the Rhine, he
forward to Vienna, and thence to meet the Rus-
i Moravia. Prussia was in arms, a British corps
■ died the west of Germany, Bohemia had risen in
ie Tyroleans made a successful resistance, and the
rmy of the Rhine, of the Sambre and Meuse, were names given to French armies, although they were not always on these rivers.
740
WAR.
Warlike
Operations
by Land.
5. A double line of operations becomes still more dan¬
gerous when its parts are separated by several days’ march.
6. Simple and interior lines, on the contrary, are always
most safe; because they admit the action of the mass of
forces against the isolated divisions of the enemy, if he be
so imprudent as to venture an action.
7. A double line of operations, however, may be adopted
with success, if the forces employed are so much greater,
that superior masses can be presented to the opponents on
both its parts.
8. Two anterior lines, mutually sustaining each other,
and facing two exterior lines at a certain distance, must
avoid being compressed into a small area; for the exterior
hostile lines might thereby act simultaneously.
9. Again, they should not operate at too great intervals;
for the enemy might have time to crush one of these divi¬
sions, while it is weakened by detaching to the other, and
thus gain a decisive advantage.
10. It being the interest of a commander to divide and
isolate the opponent’s forces, his manoeuvring lines should
never have the object of drawing the whole hostile forces
upon him ; as Tempelhoff boasts Frederick to have done in
the campaign of 1760.
By reference to the preceding sketch of the operations
in late wars, the value of these rules is everywhere observ¬
able. When the details in history are examined, such as
they are presented by authors acquainted with the art of
wap, they form a key, which opens an unerring way into all
the causes of success and misfortune. Thus, in what has
been said on accidental lines of operation, it might have
been added, that Napoleon did not know how to avail himself
of them, when he was advised to operate by the right bank
of the Elbe, and change his direction upon the pivot of
Magdeburg, instead of risking the battle of Leipzig, and
suffering, in violation of the eighth rule, the enemy to place
him between two fires; nor in Champagne in 1814, when
he operated at too great a distance, overlooking the ninth
rule, which gave the allies time to force the gates of Paris,
thus employing the just system of throwing the mass of
their forces upon the most important point. The duke of
Wellington’s defensive campaign in Portugal hinged upon
a prudent application of the second rule ; and Napoleon, in
1814, could not have resisted so long as he did in France,
but by the same system. Although the allies at that
moment conducted their operations on the seventh rule,
perfectly applicable under the then existing circumstances,
yet the vast superiority of internal lines remained evident.
But when his eccentric movement placed him out of the
sphere of real operations, the allies applied the third rule
with perfect success, and effected his fall.
In order to complete the view of territorial and ma¬
noeuvring lines, it is requisite to consider them as they are
affected by the configuration of frontiers.
1. In order to operate with advantage, there should not
be two different armies upon the same frontier; because,
2. Double lines will always fail, with equal chances,
against a single line, as has already been shown.
3. Interior lines resist with advantage against exterior
lines, either upon the same or upon two different frontiers.
The objection that Pichegru proved successful in 1794 is
not valid; because Prince Coburg did not avail himself of
his interior line, but acted by detachments, while he re¬
mained inactive with his mass, inferior in strength, and un¬
supported by fortresses on the flanks.
4. When the hostile fortresses are scattered upon a line
of great extent, the most advantageous manoeuvring line is
upon their centre; as the Russians experienced to their
cost in the beginning of the campaign of 1812: but on all
other occasions, the best direction is upon one of the ex¬
tremities, and from thence on the rear; as exemplified in
1800 in Italy, in 1805 in Bavaria, and the next year at
the sources of the Maine and Saale, &c. Wh
masses are moved with ability against scattered6J
other things being equal,_ they must always be successful *1
often even without a battle ; as when Moreau, maki 7a ^ ! 'll
monstrations against the left, nf Kru,, ^ 1'
monstrations against^ the left of Kray, near Huningi
moved rapidly into Switzerland, whereby the Greater5
of Swabia fell into his hands without an action bTlio ^
- - - -    - - • -uie march
of the duke of Wellington upon Madrid and Burgos r
duced the immediate evacuation of the south of Spain •
the movement of Kutusoff upon Kaluga forced the Freh
from Moscow and out of Russia.
5. The configuration of a frontier may have important
influence on the direction of lines of operation. Central
positions, forming salient angles towards the enemy, such
as Bohemia forms towards Prussia, Switzerland toward’
Austria or Saxony, as it was circumstanced in 1813 are
the most advantageous; because they are naturally inte-
rior, and lead to the flanks and rear of the opponent’s
defensive line. The sides of these salient angles are
therefore so important, that all the resources of art should
be added to those of nature to render them impregnable.
Switzerland and Bohemia are sufficiently proved to pos^
sess these natural advantages; but Saxony appears more
doubtful, because Napoleon was at length defeated at
Leipzig. Yet it was his conviction of these central ad¬
vantages that made him neglect to change the line of his
operations upon the pivot of Magdeburg; and if we examine
the character of the operations, though the allies were nu¬
merically, and especially in excellent cavalry, superior, we
discover that when his defensive manoeuvres were confined
to a moderate distance from the Elbe, and the ridge of the
mountains of Bohemia, no impression could be made upon
him; but his system was solely that of attack, and hisim-
rand
patience sought the Prussians deep in Silesia, the grand
army beyond the defiles of Bohemia, and the northern
army in the sands of Berlin, not successively, but all at the
same moment. He was thus on all sides inferior, but not
dislodged, till, by his own indecision, he allowed the enemy
to turn both his flanks simultaneously, and to bring him to
action between two fires at Leipzig. We may take occa¬
sion to revert once more to the double exterior lines of the
allies here, and in 1814 in Champagne. When each of the
armies operating exteriorly amounts to 120,000 or 150,000
men, they possess a consistency which obviates all need of
co-operation ; for, admitting the enemy to be even stronger,
there is not a great disparity of force between the parties,
which can be deployed and brought into action on the same
field of battle : hence the weaker army can decline a bat¬
tle, and in both these cases, where the allies had great su¬
periority of cavalry, they could begin and break off a battle
at their pleasure; as they proved at the first battle oi
Leipzig or Liitzen, and at Bautzen.
6. Where no such central position or territorial pro¬
jection exists, the same effect may be produced by the re¬
lative direction of the manoeuvring lines, as exemplified111
Fig. 1.
fig. 1. CD, manoeuvring on the right flank of the army
AB, and HI moving upon the left flank of FG, fornl,w,
interior lines, CK and IK, upon the extremities of eaci
the exterior lines AB and FG, both of which may e
stroyed by carrying the mass of forces alternate v llP^
them. This combination presents the effect of the re
campaigns of 1800 and 1809. It is also the spirit o ^
duke of Wellington’s defence of Portugal; for, )
W A R.
741
.* nr
fjJm on the Tagus, he had a direct and interior commu-
Sth on both his lines north and south of the river,
bile ie enemy, being placed on the segment of a circle,
id o v the precarious connection by the bridge of Alme-
& w ch being destroyed, he could not advance from either
nda da or Salamanca, without immediately placing him-
ijfirjhe disadvantageous position here described.
If ■ configuration of the theatre of war may possess
i^L'saie importance as that of a frontier; for, in fact,
iWyneatre of war may be considered as a quadrilateral
1 furc, Xo elucidate this idea, the scene of operations of
lieE p^nch army from 1757 to 1762, and the operations of
tlii ipolon in 1806, may be cited. In fig. 2, the side AB be-
etrlosed by the North
i‘: ja, e side BD by the Flg-
ver F csGi*} 1)3.86 ot the  
iyn Prince Ferdinand ; A North Sea.
I) r resenting the river
[aim base of the French,
1 ^ A. the Rhine, likewise
x’tosission of the French;
«"nir mies operating of-
fflsivjy on the sides AC
Did Ci', had the third AB
»l|Nmh Sea in their fa-
our, und therefore BD
lf|s ti only side which
if>|y ure to gain by their manoeuvres to have possession
tiithribur sides, and consequently of the base of all the
mlnninications of their adversary,
s h'li is more clearly ex- pjg> %
i;ipli d in fig. 3. The
I rene army E, proceeding
Oin .e base CD, to gain
Hie p ition FGH, cuts off
Effc asd army J from the
de D, its only communi-
itiouand base. It woidd
ms I driven into the angle
,AM.vhich is formed near
,mbi i by the line of the
him ihe Ems, and the sea;
hilejie army E could al- c.
ays >mmunicate with CD
• thulaine.
Tli manoeuvre of Napoleon on the Saale, in 1806, was
)mb 3d on the same principles. He moved upon Jena
id f umburg in the position FGH ; and then advancing
y H e and Dessau, he threw the Prussian army J upon
lesi1 AB, formed by the sea. The fate which attended
iat aliy at Erfurth, Magdeburg, Liibeck, and Prentzlovv,
wehknown. The great art therefore consists in com-
inin; he marches so as to arrive upon the communica-
ons the enemy without sacrificing one’s own. Now the
nes irH, by means of the prolonged position, and the angle
TtiK towards the extremity of the enemy, always preserves
ie ptimunication with the base CD. This constitutes
ie a| lication of the manoeuvres of Marengo and Jena.
Wl 11 the theatre of hostilities is not near the sea, it will
e sti circumscribed by some great neutral power, which
nard he frontier, and encloses one side of the quadrangle.
'0 d bt this barrier is inferior to the sea, but, in a gene-
d vi ', it must nevertheless be considered as an obstacle,
pon Inch it is dangerous to be driven after a defeat, and
dvai geous to push an enemy. A state with 200,000
leii 11 not suffer its neutrality to be violated with im-
un't and if a beaten army ventured so to do, still it
°nl( le cut off from its base. But if an inferior power
)rnis ie limit of the theatre of war, the square of opera-
ons ay then be considered as extending over it to the
,ejd eat neutral power, or the sea.
To give a still more
convincing proof of the
justness of the preceding
ideas, let us examine the
scene of the campaign
of 1806-7 in Poland.
The Baltic and the fron¬
tier of Austrian Gallicia
formed the two sides AB
and CD of the above
square. It was of great
consequence to both par¬
ties to avoid being driven upon either of these obstacles.
The configuration of the frontiers may modify the sides of
the square, and convert them into a parallelogram, or a tra-
pesius, as in fig. 4.
In this case, the army GH, being in possession of the
sides AC and CD, would be still more favourably situat¬
ed, because the base of the opponent being contracted
at BD, would be more difficult to keep open. The front
of the base BD having less extent, offers fewer resour¬
ces for manccuvring, and affords to the army GH the
means of operating with more success; because the direc¬
tion of the line CD naturally leads upon the communica¬
tions of the enemy, and because the space to be occupied
in order to cut him oft' is shorter, and therefore more easily
held with concentrated forces.
The theatre of war in Prussia and Poland, previously
mentioned, was precisely of this figure. The frontiers of
Austrian Gallicia, extending to the Narew, formed, by the
line of the Vistula, the contracted side BD ; and the man¬
ner in which Napoleon embraced that line at Pultusk and
Eylau was similar to the figure here shown. This opera¬
tion had however its unfavourable chances ; the first de¬
pending upon the doubtful trust to be reposed in the neu¬
trality of Austria, and the second upon the great distance
from the base of operations, which exposed the communi¬
cations of the armies with the Oder to the mercy of the
cabinet of Vienna. It depended even then upon Austria
(as indeed it had the year before depended on Prussia) to
put a stop to these endless invasions. The manoeuvre of
the French general w'as good, but the operation of the
statesman was only daring. These examples are sufficient
to demonstrate that the manner of embracing a theatre of
war is amenable to the two following principles.
1. To direct the masses upon the decisive points of the
line of operations, that is, upon the centre if the enemy has
been so imprudent as to scatter his forces, or upon an ex¬
tremity if he is in a contiguous line.
2. To make the great effort in the latter case upon that
extremity which has its back against an insurmountable
obstacle, or which leads upon the communications of the
enemy without sacrificing our own.
Defensive operations, in a great measure already exa-Defensive
mined in the preceding discussions, require, nevertheless, operations,
some further remarks. Passive defence offers no security
to a state, nor fortresses without an army; it is confiding
in a shield without a sword. Reason and experience alike
ju-ove that defensive system to be the best, which embraces
the greatest number of offensive facilities ; for these we re¬
fer, in particular, to interior and simple lines, and those di¬
rections of lines which best anticipate or counteract the most
effectual offensive ones. But as defensive measures imply
inferiority of forces, they must in a considerable degree de¬
pend upon local means to counterbalance the superiority of
the enemy. Rivers and chains of mountains are the natu¬
ral obstacles ; fortresses, intrenched camps, and well select¬
ed positions upon the most advantageous lines of defence,
the artificial means in a territorial front. Fortresses, with
fetes de pont upon a river parallel to the frontier, are very
advantageous; but upon a river perpendicular to the fron-
Fig. 4. Warlike
Operations
742
W A R.
Warlike tier they are still more useful, particularly if fortified upon
^Land 8 1)01,1 banks> as Prague on the Mulda, or Maestricht on the
^ ‘.J. Meuse. In the former case an offensive army must cross
the river only once, but in the latter it must cross as often
as the adversary thinks proper; for, placing his camp under
protection of one of these fortresses, the enemy cannot pass
him without being taken in flank or rear, nor besiege the
place without dislodging the enemy. Hence intrenched
camps, covering and covered by a fortress, add considerably
to the defence of a state. The Austrians felt severely the
want of these precautions on the Danube in the late wars.
Thus the operation of Mack upon Ulm w7ould have been
good had he moved in time to attack from thence either on
the right or left of the river; but to have rendered it secure,
there should have been fortified positions on the Schellen-
berg at Donauwerth, Ingolstadt, and Ratisbon: for then he
could always place the river between him and the enemy;
and if the latter operated on both banks, he could attack
with his whole mass that part which was most convenient,
before the other could cross to assist it. Fortifications are
also eminently useful in the defence of passes in chains of
mountains. The insignificant fort of Bard, with 600 men,
arrested the progress of the principal column of Napoleon,
when descending the Great St Bernard into the valley of
Aoste in 1800; and if the fort had been better secured, the
whole plan of campaign would have failed, for Melas would
have had time to arrive and defeat the enemy in detail.
Again, the French emperor having constructed the fine
roads into Italy, neglected to secure them by any fortifica¬
tions, and the first military use that was made of them was
by the Austrians in the two successful invasions of France,
where the old fort of L’Ecluse, near Geneva, was the only
point that could, and actually did, retard them some days.
Fortresses likewise secure the magazines, stores, and hos¬
pitals of an army, and save the materiel and broken troops
after a defeat. Pampeluna saved what did escape of the
French after the battle of Vittoria, as Prague did the Aus¬
trians in 1757. But in order to make them capable of pro¬
ducing the share of security to a state which reason can ex¬
pect from them, fortresses should not be too numerous, be¬
cause they absorb too great a proportion of troops for gar¬
risons, and cost immense sums; nor small, for then they
are easily embraced and overpowered by artillery; nor all
on the frontiers, for if the enemy penetrate beyond them,
the great arsenals, depots, founderies, &c. of the nation are
no longer within reach of the defensive army, which is also
deprived of the appui for a position to cover the capital,
and turn the flank of the invader. In the last campaigns,
France felt the want of intermediate fortresses. If such
had existed about Soissons, on the Marne, and about the
junction ot the Seine and Aube, the avenues to Paris would
have been more easily defended. Intrenched positions are
often eminently useful, provided they intersect or flank the
most direct lines of operations; but as they do not contain
arsenals, &c. they are less so than fortresses, and the selec¬
tion of their site is extremely difficult. Those of the Rus¬
sians at Drissa, upon the line of Moscow, were abandoned.
The intrenchments of the French on the frontiers of Spain
and at Toulouse were forced; but those on the Isla near
Cadiz, and at Jorres Vedras, both saved kingdoms. A
position ably chosen has sometimes the same effect. That
of Dumouriez, near the wood of Argonne, arrested the ad¬
vance of the duke of Brunswick in 1792; and that of Ku-
tusoff at Malojaroslaf, near Tula, forced the French to re¬
tire by the road they came. Both were on the flank, and
menaced the rear of the enemy. Dumouriez, in the north¬
east corner of the French frontier, presented a salient angle
upon a simple line of operations towards the German and
the Netherland fronts of defence, and was near the fortresses
of Lorraine. Napoleon, in 1814, endeavoured to recover a
similar line after the battle of Brienne; but it was then be¬
yond the sphere of operations, and his march occasions ,
the loss of his empire. To conclude, defensive®0S,1*,!
consist in covering every part of a state, but in
“ay enable
an enemy from obtaining ^any advantege whTch
him to accomplish his main object.
Ill BATTLES.
Between a battle won and a battle lost there is •
mense distance, said Napoleon, the day before the
at Leipzig—empires lie between them; and indeed?
plan of campaign, and the strategical movements are J
so many preparatory dispositions to arrive at the
of a battle. The rules applicable to battles, therefore form
the most important branch of the science of war - bee
unless they are well understood, all other knowledJS
be comparatively useless. In many respects this branch i
less capable of being reduced to fixed principles than the
others. There are however certain general rules which
should govern the dispositions, and the chance of success
will be increased or diminished in the ratio of their due an
plication. Among these, the first is that of operating with
a superior mass upon the decisive point, because the phy¬
sical force of organized numbers in arms furnishes the un-
erring means of victory, when the moral qualities in both
armies are equal. The means of bringing this force to bear
in the most advantageous manner is the art of lightine;
consequently, courage and fortune being nearly balanced!
that general who can operate with the largest mass upon
the most decisive point must be successful. But to effect
this purpose, the combinations must be such as to produce
a unity of movements, conducing simultaneously to the
same object.
The following maxims are of general application: 1. No
opportunity should be left till the morrow. 2. No battle
should be given, but for an important object, unless the po¬
sition should render it unavoidable. 3. After a victory,
the enemy should not be allowed to recover—the pursuit
should be incessant.
As in lines of operations, so on fields of battle, it is ne¬
cessary to avoid dispositions which have generally proved
fatal; such as, 1st, forming isolated divisions; 2d, ordering
extended movements, which deprive the army of a part of
its strength, and enable the enemy to ruin either the main
body or the detachment; 3d, positions with too great an
extent of front; 4th, allowing obstacles to separate the
wings, or obstacles which prevent the connection of co¬
lumns, and expose them to separate defeats.
The finest combinations are those which produce an ob¬
lique order of battle, those with a wing reinforced, those
which out-flank the enemy, and those which form a per¬
pendicular upon a hostile extremity, or upon a scattered
centre. These are almost always successful, because they
present a whole line to an extremity, and therefore a
greater mass than the enemy. Thus the fundamental prin¬
ciple of all military combinations, namely, t& effect with
the greatest mass of forces a combined attack upon the de¬
cisive point, is applied ; and it is easy to understand bow a
general of ability, with 60,000 men, may be able to defeat
100,000, if he can bring 50,000 into action upon a single
part of his enemy’s line ; for battles are decided, not by
troops upon the muster-rolls, nor even by those present,
but by those alone who are simultaneously engaged. Nu¬
merical superiority of troops not engaged, so far from being
useful, only increases the disorder, as was fully exemplified
at Leuthen.
There is not a great variety of measures applicable to
this maxim.
I. The first is evidently that of taking the lead in t e
movements. The general who is enabled to have this * -
vantage, can employ his forces wherever he thinks them
743
If
W A R.
|(jic,le; while, on the contrary, he who is obliged to
" Mt ie enemy, is no longer master of a single combina-
r81 cause his movements must be subordinate to those
Mh’is dversary, and it is too late to arrest them when they
•e al ady executing. The general who takes the lead
jlL^hat he intends to perform ; he conceals his march,
irprbs or overpowers an extremity or a weak part of the
osfil line, while th6 waiting army is defeated on one of
gpo ts, before the knowledge of the attack has reached
g co mander. Hence the following are corollaries.
1, n army taking the lead in a movement can conceal
Un in full execution ; therefore, when the manoeuvre
Jces-lace in the interior of its own line of operations, the
'wrm-nder may gain several marches of the enemy.
2. o judge soundly of military operations, it is highly
flfcoiant to banish all calculations which suppose that the
1 2t;]j general will be informed of a movement, and will
»m)o; it by the best possible manoeuvre, from the instant
that 12 movement is begun.
fhen two armies combine to place the enemy between
to fes, from the distance of several marches, they must
K-foui the disposition upon a double line of operations
4air a simple one, and expose themselves to be defeated
i gpanely if the enemy takes advantage of his central posi-
ion. (Such a manoeuvre is similar to a movement made at
, (Jisiace against the flanks, and should be ranged among
hostlvhich cannot produce a simultaneous effect at the
nonmt required.
Til: The second consists in directing the movements
ugain;a weak point of the enemy, when that point offers
fhe | latest advantages.
A attack to the front is always to be avoided, if a con¬
centred effort can possibly be made upon the extremity of
hn c any’s line, for which simple demonstrations on the
iron are sufficient.
J jAMnst double and scattered lines of operations, it is pre-
feral > to direct the attacks upon the central points ; for
the mss of forces having ruined a central division, the corps
to tl right and left can no longer operate in unison, and
are reed to retreat eccentrically; as wras proved in the
disaors of Wurmser, Mack, anti the duke of Brunswick.
Agsist simple lines of operations, and contiguous lines of
hat), the weak points are the flanks, because they are lia¬
ble be crushed before they can be sustained. Albuera
offe perhaps the only positive example to the contrary
in i idem history ; for here the right wing of the allies
vasurned and routed, and yet the battle gained by the
ceii ' forming an echellon to the rear.
I leep column being attacked on the head, is in a simi¬
lar mdition as an extremity of a line; both the one and
the i.her are engaged in succession and defeated, or what
is t imed rolled up. This was proved at Rosbach and
Auskadt. It is however more practicable to make a fresh
dis] dtion from a column than with the extremity of a line,
win attacked by the enemy.
1 executing a general strategical movement against an
ext mityof an enemy’s line of operations, or of position, a
nui is not only brought to bear against a weak point, but
ukffrom that extremity, it becomes easy to gain the rear
an(communications, either of the base or of the secondary
lin if the opponent. Napoleon’s manoeuvre in 1805, by.
Be auwerth and the line of the Lech, turned the line of
coi nunication of Mack with Vienna, which was his base ;
am it intercepted his connection wdth Bohemia, which
1813 w-hen it debouched from Bohemia upon Dresden and Warlike
Leipzig, and Napoleon finally attempted it in 1815 by^P6^®11®
1. But if it be intended to remedy the deficiency of ^
numbers, by acting with all the forces upon a single point
of the enemy’s line, that line being contiguous, the point
selected should be as far as possible from the centre, be¬
cause the centre can be sustained immediately from both
the wings; while, on the contrary, an extremity can only
receive succours by degrees from the divisions nearest at
hand.
2. An attack upon the centre is never advisable except¬
ing when the hostile line is very extensive, and scattered
into separate divisions: then indeed the result must be
successful from the same causes, and the consequences
even more brilliant, because the enemy’s corps will there¬
by be totally separated, and disabled from re-uniting ;
whereas an attack upon the flank can produce similar suc¬
cess only under particular circumstances.
III. The result of the preceding truths leads to the
maxim, that as it is better to attack the extremity of a line,
yet that both the extremities should not be attacked at the
same time, unless there be a very great superiority on the
part of the assailant. An army of 60,000 men forming two
corps of 30,000 each, for the purpose of attacking an ene¬
my equally numerous, is deprived of the power of striking
a decisive blow; because it enables the adversary to take
equal measures, or even, if the movement be extended and
unconnected, to assemble his mass against one of the divi¬
sions, and destroy it by his momentary superiority. Mul¬
tiplied attacks by means of a greater number of columns
are still more dangerous, more repugnant to the best prin¬
ciples of war, particularly when they cannot commence
acting at the same moment and upon the same point. But
when there is a very great superiority of force on the side
of the assailant, then indeed both the extremities of the
hostile line should be attacked, because thus a greater
number of troops is brought into action on both his wings;
whereas if this great superiority w^ere kept in one mass up¬
on a single point, the adversary might deploy as many as
the other party could bring into action, and thus engage
' with equal numbers. In this case it is only requisite to
collect the greatest mass upon that wing where the great¬
est success is expected. Daun manoeuvred in this way at
Hochkirch, and the whole allied forces at Leipzig.
To illustrate this maxim more fully, it is necessary to
enter into some detail, and fix a lew particular principles.
If 50,000 men, intending to attack 60,000, should form two
corps of nearly equal force, and, with a view to embrace
both the extremities of their line, should extend and iso¬
late the attacks, it is clear that the 60,000 will have the fa-
cility of moving more rapidly within the interior of their
Fig. 5.
line,’ than the assail¬
ant’s corps with such
a mass between them,
as fig. 5 demon-
trates. The two corps
B and C might gain
momentarily some
ground, but the enemy A, leaving a corps to check L up¬
on the most advantageous ground for defence which its po¬
sition might offer, could throw the remaining mass of forces
on the front, flank, and rear of B, which must consequently
be destroyed. If B and C should have a third detachment
on the centre, the result would be still more disastrous, for
then separate corps would attack without union a force
everywhere imposing, which could not fail to overpower
them. This took place at Kollin, from inattention to the
orders of the king; at Neerwinden in 1793; and at Stoc-
"T1- iNupuieon penormeu me same r , , :„i7qq Dimiouriez and Jourdan were defeated
f * Prussians in 1806 b, SaalfieM and Gera. Kntusoff m kach m 1799 r here l un onnez Krevelt
t 18! by Kaluga and Klasnoi, the grand allied army in by Pr,nee Coburg and the ArcMuae
"a bis most important secondary line, by which he expect-
cdtie assistance of the Russians. Such were also the views
ot mlt when he turned the allies at Albuera, and of Junot
•n is attack upon the flank and rear of the British at Vi-
4a. Napoleon performed the same manoeuvre against
744
W A R.
O)errat1oen,asimilarresu,tw0uld ^ave occurred if the French army
by Land!8 ^ad ^een a^Y commanded, and exercised in great manoeu-
vres. At Blenheim, all Eugene’s efforts were unavailing,
even when he had gained the flank, until Marlborough’s
success decided the victory.
The truth of these observations is so manifest, that it
may be applied to an army superior in numbers : 50,000
attacking in this manner an army of 40,000, would still
incur all the same risks; and if the inferior force, after
leaving a corps to mask one attack, should take a rapid of¬
fensive measure, and overtake the enemy in his preparatory
dispositions, which would necessarily be calculated upon
the principle of finding the opponent in his position, the
heads of his columns might be turned and completely
routed. But if the two hostile attacks should have between
them some difficult object, a wood or river, they might
each in their turn be destroyed. Examples of this kind
occurred at Lonato, Castiglione, Abendsberg, Eckmuhl,
and Ratisbon.
When however the attacking army is double the force
of the enemy, the principle no longer holds as stated in the
cases of Hochkirch and Leipzig; but, to avoid the danger
of divided forces, it is requisite to have the lead, and to
conceal it in such a manner that both attacks may com¬
mence nearly at the same moment. Thus two maxims, in
appearance contradictory, are derived from the same prin¬
ciple.
1. An army intending to attack another of equal or su¬
perior force cannot insure success but by a concentrated
effort upon a single point of a weakened line, which is not
in a condition to be timely supported.
2. But when a superior army attacks one much weaker,
two or three divisions should be formed, in order to bring
all its masses into action against the inferior masses op¬
posed ; for if the attack were confined to a single point, the
whole of the forces could not be brought into line, and the
enemy might deploy an equal number; but it is neces¬
sary that the whole combinations centre on the same
ground, and at the same instant, to produce unity of exe¬
cution, and avoid partial and successive defeat.
3. As every front of operations and each position of bat¬
tle contains a decisive point, it is important that the repar¬
tition of forces insure not only a general superiority over
the enem}, but also that a strong reserve be appropriated
to support the attack upon that principal point.
These maxims are more especially applicable to battles
than to strategical operations; for with these no necessity
demands that corps acting at the distance of several
marches from each other should engage exactly at the
same hour, and it would be impossible to do so on the same
ground. But if the principle is to be enforced differently,
it is still of full efficacy. It may appear that in these ideas
the main stress of the argument rests upon the local superi¬
ority pf numbers; but it is nevertheless true, that their com¬
bination is the chief object; for 30,000 men may be de¬
feated by half their numbers, if, in the disposition and in
t e choice of the ground, some vicious arrangement take
place, which produces a real disadvantage; such as La
Motte experienced from Webb at Wynendael, Chevert
r from Imhoff at Meer, and the Austrians from Moreau in
the denies of Hohenlinden.
iy: strategical movement of a great mass in a
combined effort upon one point, it is advisable to keep the
forces concentrated within a space approaching to square,
so as to have them perfectly disposable ; or, in other words,
t lat the depth of the disposition be nearly equal to the
front, enabling the battalions to arrive with promptitude
from all quarters towards the point attacked. Extensive
fronts militate ap much against good principles, as great de¬
tachments and isolated divisions deprived of the means of
being sustained. The inattention of Napoleon and Ney to
this maxim gave Benningsen the advantage at PVi
the care of the allies in 1815, notwithstanding
of guarding an open frontier, enabled them t0 cont!? '5
their masses at Waterloo. oncentrate 1
Y.
One of the most efficacious means of applying the
above general principles, is to induce the enemv tn n
contrary measures. By means of small corps of liit trn ke
jealousies may be created for some important points S’
communications. If he can be persuaded that L "
formidable, he will be tempted to detach stron* d viX
against them, and, scattering his forces, be disahU ?
acting with vigour himself, and be exposed to an aSfrZ
superior forces Operations by detachments have „ “
tbeless .been in fashion. To divide and subdivide til Z
main army was reduced to the secondary character of m
observing, was considered as the very summit of strateJ
science. In the Hanoverian campaigns, the French win,
two great armies, acted upon this system ; nor could the
ever be undeceived, although Prince Ferdinand, with k
than half their force, contrived not only to reconquer the
country, but afterwards to keep them constantly at bav
and even to attack them with superior numbers. The
Austrians, and the army of the empire, operated similarly
in baxony, and reaped similar fruits. But Mack, trained
m the l urkish wars, was the great patron of cordons and
scattered posts, with inert positions to sustain them. The
Austrians have however little reason to exult in the success
of their system. The least mischief which they have de-
riyed fiom it was, that they fought on accessory points,
wmle the main armies, reduced in strength, were unable to
do more than menace the principal objects of the campaign,
wasting their time until they were attacked by superior
forces.
Nor are hostile armies destroyed by merely taking posi¬
tions upon their communications, and remaining inactive
wutlun them. Had Napoleon halted upon the Lech in
1805, or on the Saale in 1806, he could neither have pre¬
vented the escape of Mack by Donauwerth, nor the retreat
of the duke of Brunswick to the Elbe. The art of war
does not consist in incursions upon communications, but in
placing the mass upon them, in order to attack the enemy
with decided advantage. Detachments upon the commu¬
nications of the adversary are only accessories of secondary
utility.
VI. When the lead is taken in a decisive movement
against the enemy, great importance is attached to an ex¬
act knowledge of the positions and movements which he
may undertake. Spies are then of the utmost consequence,
but partisans, thoroughly versed in watching the enemy,
are of still greater utility. For this purpose the general
should scatter small parties in all directions, and multiply
them with as much care as he would show to restrain them
in great operations. Some divisions of light cavalry, ex¬
pressly organized for this service, and not included in
the order of battle, are the most efficient. To operate
without such precautions is to walk in the dark, and to
be exposed to the disastrous consequences which may be
produced by a secret march of the enemy. Generally
speaking, these measures are too much neglected. The
esphnnage is not sufficiently organized beforehand; and
the officers of light troops have not always the requisite ex¬
perience to conduct their detachments.
The Cossacks under Platoff, Chernicheff, Tettenborn,
&c. in Russia and Poland; these, with the Prussians under
Lutzow, in Germany and France; and the Guerillas oi
Mina, the Empecinado, and others, in Spain and Portugal,
have shown the immense advantages to be derived from
such services. While they were few in number, their rea
importance was not fully understood ; but when 15,000 or
20,000 of them appeared in the field, especially in a friendly
country, they became the most formidable enemy, with re-
e
d
:
] I
W A R.
745
ipc i to the combinations, which a general could encoun-
ijer oecause those were always liable to be disjointed by
the uncertainty of the timely arrival of orders. Every
'con ’Y demanded a numerous and well-conducted escort,
and very march was endangered by the want of real in-
4)rr.tion relative to the hostile positions. The duties,
gre ly multiplied, exhausted a great part of the army ; and
the egular cavalry was soon rendered unserviceable by
Aejexcessive fatigue.
^ I. It is not sufficient for a good operation of war to
gon y with ability the mass of forces upon the most im-
portit points; they require moreover to be brought into
attia. If they remain inactive when arrived upon those
poini, the principle is forgotten, for the enemy may make
cou er-movements to defeat the project; and it is there-
forondispensable that, from the moment his communica-
tionur his flank are gained, the mass of forces must march
up him and attack. This is the moment when a simul-
tamms employment of the troops must take place. Masses
of ttops present do not decide battles, but the acting
mass alone have effect; the former indeed produce that
con quence in strategical movements, but the latter de-
tcrnne the success of the action.
| T insure this result, a general of ability will seize the
proT moment to force the decisive point of the field of
Ijatr, and combine the attack in such a manner that all
his rces will be brought into action, with the exception
uluis of the reserve. But if the efforts emanating from
thhlrinciple fail of the desired success, no other combina¬
tion emains than a simultaneous general onset, in which
thejeserve is to be brought forward, to make a last and
dedve effort.
^ 11I. We now come to battles proper, all the combina-
tionof which are reducible to three systems.
■ r e first includes defensive battles, where the enemy is
expited in a strong position, with the simple object of
maiiaining the ground. Such were the positions of Tal-
lirc: t Blenheim, Villeroy at Ramillies, Marsin at Turin,
Da at Torgau ; and the events are sufficient to show their
ger al disadvantage.
' e second is the opposite system, wholly offensive. It
con its in manceuvres of attack wherever the enemy may
be md, such as those of Marlborough at Blenheim, Ra¬
mil !s, and Oudenarde ; Frederick at Leuthen, Zorndorff,
atic f organ ; Napoleon at Jena and Ratisbon; Wellington
at ttoria, and the allies at Leipzig.
I ' e third offers, in some measure, the middle term be-
twflH the other two. It consists in selecting a field of
bat®, carefully reconnoitred beforehand in its strategical
appjiabilities and advantages of ground ; then to wait the
eneiy’s attack, and to fix upon the proper moment of pass-
mg’Om the defensive into offensive measures with the best
eludes of success. In this class must be reckoned the
cot; inations of Napoleon at Rivoli and Austerlitz, of
hi' icr at the Katsbach and Laon, and of Wellington at
Saljnanca and Waterloo.
I is difficult to prescribe fixed rules by which the choice
°l y of these systems should be guided. The circum-
staJ es of the moment, the moral character of the troops,
con Jered as affecting their courage, discipline, and inclina-
fim their national temper, and the conformation of the
pQ id, must be taken into account.
' wh
,
best mode is to act offensively on all occasions,
nation of assuming the offensive when the enemy shall be Warlike
exhausted by the first efforts. Operations
3. When the strategical circumstances of the parties are by Band. ^
such, that one is obliged to attack the other without con-
sidering localities; as, for instance, to prevent the junction
of two hostile armies, or to crush an isolated corps, &c.
4. When particular circumstances, as the extreme infe¬
riority of numbers, forbid any other than strictly defensive
measures; such as Eugene took at Chiari, Abercromby on
the Zyp, and Moore at Corunna.
Battles in general, whether offensive or defensive, not¬
withstanding all the varieties of ground and changes of po¬
sition, maybe classed into three systems of disposition, or
what are termed orders, each subject to some modifications.
First, the simple parallel order, or that in which hostile
armies are drawn up in parallel lines, to advance or receive
the attack. Jomini justly observes, that accident or supe¬
rior valour alone decides the contest in this class of orders,
and that the soldier is entitled to all the credit; because
such a disposition being the fruit of ignorance and incapa¬
city, the general can have no part in it. Notwithstanding
this censure, it is somewhat singular that the only battle in
which a considerable British corps was severely handled
was of this description, when Berwick defeated Lord Gal¬
way at Almanza. Accident, it must be owned, had a great
share in this battle; for it is asserted that the statue of St
Antonio, the nominal commander-in-chief, was shattered
by a cannon ball, which instantly caused the Portuguese to
retreat, and leave the British and Dutch to their fate.
The second order is the parallel, reinforced upon one or
several parts of the line. In this class, especially if dispo¬
sitions with an angle to the front or rear are included,
most of the great victories of ancient and modern times
may be reckoned. For although it is not the most perfect
in theory, it is the most constantly applicable in practice,
under almost every possible character of ground, or counter¬
disposition of the enemy.
The oblique order of battle is the third and the best class
of tactical dispositions; but in the application, great sim¬
plicity of combination is necessary, and great prudence in
the execution. Against a manoeuvring army ably com¬
manded, it will always be very difficult to apply it; but when
produced, the effect is instantaneous and decisive: it is the
triumph of discipline and of grand manoeuvre.
IX. Orders of battle, or the most appropriate disposition
for leading troops into action, should possess the inherent
qualities of mobility and solidity. To attain these two ob¬
jects, troops which are to remain on the defensive should
be partly deployed and partly in columns, as the allied army
was at Waterloo, or the Russians at Eylau ; but the corps
destined to attack a decisive point should be disposed into
two lines of battalions, formed into columns of more or less
density. Jomini proposes columns of grand divisions (ac¬
cording to the French formation of a battalion of six com¬
panies, making three grand divisions).
6 5 4 3 2 1
Battalion.
12
11
10
Battalion.
Fnder these general considerations, it may be fixed,
IfcMhe' -   -
the troops are inured to war, and the ground presents
'traordinary features.
Where the locality of the field of battle is difficult
cess, either from natural or artificial causes, and the
s ot different nations not having the same unity of
fre ig and of discipline, it will be preferable to receive the
att' ^ in a position previously selected, wfith the determi-
Three grand divisions would thus form three lines, and
the second line three more. This order, according to his
view, offers much more solidity than a deployed line, which
waves too much, retards the impulse necessary for attack,
and prevents the officers from managing their men. In or¬
der to facilitate the march, obviate the great density of the
>t. xxi.
746
WAR.
^Warlike mass, and procure a greater front, the divisions should be
b 6Land*3 formed onl>’^eep ; for thus the battalions will be more
yJ ~ yan<,_’> moveable. T he march in front, three deep, is always fa¬
tiguing to the centre rank, which, being pressed between
the first and third, produces fluctuation, and consequent
faintness in the onset. In this manner all the desired
strength will be produced ; the three grand divisions giving
a depth of six ranks, which is more than sufficient; and the
front being one third longer, augments the quantity of fire,
if it should become necessary to use it. The enemy like¬
wise will be awred by a display of greater numbers, and
the artillery will have less effect than upon more solid
masses.
If the proposal of Jomini were applied to the British
system of battalion, the same effect would be obtained by
fronts of wings of battalion, each three deep. What is
said of fluctuation in the march is indeed true; but the
lock-step is never, and cannot be, observed, in a charge or
rapid advance to the front in action. The ranks open in
those cases sufficiently to allow freedom of step. Firing
three deep, though practised at drill, is, in truth, when ap¬
plied in battle, not more efficient, perhaps less, than in two
ranks. If therefore the expedient of forming battalions
only in two ranks be resorted to, still the fronts of wings
covering each other, and producing only a depth of four
men, would be sufficient for troops so eminently qualified
for battle as the British. This proposal of Jomini is an
avowal of the inefficiency of dense columns, as they are
usually formed by the French and other continental armies,
in attacks and charges. If that general had been engaged
against the British, he would have been still more con¬
vinced of this. During the late wars, not an instance oc¬
curred where a hostile column, au pas de charge, broke
through a British line. And the charge at Maida by a
brigade of light infantry, at Barossa by the 87th and three
companies of the guards, at Vimiera by the 50th, and at
Waterloo by the whole line, all in deployed order, two
deep only, against lines or columns, demonstrates the error
of supposing that a mass of human beings, possessed of in¬
dividual will and feelings, can be subjected to the laws of
mechanical action.
Rogniat, general of engineers, in the dispositions of the
legion which he proposes, instead of battalions, contends
for three ranks deployed, and the second line in columns,
at quarter distance, ready to form squares when required;
but both he and Jomini agree in the unprofitableness of
fire from a third rank, in which they only maintain opi¬
nions that were long ago held by Folard, Saxe, and Lloyd.
Another system may be suggested, which would obviate
many inconveniences under which the present labours.
J he present system of the infantry might be left such as
habit, founded on experience, has framed it; with the ex¬
ception of arming a third rank with rifled fusils, and spears
about ten feet six inches in length : the fusil, when not
used, to be slung on the shoulder in the manner of rifle¬
men ; and the spear with a spike to fix in the ground, and a
hook about four and a half feet from the bottom, to serve
for a rest in firing.1 As light infantry now form nearly
one third of the foot in armies, this species of troops should
perform all their duties, and be exercised accordingly.
When scattered in front, their fire from a rest would be
more destructive; the spear would give them more confi¬
dence and security against light cavalry. When called
back into line, they would give it solidity ; and in a charge,
their spears, reaching beyond the bayonets of the first rank,
would render it doubly formidable. Being drilled to form
in front or rear, they would be the first rank when thP i
talion forms square to resist cavalry. In pursuits ti
alone should be let loose upon the enemy. By their' •
tution, every battalion, every detachment, would l-J^'
proportion of light infantry. Intrenchments would be n 'tS
obstinately defended, and breaches more easily
If a rivulet were to be forded, their spears would sound f
a passage on a whole line in a moment. On the outon't°r
three spears and two great-coats would form a tent Tl
idea is not new, for the Austrian militia in Hun vary havp6
corps (Granitzer Schutzen) thus armed. Should the c'
rassiers in the armies again resume the lance,—an evenW
some probability, since it is asserted that the Polish bncer
of the guard of Napoleon, now in the Russian service
changed their small Ukraine horses for a larger breed about
two years ago, with the intention of being converted into
cuirassier lancers,—it may be foreseen that the spear will
again be resumed in the infantry.
. x- °n the extensive subject of position we can only
give some particulars. 1
1. The best military positions cannot cover a state mere¬
ly by being occupied and maintained.
2. Every position has its key or decisive point, as before
observed; but this point is not difficult to find. In a scat¬
tered line, it is in the centre ; in a contiguous line, it will
be found on that point where the nearest connection lies
with the base of operations.
3. When an army occupies a position upon a height, or
any other ground fit for a field of battle, it is important to
have the front and flanks most carefully reconnoitred and
watched, to prevent the enemy gaining either extremity of
the line by a secret movement.
4. But as it is admitted, that to employ strong corps for
that purpose, causes a useless waste of force, attracts the
attention of the enemy, and does not, after all, secure the
army from surprise, it is preferable to place small posts of
observation in all the sinuosities of the ground, with orders
to communicate with each other and with the army, or the
nearest intermediate corps. These twro latter rules were
demonstrated by the surprise and attack of the Prussian
army at Hochkirchen, of Korsakoff at Zurich, and Murat
at larutina, but especially on the first-mentioned occasion;
for, next to the battle of Leuthen, no instance produces
more ample proof of the terrible effects of an army being
surprised and taken in flank. The whole mass of Daun’s
forces was actually upon both flanks before they were dis¬
covered.
5. On ground of difficult access, such as vineyards, en¬
closures, gardens, steep heights, &c. the defensive order of
battle should be in lines deployed twro deep, covered by
swarms of skirmishers. But the corps destined for attacks,
and the reserves, are best in columns, formed on their cen¬
tres, in the manner above described (IX.); for the re¬
serves, being destined to fall upon the enemy at the cri¬
tical moment, must advance with resolution and rapidity,
that is, in column. If however it be desired to awe the
enemy by a greater display of forces, the reserve may be
deployed until the moment of attack.
6. A superior army should never wait to be attacked,
still less wholly deploy into line, if compelled by circum¬
stances to remain in its post. In this case no more troops
should form line than are necessary to check the euemy-
The remainder, formed into three or four heavy columns,
should be placed ready to strike a decisive blow upon the
most important point. A great army wholly deployed can
no longer manoeuvre with the same facility as columns; and
s icsc trocps would have no bayonet, they might be furnished with pontoneer swords, and saws and hatchets; both instruments"
great utility in securing posts, clearing obstacles, and opening roads, and a thousand other daily wants. It is not meant that they should
no lave a ri of their own, and modes of formation independent of the battalion ; but merely that, in giving or receiving charges in li'ieor
square, they should then constitute a third rank. j > b o & °
V‘t]
heii deserves attention on account of the consequences
projiced by the neglect of the principles applicable to vil-
lg*
fWhen an army occupies a position perpendicular to
a ri :r, with a wing resting on the border, that wing should
not ie attacked, because, if the enemy changed front in
masitowards the river, the attacking corps might be driven
jntijt. On the contrary, if the onset is directed against
thelher wing with the principal mass of forces, that chance
is iifavour of the assailants; because the wing being turn¬
ed, ;ie whole line will be pressed towards the stream, and
inc< the risk of being destroyed. This would have been
thekse with Hiller’s corps at Wagram, if a prompt retreat
haitot saved it. Similar would have been the fate of the
unid French army at Talavera de la Reyna, had they per¬
sist! in an attack upon the Spaniards; and they acted with
grei judgment in directing their efforts solely towards Lord
Wij ngton’s left.
i fin the successful defence of a position, a repulsed at¬
tic should not be pursued, unless that attack had been de-
because it might have been combined by the ene-
WAR.
747
L , icier troops not engaged immoveable, is repugnant to
,e est principles of tactics.
An army posted behind villages should cover the front
• if them, by occupying the enclosures, &c. with some bat-
tali s of infantry, and the outlets with cannon. The first
■nefhould be sufficiently near to sustain and be sustained
bv em, and also to provide the means of securing the
evaJation of the place, in case the enemy should have
_ai„d so much ground on other points as to be able to
pia:. them. Villages, being liable to be turned, should not
jje fid by considerable corps of infantry, unless their to-
pogiphical situation should constitute them the key of the
pos:on,
as was the case at Vimiera. The battle of Blen-
mylir the purpose of drawing the defensive force out of
its jivantageous ground. An untimely pursuit by the
AuKan right lost the battle of Prague, and by the Sax-
(inslhat of Kesselsdorff, and again by the Austrian centre
thabf Jemmappes.
Positions may sometimes be so arranged, that although
theme scattered, they still possess the faculty of timely
reiaon. Several are indicated in Frederick’s secret stra-
tegial instructions, and one occurs when he besieged 01-
mu. Being greatly inferior to the enemy, who menaced
hinffrom several quarters, he posted a corps at Littau,
wh he remained in person with the covering army at
Pi'hitz; and in order to connect the two masses at will,
a s ill corps occupied the hill of Hrad, between Namiest
annLaskow, to serve as an intermediate point. Order’s
we i given to the corps at Littau, in case of attack, to re-
trej towards him, and if a superior attack were made upon
tluiovering army, he would retire towards the other ; but
if tliely information were received, all were to unite in the
pos ion of Gross Jenitz.
. As it is a maxim to operate against a weak part of
thi nemy’s line, no position should be attacked upon its
stfjgest point, as the Austrians did at Breslau ; but if the
hoiife position be prolonged by a detached corps, the
pri ipal effort should be directed against it; because, if
tin be defeated, the main body is turned, and thereby
wo ;ed.
P ji Armies may sometimes be posted behind a ridge of
M with defensive points upon their summits. 1 hese
81|( d not be attacked without an exact knowledge of the
on the other ; as happened at Dresden, where the left wing Warlike
of the allies was separated from the main body by the ra- Operations
vine of Plauen, and severely handled. Land.
14. When an army remains immoveable in its position,
both its flanks are liable to be turned. To obviate such
manoeuvres, others of a similar character should be opposed
to them, as was done at Albuera. These counter-ma¬
noeuvres are not difficult to execute, because the army
turning a flank moves upon the arc, while the opponent
takes the chord; consequently he is enabled to move a
greater mass in less time, even when both parties are equal
in forces. Rosbach, Vimiera, and Salamanca, are decisive
examples, where the enemy moved in open day (which it
is both difficult and dangerous to do in the night), and
thereby rendered the counter-offensive both prompt and de¬
cisive.
15. There are positions which cannot be turned nor at¬
tacked obliquely. If the stratagem to draw the enemy out
of them does not take effect, a parallel attack with the
centre reinforced is likely to be the best adapted to such
circumstances. The dispositions of Marlborough at Blen¬
heim wrere of this class, and deserve the study of military
men.
1. Between two armies equally capable of manoeuvring, On angles,
the defensive one may form an angle with advantage to se- or fbmia-
cure a flank from attack ; but to render this precaution t'on en P°~
efficacious, the angle alone is not sufficient, because itsience-
utility is only momentary; the mass therefore should change
front in the same direction, and present a whole line to the
enemy.
2. If the army be sufficiently strong to assume the offen¬
sive against the assailant, a change of front,.which is mere¬
ly defensive, should be followed as soon as the angle is
formed and the enemy checked, by placing the line in co¬
lumns of divisions to the flank, and prolonging the direc¬
tion from the position first occupied to gain the hostile
flank. Thus taken in front by the angle, and in flank and
rear by the new direction, the enemy will be defeated.
In fig. 6, A is the army
endeavouring to turn the
left flank of B, which
forms the angle C, and
under the protection of
this corps prolongs its
line in the direction EE,
by means of which the
extremity of the hostile
flank is gained. A can¬
not well oppose the exe¬
cution of this movement
in the presence of the
angle C and of the line
E, which, though it be in
Fig. 6.
ion behind, and precautions to resist a counter move-
• The events of Austerlitz and on the Katsbach prove
*1( 'ecessity of this precaution.
• No position or disposition of attack should be made
e the line is intersected perpendicularly by a difficult
°oncle, such as a river or morass; because the enemy
1113 act defensively on one side, and throw his whole mass
column, can form in an instant; hence A must fall back and
change front also.
3. "An angle to the front of the line or potence, such as
the Austrians formed at Prague and Kollin, is not so service¬
able as one thrown back to the rear ; because the enemy
can readily outflank its extremity from his position, while
that extremity can be sustained but by slow degrees. Thus
at Kollin, the Prussian cavalry turned it at the beginning
of the action ; and at Eylau, Benningsen repulsed the corps
of Davoust on his left, and Ney on his right.
4. If a defensive position has an angle to the rear, the
front will be weakened in proportion as that angle be¬
comes more acute: but if there be a considerable inter¬
val on the summit, where the two lines should meet, the
danger will be still greater; for if the enemy can esta¬
blish himself on the point A, it is clear that the two wings,
A C and A B, will be enfiladed, and forced to retreat;
748
WAR.
Fig. 7.
Oblique
attack.
General
observa¬
tions.
Warlike if not rolled up in confusion by
Operations an actuai charge on either or
^ y YdnL~ these extremities. This
caused the defeat of the Aus¬
trians at Prague, and of the Prus¬
sians at Breslau. Fig. 7.
5. If two allied armies or
great corps take up positions
forming a re-entering angle
with a space between them,
and some considerable obstacle masks that space, they
expose themselves to be attacked and defeated separately:
this danger increases with the increase of the distance be¬
tween them. The corps A D
being separated from B E by
a wood, lake, or other con¬
siderable obstacle at G, the
enemy F H, being covered by
that obstacle, may attack and
defeat one before the other
can arrive to sustain it. Fig.
8. This principle results from
the maxims of interior against
exterior lines of operations.
Such positions as these were
Fig. 8.
the other kept out of his reach. This definition is nnt •
correct, as figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12 demonstrate.
may be out of reach of the enemy, and therefore refuse?
a line nearly parallel, and strongly reinforced on a wing
occupied by Prince Henry and Hulsen, at Freyberg and
Katzenhausern, with the Tharand forest, and, what was
worse (at the distance of more than six leagues), with the
Mulde, between them ; yet the army of the empire, su¬
perior in force, remained three months before them, until
Prince Flenry moved and defeated it at Freyberg.
1. To insure the success of an attack, properly combined
and reinforced on the essential point, it is necessary to re¬
fuse the weaker wing. This precaution is obvious, not only
for the purpose of keeping a weaker part out of reach, but
also because reinforcements are readily drawn from it to
the point where the effort is making. Thus, instead of ex¬
posing it to be repulsed by superior forces, there is a real
advantage in keeping it reserved to secure the victory.
Leuthen affords a proof of the wisdom of such a disposition ;
Kollin and Jdegerndorf of the consequences when it is dis¬
regarded.
2. If it be admitted that the most advantageous attacks
are those which emanate from a concentrated effort upon
an extremity of the hostile line, it becomes indispensable
to gain that extremity by measures which mask the move¬
ment ; for by neglecting this precaution, the enemy may
follow the march of the columns in their endeavours to turn
him, present constantly a front, or even anticipate and
take them in flank, as happened at Rosbach.
3. The march may be concealed by the darkness of the
night, by the conformation of the ground, or by means of a
false attack on the front of the enemy. The two last men¬
tioned are to be preferred, because night marches are un¬
certain and even dangerous, slower and always more irre¬
gular, than those by day. For this purpose it is not neces¬
sary to march by lines, if the movement be masked by an
attack of the advanced guard, while the mass advances to¬
wards the extremity desired, in columns of battalions at
half distances. Phis will render it difficult to be discovered
by the enemy in time to be counteracted.
4. In order to molest a greater space of front, instead of
an advanced guard making a regular attack, it is preferable
to employ a corps of light troops formed in parties, having
points for re-assembling light cavalry, and some artillery to
sustain them. This method is sure to distract the enemy’s
attention, and keep his whole line in check.
An oblique attack, according to Guibert and the Journal
Topographique, is a disposition by which a part, or the
choice of the forces, is advanced towards the enemy, and
without being oblique. (Fig. 9.)
dined line on the head of
the attacks, and form a ^
positive diagonal, without
being reinforced (fig. 10);
or perpendicular upon a c
flank, as at Kunersdorff, with a
wing reinforced (fig. 11) ; or
horizontal upon the head of the
columns without being oblique.
(Fig. 12.) There are several
modifications of these four orders
(among others fig. 11); as, for
example, a perpendicular angle
to the front, as formed by the
Austrians at Prague, Kollin, and
Hochkirchen (fig. 13); the angle
AC being perpendicular to the army
DE, reinforces the right wing of
the line AB without being oblique:
so also an angle to the rear would
reinforce the line without obliquity.
A parallel line, considerably rein¬
forced upon the most important
point, is no doubt good, and even
very generally applicable; for its-
is conformable to the principle
which forms the basis of all ope¬
rations : but it has several incon¬
veniences. The weak part of the
line, being near the enemy, may
be engaged, contrary to the in¬
tention, and be defeated ; which
event would balance
and arrest the advan¬
tages gained on the
other wing; as happen¬
ed to both armies at
Wagram. The rein¬
forced wing having de¬
feated its opponent, can-
It may also be in an in.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
/ i)
Fig. 11.
A
Fig. 12
Fig. 13.
not take it in flank and rear without a considerable move¬
ment, which would separate it from the other, if already
engaged. But admitting the weaker wing not to be en¬
gaged, the other cannot even then turn the flank without
drawing it circularly along the hostile front, which the ene¬
my must necessarily anticipate by being on the chord of the
movement, and consequently give him the advantage of
the offensive by reaching the decisive point first with the
mass of his forces.
With the oblique order of Frederick, as applied at
Leuthen, the effect is quite different; the extremity of the
wing attacked is not only overpowered by a whole line, but
the end of that wing is constantly outflanked, and the line
turned, without manoeuvre, or prolongation of direction,
simply by a direct advance of the oblique line. The dis¬
tance of the divisions which are not intended for the prin¬
cipal attack, places them out of the danger of being engag¬
ed by a superior force, and yet sustains the wing in ac¬
tion. These effects of the open oblique attack, although
known, cannot be too often presented to the reflections o
military men. They offer, besides, another advantage sti
more decisive, in bringing the half of the army constant y
into action against the extremity, probably of only two bn
gades, of the hostile army, which has no counter-manoeuvre
to stop its progress. What troops can stand against sue
odds, when, besides, they are constantly outflanked and ta on
w
jn r, erse ? Is it possible that confusion and dismay should
not fllow in a whole line, whose flank is overthrown, and
netted with total destruction, by the progressive advance
in a irection upon the rear ?
' Y; such must be the infallible result of an oblique at-
tackvhen once it has reached the flank of the opponent
undeovered, as indicated in the preceding maxims; and
whe the lines are rapidly formed, according to the method
of F ?derick, as will be seen in the observations on marches.
l?jgi; 4 demonstrates the mechanism more clearly. The
Fig. 14.
/b
'll,
//
A R.
749
that the lead of the manoeuvres was on the side of the ad- Warlike
versary. Jomini, habituated to the lively national character Operations
of France, lays too much stress on the value of the lead in by Land’
manoeuvres, and therefore does not fully appreciate the
powers of wTell-conducted counter-manoeuvres, which the
cool firmness of British and German soldiers can develope.
The battle of Leuthen furnishes another maxim equally
important, namely, that an army with the flank resting upon
an obstacle, such as the great pond of Gohlau, which cover¬
ed the angle of Nadasti, may still be outflanked by an ob¬
lique attack. For this purpose, it is only necessary to mask
the first brigade of the enemy by the nearest of the attack¬
ing corps, and move obliquely with the next, so as to press
the principal effort upon the second. For the line being
broken, the obstacle is no longer of any use ; and the masked
origade is even in danger of being taken if not promptly
withdrawn. But the manoeuvre is not so advantageous as
when the flank is still supported and easily turned.
j|i Itftling BC, of the army AC, will receive the fire of the
tie secod brigade of the army DKL, while the first brigade,
p or qtreme right, formed in column of divisions, will turn
I* it aiil decide the first attack with rapidity. The second
b briple, in the oblique direction of its march, will soon be
P gecoded by the third; and when that has passed the ex¬
it* trerity, which must constantly recoil before a contiguous
P froi1 the fourth brigade opens its fire; and in this manner,
supusing the army DF, KL, arrived at the dotted line
Ii HI Hie whole will have been engaged in succession with
P a forth or a third of the enemy’s line, the battalions of
wlif, being crushed one after another, will be nearly sur-
P rou led.
PBf'. is demonstration is sufficient to show the great advan-
fc tag of an open oblique order of attack. It is called open,
b bedise the disposition, such as that of Leuthen, was nearly
P at i iht angles with the line of the Austrians, and different
P in t :ry respect from a parallel order. All these advantages
arequally applicable to masses concentrated upon the ex-
1 trci ty which it is intended to crush. The army AB, fig.
|mistead of forming two lines, as in the former figure,
Fig. 15.
n
fc
b
L
V
k
m draw up the first line only, and keep the second in
col uns at half distances behind the right, centre, and left,
PrL ired to manoeuvre or strike the decisive blow. These
col nns will be more moveable, and not being intended for
myiirst attack, they will nevertheless cover it against
co ter-movements of the enemy. The battle of Salamanca
°% a memorable lesson of this description, where the
trd is were concealed by the ground, and then suddenly
W ght in mass upon the enemy’s left wing. That of the
*Gbach, almost the counterpart, was equally grounded
UP these principles; both however with the difference,
Marches in columns to the front, flank, or rear, which On
must be followed by deployment or echellon formations, marches,
are useful as parts of the elementary tactics ; but never
safely applicable near the enemy on a great scale, if they
are at all complicated in the construction of the columns,
or in the nature of the ground. Guibert devoted seve¬
ral volumes to their mechanism; but Tempelhoff alone has
described the nature of Frederick’s columns, by means of
which his dispositions were executed with so much simpli¬
city and precision. Although the present system of mov¬
ing by corps has in a great measure superseded the old
method of organization by lines, and consequently rendered
the march-manoeuvres, which triumphed at Rosbach, Leu¬
then, and Zorndorff, less applicable, they are still the best
for such corps as are obliged to manoeuvre in the presence
of the enemy, whether it be to engage in front or to turn
his flank.
On examining the mechanism of his columns at Kollin,
Leuthen, &c., it will be perceived that his army, having
broken into open columns, each line forming one by a mere
wheel of divisions, right or left in front, by this method the
army could,
1. Execute all the movements united without danger of
being attacked in detail, because the columns of lines were
at no farther distance than was required for actual engage¬
ment.
2. The enemy could neither cut them off nor penetrate
between them.
3. In taking the direction of the intended line, the army,
when moved to the ground, is formed in a few minutes,
that is, in the space of time required for the word of command
to pass down the column to wheel into line. In this me¬
thod, the only precaution required was to send an advanced
guard to protect the march, and at the same time to keep
the enemy in suspense.
4. As the army requires only two or three hundred paces
between the columns, and the divisions no more than their
respective distances, to form into two lines, the manoeuvre
is easily executed with precision.
5. The army having reached the flank of the enemy by
concealing the movement, as before noticed, and wheeling
into line, will not allow the enemy time to form an angle,
or to change front; consequently he will be overpowered
in succession along his line.
6. To conclude, if two columns of the length of the line
of battle are not immediately desired, or the ground re¬
quires a modification, four columns may be formed, by
doubling up the lines, or by marching by wings, without
increasing the difficulty of forming. The four columns
being constructed of the two lines doubled, when arrived
near the point where they are to form, the second and
fourth halt until the first and third have proceeded so far
750
WAR.
Warlike as to disengage from each other. While halted, they protect
Options thg march of the others, and when cleared by them, they
an \ follow in their rear, and thus are prepared to wheel into
line with them.
If the columns are formed by wings, they will again fall
into two lines by a simple change of direction, executed by
all the heads of columns of each line at the same time to
the right or left, and then leading into the rear of the pre¬
ceding. But this transition of columns of wings into co¬
lumns of line should take place at some distance from the
enemy. At Leuthen, this manoeuvre introduced the bat¬
tle: fig. 16. A, the advanced guard masking the march
Fig. 16.
of the army in four columns; B B B B, the heads of
the four columns forming the first line; and C C C C, the
heads of the second line (now in rear of the first), all chang¬
ing direction by a wheel to the right at the same instant,
and consequently forming two open columns ready to wheel
into line. The advance mean time either halts in position
to alarm the enemy on another point, or continues to open
the march by preceding and covering it.
It is however evident that these kinds of marches must
be made on open ground; for in countries deeply inter¬
sected, great movements are impracticable ; and it thus be¬
comes necessary to arrive by the openings which are known,
and engage more or less in columns. By Guibert’s and the
regulation systems, the army being broken into several co¬
lumns, they move with their heads often out of sight of each
other at the distance of more than a mile, and yet they are
expected to keep their alignments and relative distances.
When ordered to form, they either close and deploy, or
march by echellons to fit into an exact alignment. All this
is evidently impossible before the enemy, who must dis¬
cover the tedious manoeuvre, and have time to act as he
pleases while the numerous errors are rectifying ; and if the
centre divisions should be chosen for the points of deploy¬
ment, half the columns must turn their backs upon his fire
to perform it. Frederick, during the whole seven years’
w'ar, attempted these movements only twice ; first in a com¬
bination with Bevern to attack Loudohn, which failed by
the premature arrival of one column ; and, secondly, at Tor-
gau, which, as far as that manoeuvre was concerned, failed
also; for Zieten’s column came too late, and was isolated.
At Minden the French manoeuvred in the same manner,
and were a great part of the night and the next morning
employed in rectifying the errors, which gave Prince Fer¬
dinand time to arrive. It is true, he moved likewise in
columns, but he had previously sent all the generals to
reconnoitre their routes and points of formation, and
cut openings and fix marks to insure the exact direction.
Such precautions surpass even the underhand tricks to help
the manoeuvres in a camp of instruction ; and the very pre¬
cautions prove the impossibility of applying them in ordi¬
nary cases. During the revolutionary wars of France, all
the belligerents met with failures from vain endeavours to
apply them, notwithstanding that the new' organization of
corps and the use of swarms of skirmishers greatly facili¬
tated their execution.
Lehwald’s manoeuvre at Joegerndorf is worthy of notice,
as particularly applicable in intersected ground. His in¬
fantry advanced in a double column from the centre, and
formed to right and left without risk of confusion ; the ca-
Fig. 18.
K.'\
Xb
Li'
valry moving at some distance, easily took up the aV
ment. ' 1 ai§n" " t
The order of march on Frederick’s system must how ^ i
ever be considered only as a manoeuvre, and not to b ^
plied to marches in great operations. eaP'
As this order of march is best calculated for attack
against lines, so is it also upon columns in march. An ?
tack upon an army while on the march is advantageous t
the same reasons as an attack upon an extremity of a lin •
because the army attacked on the heads of its column"6-
precisely in the same situation, relatively to the enemy r
one assailed in flank. The battle of Rosbach furnishes an
illustration. A B, fig. 17, represents the army of the kin?
C D that of the French. p.
Supposing them both in line, ^
CD would still be attacked A ' ’ ^
perpendicularly, and out- ‘   —
flanked on one of its wings, r : e
exactly as it was on the head
of its columns. The advan¬
tage of both these manoeu¬
vres lies in the necessity to
which the enemy is reduced : : n
of bringing his battalions in succession to the front, while
the opponent, acting with vigour, defeats them, one after
another, by the superior pressure of his mass, provided its
march be onward in an appropriate direction ; horizontally
if the column moves perpendicularly, and perpendicularly
if the march is horizontal. The object for producing, as
nearly as possible, an opposite direction, is to present a
whole line to a head of a column, or to an extremity of a
line; because, if both moved in a direction to meet with
the heads of their columns, both would be obliged to deploy,
and a parallel order would be the consequence, without
tactical advantage to either army. In fig. 18, the columns
AB meeting those of the ene¬
my CD in the same order, both,
fearing to be attacked, will im¬
mediately deploy ; A B will
therefore form the line FG, and
CD the line HI, which gives no
advantage to either party.
The battle of Rosbach offers
a further illustration. As an
angle must necessarily be form¬
ed when the heads of columns
are attacked, to check the first
efforts of the enemy, the ad¬
vanced guard or leading brigade should deploy, while the
rest of the army should take a new direction of march, clear
of the enemy’s flank, in order to protect the retreat of the
advance already engaged, and to gain a station for acting
offensively. See fig. 19. If the advanced guard or leading
Fig. 19.
WAR.
751
r: Ur.-.os AB of the columns HI be attacked, a deployment
* nu^t'ike place according to the direction of the attack CD.
’bis lanceuvre having checked the enemy FG, the army
n th rear being thus momentarily protected, should imme-
jgte change direction exteriorly, by filing the divisions
1t0 new alignment IL; or by altering the direction of
1‘ le lunins in a similar manner, so as to produce a pro-
plngifion beyond the enemy’s flank KK. It is however
*• Carjthat if the columns are left in front, the operation is
:o ing to rule; but if the right be in front, a direction
th left would present the reverse flanks to the enemy,
et would be no time for a countermarch, and still less
eeling up in succession. It therefore appears that
It he t umns should change the pivots of divisions, and wheel
0 tin right into line; for though this manoeuvre would be
igah; the letter of the regulations, no disorder would ensue,
i: in(l ills actually practised, at least by cavalry, in some of the
jti lontjental armies. There is no want of proofs of the oc-
|t ;asical necessity of this manoeuvre in every campaign ; but
Iti ,he httle of Laswaree wall suffice for an illustration. The
r feritiji infantry advanced in a single column by the right,
it ind ter crossing the Mahnus Nye, a deep sunken rivulet,
l!i bun litself opposite the enemy’s right. To have prolonged
I1 he iiovement, was to produce a parallel order of battle;
fi’ idvaiage was therefore taken of a ravine which led to the
P lost:} right flank, and could conceal the movement. The
f iea( if the column turned to the left, and gained the flank ;
I" mt :ien ordered to wheel into line, the pivots being re-
© vers , some of the Sepoy troops, adhering to the letter
fit of tl rules and regulations, wheeled with their backs to the
T s method of converting a probable defeat into an of-
ensii|; movement and oblique attack, will probably intimi-
ic enemy, and check his pursuit of AB, from the
it he perceives the menaced attack against his own
flank. As a manoeuvre it is also more rapid and simple Warlike
than a change of front, which would only tend to a parallel Operations
formation. Although the existing modifications in the by Land-
structure of armies, as already observed, renders this kind Y ~
of attack more rare, and the organization by corps and di¬
visions is advantageous to prevent them, it is nevertheless
true, that the Prussians lost the battle of Auerstadt, and
the French were placed in the most critical situations at
Marengo, Eylau, and Liitzen, because they were attacked
on the march before they expected a general action.
The battle of Waterloo, unquestionably the most decisive Principles
event of the late awful contest, offers so many instructive0.! disposi-
circumstances, and so much matter for deep meditation, in ^on*at tbe
the position and manoeuvres, and in the exhibition of the ^^100
soundest maxims of war, that it may be considered as a
general illustration of the advanced state of the art of war
at the present period. Without entering into details, the
minutiae of which are apt to confuse, wye shall content our¬
selves with merely pointing out the principal dispositive
features which it displays. As there are many plans more
or less correct, and the ground is generally known, the re¬
marks which w e are about to offer will be readily understood
by those who have any elementary knowledge of war.
When Blucher had retreated from Ligny, and the duke of
Wellington had fallen back from Quatre Bras, he occupied
the position of Mont St Jean, determined to risk a battle with
the forces he could collect on that point. Exclusively of the
Prussians, whose severe loss in killed, wounded, and strag¬
glers, could not immediately be reorganized or replaced, but
by the expected arrival of the corps of Bulow, the duke’s
army consisted of about eighty-one battalions and eighty-
seven squadrons ; which, with the artillery, may have
amounted to 66,700 men. Of these upwards of thirty bat¬
talions and as many squadrons had never been in action.
The letters AAA indicate the position of the British array, B B that of the Prussians,
and C C C C that of the French.
752
W A R.
\\ arlike This mass of forces was posted with the centre diagonally
fbPe Land 3 across and in front of the forking of the two causeways from
Jll‘ Brussels to Charleroy and to Nivelles; the right centre
behind the chateau of Goumont, and the left, considerably
refused, passed in rear of La Haye Sainte, along the cross
road in the direction of Ohain. Behind the right centre,
Lord Hill placed his corps, en potence, in columns, prepared
to manoeuvre to his right, on the small plain of Braine la
Leud; or to his left, to sustain the centre. In and about
Braine la Leud was a Netherland division, with the right
thrown forward, and covered by the rivulet Hain, and leav¬
ing the small plain open; a kind of gorge to tempt the
enemy between the two sides of the re-entering angle of
the right wing. The Prussians were expected to debouche
through the woods of Lasne towards Planchenois, which
would form the left into another gorge, or re-entering angle.
Thus the position formed a kind of open W (fig. 20, A A A A,
B B) with the chateau of Goumont at the summit of the sali¬
ent angle, covered by a plantation of wood and enclosures,
occupied by six or eight battalions ; so that the enemy could
not enfilade from behind that plantation, either of the faces of
the centre, nor approach on either of the causeways which
passed through the centre, without presenting his flank.
Besides this point, La Haye Sainte, a stone farm close to
the chausse of Charleroy, and farther on the left the farm
of Papelotte and chateau of Frichermont, were occupied.
The whole front offered a gentle slope towards the enemy,
and in the rear the cavalry was distributed in brigades, each
in two lines, covered by the rising ground ; and the artillery,
all the field-pieces of which were nine-pounders or twelves,
formed a line of almost contiguous batteries along the front,
interspersed with howitzers and rockets.
By the returns found after the battle, it appears that the
enemy had debouched from Charleroy with 122,000 men,1
exclusive of the reinforcements that joined after the 15th
of June. Of these he produced on the field of battle about
80,000 men, formed in concentrated masses on both sides
of the chausse of Charleroy, and gradually advancing the
right parallel to the British left (CCCC); but as he was
jealous of the woods on the right, he formed an angle to the
rear, and kept his reserves far back. He had made a de¬
monstration with a corps of cavalry beyond the British right
towards Hal, where he found the corps of General Colville,
and Prince Frederick of Orange, with two divisions posted
at Fubise, Clabbeck, and Braine le Chateau, to cover that
avenue to Brussels. Another corps, 42,000 strong, under
Grouchy, was detached to his right upon Wavre, to turn
the allies, pursue or arrest the Prussians, and prevent the
timely junction of Bulow. Thus the dispositions of both
the commanders were combined with consummate ability;
Napoleon operating on the system of throwing two thirds
of his masses alternately on either side, and the allies in
combining manoeuvres to bring a superior mass on the deci¬
sive point. On the field however the problem was difficult
to solve. The communication with France was open only
by the roads of Charleroy and Nivelles, hence the enemy
could not quit them in the attack; nor could he gain Brus¬
sels by any other avenue than that of Waterloo; therefore,
to possess the chateau of Goumont, without which he could
not arrive at the position, was the natural object of the at¬
tack. As this was sustained by the mass of the allied army,
and could not be enfiladed, his attacks failed. All those
directed on the road of Charleroy to the left centre were
necessarily oblique, and exposed to the fire in flank before
they could reach their opponents. To have risked a gene¬
ral onset of all his masses, before the British were thinned
and exhausted, he knew, under the circumstances of the
moment, to be too hazardous. The plain of Brai™ l t
appeared open. He could arrive by it; but that J
cunostance proved that the enemy was prepared on tW, v
To have turned the force thither would in the fa
have caused the loss of the communication bv fWiP
onrl r-»-IVt/-til^1.!  /* ,1
and next facilitated the junction of the Prussians - andT’
sides, the corps on the other side of the Hain flanked th
advance, and could in a short time be sustained bv tl
two divisions in its rear, and which he knew to be at h I
He would therefore have been placed between two fi
and have lost his point of retreat upon Charleroy • and th’
road by Nivelles might, meantime, be cut off by the troon6
left behind at Mons. Again, if he threw his masses towards
the left, he only went to meet the Prussians, and left the
British masters of the road of Nivelles, and possibly if h
advanced far, of that of Charleroy. He entangled himself
in woods and defiles, where his superior cavalry could net
act. The character of his opponent bespoke immediate of¬
fensive movements from the moment his right would be at
liberty, therefore the chances were again in favour of the
enemy ; yet this was the only advantageous side, because it
brought him nearer Grouchy, and in case of defeat he
could take a new line of retreat by Namur. He however
preferred the experiment which the enthusiastic valour of
his troops might enable him to make; and this committed
him so deeply, that, when at length the Prussians appeared,
a retreat was no longer possible.
These observations disprove the ignorant assertion, that
little skill was displayed on either side. The generals and the
soldiers equally did their duty: the veteran Blucher behaved
with just prudence in keeping so long back from the danger¬
ous manoeuvre which was assigned him; and when he saw the
hostile cavalry destroyed, he acted with vigour and skill.
As for Grouchy, who wasted his time in forcing the positionof
Wavre across the Dyle, everywhere fordable, his manoeuvres
show that he felt the danger of his movement, and he wisely
remained on the banks. Much might be added upon the
judgment which posted the corps at Wavre and another at
Hal, on the several lines of retreat which the allies could
take in case of defeat, on the dispositions of the artillery,
the squares and lines formed and reduced repeatedly, the
disposition and effect of the charges of cavalry, the counter¬
offensive of the Prussians, the general charge to the front,
and fate of the enemy’s squares; but enough has been stated
to recommend the study of a battle where three of the great¬
est commanders and the best manoeuvring armies in Europe
gloriously struggled for victory ; and, let it be added, not¬
withstanding the assertions to the contrary, where none
committed a positive fault, and where Napoleon, in parti¬
cular, who has been condemned by some of his own par¬
tisans, operated with all the skill and vigour which the cir¬
cumstances of the moment allowed.
This unpleasant operation in war requires as greatadis-O;
play of skill and firmness as any. The Austrians have often tr
conducted theirs with sagacity; and it is perhaps owing to
the persevering spirit of their retreats, that, after twenty
unfortunate campaigns, the monarchy was as formidable as
in the commencement. Their generals are not then con¬
trolled by cabinet orders, and therefore always operate with
precision. Among the retreats which deserve the study ot
the soldier, are that of Schulemburg with the Saxons, the
duke of York’s out of Belgium, the two retreats of the
Archduke Charles, that of Moreau from Bavaria to the
Rhine, the Russian retreat upon Moscow and Tula, and, last }>
the fine movement of Prince Eugene Beauharnois in Itay-
In the choice of a position, it is not sufficient to have a
1 The return was dated the 13th, according to the assertion of a Prussian officer of the staff. The whole force brought over the frontier
must therefore have amounted io nearly 150,000 men.
.u
tron [front and secure flanks ; the means of retreating must
|o L considered in case of defeat. Lloyd, in his “ Reflec-
ions n ^e Battle of Kollin,” observes that a defeated army
etirc with greater facility by dividing itself into as many
for]:
ft'f
by a new line, having his communications open by Wesel, Warlike
Lassel, and all the fortresses of Holland ; the sterile coun-OPeratk,n
. , .... . ... ... . . try to which the allies must have followed him could not by Land-
rewith greater facility by dividing itself into as many have subsisted their vast cavalry; and the sandv roads  v  
_ps}3 the nature of the country will allow; because, 1st, would hardly have allowed sufficient transport of provision
tlit !nemy form an equal number of divisions, he cannot to maintain the troops. There were however many and
l|er» vigorously upon any, and the retiring army having probably superior reasons, which made him reject the nro
he fffility of reuniting, may totally defeat one of the hostile posal. J 1
flfps: 2d, if the enemy operates en masse, it can be only If the art of war consists in applying the superior force Pursuits,
owats one, and the others fall back unmolested: that di- of a mass upon a weak point of the enemy, it follows that
isiot however, covered by a strong rear guard, avoids a defeated army should be pursued with the utmost viva-
erioi actions, and having the faculty of moving more ra- city. Never delay till to-morrow, is an ancient military
,idly lecause it is less numerous, can escape likewise with- maxim, applicable especially in pursuit; for the strenoth
lutg.atloss. Bulow, taking up this question mathematical- of an army consists in its organization, in the unity result-
y, auances the opinion that the columns should move out- ing from the connection of all its parts with the main-
vkdpr eccentrically, from a point towards the periphery ; spring which makes it move. After a defeat, this unity no
ni Jmini combats both so far victoriously. He observes, longer exists. The harmony between the head which
hat 'oyd admits that the division of the pursuing forces combines, and the body which executes, is broken; their
xpo.3 them to defeat; why then recommend such a ma- connection is suspended, often destroyed. To pursue and
iceuv;: to a retreating army, which must be already inferior attack is to march to a certain triumph. All the late cam-
olhjenemy? He quotes the fine concentric retreat of paigns offer signal examples of this truth. Generals of me-
he ichduke Charles, and might have added the Russian diocrity often neglect this maxim, and their victories are
nd llth Lord Wellington’s. But in examining the me- scarcely more than a forcible removal of troops. The di-
:han in of these movements, it appears that none of them rection of the pursuit, though guided by circumstances,
ias te consequence of a defeat, and especially such de- should always however aim at gaining the hostile line of
eats i; the modern system of attack inflicts; they were
ei armies manoeuvring back towards their base upon
heiriwn lines of operations, watching a favourable oppor-
unitito resume the offensive; or retreats after battles
iheriboth parties had claims to the victory, as Benning-
fs Her Eylau, and Kutusoff’s after Borodino. The dif-
ereni: between Lloyd and Jomini is merely in words; for
he i mer points out the facility of uniting two corps,
.hic.iifhe meant the eccentricity applied by Bulow, would
ie insossible.
en'
w A R.
753
communications, and cutting off the enemy from his base;
because, by so doing, he may be thrown upon such obstacles
as to force him to surrender.
Sieges, according to Lloyd, should never be undertaken Sieges,
but with the following views : 1st, when fortresses are si¬
tuate upon the passages which lead to the enemy, so as to
render it impossible to penetrate without capturing them;
2d, when they intercept the communications, and the
country is unable to furnish the necessary subsistence ;
Bilan army completely defeated is no longer in the 3d, when they are wanted to cover magazines formed in
andnf the general, whether he be the duke of Brunswick the country, and thereby to facilitate the operations ; 4th,
r N loleon. A check, such as the Austrians suffered at when the enemy has considerable depots within the for-
deuis, and the allies at Liitzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, tress, of which he is absolutely in want; 5th, when the
oes »t prevent the commander from executing the best capture of a fortress produces the conquest of a considerable
leas es that circumstances will allow. Thus, in the three tract of country, and enables the besiegers to winter in that
jrnu the armies retired in mass; in the latter, they di- vicinity. To these may be added, 6th, the recapture of a
ideillnto several columns, and thereby not only covered fortress essential in the defence of a frontier,
lem Ives by the mountains of Bohemia, but also applied 1. As victory is best secured by taking the lead in anCora-i
<loyi maxim, in uniting two corps to destroy one of the operation, an army covering a siege should never wait to sieges,
ursul’s at Kulm. Hence circumstances must govern the be attacked by the enemy, but endeavour to anticipate
leas e; and if, after a real defeat, a broad river, chain of him; for, by defeating the forces which aim at raising the
[jittniins, or range of fortresses, can be gained in two or siege, the place is sure to fall.
wee iarches, the division of a routed army may be ap- 2. If the enemy approach the covering army with an im-^»
lieu t, a safe rule. posing mass, the siege should be raised, all the forces united, **
A Itiring army is not always obliged to fall back upon and an attack in force directed against him.
s ov frontier; it may sometimes change the direction of 3. When the relieving army is defeated, the siege should
be resumed, while the pursuit continues, and the enemy is
^ .    not in a condition to return before the capture of the place.
18 hi, and marched into Bohemia. This measure was 4. When an army besieges a place, in consequence of
lso 1 ’posed to Napoleon before the battle of Leipzig. He offensive movements and anterior success, the covering
’as a ised to approach the Elbe, call in the corps of St army should not remain in a position near the place, but
yr t m Dresden, cross the river about Wittemberg, and drive the enemy as far as possible forward; for the reliev-
l by the right bank towards Magdeburg. The Prus- ing army will find the difficulty of raising the siege in-
lan d northern armies, being on the left of the Elbe, creased with the distance it is removed from the place;
°ulu ot have prevented the destruction of Berlin, Pots- but if at length that army should arrive so near as to fur-
atn' id Brandenburg. And from Magdeburg, reinforced nish the probability of raising the siege, the besieging corps
frth
> yast garrison, and connected with the Danes and should then rapidly join the covering army, and make a
Cl 11 vA II vC vi W I LI 1 1 s CL 11o ell ■ V-c oil w 1V4 | ^ J
e c' ps of Davoust at Hamburg, he could have operated united effort to defeat it,
1 n
elh( t '>reS. ^u^ert- Jomini, Trait6 de Grande Tactique. Guerres
, -eschichte des sieben jarigen Kriegs. Frederic, Histoire de mon Temps. Instructions a ses G6n£raux. Instructions Secrettes.
irtil r>— UL;‘ sieoen jangen xvriegs. rreuenc, rustoire ue uiou itruips. » ..vo —-   
ST™."® de Maln de Maitre. Itogniat, Considerations sur 1’Art de la Guerre. (Euvres du G6m5ral Warnery. Venturini, An-
Taktik. Die Bellona. Die Minerva. ’ Scharnhorst, Militairisches Taschenbuch. Militairisches Journal. Niihere Beleuchtung
Le Prince
ffi-^iebenen Operations Plan. ' Bulow, Betrachtung uber die Kriegs Kunst. Geist des neurn Kriegs System.
1 nncipes de la Strategic, traduit par Jomini. Campagne de 1799. Vaudoncourt, Campagnes d Italic en 1813 et 1814. Dumas,
XXI. 5 C
754
WAR.
PART II—WARLIKE OPERATIONS AT SEA.
Warlike
Operations
' at Sea. Referring generally to the articles Admiral and Ad-
v miralty, Docks, Navigation, Navy, Seamanship, Ship¬
building, Signals, and Telegraph, for much that ap¬
pertains to naval war, vve shall here direct our attention to
that branch of the subject which is commonly designated
Naval Tactics. By this term is understood the art of ar¬
ranging fleets or squadrons in such an order or disposition
as may be most convenient for attacking the enemy, de¬
fending themselves, or of retreating with the greatest ad¬
vantage. Naval tactics are founded on those principles
which time and experience have enabled us to deduce from
the improved state of modern naval warfare, which has oc¬
casioned, not only a difference in the mode of constructing
and working ships, but even in the total disposition and
regulation of fleets and squadrons. We here propose to
lay down the general principles of naval tactics, and to de¬
scribe, as briefly as is consistent with perspicuity, the most
improved systems which have been adopted in modern
times.
Ordinary Fleets are generally divided into three squadrons, the
division of vanj centre, and rear, each under the command of a flag-
from any intermediate ship, the ships towards one extre
mity of the line will be on the bow of that ship, while th s 0
towards the other extremity will be on her quarter. \yk'e
several ships in the same line steer the same course wh?
that course is different from the line of sailing, they are said
to sail chequerwise.
When the ships of a fleet arranged in any of the orders
of sailing, and on the same line, perform successively the
same manoeuvre, as each gets into the wake of the’shi
that leads the van of the line or squadron, tacking or veer¬
ing, bearing away or coming to the wind in the same point
of the wrake of the leading ship, they are said to manmn
in succession.
There are usually reckoned five orders of sailing, exclu¬
sive of the line of battle, the order of retreat, &c. In the
first order (see figs. 1 and 2), the fleet is arranged on the0
fleets.
officer. The admiral of the fleet, or chief in command,
leads the centre division, while the van is usually command¬
ed by a vice-admiral, and the rear by a rear-admiral. Each
squadron is distinguished by the position of the colours in
the ships of which it is composed. Thus, the ships of the
centre squadron carry their pendants at the main-top-gal¬
lant mast head, while those of the van division have their
pendants at the fore-top-gallant mast head, and those of
the rear at the mizen-top-mast head. Each squadron, as
far as possible, consists of the same number of ships, and as
nearly as may be of the same force. In large fleets, the
squadrons are sometimes again divided in a similar man-
the van and rear of the squadron being headed by
Defini¬
tions.
i-
\ t
■v'fr
if
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
r
4
rear-admirals, or senior captains, called commodores. In
the usual mode of forming the lines, each commanding ad¬
miral arranges his ship in the centre of his own squadron,
and thus the admiral of the fleet is in the centre of the
line. When no enemy is in sight, the sloops, store-ships,
fire-ships, and other small vessels, are dispersed to wind¬
ward of the fleet, that they may be more easily supported,
and more readily answer signals. The frigates lie to wind¬
ward of the van and rear of the convoy, thus keeping
a good look-out, and keeping the small vessels in their
proper station. When the fleet sails in three columns, the
centre still keeps in the middle, while the van and rear
t. form the starboard or the larboard column, according to
circumstances. These arrangements are called orders of
sailing, and will be better understood from the following
definitions.
The starboard line of bearing is that line on which the
arranged ships of a fleet bear from each other on a close-
hauled line, whatever course they may be steering, so that
when the ships haul their wind, or tack together, they may
be on a line close hauled upon the starboard tack. The
larboard line of bearing is that line on which the ships, when
hauling their wind, or tacking together, may be formed on
a line close hauled on the larboard tack. The ships of a
fleet are said to be on a line abreast when their keels are
parallel to each other, and their main-masts lie in the same
straight line. Ships are said to be in a line on the bow or
quarter when they are arranged in a straight line cutting
their keels obliquely in the same angle, so that, reckoning
starboard or larboard line of bearing, all the ships steering
the same course. In these cases the fleet, by hauling the
wind when in the starboard line, as in fig. 1, will be ready
to form the line on the starboard tack; and when ranged
on the larboard line of bearing, as in fig. 2, it will, by tack¬
ing, be ready to form the line on the larboard tack. The ar¬
rows annexed to the diagrams mark the direction of the
wind, as in ordinary charts.
This first order of sailing is now seldom employed, ex¬
cept in passing through a narrow strait. In the second or¬
der of sailing, the fleet steering any proper course, is ranged
in a line perpendicular to the di¬
rection of the wind, as in fig. 3. Fig. 3.
This second order, besides being |
equally defective with the former, . ^ ^ 01
is subject to the additional disad-
vantage of rendering it extremely
difficult for the ships to tack, without each ship falling on
board that next astern.
In the third order of sailing, the whole fleet is close
hauled, and ranged on the two lines of bearing, so as to
form an angle of twelve points, having the admirals s ip
(A, fig. 4) in the angular point, and
the whole fleet steering the same Fig. 4-
course. Thus, supposing, as in the
figure, the wind at north, the star- ^
board division of the fleet will bear
W. N. W. of the admiral, and the
larboard E- N. E. This order in small fleets orsquadroib:
is superior to either of the former; but when the flee
numerous, the line will be too much extended. .
In the fourth order, the fleet is divided into six or
columns, and is thus more concentrated. The comm
itH.
Srs I'
I of |5
CUl UllJII&j dllU. lo LllUO lliWA W V/V. xEnir cnilft'
ers, ranged on the two lines of bearing, have th q:
t/I Oj IcIdJ^CvA V/ll i/vtv v-' O . rl' ’DptlOn
drons astern of them, on two lines parallel to the d‘re .
the wind ; the first ships of each column being, wi F
to the commander of the squadron, the one on
board and the other on his larboard quarter, ihe
between the columns should be such that the
Pasley’s Essay on the Military Policy and Institutions of tbe British ^
The foregoing part of this article was written for the Supplement to the former editions, by Lieutenant-Colonel Cha ^ not accuWtel'
The part that follows, on Naval Tactics, was written by one of the contributors to the fourth edition, but of w rose na
informed.
Precis des Evenemens Militaires. Coxe’s Life of Marlborough,
pire. Jones’s Journals of Sieges.
f he
nd
i ler
s leet.
i
WAR.
Fig. 5.
J
$ &
0 $
b
$
#
Fig. 6.
Ldi be reduced to
t rd order of sailing,
f m that to the or- ^ ^
( battle. This or- ^ ^
ler i; adapted for fleets ! i
Jccfesroys crossing the (//
ceaoand is represent- I j
ding. 5. Butasitre- $ $
uire-much tinie to re- j |
uce, fleet from this
rderj;o that of battle,
is efective when in
jseiie of an enemy.
Inhe fifth order, the
dose hauled, is ar-
angc, in diree columns
iarn! to each other, the
an cpmonly forming the
reathr, and the rear the
ee (j umn. See fig. (i.
r. represents the same
eifcxcept that each co-
imimis here subdivided
nto vo, with the ship
learii; the commander of
-ach: uadron in the centre
ilea* subdivision.
Inarming the or-
ler if line of battle,
lie ups of the fleet
ire niwn up in a line
iear close hauled,
;tailing under easy
jl, , that each ship
nay se at a certain
listare from the ship
mini lately ahead, as
ci le’s length, or ^
lal flit distance. The
fire-: ps and frigates
iheaand astern, form
in parallel to the
. ^ and to the
inntSard of it if the enemy be to the leeward, but to the
eewil if the enemy
Fig. 8.
I
Fig. 7.
11:
• or
ti indvvard. This
irde is denoted by
! where the fleet
salmg on the star-
bountack, with the
wim ,t north.
n a fleet is com-
o retreat before
ior force, it is
arranged in an
the reverse of
rd order of sail-
“fc
\Y
■ pelle i
su|
isuai
irdej
he t
ng; e divisions of the fleet being ranged in the two lines
)fbiing, so as to form an angle of 135° or twelve points,
he i niral’s ship being in the angular point, and the fri-
?atej transports, &c. included within the wings to leeward.
See •. 9, where the fleet is sailing right before the wind.
I"'®'
-r
Fig. 9.
!
r^-r
D'-i
<D-
75d
Though any other direction may be taken, the two lines still Warlike
form the same angle. Operations
The order of convoy is that in which the ships are all in at Sea>
each other’s wake, steering in the same point of the com- n , '~r'T''
pass, and forming a right line. If the fleet is numerous, convoy.
it may be divided into three columns, which are to be
ranged parallel to each other, that of the admiral occupy¬
ing the centre, and all steering the same course.
Having thus described the ordinary positions of a fleet,
we must explain the manoeuvres by which they are pro¬
duced, and we shall begin with the orders of sailing.
To form a fleet in the first order of sailing, supposing the Method of
ships to be in no particular order, that ship which is to lead forming the
on the proposed line of bearing for the order of sailing,Hrst ppk*
runs to leevyard of the greater part of the fleet, and thenof salling•
hauls her wind under an easy sail. Each of the other ships
then proceeds to take the proper station, by chasing the
ship which is to be ahead of her, and when in the wake of
the leading ship, adjusts her quantity of canvass so as to
preserve the proper distance. The ships thus arranged
astern of each other are in the line of battle; and from this
the first order of sailing is formed, by each ship bearing
away at the same time, and all steering the proposed course.
In forming the second order of sailing, the leading ship secon(j or.
runs to leeward of so many of the fleet that each ship der of sail-
may readily fetch her wake, and then steers a course eight mg-
points from the wind, under an easy sail. The line is
formed by each ship in the same manner as in the first or¬
der, except that, before bearing away, the line is perpendi¬
cular to the direction of the wind, or each ship has the wind
on her beam.
As, in the third order of sailing, the admiral’s ship is in Third or-
the centre, to produce this position, the fleet being formed der.
in a line on one of the lines of bearing, and the ships steer¬
ing in each other’s wake, ten points from the wind, the lead¬
ing or leewardmost ship first hauls her wind. The second
ship does the same as soon as she gets into the wake of the
former; and this is done by each ship till the admiral’s
ships haul their wind, when they reach the wake of the
leading ship. At the same time that the admiral’s ship
hauls her wind, the sternmost half of the fleet does the
same. The ships are now in the third order of sailing, from
which the fleet can be formed in the line of battle on either
tack.
To form the fourth order of sailing, the commanding or.
admirals range themselves on the two lines of bearing, at der.
a proper distance from each other, steering the proposed
course; and the ships of the several columns take their
respective places, parallel to each other, and forming lines
in the direction of the wind.
To form the fifth order, the three leading ships of the Fifth or-
divisions take their posts abreast and to leeward of each der.
other, keeping their wind under an easy sail; then the
ships of each squadron make sail, and take their respective
stations at the proper distance astern of their leaders, while
the commanders of each division, and the corresponding
ships of each, keep mutually abreast of each other.
]. In forming from the first order of sailing, if the ships are To form
running large on the tack that answers to the line of bear-the line of
ing on which they sail, and if the line is to be formed on battle,
the same tack, all the ships haul their wind at once, or as
quickly as possible after the next to windward; but if they
be on the other tack with
respect to the line of bear- Fig. 10.
ing, they all haul their wind ft if
and tack or veer together. /' & ft *
If the line of battle is to
be formed on the other line
of bearing, the ship most
to leewards veers or tacks,
and hauls her wind, while
j
ft
(8
&
756
W A R.
Warlike the rest of the fleet veer or tack at the same time, and
Operations steer wjth the wind four points free, and each ship hauls
her wind as soon as she gets within the wake of the leader.
See figs. 10 and 11.
at Sea.
i ?’ fir i!K.
i I I 4; "
e-i L ; !
Fig. 11.
!
Suppose the fleet running before the wind in the second
order of sailing. To form the line from this position, all the
ships haul up together on the proper tack, presenting their
heads eight points from the wind at the line on w^hich they
are arranged; the leading ship then hauls her wind, imme¬
diately making sail or shortening sail, so as to close or
open the order, and the same is done successively by all
the rest. See fig. 12.
Fig. 12.
stand on ; or, lastly, the lee column brings to, the
runs under easy sail two points free, to get ahead oflu
rear squadron, while the rear bears away under a prp f
sail two points free, to get ahead of the centre division8 >
2. Suppose the weather and centre columns to im
change. To form the lee under these circumstances th
centre stands on, while the w'eather column bears away e' h
points, and having reached the wake of the centre wh'h
now forms the van, hauls up; the ships of the lee colutn
tack together, and run under a press of sail, within two
points free, so as just to gain the rear of the line when the-
retack together (see fig. 15) ; or the lee column brings tj
Fig. 15.
/>>
/ / . y
/ Th
^ / / / /
< / /
<5^ / /
. fft—jil—■fit.—ffl—iji iTi.—.HI
t V f ¥ r r Y
i ! i 1 ! 1
In a fleet running large in the ‘third order, the line of
battle is formed by the wing which is in the line of bearing
corresponding to the tack on which the line is to be form¬
ed, and the ship at the angle, hauling their wind together,
while the ships of the other wing haul up together eight
points from the wind; each ship moving in this direction
till she reach the wake of the other wing, when she hauls
close up. See fig. 13.
In forming the line of battle on the same tack from the
fifth order of sailing (as the fourth is not calculated for
forming a line of battle), the centre brings to, so as only to
keep steerage way ; the weather column bears away two
points, and when it gets ahead of the centre, hauls its
wind, while the ships of the lee column tack together, and
crowd sail to gain the wake of the centre, when they re¬
tack together, and complete the line (see fig. 14); or the
Fig. 14.
weather column brings to, while the centre and lee tack to¬
gether, and bear away two points free. When the ships
of the centre column have gained the wake of the van, they
retack together, and bring to ; and when those of the lee
have gained the rear line, they retack together, and all
while the centre squadron bears away three points under
easy sail, and having reached the wake of the van, hauls
up to form the centre division.
3. Suppose the centre and lee columns to interchange.
The lee column stands on close hauled under an easy sail;
the weather column bears away two points under a press of
sail, till it reach the head of the line, when it hauls up;
and the centre bears away eight points, and when in the
wake of the lee, now the centre, hauls its wind. See
fig. 16.
Fig. 16.
'‘W-
' ! !tt
sj’
4. If the weather and lee columns interchange, the lee
column stands on under a press of sail close hauled, while
the centre, under easy sail, bears away two points, and when
it reaches the wake of the now van squadron, hauls its
wind; and the weather column bears away eight points,
hauling up when in the wake of the centre. See fig. h.
Fig. 17.
—/ / / /
^ J / /
/
5. Suppose the centre column to form the van, an
weather the rear division. Here the lee column rin?|.n£
while the centre bears away two points, forming
ihead of the former, now the centre; and the
umn veers away seven points on the other tac ,
the rear squadron.
6 ~
See fig. 18.
To form the line so that the lee column ma7
an, and the centre the rear, the lee column is
W A R.
757
Fig. 18.
\\\>,
\ \
Fig. 22.
\ \
\ \\ \ \ \
 \ \ \ \
   \ \ \ \
mv\
^-V\'
.jer a press of sail, while the weather bears away
thn points under easy sail, and the centre bears away eight
poi,the ships of each column hauling their wind when
in t ' wake of the now van division. See fig. 19.
111 U {R|
Fig. 19.
Warlike
Operations
at Sea.
-S3
C3-
-r ! ,-[h
-S3-
••.--rr / / r i
/ / / f"'in
t ! i
^■4 /
| r, If the line of battle is to be formed on the other tack,
go it the weather shall form the van division, as in the
jjrsease, the ships of the weather column first tack suc-
ces^/ely, while those of the centre and lee stand on, the
for|r under easy Fig> 20.
lee may interchange, the weather and centre bring to,
while the lee crowds sail till it can pass ahead of the weather
column, when the ships tack in succession. As soon as the
leading ship of the centre, and the last of the lee, bear from
each other in a line perpendicular to the wind, the centre fills,
and tacks in succession when in the wake of the now van ;
and the ships of the weather column do the same when
their leading ship and the last of the centre are under simi¬
lar circumstances. See fig. 23.
Fig. 23.
^ ^
i
sai i and the latter
ghfiening sail, the
leaiing ships tacking
whin in the wake of
tin mow van, taking
gn:; care that the
ghi of the centre and 1
lei raw not too near _ j
to e sternmost ships
of e van, or to each
otbr. See fig. 20.
To form the line
on lie other tack, when the centre and weather columns
imrchange, the weather column brings. to, while t ie
ce re column stands on, till the leading ship be fully ab e
to ear the wea-
Fig. 21.
^7-
11. Suppose the centre is to form the van, and the wea¬
ther the rear, in forming the line on the other tack. 1 e
weather brings to, while the other columns make sad till
they can pass ahead of the former on the other tack, when
they tack successively. The weather column, when the
others have passed it, fills, and tacks to form the rear. See
fig. 24.
Fig. 24.
^3-
SSj-
tin column, when
tli: ships of the
core tack suc-
covely as they
retjh the wake of
thhvan. The lee
co mu stands on,
tajl ing succes-
si ly as the ships
gt into the wake
of he van, under
in ierate sail. See
‘. In forming the line on the other tack, when the centre
ai lee interchange, the centre brings to, while t it P
I oi he weather tack under shortened sail, and t e ee
a ess of sail stands on; the leading ship having gain^
" :e of the line, tacks, and is followed in succession by lie
d sion. The centre column fills and stands on, m it
fi: ship of that column, and the last of the ee, ca
o h other in a direction perpendicular to that o ie
0. To form on this same tack, so that the weather
12 Suppose now the lee column is to form the van. The
U “Tlntre brine to, while the lee crowds sail, and
SrffilU. "le, to gin of the van,
when they tack in succession. See fig. ^>.
758
W A R.
Warlike
Operations
at Sea.
Fig. 25.
bow and quarter line, while the rear proceeds in its f
course under easy sail. When each ship of the centT^O
abreast of the corresponding ship of the rear, the centr?018
tacks, while the van stands on till the centre and rear ^
up, when it also retacks, and all the columns regulate dT'6
i;
distances. Secondly, when the van is to form theTeVand
To form
the orders
of sailing
from the
line of
battle.
We must now show how a fleet may be disposed in the
principal orders of sailing from the line of battle ; and here,
as before, we have several varieties.
1. To form the first order of sailing from the line of
battle on the same tack, all the ships are to bear away
together as many points as the admiral may direct, keeping
the rear the weather column, the van bears away und
easy sail, and goes at right angles with the line aheal
while the centre runs two points free, each ship steerin ’
for that ship of the van which is to be abreast of her when
in column. The distance must be determined by the leader
of the van, who is not to haul up with her division till she
and the sternmost ship of the centre column are in a line
at right angles with the wind, when both stand on under
easy sail, while the rear crowds sail to pass to windward of
both.
6. To form* the fifth order of sailing from the line of
battle on th£. other tack. Of this there are also several va¬
rieties, but we shall confine ourselves to two. First, when
the van is to form the weather, and the rear the lee co¬
in the line of bearing for the proper tack. The sternmost lumn, the van tacks in succession, while the leadin'* ship
first bears away, and the others follow in quick succession, of the centre is to tack when the leader of the van passes
to avoid running foul of each other. him exactly to windward, in which she is followed by her
2. If they are to form on the other tack, the leading ship division, and the rear manoeuvres in the same manner with
bears away four points to leeward, and the rest follow in respect to the centre. Secondly, when the rear is to form
succession. The sternmost ship having bore away, the the weather and the van the lee column, the van tacks in
whole haql up, and will be in bearing for the line on the succession, and when about, either shortens sail or
other tack. See fig. 26.
Fig. 26.
^>7
%
to, to allow the other columns time to form. The centre
and rear then crowd sail, and tack in succession; the for-
mer tacking when its leader has the centre of the lee co¬
lumn in a line at right angles with the wind, or when its
centre passes astern of the lee column. When the centre
has tacked, it regulates its rate of sailing by the lee, and
both wait for the rear to pass to windward. The rear tacks
when the leader has the first ship of the lee in a line at
right angles with the wind, or when its centre ship passes
3. To form the second order of sailing from the line of astern of the centre column,
battle, the whole fleet is to bear away together ten points, There are various evolutions or manoeuvres performed by To
so that wdien the headmost ship, which first presses sail, a ^eet when in line of battle, some of which we must here”®
shall come abreast of the second ship, the second ship must describe.
adapt her sail to keep in this bearing, and so in succession, Sometimes the fleet has to form the line on the other
each taking care to keep the preceding ship in a line with tack, by tacking in succession. To do this, the leadingship
herself, perpendicu-
Fig. 27.
£5
(P IP 1 (P (i)
Fig. 28.
!
lar to the direction
of the wind. The
whole fleet will now |
be before the wind.
See fig. 27.
4. To form the
third order, the |
whole fleet is to i
bear away together (jj
ten points, the head¬
most half, including
the centre ship, carry¬
ing a degree of sail to
preserve their line of
bearing, while each of
the remaining ships is
successively to shorten
sail, so as to form the
other line of bearing
with respect to that on
which they were be¬
fore arranged. See fig. 28.
5. To change from the line of battle to the fifth order on
the same tack. Of this evolution there are several varie¬
ties, but we shall mention only two; first, when the van is
to form the weather, and the rear the lee column, and the
fleet to keep as much as possible to windward. In this case
the van and centre tack together, and run close hauled in
'4.
1*%,
.i-'*
of the fleet tacks first, after making more sail, or after the
second has shortened sail, to increase the interval between
them. When the first ship is about, either the second
makes more sail, or the third shortens sail, and as soon as
the second gets into the wake of the leader, she tacks, put¬
ting down the helm just as she opens the weather quarter
of the first ship, already on the other tack. In the same
manner, each of the other ships tacks when in the wake of
the leader; and the ships already about must preserve their
proper distances, by shortening sail, if necessary, till the
whole fleet be on the other tack. If a ship should miss
stays, she must immediately fill again on the same tack,
and make sail with all possible expedition, taking care not
to fall to leeward. Thus she will get ahead and to wind¬
ward of the following ships, which will successively perform
their evolutions in the wake of the ships that are already on
the other tack, standing on rather farther than if the ship
ahead had not missed stays.
But suppose the ships are not to tack in succession. 1°
form the line on the other tack, the whole fleet veers to¬
gether ; the rear ship hauls her wind on the other tack, an
stands on, while the rest go two points free on the other
tack, and haul up as they successively gain the wake ot t e
leading ship.
If the line is to veer in succession, the van ship veeis,
and stands four points free on the other tack, hauling er
wind when clear of the sternmost ship, and the rest to
and haul up in succession. _ ,
Sometimes the fleet has to turn to windward while in lD
1 ,0m, is for all the ships to tack together, when the
teet all be in a line of battle on the one board, and in bow
d liarter line on the other. If however the fleet be
turn g to windward in a narrow channel, it is best for the
ghip'to tack in succession, as, w’ere they all to tack to-
gJlr, the van would be soon in with the land on one side,
•liil the stern ship, soon after the fleet had retacked, would the centre column must bring to, while the lee stands on
be t' near the land on the other side. under a press of sail; and when its sternmost ship can
li he van and centre are to interchange, the van is to pass to windward of the van of the centre column, that is,
h i wav a little, and then bring to, while the centre passes when the centre ship of the lee is in a perpendicular line
t windward, edging a little to get ahead of the former to the direction of the wind with the van of the centre
n i the same line ; the rear, coming on under an easy sail, column, the lee column then tacks together, and stands
m , . n ,i - — close hauled till it comes in a line with the centre
WAR.
759
The best way to do this, when there is good weather and lee lie to, or only keep steerage way. The Warlike
centre column tacks together, and forming a bow and quar- Operations
ter line, goes close hauled to gain the wake of the weather atl ea^ ^
column; it then tacks together, and stands on, while the
weather column bears away to its new station in the centre,
and the lee column fills.
When the weather and lee columns are to interchange,
edgi away likewise, to gain the wake of the now centre
he van and rear are to interchange, the van and centre
are a bear away a little, and then bring to, so that the van
mayitear away a little more to the leeward than the centre.
Tlurear stands on to gain the head of the line ; and when
abnst of the former van, the centre fills, and both stand¬
ing L form ahead of the now rear, by edging down till
r ,the are in a line with it.
Ht 11 ;he centre and rear are to interchange, the van stands
m on ider an easy sail, while the centre bears away a little,
and Tings to, and the rear at the same time carries a press
of iil to pass the centre to windward, and get into the
wal; of the van. The van and centre then edge away to
gai the line with the now rear squadron, which then fills.
f veral evolutions are required while a fleet is in the fifth
ordi of sailing, and of these we shall notice some of the
mo i important.
* Ihen the columns are to tack in succession, the ships
of ih lee must tack first, as they have most distance to run ;
BKiwhen the leader of the centre comes abreast of the
column, when it goes large two points to get into the situ¬
ation which the weather column left, and then veers to¬
gether, hauling the wind for the other tack. At the begin¬
ning of the evolution the weather column bears away to¬
gether under little sail, and goes large six points on the
other tack, to get into the wake of the centre column; it
then hauls to the former tack, going two points large, till
it comes abreast of the centre column, when it brings to,
and waits for the now weather column.
Suppose the weather column is to pass to leeward. The
weather column is to stand on under easy sail, while the
centre and lee tack together, carrying a press of sail till
they reach the wake of the weather column, when they re¬
tack, and crowd sail till they come up with it. The weather
column, when the others have gained its wake, bears away
two points to gain its station to leeward, when it brings to
till the other columns, now the weather and centre, come up.
Suppose the lee column is to pass to windward. The
weather and centre columns bring to, while the lee column
carries sail and tacks in succession as soon as the leading
Jea jr to leeward, or at right angles with the close-hauled ship can weather the headmost ship of the weather column ;
limbn the other tack on which the leader of the lee is now and when arrived on the line on which the weather column
mo mg, she tacks, and is followed successively by the ships is formed, it retacks in succession, forms on the same line,
of it division. The weather column manoeuvres in the and either brings to or stands on under easy sail. It it
|4 manner, paying the same regard to the centre. Here brings to, the other two columns bear away together two
tin veather column is still to windward, and should the points, to put themselves abreast of the column now o
col mis have closed too much, or be too far asunder, the windward; but if the now weather column stood on undei
on may be recovered, either by the lee or windward an easy sail, they may bear away only one point, to gain
col an bearing away, so as to make an angle equal to that their proper stations. i ^ u- c n «•
pn ised between an* column, and a line joining1 the leader It is of the greatest importance that each sh;p 0f a fleet
of it column and the sternmost ship of the next. or squadron preserve her proper station and distance with
11 hen all the columns are to tack together, the stern- respect to the rest. These may be r^u^te^ ’
me ships put in stays together; and when in stays their either by observation wi i ie (lua . ’ y . ,
scoids ahead put down their helms, and so on through called the naval square. This square is usually constructed
thi vhole fleet. Each column will then be in bow and in the following manner. nf fhP miartpr Construc-
lutler line On some convenient place m the middle ot the quarter- construe
hen the columns are to veer in succession, the leader
Un some convenient pmec m tuc ... w.v. -- • -
deck is described the square ABCD, fig. 29, having the sides ^on an(i
of ne lee column must steer four points free on the other AD and i para e o e I
tai followed by the ships of that division ; and when she Through t ie ^en d thp dia-A
is iar of the sternmost ships of that division, she hauls up. drawn parallel to A ^ ‘ i "
T1 same evolution is performed by the centre and weather gonals A^aii are % i strafe-lit
sh ; successively standing on till they bring the point at pD, EGC are
wl1 h the lee column began to veer to bear in a right line to lines G , > an k , p('r) PGC
le< ard of them. They likewise successively spring their completed. the angles FGDFGC^
l»| wta, the point at which the lee column hauled its Pt””eSf “ ^ aI,|les EGD, EGG, the comple-
'ip^fi^'Xn in the hah ot-der of sailing, is to mfn.ofthWe
til W windward. Let the ships be so arranged that the T*™'X^if rstoTe ru„ni„l
|m “d corresponding ships may be in the dtrertton of each hatfof ^tack> G t])e direction FE, the
11 Wind. The van ships must tack together, andmustbe ‘ ~ ofthe wind „m be IG, and her close-hauled course
fo-wed in succession, each by the remaining ships ot the . tack will be GC . but if she be running close
di| sion, when they reach the wake of their leaders, or the ^ “he ]arboard tack in the same direction, her di-
3 point when they tacked ; so that there will always be n c]oge hauled on.tbe starboard tack will be GD.
shlPS in stays at once, till the whole fleet is on the to tbe keeping of sbips
r tack The fleet then stands on to any proposed d.s- Now, “ W'7s’ppose the fleet foFrnfed „„ ,he
W;e and retacks as before. . . fifth order of sailing, close hauled, the corresponding ships
i hen the weather and centre columns interchange, the
use of the
naval
-jj square.
760
W A R.
Tv arlike 0f the columns coinciding with the direction of the wind, points, the leader hauls her wind while tliP fl
Sr8 in order run t0 windward with greater facility. The as before, each successively hauling her S,tands°n ^
at Sea.
corresponding ships in the column must be kept in the di¬
rection of GH or GI, according to the direction of the
wind and the tack they are on, while pjo-, 39.
all the ships of the same column
must be in the direction of EF
(See fig. 30.)
Again, suppose the ships arrang¬
ed in three columns on one of the
lines of bearing, and close hauled
on the other tack. The ships of
each column will be in the direction
of one of the diagonals, while the^^
corresponding ships of the other '
columns will be in the direction of
the other diagonal.
To restore Sometimes the line of battle is
the order of (jisorciere(j on wind's shifting, and requires to be re¬
battle, on
shifts of
the wind.
stored. Of this there are several cases, a few of which we
shall notice.
1. When the wind comes forward less than six points.
In this case the whole fleet except the leader brings to.
The leading ship, that the same distances between the ships
may be preserved on restoring the line, steers a course as
a b (fig. 31), so as to be at right angles with the middle
/
Fig. 31.
dlir—y—jr-
<23-^
-<V7~U
V.
 ^—<3Zjk„
-<23C
point between the former and present direction of the wind.
His required course may be known by adding half the num¬
ber of points the wind has shifted to eight points, and ap¬
plying this sum to the former close-hauled course When
the leader has arrived at the new close-hauled line with
respect to the second ship ahead, this ship immediately
fills and bears away as many points as the leader; and when
both these have reached the close-hauled line with respect
to the third ship, she also fills and bears away; and thus
with the rest in succession ; and when they have got into
the close-hauled line b c with the sternmost ship, they all
haul their wind together, and the sternmost ship fills and
stands on close hauled.
nTh‘s may be expeditiously performed if the whole fleet
tall off as soon as the wind shifts the same number of points,
and the leader bear away eight points from the middle be¬
tween the former and present directions of the wind; or
when the wind shifts nearly six points, if the leader bear
away eight points from the present direction of the wind,
and hauls her wind as soon as the sternmost ship bears from
her in the close-hauled line, while the second ship bears
away when she reaches the wake of the leader, and hauls
her wind when she has again gained his wake. The third,
fourth, &c., ships bear away, and also haul their wind in sue-
cession, till the sternmost and the whole line be formed again.
2. Suppose the wind comes forward less than six points,
and the order of battle is to be re-formed on the other tack.
In this case all the ships are to veer round till their heads
come to the requisite point with respect to their former
course, when the rear ship, now become the van, hauls close
by the wind, followed successively by the other ships.
Should the wind come ahead more than six points, but less
than twelve, the fleet is to manoeuvre as before; but if it
shift exactly twelve points ahead, the tack must be changed,
3. Lastly, suppose the wind to shift oft; if less than two
as before, each successively hauling her wind L u
wako iw,». 1 Ti> ii . 6, . wina as she gaiujOpe
the wake of her leader. If the tack is to be chant61 , r
whole fleet tack together, and the sternmost shin
leader, hauls un. while the rest hear  , nov'' the ’1 <
leader, hauls up, while the rest bear down and £,!C ■
succession. aul UP m
Sho^d the wind change sixteen points, all the ships in,
mediately brace about for the other tack’, bv wh;l
i-tio ,.,;n r • . , wlllch means
the fleet will be going four points large; then the ships ,n
stantly tacking or veering together, the order of battled
be restored or formed again on the same tack as before
wind changed. cu‘etne
Having described and illustrated the principal evnl„t;n
hirfl nrp Kt.  F Tal evolutions
which are performed by fleets or squadronsTder .C
r*irr»nmcfonr»oo ^v.^   1 .1 . uuldlV
circumstances, we are prepared to consider the nature and
consequences of a naval engagement.
. In f«rming a fleet for battle, it is proper to consider theCi,
size and number of the ships of which it is to consist, an stl
the distance at which they are to be placed with respect t
each other. In the^ present system of naval warfare, iti ^
t are
h actio
generally deemed of advantage to have the ships that'1 l8fori11'
tn fnrm 1 1:~~ — 1  .. . L
to form the principal line as large as possible; for though
large ships are not so easily and expeditiously worked as
those of a smaller size, they are most serviceable during the
action both as carrying a greater weight of metal, and as
being less exposed to material injury, either from the ene
my’s shot or from the weather. In boarding, too, a large
ship must have greatly the superiority over a smaller, both
from her greater height, and from the number of hands
which she contains. With respect to the number of ships,
it is of advantage that they be not too numerous, as, if the
line be too extensive, the signals from the centre are with
difficulty observed.
In arranging a fleet in line of battle, it is proper to regu¬
late the distance so that the ships shall be sufficiently near
to. support each other, but not so close that a disabled
ship may not readily be got out of the line without disturb¬
ing the rest of the fleet.
It has long been deemed a point of great consequenceAdvf
with the commander of a fleet to gain the weather gagefa8ei
or to get to windward of the enemy, before coming to ac-^
tion. In deciding on the propriety of this, much will de-|^,
pend on the relative strength of each fleet, and on the state^,
of the weather at the time. We shall state the advantages
and disadvantages of the weather gage, as they are com¬
monly laid down by writers on naval tactics, though we
may observe by the way, that if a fleet be much superior io
its opponent, it is seldom of consequence whether it en¬
gages to windward or to leeward.
A fleet to windward of the enemy is thought to possess
the following advantages. It may approach the leeward
fleet at pleasure, and can of course accelerate or delay the
beginning of the engagement. If more numerous, it may
send down a detachment on the rear of the enemy, and thus
throw him into confusion. It may also readily send down
fire-ships on the enemy’s fleet, when thrown into confusion
or disabled. It may board at any time, and is scarcely in¬
commoded by the smoke of the enemy. The reverse of
these circumstances of course acts against a leeward fleet.
I he disadvantages of being to windward of the enemy
respect chiefly the circumstances attending a retreat, should
this be necessary. The windward fleet can seldom retire
without passing through the enemy’s line; and if, in attempt¬
ing to retreat, the windward ships tack together, those ot
WIIJUWUIU SUipS UtUK lUgCUiCi) -
the leeward fleet may do the same, rake the weather ships
  i /> 11 .. . . , . •  .jpg
in stays, and follow them on the other tack, having now t
advantage of the wind. In stormy weather, the windwmu
ships can seldom open their lower deck ports, and the ke
guns are not easily managed after firing. Again, any d>s'
abled ships cannot easily quit the line without disordering
the rest of the fleet, and exposing either that or themselves
W A
ill be aked by the enemy to leeward. A leeward fleet has
i'ET - vantages of serving their lower-deck guns in all
l" [eatltrs; of being able to retreat at pleasure ; of drawing
fc whout difficulty their disabled ships; of forming with
Tore eadiness the order of retreat, or of continuing the
ctioias long as convenient; of having it in their power,
iheivuperior in number, to double the enemy; and of can-
lona ng with great effect the windward ships as they bear
lowr br the attack.
AsJn engagement between two adverse ships is in some
neas/e an epitome of an engagement between two fleets,
ve si 11 first briefly describe the former, as it takes place
indc ordinary circumstances, and shall then notice the
isuamanner of conducting a general engagement.
A‘aval engagement may be divided into three stages,
be / ’.paration, the action, and the repair.
» Wen an enemy’s ship heaves in sight, and it is thought
idvisble to bring her to an engagement, orders are first
rivei;;o clear for action, which is begun by the boatswain
ind 1!; mates piping up the hammocks, in order to clear the
pacipetween decks, for the more easy management of the
mns is well as to afford the men on the quarter-deck, &c.,
{lbetvr protection against the enemy’s shot, the hammocks
leinpstowed in the nettings above the gunwale and bul¬
wark After this the boatswain’s mates go to work to se-
:ure i e yards, which is done by fastening them with strong
:haiii or ropes in addition to those by which they are sus-
jendd. They likewise get ready such materials as may
i)e n :essary for repairing the rigging, if it should be cut
iwayor otherwise damaged, by the enemy’s shot. In the
' neamime the carpenter and his mates prepare shot plugs
ind auls, to stop any dangerous shot-holes that may be
nadiin the hull near the surface of the water, and provide
f(|ie cessary iron-work for refitting the chain-pumps, if
ipeirnachinery should be injured during the engagement;
: »hili|the gunner and his mates, and the quarter gunners,
exarue the guns to see that their charges are dry, and
)rov»2 every thing that may be required for supplying the
ire:- pins and small arms with ammunition. The master
ind ister’s mates see that the sails are properly trimmed,
icco ing to the situation of the ship, and increase or re¬
luct.hem as may be found necessary; and the lieutenants
fisit rie different decks to see that all is clear, and to take
fare 'lat the inferior officers do their duty.
itBMen the hostile ships have approached within a proper
Tistaf'e of each other, the drums beat to arms ; the boat-
nvai and his mates pipe all hands to quarters. All the
mensiho are to manage the great guns repair immedi-
’ Itcljjo their respective stations. The crows, handspikes,
ramii'rs, sponges, powder-horns, matches, and train-tackles,
are piced in order by the side of the guns ; the hatches are
irarn [lately closed, to prevent sculkers from getting below ;
a (he i irines are drawn up on the quarter-deck, &c., the lash¬
ings the guns are cast loose, and the tompions withdrawn.
iThei hole artillery above and below is run out at the ports,
Rj ve^e^ the point-blank range, ready for firing,
i ien these necessary preparations are completed, and
the leers and crew ready at their respective stations, and
IB^the two ships are sufficiently near each other, in a
: Prol ’ relative situation for the shot to take full effect, the
) p" commences with a vigorous cannonade from the
[irer guns, accompanied by the whole efforts of the swivels
t Bp nail arms. The firing is seldom performed in vollies,
it»fi t would shake the ship too much ; but the guns are
l and fired one after another, with as much despatch
’ little confusion as possible, care being taken to fire
*Bfj fien each gun is properly directed to its object. Dur-
pig ie firing, the lieutenants traverse the decks, to see
at ie battle is prosecuted with vivacity, and that the men
0 ’fir duty; while the midshipmen second their injunc-
and give the necessary assistance where required, at
v.. xxi.
tion
R.
76.
the guns committed to their charge. The youngest of Warlike
these inferior officers are generally employed to carry orders Operati°n:
from the captain. The gunners are all this time employed at Sea‘
in the magazines, filling cartridges, which are carried alono-' v^'
the decks in boxes by the boys of the ship. When the
action has continued so long, or has produced such an effect,
that one of the ships must yield or retreat, if the vanquished
ship cannot get off, she acknowledges her inferiority by
striking or hauling down her colours, when she is, as soon as
possible, taken possession of by the victor, the commander
of which sends a part of his own crew into the captured ship,
and brings away most of her officers and men on board his
own ship, as prisoners of war.
The engagement being concluded, they begin to repair. Repair
The guns are secured by their breechings and tackles, with
all convenient expedition. Whatever sails have been ren¬
dered unserviceable are unbent, and the wounded masts
and yards struck upon deck, to be fished or replaced by
others. The standing rigging is knotted, and the running
rigging spliced where necessary. Proper sails are bent in
the room of those which have been displaced as useless.
The carpenter and his mates are employed in repairing the
breaches made in the ship’s hull, by shot-plugs, pieces of
plank, and sheet-lead. The gunner and his assistants are
busied in replenishing the allotted number of charged cart¬
ridges, to supply the place of those which have been ex¬
pended, and in refitting whatever furniture of the guns may
have been damaged by the action.
A general engagement between two adverse fleets ob- Engage-
viously involves a greater variety of circumstances, and re- ment h*3-
quires greater judgment and more comprehensive skill in tw0
the commanding officer.
When the commander of a fleet has discovered an ene¬
my’s fleet, his principal object, if he be sufficiently strong,
is to bring it to action as soon as possible. Every inferior
consideration gives way to this important object, and all
necessary preparations are immediately made to prepare for
such an event. The state of the wind and situation of the
enemy will in general regulate his conduct with regard to
the disposition of his ships on that occasion. To facilitate
the execution of the admiral’s orders, the whole fleet is dis¬
posed in three squadrons, and each of these classed into
three divisions, under the command of different officers.
Before the action begins, the adverse fleets are drawn up in
two lines, as formerly described. As soon as the admiral
displays the signal for the line of battle, the several divi¬
sions separate from the columns in which they were dis¬
posed in the usual order in sailing, and every ship crowds
sail to get into its station in the wake of the next ahead ;
and a proper distance from each other is regularly observed
from the van to the rear. The admiral however occasion¬
ally contracts or extends his line, so as to regulate the
length of his line by that of his adversary. This is more par¬
ticularly necessary, to prevent his being doubled, by which
his van and rear would be thrown into disorder. When
the hostile fleets approach each other, the courses are com¬
monly hauled upon the brails, and the top-gallant sails and
stay-sails furled. The movement of each ship is regulated
chiefly by the main and fore-top sails and the jib ; the
mizen-top sail being reserved to hasten or retard the course
of the ship, and, by filling or backing, hoisting or lowering
it, to determine her velocity. The signal for a general
engagement is usually displayed when the fleets are suffi¬
ciently near each other to be within the range of point-
blank shot, so that the guns may be levelled with some
certainty of execution. After the battle has commenced,
it is carried on much in the same manner as between two
ships, except that each vessel of the fleet, besides attending
to her own movements, has to observe the signals made by
the commanding officer, and repeated by the frigates on the
van and rear. The chief object of the admiral is to keep
5 D
762
WAR.
the wea
ther-gage
with an
enemy.
Warlike his line as complete as possible, by ordering ships from
^atTsea*118 ^ose 'n reserve t0 supply the place of such as may have
v been disabled, and to annoy the enemy as much as possible,
both by strengthening the feeble parts of his own line, and,
if circumstances admit of it, by sending down fire-ships
upon that of the enemy. When the engagement draws
near a close, either by the defeat of the enemy, or by the
disabled state of either fleet, signals are made from the
admiral to take possession of such of the enemy’s ships as
have struck, to tow his own disabled ships into a place of
security, and either to chase the remainder of the enemy’s
squadron, or, if that be impracticable, to draw off his own
ships to be refitted.
Such are the general incidents attending an engagement
at sea, modified of course by numerous circumstances, of
which a general description can convey no idea. There
are however various movements and evolutions connected
with a naval engagement, which it will be necessary for us
to notice.
To dispute Where the weather-gage is deemed of sufficient import¬
ance, it is often an object with two fleets to dispute it with
each other. When the enemy is to windward, and it is
wished to gain the weather-gage of him, the fleet to lee¬
ward should avoid extending itself the length of the enemy’s
line, in order to oblige them to edge down upon theirs, if
they intend to attack them ; which will be the means, if they
still persist in doing so, of losing the advantage of the wind.
It is impossible for a fleet to leeward to gain to windward,
so long as the enemy keep the wind, unless a change hap¬
pens in their favour; and therefore all that a fleet to leeward
can do must be to wait with patience for such a change, of
which they will undoubtedly avail themselves, as well as of
any inadvertency the enemy may commit in the mean time.
And as long as the fleet to leeward does not extend its line
the length of the enemy’s, it will be impossible for the
latter to bring them to action without running the hazard,
by bearing dowrn, of losing the advantage of the wind,
which both fleets will be so desirous of preserving. That
an admiral may take advantage of such shifts of wind as
occasionally happen, he must endeavour to get his ships
into situations where these shifts most frequently take
place. It is well known to experienced naval officers, that
particular winds reign most on certain coasts, or off certain
headlands. Here therefore the admiral should await the
approach of the enemy ; and though by this plan he may
sometimes be unsuccessful, he will more frequently gain a
material advantage. The disposition of projecting head¬
lands, and the setting of tides and currents, often contribute
materially towards gaining the wind of the enemy. The
fleet to windward should keep that to leeward as much as
possible abreast of it; and thus, unless the wind changes
considerably, they will preserve the advantage which they
have gained. They should also force them to keep their wind,
unless they think it prudent not to engage, in which case it
would be better to keep altogether out of sight.
When the enemy appears desirous of avoiding an ac¬
tion, there are various methods of attempting to force him
to engage; as, first, when he has the weather-gage. In this
case the lee fleet, which is desirous of bringing on an en¬
gagement, must keep always on the same tack with the
enemy to windward, taking care to keep their own ships so
exactly abreast of the enemy as to prevent losing sight of
them; and hence be ready to take advantage of the first
favourable shift of wind to make the attack. An alteration
of the course may be best attempted in the night. The
lee fleet must have frigates on the look-out, and these must
continually give notice by signal of the manoeuvres and
course of the retreating fleet to windward. Thus the
weather fleet is always exposed to pursuit, without being
able to escape unseen ; and hence must sooner or later be
compelled to engage, unless they can get into some friendly
To force
the enemy
to action.
port, or should be favoured by a gale of wind suffi •
to disperse both fleets, and thus prevent the possibilitvDtf
a general engagement.
Secondly, when the enemy is to leeward. If the lee fl
keep close to the wind in the order of battle, the fl t
windward is to stand on in the same manner till it be abr t0
of the enemy, ship to ship, and at the same time to bS
away, and steer so as to bring their respective opponents on
the same point of the compass with themselves. Thus th
adverse fleets will be sufficiently near each other to bes/
the action, by each ship’s presenting her bow to the shil
abreast of her in the order of sailing, which may be easily
changed for the order of battle, by all the ships hauling
together close to the wind in the moment which precedes
the action. If the fleet appear inclined to engage, it may
bring to, to prevent losing time, and after this they’will fill
as soon as the action commences, because it is of advantage
to a lee line to be advancing ahead. As the lee fleet fils
and stands in close by the wind, the weather line should
keep abreast before it bears away, to come within the re¬
quisite distance, that the van ship of the weather fleet may
always keep to windward of the leading ship of the lee line
and be guarded against any shift of wind ahead.
If the lee fleet bear away four points to move their order
of battle on the other tack, and avoid the action, filing off
in succession in the wake of the van ship, the weather line,
by bearing away all together eight points, cannot fail, as
both fleets are supposed to sail equally, to pass through the
middle of their line, and force them to fight with disad¬
vantage, if their extent be double the distance between the
two fleets. If the extent of the fleet be less than the above
limitation, then the weather fleet will divide the lee fleet
more unequally; and if the distance between the fleets be
considerable, the weather fleet will be able to break through
the line. If the lee fleet bear away four points all together,
being of equal extent with the fleet to windward, and their
distance from each other equal to that of the length of one
of the lines, should the weather fleet bear away at the
same time eight points, they will approach very near the
sternmost of the retreating fleet, but they will not have it
in their power to cut off any part of that fleet, even with an
equality of sailing; so that the only advantage gained by
this manoeuvre will be an ability of attacking the rear, and
bringing it to action.
If the van ship and the rest of the weather fleet had a
sufficient velocity to keep the centre ship of the leelineon
the same point of bearing, in that case the leading ship
may break through the enemy’s line about the middle ship
of the centre division ; for, supposing the fleets in the order
of battle, on the starboard tack, steering east, with the wind
at south-south-east, being at two leagues distance from each
other, both the lines being four leagues in extent, then
the lee line bearing away all together four points, will run
north-east, while the fleet to windward, bearing away all to¬
gether eight points, will steer north, the van ship of which
will keep the centre division of the lee line in the point oi
bearing north-west. As she is supposed to be able to con¬
tinue in this position, it follows that the van of the weather
line must close the centre of the flying line to leeward
after having run four leagues. The time and distance ne¬
cessary to cut off a retreating fleet may always be known
according to the last supposition. If the lee fleet shou
get on the other tack, and run large, still in the order o
battle, they will be sooner forced to action by the weat er
fleet, who have only to bear away eight or nine points on
the same tack, or run right before the wind.
As in forcing a fleet to action, there are two Prmcll ^ gto
cases in which a fleet may avoid an action, where £irCU1%
stances are not sufficiently favourable; first, when |‘ieeI’r(j
my is to windward, and, secondly, when he is to leewa •
In the former case, the lee fleet should form the or er
JsJW
WAR.
ret at, if the enenay are in view, and run on the same tack
^ eir leading ship ; but if he is still out of sight, and they
ha received intelligence of his approach by their frigates
/on ie look-out, they may bear away large, without confin-
inc hemselves to keep the wind directly off, unless when
jnc;e order of retreat. In the second case, it seldom hap-
pei, that the weather fleet can be forced to an engagement,
bedise it can always stand on that tack which increases
its stance from the enemy ; that is, by standing on one
tat; while the enemy is on the other. The windward fleet
mi: not keep too near the enemy, and must take all pos-
sib means of avoiding being abreast of him.
is often of advantage to double the enemy; that is, to
brh; a part of the fleet round upon his van or rear, so as to
pla him between two fires. This manoeuvre also resolves
its( into two principal cases ; first, when the enemy is to
wirward; secondly, when he is to leeward. In the first
cas. the lee fleet that attempts to double the enemy should
ext id itself abreast of him, so that its van or rear may ex-
ten&beyond his line, in order to overreach him, by tacking
in ^cession, so that the extended part of the line may get
up windward. If this manoeuvre be properly executed,
it v 1 be impossible for the ships of the weather line long
to mintain their stations, for no vessel closely attacked by
twetthers of equal force can long resist.
1 is of some consequence to determine whether the at¬
tend to double should be made on the van or the rear of
thejnemy, as on the propriety of adopting the one or the
oth of these measures may in a great measure depend
theisue of the battle. In the present case, it is most easy
to (uble the van of the enemy, because, if they are engag¬
ed r the ships abreast of them, those which are advanced
aluil will be able, by making all sail, to get in the perpen-
dicur to the direction of the wind with the van of the
enajy, and to tack in succession to gain the wind of them
on ite other board, thus keeping them to leeward ; and
wh they are come sufficiently to windward, they are
agij to go about, in order to keep the two headmost ships
of lie enemy’s line continually under their fire. If there
be o or three ships to tack in succession and gain the
win of the enemy, they may edge down on the van of the
wemer line at pleasure, keeping themselves a little to the
wii ward of it; and as that van is already engaged by the
otl ships abreast on the other side, she must necessarily
socibe disabled. If they bear away they must drop upon
tin ne with which they are engaged to leeward, while the
sin to windward still continue to cannonade them. If
tin attempt going about, in order to attack more closely
tliuliips to windward, they will be raked, while in stays,
by teir opponents to leeward and to windward, w ho enfi-
ladg them with whole broadsides, which they cannot re-
tur must complete their disorder. If they make sail, in
ort to frustrate the design of the ships inclined to double,
tlif with which they are engaged abreast to leeward have
onl to perform the same manoeuvre, and keep them under
tlii fire; while the others, after having harassed them as
®'i i as possible, will do their best to perform the same ma-
re on the succeeding ships.
1 iny of the ships in the van of the weather line are dis-
®bl in the masts or yards, they will drop astern, and run
ton if the next succeeding ship, and these again on the
astern. Thus the enemy’s order of battle will be
l)ri1 n> "bile on the other hand the lee line is preserved ;
>n< hose ships which have gained the wind of the enemy
^without engaging more ships than they can manage,
Co,| ibute to increase the confusion.
ien the enemy is to leeward, and the weather fleet at-
T $ to double, the ships of the weather line must extend
e van beyond that of the enemy, and then veer in order
big the headmost ships of the lee line between two
re It must not however be concealed, that it is much
763
more dangerous to the ships engaged in this service to Warlike
attempt doubling a fleet to leeward than to windward, Operations
as, if disabled, or separated too far from their own fleet,5 at Sea-
they cannot so easily extricate themselves and rejoin the' v  
fleet. J
When one fleet attempts to double another, this latter To avoid
will of course do all in their power to avoid the impending bemR
danger; and this they will the more readily do, accordingdoubled-
to their number or their situation. If the fleet thus threat¬
ened be to windward, one of the methods proposed to avoid
being doubled, is to extend the line towards the point
threatened, so as to leave a greater space between the ships ;
but in doing this there is a risk of having the line broken
by the superior enemy. Another method suggested is, for
the flag-ships of the windward fleet to oppose themselves
to those of the lee line, which is supposed to render several
of the enemy’s ships in the intervals of little use ; but one
great inconvenience of this manoeuvre is, that it leaves the
van and rear most, exposed to the enemy’s fire, and that the
rear division in particular is in great danger of being
doubled. To remedy these defects, the largest ships
should be placed in the van and rear of each division, and
the fleet must regulate its sailing in such a manner that its
rear shall never be astern of the rear of the enemy.
When the enemy is to leeward, the weather fleet is to
keep astern of the enemy, so that the van of the weather
fleet may be opposed to and attack the enemy’s centre.
Hence the enemy’s van will become useless for some time ;
and should it attempt to tack and double on the weather
fleet, much time will be lost in performing that evolution ;
and it also runs the risk of being separated by the calm
which often happens in the course of an engagement, occa¬
sioned by the discharge of the guns. A considerable in¬
terval might also be left between the centre and the van, if
necessary precautions be taken to prevent the van from be¬
ing cut off.
There are several circumstances of importance to be con- Of chasing,
sidered in the subject of chasing, i. e. when one ship or fleet
pursues another, called the chase, either to bring her or
them to action, or to oblige them to surrender.
When a single ship chases another, it is to be presumed tbe cnse
in general that one of them is the better sailer, though this °/.s‘ll^c
is not always the case, and still by proper manoeuvring the"
chasing ship, or chaser, may gain on the chase. In the fol¬
lowing observations however w'e shall suppose the chaser to
sail faster than the chase. The manoeuvres of the chaser
will depend on her being to windward or leeward of the
chase.
When the chase is to windward, it is evident, that as soon
as she perceives a strange ship which she takes for an ene¬
my, she will haul her wind, in order to prolong the chase,
as otherwise her retreat would soon be cut off. The chaser
then stands on nearly close hauled, till she has the chase
on her beam : she then tacks, and stands on close hauled till
the chase is again on her beam, and then retacks. In this
manner she continues tacking every time she brings the
chase perpendicular to her course on either board; and by
thus manoeuvring, it is certain that the chaser will, by the
superiority only of her sailing, join the other in the shortest
time. For since the chaser tacks always as soon as the
chase is perpendicular to her course, she is then at the
shortest distance possible on that board; and since the
chaser is supposed to be the faster sailer, these shortest
distances will decrease every time the chaser tacks. It is
therefore of advantage to the chase to keep constantly on
the same course, without losing her time in going about,
as tacking cannot be so favourable to her as to her adver¬
sary, whose sailing is superior. If the captain of the chaser
should so little understand his profession as to stand on a
long way, and tack in the w ake of the chase, the best thing
she can do is to heave in stays, and pass to windward of
764
WAR.
Warlike him on the other tack, except she should find herself likely
Operations j-0 gajn advantage by going large ; for if the chaser persists
at ea' in tacking in the wake of the other ship, the pursuit will be
very much prolonged.
When the chase is to leeward, the chaser is to steer that
course by which she thinks she will gain most on the chase.
If, after having run a short time, the chase is found to draw
more aft, the chaser should then bear away a little more;
but if the chase draw ahead, the chaser should haul up a
little, and thus the course may be so regulated that the
chase may always bear on the same point, and then the
chaser will get up with the chase in the shortest time pos¬
sible ; for if any other course were steered, the chaser
would either be too far ahead or too far astern, and hence
the pursuit would be prolonged. The chase should run on
that course which will carry her directly from the chaser,
and should consider which is her best trim with respect to
the wind, that she may move with the greatest possible ra¬
pidity from the chaser; for some ships have more advan¬
tage in going large, others with the wind right aft, and
others when close hauled.
Another method has been proposed for chasing a ship to
leeward; that is, by constantly steering directly for the
chase. In this case, the tract described by the chaser is
called the line or curve of pursuit. To illustrate this, let
Fig. 32.
Curve of
pursuit.
taken ?
l-fl:
T6
since the velocity of the chaser to that of the chase is as
4 to 3, hence the distance run by the chaser will be =
20^ X 2 = ST? miles.
As the chaser alters her
course at
A (fig. 32) represent the chaser, and B the chase directly
to leeward of her, and running with less velocity than the
pursuer, in the direction BC, perpendicular to that of the
wind. Now, to construct this curve, letB6 be the distance
run by the chase in any short interval of time ; join A6, and
make A1 equal the distance run by the chaser in the same
time. Again, make b c, c d, de, ef &c. each equal to B b ;
join 1 c, and make 1 2 =: A 1 ; join 2 d, and make 2 3
equal to A 1 ; proceed in like manner till the two distances
carried forward meet as at C, and a curve described through
the points A, 1, 2, 3, &c. will represent nearly the curve of
pursuit; and the less the interval A1 is taken, the more ac¬
curately will the curve be formed. In this particular case,
the length of the distance BC may be found as follows,
provided the distance AB and the proportional velocities of
the two ships be known.
Let the velocity of the chase be denoted by a fraction,
that of the chaser being unity. Multiply the given distance
AB by this fraction, and divide the product by the com¬
plement of the square of the same fraction, and the quo¬
tient will be the distance run by the chase B. Suppose
AB, the distance of the chase directly to leeward of the
chaser, be taken at twelve miles, and suppose the velo¬
city of the chase three fourths of that of the chaser, what
will be the distance run by the chase before she is over-
12Xf_9__9v16
7
and
every point, and probably sails better with the wind in
direction with respect to her course than when the wind11'’
in another direction, her velocity will be different at differ8
ent points of the course. Thus, suppose her to sail fasto
when the wind is on the quarter, her velocity will Con
stantly increase to a certain point, and will then diminisli"
Hence in real practice the curve of pursuit will not be ex^
actly what is laid down in the above problem, and of course
the measure of BC will differ a little from what we have
there laid down. See Resistance of Fluids, and Sea-
manship.
If the whole fleet is to give chase, the admiral will make
the proper signal, and then each ship will instantly make1
all the sail possible. If the retreating fleet is not much in¬
ferior to the other, a few of the fastest sailing vessels only
are to be detached from the superior fleet, in order to pick
up any stragglers, or those ships which may have fallen
astern ; and the remaining part of the fleet will keep in the
same line or order of sailing as the retreating fleet, so that
they may, if possible, force them to action. But if there-
treating fleet is much inferior, the admiral of the superior
fleet will make the signal for a general chase, and then each
ship will immediately crowd all the sail possible after the
retreating fleet; or, if the chase be still less numerous, the
admiral will detach one of the squadrons of his fleet, by
hoisting the proper signal for that purpose, and he will fol¬
low with the remainder of the fleet. The squadron that
chases should be very careful not to engage too far in the
chase, for fear of being overpowered ; but at the same time
to endeavour to satisfy themselves with regard to the object
of their chase. They must pay great attention to the ad¬
miral’s signals at all times; and in order to prevent separa¬
tion, they should collect themselves before night, especially
if there be any appearance of foggy weather coming on,
and endeavour to join the fleet again. The ships are dili¬
gently to observe when the admiral makes the signal to give
over chase ; and each regarding the admiral’s ship as a fixed
point, is to work back into her station, so as to form the
order of line again as quickly as the nature of the chase and
the distance will permit.
When a fleet is obliged to run from an enemy who is
in sight, it is usual to draw up the ships in that form or
order called the order of retreat; and the admiral, when
hard pursued, without any probability of escaping, ought, if
practicable, to run his ships ashore, rather than suffer them
to be taken afloat, and thereby give additional strength to
the enemy. In short, nothing should be neglected that
may contribute to the preservation of his fleet, or prevent
any part of it from falling into the hands of the conqueror.
We have now' gone through the principal evolutions of
fleets and squadrons nearly as they are described in the
“ Elements of Rigging, Seamanship, and Naval Tactics, and
other approved publications on similar subjects. We have
indeed omitted the method of forcing an enemy’s line, an
of avoiding being forced, because the former will be readi y
understood from what we have to add on the improved me
thod of tactics of M. Grenier, and Mr Clerk of Eldin.
Various defects have been observed in the tactics usua y.
employed at sea, especially in a line of battle, and in t e
mode of bringing an enemy to action. The usual oi ero
battle first introduced by the duke of York, afternar
James II. of England, is defective from its length-
great extent makes it difficult for the admiral to judge w
orders are proper to be issued to the ships statione a ^
extremities, while his signals, however distinctly ma e>
liable to be mistaken by the commanders i,e
Besides, the extremities of a long l*ne? csPec'^ ^1
to leeward, are necessarily defenceless, as the enemy
Wtto®
Men
:tid
Fig. 35.
t) w himself with a superior force on the van or rear, and him ; and a third wW ™ ™
ci either of these off before it can be properly supported so that it rarmnt h i on an .ex^ensive cruiseJ disposed Warlike
ithe other squadrons. Viscount de Grenier! wTo was, hree orders onlv^T 7 °l °f these Operation
. believe, one of the first to notice these defects, proposed usual oSof ^i*; S f diff?r from
u emedy them by introducing a new order of battle. edbvfie 34 where the 6 ormef °f these is represent-
he leading principles of De Grenier’s tactics are founded % Tet ^ oTV^aTb^ t?
01,the following considerations. It is evident that each hauled lines. The shins of the 'two d; !s j"se;
6h of a fleet must at all times occupy the centre of a cer- sometimes to e t \ o divisions c d, e f
JC'ta horizon. This horizon De Grenier divides into two windward, as in
ui.qual parts, calling the greater the direct and graduated fig. 35, and some-
spf*, and the less the indirect, crossed, and ungraduated times to leeward
sfke. The reason of these appellations is, that on the as in fig. 34, of the
gr.ter segment of the horizontal circle there are twenty dif- third division a b,
feat points, which may be marked by degrees from one of are to be formed
thr close-hauled lines to the other, and to which a ship on two parallels of
one of the close-
hauled lines in
the wakes of their respective headmost ships ; while the
third division a 5 is to be ranged ahead or astern of the
others on the other close-hauled line, steering chequerwise
WAR.
765
£3^
v.—.      —      ; " 111 Vi I a ouij,
mi sail from the centre by so many direct courses without
tailing; whereas from the other twelve points, including
tli,; from which the wind blows, she cannot arrive but by
staring cross courses, which must necessarily delay her
pr-ress. Suppose now a fleet to leeward, so disposed that
,1^?'
-ta
d
on| a part of it can fight with another equally numerous, the same course as the other divisions
am ranged to windward in a single line, and lot. thp W wivon „ h
am ranged to windward in a single line, and let the lee
flet be ranged on three sides of a lozenge ab,cd,ef
Fig. 33.
When a 5 is to windward of c e? and e f (fig. 34), De
Grenier calls that the windward primitive order of sailing ;
and when to leeward (fig 35), the fleet is said to be in the
leeward primitive order of sailing. These are the two prin¬
cipal positions in almost every case, and, with very little va¬
riety, may become the order of battle, of chasing, &c.
Fig. 36.
His third order is illustrated by fig. 36, where the divi¬
sions a b and e f are supposed at the distance of about six
leagues from each other ; c d and e f resting on the extre¬
mities of the base of a triangle STV, while the centre ship
-r-ii , , . of the division a b rests on its summit T: none of the di-
isqua ron a ), which is most to windward, being drawn visions could be cut off by an enemy, however formidable,
T' R1 rn r p e’ ca^not ^ught but by an equal num- seen from its centre ship at the distance of six leagues.
p1. rest of that fleet therefore must For if, on the proper signal, the division a 6 should steer
■ J? lnachve> unless the ships which are not engaged from T toward X, on the course opposite to the close-
to pass to leeward of the fleet ab, c d, ef But hauled line it steered before, and the two divisions c d and
e f steer from V and S towards X likewise, it is plain that
each of these divisions would have only three leagues to run
in order to join the other two, while the enemy, which was
u l  >vilu uieui. oup- first perceived at the distance of six leagues, must run nine
jWv now that the ships between C i and F i have passed before he can come up with the nearest of these squadrons,
-’ward, the^ squadrons c d, e f which are ranged ac-
i i f t-iit ixcrcL Ll U, I, ll) CJ• UUL
■KM the ships of the weather fleet, which are placed be-
wt'i B and F, bear away, as they appear in the figure, be-
"j i C i and F i, the ships between A and B, which are
'r t0 windward, cannot bear away with them. Sup-
,’S t0 Grenier’s system, and have not yet been en-
8af i should come to windward, and join with their friends
® ‘gainst that squadron of the enemy AB which is still
ndward and engaged; it is almost impossible but that
£ ]uadron AB must be destroyed by so great a superi-
i 1 “e^oru it could receive assistance from the ships to
tee vd between C i and F i.
1 Grenier pro- Fisr. 34.
P°j only three v
oriil 3 of sailing-; . * _
one ivhen a flelt
ls 11 )ass a strait; f
as‘>nd, when it
stt l >n open sea,
0ni i look-out for
^ 1-my, or with
4 v tv to avoid ^ ^
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
c
To form De Grenier’s order of battle, represented in fig. His order
37 and 38, it will be sufficient for the ships of the three divi- of battle,
sions ranged in the windward primitive order of sailing, to
heave in stays all together, and get on the other tack on
the opposite line of bearing (fig. 37) ; or for the ships in the
leeward primitive order at once to haul the wind on the
same tack as they steer; and they will find themselves in
order of battle, fig. 38. When the two columns c d and ef
are to leeward of the third division a b, ranged in order of
166
WAR.
"Warlike battle, this is called the natural order of battle ; and when
Operations c d and e f are to windward of a b, this is called the inverted
at Sea. order of battle. The former of these is calculated for a fleet
combating to leeward, and the latter for a fleet which must
fight to windward.
To explain the Fig. 39.
advantages of ,
these dispositions, ' y Q Rr'. I
let us suppose the
D TC
Fig. 40.
I
o
^ ^ 6
c ^
Fig. 40 marks another method of manoeuvring by the di¬
visions c d, e f when the enemy’s ships are arranged in a
single line not well formed.
Figs. 41 and 42 illustrate De Grenier’s method of placing
the admiral’s ship, and the frigates and transports at¬
tached to a fleet. A, fig. 41, is the admiral placed a-
Fig. 41.
V A&'
* -
.C^ ..c27' .
line AB, CD, EF,
fig. 39, to repre¬
sent an enemy’s
fleet to windward
in the usual order of battle, on the close-hauled line, and
on the starboard tack; and let a & be one of the divisions of
a fleet disposed according to the now natural order, on the
starboard tack, while the lines c d, e f, represent the other
two divisions standing on chequerwise on the same tack,
but formed on the opposite close-hauled line. When the
enemy comes to attack this latter fleet on a supposition that
it is inferior to their own, their divisions AB and EF, in
order to attack the ships a or b, must bear away. Now, to
prevent the attack, each of the divisions cd, ef must make
the following evolutions, according to their respective situ¬
ations and the manoeuvres of the enemy. 1. The ships of
the division a b are to slacken as much as possible their
headway, and form a very close line, till the enemy makes
a movement to attack the headmost or sternmost ship of
that division. 2. The ships of the division c d are to make
sail till they come under the second or third ship of the rear
of the line of battle a b, when they will take the same sail
as the ships of that division, to preserve that position until
the hostile ships make their evolution to attack the rear
ships of that division. In this situation the ships of the di¬
vision c d will be able to observe the manoeuvres of the
enemy, in order to change tack, and form themselves in or¬
der of battle on the opposite board as soon as the hostile
ships shall have run over a certain space ; because the ships
of the division c d, steering afterwards close hauled in the
wake of the sternmost ship of the division a b, will be able
to cover the rear ships of that division, and get the wea¬
ther-gage of the hostile divisions which are bearing away ;
rake their ships ; run alongside of them ; double their rear¬
guard, and put it between two fires, if those hostile ships
are following in the wake of each other ; divide it if they
bear away chequerwise; or gain to windward, and put be¬
tween two fires the enemy’s division CD, while engaged
with the division a b. 3. The division e f may abandon
their post, and run chequerwise under a press of sail, as soon
as the enemy falls ahead of ab ; that if the enemy’s divi¬
sion AB attempts to fall on e f or on the van of a b, they
may, by going about, steer in order of battle close hauled
on the opposite line, and cover the ship o, double the hos¬
tile division CD ahead, or divide AB, which is running
chequerwise on the opposite tack.
head of the
fleet, at a short
distance from
the headmost
of the second
division, and
in the same di¬
rection of the
wind as the
headmost ship
of the first divi¬
sion ; f f are two frigates observing the same rule and
tion with respect
Fig. 42.
& &
posi-
arftt
ration,
tSea.
Gre-
sue-
lofut.
liral’s
fri.
sand
sporij.
. f
A
to the van ship
of the third, and
rear of the first
division. When
the fleet is in
order of battle,
as in fig. 42, the
admiral’s ship A
is in the centre
of the lozenge,
and two of the
frigates, f f are on the fourth side of the lozenge. The
transports and store-ships, when the fleet is in order of sail¬
ing or convoy, occupy the space circumscribed by the lo¬
zenge, but in order of battle they are disposed in a line
opposite to that of the enemy.
For a full exposition of this system, we must refer to the
original work, entitled LArt de Guerre en Mer, ou Tac-
tique Navale, &c. par M. le Viscompte de Grenier, or the
extracts from it contained in the Elements and Practice of
Rigging and Seamanship.
We must now turn our attention to the improvements in' M
tactics suggested by our countryman Mr Clerk; improve-1
ments which have received the approbation of several dis¬
tinguished officers of the navy, and to hints derived from
which we are in a great measure indebted for some of the
most signal victories which have reflected new honour on
the naval power of Britain.
Before entering on an explanation of Mr Clerk’s tactics,
ure must briefly state his objections to the usual method olj
bringing ships to action, by the weather ship or fleet steer-1
ing directly down upon the enemy. By doing this, the; i
enemy to leeward often has an opportunity of completely
disabling the ships making the attack, as the former can
use all their guns on one side, while
the latter can only use their bow Fig. 43.
chases. Suppose B, fig. 43, to re-  es—
present a ship of eighty guns to wind¬
ward, in sight of an enemy’s ship of
equal force F to leeward. Now, if
B bears down directly upon F, the jr1   
latter, by lying to, as in fig. 44, will
present a broadside of forty guns, all bearing
for a considerable time on B, while the latter Fig. 44.
coming down headwise, can only bring the two b
light guns of her forecastle to bear on F, not to y
mention that F, by lying broadside to, will have j
her masts and rigging little exposed to the ene¬
my’s shot, while B, standing head on, is ex¬
posed to be raked by every shot from F, and j
in particular her rigging is in the utmost dan- ,—•—
ger.
Instead of this objectionable mode
of attack, Mr Clerk proposes that B,
having the wind, should run down
astern as in the dotted line at fig. 45,
till she gets into the course of F,
near her wake, or in such a position
Mi
:tions
e usual
Fig. 45
/'
/
ke ; will bring her parallel to
ions ij course, and within a pro-
*■ j r distance, when she can
^ n up close alongside of F,
; j engage on equal terms ;
( that she should shoot a-
liid, then veer, and run
(ivn on the weather bow of
erk'i
ly the scheme at fig. 48, it is
sofii'mded to illustrate the impossibi-
li! of one ship being exposed to
t fire of many ships at one time.
WAR.
Fig. 46.
number and force,
also drawn up in line
of battle three or four
miles to windward,
wishes to make an
attack, and come to
close quarters on
767
Fig. 49.
E3 G>—C3>--o-
!
Warlike
Operations
at Sea.
cwnon tneweatner oowoi F equal terms. The fleets being thus disposed, should the
] as in fig. 46, till she can force the chase to bear away to fleet at B attempt running down to attack the fleet atF
1 ward, keeping close by her, on equal terms, taking care each ship standing head on to the opposite ship fn the lee^
i both cases not to put it in the power of F to hrimr hor warH lino it ic to Ko j r  i . I . ,
power of b to bring her ward line, it is to be expected, from what we have already
Fig. 47.
1 ladside to bear on her without retaliation.
,f Fig. 47 is employed by Mr Clerk to illus-
tte the different procedure of a French and
or aBritish man of war in firing, the former at
t: rigging, and the latter at the hull of the
eemy, with their effects. Let F represent a
1. ship desirous of avoiding a close engage-
r nt, but lying to, to receive with advantage
a enemy’s ship B, of equal force. Suppose
tjt F, by firing at the rigging of B, may have
cried away some of the principal stays, seve-  ^   _ _ ^
r of the windward shrouds, a fore-topmast, or other rig- this latter fleet, which has
gg of less consequence, without having wounded a single been endeavouring to a-
nn; and suppose a second ship, consort to F, receiving an void an action, will now
e ray’s ship like B, but firing only at her hull, so as to kill bear away with little in
t ty or forty men, without damaging her rigging. Now, ‘
v 2n F and her consort wish to avoid a close engagement,
il i evident that the ship B which has lost part of her rig-
gg, is much more disabled from coming to close action than
li consort whose rigging is entire, though she may have
1< a great number of her men.
Fig. 48.
stated, tha.t the attacking ships will be disabled at least in
their rigging before they can come to close action; but
suppose that the
com¬
mander of the weather
fleet, though his ships
have been disabled in their
rigging during their course
a a a to leeward, fig. 50,
has made them bring to at
a great distance, but suffi¬
ciently near to injure F,
Fig. 50.
e3>—
Cr
/
jury to a new station, as G, and there remain out of the
reach of B’s shot, and this fleet must repair its rigging
before it can make another attack.
Again,
Fig. 51.
K
of F
/ o '
I, H, F, H, I, represent five
*• sbs in line of battle ahead, about
1 a able’s length, or 240 yards, a-
s der, and suppose the length of
e i ship to be forty yards, so that
tl whole space between the head
o me ship and the head of that /
nft adjacent equals 280 yards, h //
* I the perpendicular line FK, ex- ^7/"
ti ling from the beam of F six / / j \
c les’ lengths, or 1440 yards, be j? Ir h 7
d ded into six equal parts. It is
lent that any ship stationed at E in the line FK, 720
Is distant, cannot long be exposed to the fire of more
tj i the centre ship F of this squadron. For if we suppose
II and K, ahead and astern of F, can bring their
suppose
that the fleet B,
instead of standing ^
head on, were to run
down in an angular
course, as in fig. 51.
It is plain that if V ^
any ship in this an- ^
gular line should be
crippled, her defect in sailing will occasion a confusion
of several of the other ships in that line. It may be said
that the stoppage of one ship ahead will not necessarily
produce a stoppage of every ship astern of her, because
they may run to leeward of the disabled ship; but we must
observe that by this time the ships ahead in the van A
may be engaged, and consequently, not having much head¬
way, are nearly stationary, so that each ship astern, in at¬
tempting to bear down as at D, D, may be confined to a
certain course, and must run the risk of being raked in
coming down before the wind, and consequently of being
disabled before coming up with the enemy.
Thirdly, the van of the fleet B having attained their sta¬
tion at A, abreast of the van of F, fig. 52, and having be-
Fig. 52.
^ T5
^2.
U
%
■ ClIIVA tL O L 1 II \S I } VsCfcLJI HI k X12^ 1/1IHI1
b dsides to bear on E, by putting themselves in positions
hat purpose, they will not only disorder their own line,
one will leave her head and the other her stern exposed
tOi raking fire from the opposite ships BB in the enemy’s
h| If 13 can suffer little from the two ships H, H, at the
<h inee of 720 yards, it is evident that she will suffer still
, bom these ships as she approaches nearer the enemy’s
11 Agam, if instead of a cable’s length asunder, we sup-
Ix the ships I, F, I, two cables’ length asunder, to bear .
or he ship B, it is evident from the figure that in this gun the action, the van ships of F, with a view to retieat,
c» B will not be more exposed to the fire of I and I at may throw in a broadside on the van of B, and then bear
fh listance of 1440 yards, than she was to that of H and H away in succession, as at H, followed by the rest of the
at hi that distance ; and so in similar cases. fleet F, which, after
* explaining the principles on which we are to judge of exchanging broad- rig-
j advantages or defects of different modes of bringing sides with the van
tp,sr action, Mr Clerk supposes a fleet of ten, twenty, of B, may draw up,^.
iser oreships, of eighty guns each, drawn up in line of battle in a new line two
Reward, as at F, fig. 49, and lying to with an intention or three miles to leeward at I I, fig. 53.
ot voiding an action; while another fleet, as B, of equal Suppose, again, for further illustration, that B, fig. 54,
-
768
W A R.
Warlike representsafleetput-
Operations ting before the wind,
' - - eac^ S^’P ^tending,
when brought to at ,
a determined dis¬
tance at A, to take
up her particular an¬
tagonist in the line c
of the enemy F to
leeward ; and let F
be supposed at rest,
without any motion r
ahead. It is easy to
conceive, that while
the alternate ships of
F’s line, under cover
of the smoke, with-
Fig. 54.
;a
-iri
fleet shall lie up
one point high- B
er, as FG, fig.
57, the rears of
the two fleets
will be remov¬
ed to a much
greater dis¬
tance, and the ^
van A must be
Fig. 57.
f
• ; : *•{.*.. ! ! |
 t i—r 
i ; ; ; i > 
 ^ + *—+—
j—}—
draw from battle to GGG, the intermediate ships left behind
them in the line will be sufficient to amuse even the whole
of B’s fleet, till the ships G shall form a new line H as a
support from the leeward. In such case B, after being
disabled, and not having foreseen the manoeuvre, will
neither be able to prevent the intermediate ships with
which he is engaged from bearing away to join their
friends, nor, were he able, would it be advisable to follow
them; for the same manoeuvre, with equal success, can again
and again be repeated.
To explain the relative motion of these two fleets, let F,
fig. 55, repre-
Fig. 55.
sent a fleet of
twelve ships in
line of battle, a
cable’s , length
asunder, and
suppose the
length of each
ship from the
end of the jib-
boom to the
stern to be 36f
fathoms. The
whole fleet will
occupy a space
of two English
miles an hour
from F to G,
then B, with a
more slanting
course, will have
more difficulty
in keeping the
line abreast
while coming
down to the at¬
tack, owing to
c B
  j--~4 
! I i i
r i —i—
! ! ! ’>. ! I
i— 
! !\ i
B'r-
the additional obstruction which will attend each succeed¬
ing ship in such a slanting course, x^gain, if the leeward
’ “ o j
sooner up with the enemy’s van, and of course so much
farther from support, while F, bringing up his ships in suc¬
cession, may disable the van of x\, and afterwards bear away
at pleasure w ith little injury, as at H. Now B being sup.
posed disabled, and having his rear D distracted, will be
unable to prevent F from escaping.
From these considerations, it appears that a fleet to wind¬
ward, by extending its line of battle with a view to stop
and attack the whole line of an enemy’s fleet to leeward
must labour under considerable disadvantages, and will
scarcely succeed in the attempt.
On these principles Mr Clerk explains the reason whyy ^
the French fleets so repeatedly escaped from the Britisho act
without any serious defeat or loss, viz. by avoiding a ge-fl ^
neral engagement, and disabling the British van as it bore" ',!li
down to attack them. He therefore recommends a differ¬
ent mode of attack from the windward, which we shall pro¬
ceed to illustrate by proper diagrams.
Let F (fig. 58) represent a fleet in line of battle, under
Fig. 58.
r- B
E-S* Q & |
 -o* E3 e>B
F
—  m-m-m- m-m-m » » *
miles; and if it be supposed to sail in the direction FG,
at the rate of four knots an hour, it will in an hour have
moved to G, four miles from its former position.
Now let there be an opposite fleet B, also twelve ships,
situated four miles to windward, and let the point A be a
quarter of a mile right to windward of the point G. Then,
if B, by bearing away in the direction BA, gain the point
A at the same time that the leewmrd fleet F has arrived at
G, B will have moved nearly at the rate of 5^ miles an
hour, and the angle contained between the direction of
its line of bearing and its present course will be nearly four
points.
Secondly, in fig. 56, if F, by carrying more sail, move at
the rate of six
Fig. 56.
easy sail, willing to avoid an action, but ready to receive an
attack, in the usual way, from another fleet B, three or four
miles to windward, arranged in three columns. How shall
B make the attack on F, so as, without aiming at the im¬
probable advantage of taking or destroying the greater part
of this fleet, they may secure three or four of the sternmost
ships ? Mr Clerk advises that a sufficient strength be de¬
tached to secure these ships, while the admiral keeps aloof
with the rest of his fleet, disposed as in the figure, ready to
make the necessary observations, and give the requisite
support to the detached ships. If F continues to avoid an
action by standing on in line, the detachment, coining into
the position BA, will secure the three ships at I; and if
the headmost ships of F w'ere to tack, and be followed by
the rest in succession, as at fig. 59, not only the three ships
at I will be left at
the mercy of the
ships detached
from B, but two a.
more, as G, will
be exposed to an I
attack from an¬
other squadron of B at C.
Fig. 59.
If all the ships of F tack to¬
gether, as in fig. 60, the delay, and probably the confusio-1
Fig. 60.
A
%.WV\\VN\^
V ✓ / / '
Ji
co equent on this manoeuvre, will still more endanger the
stfifimost ships, or will bring on a general and close action.
A in, if F attempts to haul off, beginning with his stern-
■'mit ship G, and then runs to leeward, as at fig. 61, he
wi expose his
shis to a raking Fig. 61.
fjrlfrom B, and ^
stii endanger - ^
hip sternmost
shA by get-
tin too far to
lelard for their
su.ort; or if the headmost ships at H, fig. 62, veer first,
to ie followed by
thrrest astern, the Fig. 62.
da;er would be
stigreater. Thus
it >pears that, in
ev y assignable
ca:., a fleet to lee-
wJl, avoiding an ^ ^ ^
att:kfrom an equal ir
or iperior to windward, as here advised, by preserving the
lir will risk the loss of three or more of their sternmost
Sl) i.
ow, let us suppose that F, while standing on a line on
th larboard tack, when
thutened with an attack Fig. 63.
oraiis rear from B, veers
an passes on opposite tacks
WAR.
769
^3.
G
6?
B
to eeward (see fig. 63).
T; consequence of this ^
wi be,, that his headmost
sh ; will be forced to lee-
wol by B, and compelled
to ngage under disadvantageous circumstances; and the
dii lvantage to F
- - Fig.
64.
B
27'
wi; be much the
sale, whether he
ago veers andre-
sufis his former *
poion, as at G, ,
fit 64, or stands r
oreforethewind, m
as i P, fig. 65. ^
ebavehither-
to-upposed that
th wind has been
fh'l in one point;
bi'et us suppose it
to hi ft, and let us
in ire what will be $
th effect of such aB
ci| imstance on the
t" lines F and B.
le the fleets are
in le former posi-
fk Fin line, and B
in ur divisions, B, B, B, A, steering east, with the wind
at )rth, fig. 66, let the wind shift to the west. The only
Fig. 65.
#r
I
i
Fig. 66.
B
i3> ^
Fig. 67.
0
M
M
Fig. 68,
B
consequence of
this will be, that
F will be thrown
still farther to
leeward, to its
greater disad¬
vantage. But let
the wind shift to
east, so as to be
ahead, as in figs.
67 and 68 ; still,
if the admiral of
B manages pro¬
perly, and care¬
fully watches the
motions of F,
this change will
produce no ad¬
vantage to the
latter. For B
has nothing to
do but veer as
the wind comes
round, so as to
bring his ships
to windward of
the three stern¬
most ships of F,
and to leew'ard of the rest of his line, so as to cut off the
three sternmost ships.
If the wind should be supposed to veer from point to
point all round the compass, so that the fleet F, maintain¬
ing the weather-gage of B, shall make a circuit round B to
leeward; still, if B act cautiously, F will lose the three threat¬
ened ships.
Lastly, suppose the wind should instantly shift to a point
opposite to w hat it was at the commencement of the attack,
as from north to south. Before it can be ascertained
whether such a change will be to the advantage or disad¬
vantage of F, the relative situations of the two fleets must
be considered. Suppose that the van and centre be sepa¬
rated at some distance from his rear, and that in conse¬
quence this fleet shall have taken such a position as is shown
at fig. 69. Though in this case he will have got to wind¬
ward, his three
Fig. 69.
B
A, ^
Warlike
Operations
at Sea.
$
ships can never
be regained or
preserved from
the attack of B.
The most favour-
2>
I.-'''
able situation for ^ ^ ^ ^
F would be when *
the fleets were in
the position de- ^
noted by fig. 66,
as then he could
not only support his three ships with advantage, but even
threaten and cut off a part of B’s detachment. In attempt¬
ing this, however, he incurs the risk of coming to a close
engagement, which we have supposed him to be sedulously
avoiding.
Besides this method of attack from the windward by de- From the
tachments from the main fleet, Mr Clerk shows how aleewari
successful attack may be made by a fleet to leeward, by its
breaking the enemy's line, and this either near the rear,
near the centre, or not far from the van, of which cases the
two former will be most likely to prove successful. The
enemy’s line can only be cut when the two hostile fleets
veer on opposite tacks. The most simple method of ef¬
fecting this is for the van ship of the attacking squadron,
instead of ranging parallel to that of the enemy, and to lee-
5 E
770 WAR
Warankui ward of him, to pass through the first interval that offers,
Warbur- by the rest of the line, which is thus led across
ton. ^bat of the enemy. In consequence of this manoeuvre, the
van of the leeward fleet will be to windward of the enemy’s
rear, and thus the attacking squadron will have its line en¬
tire, while that of its adversary is divided. Again, the ships
WAR
of the rear division, having their progress obstructed
probably crowd on each other, get into confusion and k
driven to leeward. We cannot detail the different '
mentioned by Mr Clerk; but for these, and many other
luable suggestions on the subject, we must refer to hi n
known and ingenious Essay on Naval Tactics 6 '
ton,
WARANKUL, or Warangol, an ancient city of
Hindustan, in the province of Hyderabad, belonging to the
nizam. Long. 79. 34. E. Lat. 17. 54. N.
WARARSDIN, a portion of the Austrian province of
Croatia, denominated a generality. It is on the frontier
towards Turkey, and peopled with military colonists, the
males of which are regimented, and held ready for service
as one of the conditions of their possessing the land. It
extends over 1470 square miles, and comprehends three
small towns and 306 villages, with 108,500 inhabitants,
two thirds of whom adhere to the Romish church, and the
remainder mostly to the Greek. They are divided into
two portions called regiments ; the head-quarters of one is
at Ivanich, of the other at St George’s. Nearly two fifths
of the surface are covered with woods, but the remainder is
cultivated, and produces more provender than is consumed.
It yields moderate crops of corn, tolerable wine, some silk,
and abundance of cattle. The climate is mild, and the
district is watered by the Drave and its numerous tributary
streams. There are no manufactures, but these are pur¬
chased with the surplus of the products of the soil. The
principal town, Ivanich, has only 650 inhabitants. Long.
16. 25. 5. E. Lat. 45. 42. 9. N.
WARBUR TON, William, a learned and distinguished
writer, descended from an ancient family in Cheshire,
was the eldest son of George Warburton, an attorney
at Newark in the county of Nottingham, and was born
on the 24th of December 1698. He was first sent to
school there under a Mr Twells, but had the chief part of
his education at Okeham in Rutlandshire, where he conti¬
nued till the beginning of the year 1714. He then re¬
turned to his native town, and for a short time was under
the care of his cousin William Warburton, who had recently
been appointed head master of Newark school. Being des¬
tined for the profession which had been followed by his
father and grandfather, he was placed as a clerk to Mr Kirke,
an attorney of East Markham in Nottinghamshire, with whom
he continued till April 1719, when he was qualified to en¬
gage in business on his own account. Having been ad¬
mitted as an attorney of one of the courts at Westminster,
he settled at Newark, where he continued to practise
for some years. His father had died about the year 1706,
leaving a widow and five children. Warburton’s success
as a country attorney does not appear to have been very
considerable, but he was destined to reach an eminent
station in another profession.
He had always expressed a strong inclination to take
orders; and the love of letters, which tended to retard
rather than forward his progress in the profession chosen
for him by his friends, growing every day stronger in him,
it was deemed expedient to give way to that inclination.
He therefore devoted himself to the studies necessary to
fit him for the church, and at length in 1723 he was or¬
dained deacon, and priest in 1727. In 1728 he was present¬
ed by Sir Robert Sutton to the rectory of Brand-Brough¬
ton, in the diocese of Lincoln, where he spent the greater
part of his life, and composed all the great works which
will carry his fame down to posterity. During the same
year he was put upon the king’s list of Masters of Arts,
created on his majesty’s visit to the university of Cam¬
bridge. He had already published some juvenile perform¬
ances, which displayed genius and reading, and attracted
considerable notice ; but it was not till the year 1736 th
he may be said to have emerged from the obscurity of!
private life into the notice of the world. The first nubli
cation which rendered him famous now appeared LrlJ
the title of « The Alliance between Church 3'Stl
or, the Necessity and Equity of an Established Religion
a"(‘a Test Law ; demonstrated from the Essence and End
ol Civil Society, upon the fundamental Principles of the
Law of Nature and Nations.”
At the close of the Alliance was announced the scheme
of the Divine Legation of Moses, in which he had then
made considerable progress. The first volume of this
work was published in January 1737-8, under the title of
“ The Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on the
11 inciples of a religious Deist, from the Omission of the
Doctrine of a future State of Rewards and Punishments in
the Jewish Dispensation, in six books.” The arrogance of
the author was at least equal to his learning; and this
work, as he afterwards observed, was fallen upon in so out¬
rageous and brutal a manner as had been scarcely pardon¬
able had it been “ The Divine Legation of Mahomet.”
It produced several answers, and so much abuse from the
authors of “ The Weekly Miscellany,” that in less than
two months he was constrained to defend himself, in “ A
Vindication of the Author of the Divine Legation of
Moses, from the Aspersions of the Country Clergyman’s
Letter in the Weekly Miscellany of February 24, 1737-8”
His extraordinary merit had attracted the notice of the
heir-apparent to the crown, in whose immediate service
we find him in June 1738, when he published “Faith
working by Charity to Christian Edification, a Sermon,
preached at the last Episcopal Visitation for Confirmation
in the Diocese of Lincoln ; with a Preface, showing the
Reason of its Publication ; and a Postscript, occasioned by
some Letters lately published in the Weekly Miscellany;
by William Warburton, M. A. Chaplain to his Royal High¬
ness the Prince of Wales.”
The “ Essay on Man” had now been published some
years; and it has sometimes been supposed that the
author had, in the composition of it, adopted the philoso¬
phy of Lord Bolingbroke, whom on this occasion he had
followed as his guide, without understanding the tendency
of his principles. In 1738, M. de Crousaz wrote some re¬
marks on it, accusing the author of Spinozaism and natu¬
ralism ; which falling into Warburton’s hands, he publish¬
ed a defence of the first epistle, and soon afterwards of the
remaining three, in seven letters ; of which six were print;
ed in 1739, and the seventh in 1740, under the title oi
“ A Vindication of Mr Pope’s Essay on Man, by the author
of the Divine Legation.” The opinion which Pope conceiv-
ed of these defences, as well as of their author, will be best
seen in his letters. In consequence, a firm friendship was
established between them, which continued with undimi-
nished fervour until the death of Pope : who, during the
remainder of his life, paid a deference and respect to his
friend’s judgment and abilities, which will be considered
by many as almost bordering on servility. . ,
Towards the end of the year 1739, Warburton publish
a new and improved edition of the first volume of the 91'
vine Legation; and in 1741 appeared the second part>
which completed the argument, though not the entire pan
of that work ; “ a work,” says Bishop Hurd, “ in all views
WARBURTON.
of,he most transcendant merit, whether vve consider the
in ntion or the execution. A plain simple argument, yet
✓ sct]y new, proving the divinity of the Mosaic law, and
fao(T a sure foundation for the support of Christianity, is
' th e drawn out to great length by a chain of reasoning so
clrantly connected, that the reader is carried along it
wi ease and pleasure ; while the matter presented to him
;s striking for its own importance, so embellished by a
livy fancy, and illustrated from all quarters by exquisite
lc;iing and the most ingenious disquisition, that in the
wlile compass of modern or ancient theology there is no¬
th ^ equal or similar to this extraordinary performance.”1
his is the panegyric of a man reflecting with tender-
ne on the memory of his friend and benefactor ; but it
an oaches much nearer to the truth than the censures of
th e cabalistic critics who, fastening upon some weak
pa of the Divine Legation, or perhaps never having looked
in it, have ridiculously contended that the author w'as far
frci being eminent as a scholar, and that his work is ini-
ra il to the cause of Christianity. Putting partiality
asb, there is in the Divine Legation of Moses abundant
evlence of the malignant folly of this charge, as no man
ca read and understand that work without being convinced
th its author was a Christian, not only sincere, but zealous;
th he was what Johnson calls him, “ a man of vigorous
fa> Ities, of a mind fervent and vehement, supplied, by un-
lir :ed and incessant inquiry, with a wonderful extent and
V3:3ty of knowledge, which had neither depressed his imagi-
nan nor clouded his perspicacity; and that to every work,
ar this work in particular, he brought a memory full
fnght, with a fancy fertile of original combinations, ex-
eng at once the powers of the scholar, the reasoner, and
th wit.” But we think it must be acknowledged, that
hi earning wras too multifarious to be always exact, and
hi nquiries too eagerly pushed to be always cautious.
i the summer of 1741, Pope and Warburton, in a coun-
tr ramble, took Oxford in their way. The university was
narally pleased at the arrival of two such strangers, and
sened desirous of enrolling their names among their gra-
d» es. The degree of D. D. was intended for the divine,
ar; that of LL. D. for the poet: but intrigue and envy
diii ated this scheme; and the university lost the honour
oi ecorating at the same time the two greatest geniuses
o! he age, by the fault of one or two of its members.
P e retired with some indignation to Twickenham, where
[hi onsoled himself and his friend with this sarcastic reflec-
tk: “ We shall take our degree together in fame, what-
er we do at the university.”
he friendship of this eminent poet was of service to
V rburton in more respects than that of increasing his
la r. He introduced and warmly recommended him to
•» t of his friends, and among others to Mr Murray, after-
" Is earl of Mansfield, and Ralph Allen, Esq. of Prior
b v. In consequence of this introduction, we find War-
bii on at Bath in 1742. There he printed a sermon which
h been preached at the Abbey-church on the 24th of
0 aber, for the benefit of Mr Allen’s favourite charity,
d General Hospital or Infirmary. During this year also
b irinted a Dissertation on the Origin of books of Chivalry,
■it he end of Jarvis’s preface to a translation of Don
^ xote; of which Pope tells him he had not got over two
ps graphs before he cried out, Aid Erasmus, aut Dia-
k s.
i 1742, Warburton published “ A Critical and Philoso-
pbal Commentary on Mr Pope’s Essay on Man, in which
’Si mtained a Vindication of the said Essay from the Mis-
rti esentation of M. de Resnel, the French Translator, and
°! T de Crousaz, Professor of Philosophy and Mathema¬
tics in the Academy of Lausanne, the Commentator.” It Warbur-
was at this period, when he had the entire confidence of t011-
Pope, that he advised him to complete the Dunciad, by^-^ 
changing the hero, and adding to it a fourth book. This was
accordingly executed in 1742, and the poem was published
early in 1743, with notes by Warburton ; who, in conse¬
quence of it, received his share of the abuse which Cibber
liberally bestowed on both Pope and his annotator. In the
latter end of the same year he published complete editions
of “ The Essay on Man,” and “ The Essay on Criticism
and from the specimen which he there exhibited of his
abilities, it may be presumed Pope determined to commit
to Warburton’s care the publication of those works which
he should leave. At Pope’s desire, he about this time
revised and corrected the “ Essay on Homer,” as it now
stands in the last edition of that translation.
The publication of the Dunciad was the last service
which our author rendered Pope in his lifetime. After a
lingering and tedious illness, the event of which had been
long foreseen, this great poet died on the 30th of May
1744; and by his will, dated the 12th of the preceding
December, bequeathed to Warburton one half of his library,
and the property of all such of his works already printed as
he had not otherwise disposed of or alienated, and all the
profits which should arise from any edition to be printed
after his death : but at the same time directed that they
should be published without any future alterations.
In 1744, Warburton turned his attention to the several
attacks which had been made on the Divine Legation,
and defended himself in a manner which, if it did not
prove him to be possessed of much humility or diffidence,
at least demonstrated that he knew how to wield the
weapons of controversy with the hand of a master. His
first defence now appeared, under the title of “ Remarks
on several occasional Reflections, in answer to the Reverend
Dr Middleton, Dr Pococke, the Master of the Charter-
house, Dr Richard Grey, and others; serving to explain
and justify divers Passages in the Divine Legation, object¬
ed to by those learned Writers. To which is added, a
general Review of the Argument of the Divine Legation,
as far as it is yet advanced; wherein is considered the Re¬
lation the several Parts bear to each other and the whole.
Together with an Appendix, in Answer to a late Pamphlet
entitled An Examination of Mr W ’s second Pro¬
position.” This was followed next year by “ Remarks on
several occasional Reflections, in Answer to the Reverend
Doctors Stebbing and Sykes ; serving to explain and justi¬
fy the two Dissertations in the Divine Legation, concerning
the command to Abraham to offer up his Son, and the Na¬
ture of the Jewish Theocracy, objected to by these learned
Writers. Part II. and last.” Both these answers are
couched in those high terms of confident superiority which
marked almost every performance that fell from his pen
during the remainder of his life.
On the 5th of September 1745, the friendship between
him and Mr Allen was more closely cemented by his mar¬
riage with Miss Tucker. At that important crisis he
preached and published three seasonable sermons: 1. “ A
faithful Portrait of Popery, by which it is seen to be the
Reverse of Christianity, as it is the Destruction of Morality,
Piety, and Civil Liberty. Preached at St James’s, West¬
minster, October 1745.” 2. “ A Sermon occasioned by the
present unnatural Rebellion, &c. Preached in Mr Allen’s
chapel at Prior Park, near Bath, November 1745.” 3.
“ The Nature of National Offences truly stated. Preached
on the General Fast-day, December 18, 1745-6.” On
account of the last of these sermons, he was again involved
in a controversy with his former antagonist Dr Stebbing,
1 Hurd’s Life of Warburton, prefixed to his Works.
772
WARBURTON.
"Warbur-
ton.
which occasioned “ An Apologetical Dedication to the
, Reverend Dr Henry Stebbing, in Answer to his Censure
and Misrepresentations of the Sermon preached on the Ge¬
neral Fast,” &c.
Notwithstanding his great connections, his acknowledg¬
ed abilities, and his established reputation, a reputation
founded on the durable basis of learning, and upheld by
the decent and attentive performance of every duty inci¬
dent to his station, we do not find that he received any ad¬
dition to the preferment given him in 1728 by Sir Robert
Sutton (except the chaplainship to the prince of Wales),
until April 1746, when he was unanimously called by the
Society of Lincoln’s Inn to be their preacher. In Novem¬
ber he published “ A Sermon preached on the Thanks¬
giving appointed to be observed the 9th of October, for the
Suppression of the late unnatural Rebellion.” In 1747 ap¬
peared his edition of Shakspeare and his Preface to Cla-
and in the same year he published, 1. “ A Letter
from an Author to a Member of Parliament concerning Li¬
terary Property.” 2. “ Preface to Mrs Cockburn’s Re¬
marks upon the Principles and Reasonings of Dr Ruther-
forth’s Essay on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue,
&c.” 3. “ Preface to a Critical Inquiry into the Opinions
and Practice of the ancient Philosophers, concerning the
Nature of a Future State, and their Method of teaching
by double Doctrine,” (by Mr Towne) 1747, second edi¬
tion.
“ In 1749,” says Bishop Hurd, “ a very extraordinary
attack was made on the moral character of Mr Pope, from
a quarter where it could be least expected. An insignifi¬
cant pamphlet, under the name of A Patriot King, was that
year published by Lord Bolingbroke, or by his direction,
with a preface to it, reflecting highly on Mr Pope’s honour.
The provocation was simply this: the manuscript of that
trivial declamation had been intrusted to the care of Mr
Pope, with the charge (as it was pretended) that only a
certain number of copies should be printed. Mr Pope, in
his excessive admiration of his guide, philosopher, and
friend, took that opportunity, for fear so invaluable a trea¬
sure of patriot eloquence should be lost to the public, to ex¬
ceed his commission, and to run off more copies, which
were found, after his death, in the printer’s warehouse.
This charge, however frivolous, was aggravated beyond
measure, and, notwithstanding the proofs which Lord Bo¬
lingbroke had received of Pope’s devotion to him, enven¬
omed with the utmost malignity. Mr Warburton thought
it became him to vindicate his deceased friend; and he did
it so effectually, as not only to silence his accuser, but to
cover him with confusion.”
About this time the publication of Dr Middleton’s In¬
quiry concerning the Miraculous Powers of the Christian
Church, gave rise to a controversy, which was managed
with great warmth and asperity on both sides, and not much
to the credit of either party. On this occasion Warburton
published in 1750 an able performance, written with a
degree of candour and temper which, it is to be lamented,
he did not always exercise. The title of it is “ Julian;
or a Discourse concerning the Earthquake and fiery Erup¬
tion which defeated that Emperor’s attempt to rebuild the
Temple at Jerusalem.” A second edition of this discourse,
with additions, appeared in 1751. During this year, he
gave the public his edition of Mr Pope’s Works, with notes,
in nine volumes 8vo ; and in the same year he printed “ An
Answer to a Letter to Dr Middleton, inserted in a Pam¬
phlet entitled The Argument of the Divine Legation fairly
stated, &c.; and “ An Account of the Prophecies of Arise
Evans, the Welsh Prophet in the last century,” annexed
to the first volume of Dr Jortin’s Remarks on Ecclesiasti¬
cal History
In 1752, Warburton published the first volume of a
course of Sermons, preached at Lincoln’s Inn, entitled
“ The Principles of Natural and Revealed Religion
sionally opened and explainedand this was two year, T'
wards followed by a second. After the public had h
taken, be almost said threatened with, the anneaJn!,V ,
Lord Bolingbroke’s Works, they were LTE?0'
printed. The known abilities and infidelity of this nohT
man had created apprehensions in the minds of many n ^
pie, of the pernicious effects of his doctrines; and nothiT
but the appearance of his whole force could have convinppH
his friends how little was to be dreaded from argument
agamst religion so weakly supported. Many answers wer!
soon published, but none with more acuteness, soliditv and
sprightliness, than “ A View of Lord Bolingbroke’s Philo
sophy, in two Letters to a Friend.” The third and fourth
letters were published in 1755, with another edition of the
two former ; and in the same year a smaller edition of the
whole; which, though it came into the world without a
name, was universally ascribed to Warburton, and was af¬
terwards publicly owned by him. To some copies of this
is prefixed an excellent complimentary epistle from the pre-
sident Montesquieu, dated May 26, 1745.
At this advanced period of his life, that preferment which
his abilities might have claimed, and which had hitherto
been withheld, seemed to be approaching towards him. In
September 1754, he was appointed one of his majesty’s
chaplains in ordinary; and in the next year was presented
to a prebend in the cathedral of Durham. About this time
the degree of D. D. was conferred on him by Dr Herring,
archbishop of Canterbury. A new impression of the
Divine Legation being now called for, he printed a fourth
edition of the first part of it, corrected and enlarged, divid¬
ed into two volumes, with a dedication to the earl of Hard-
wicke. During the same year appeared “ A Sermon
preached before his Grace Charles Duke of Marlborough,
President, and the Governors of the Hospital for the Small¬
pox and for Inoculation, at the Parish-church of St An¬
drew, Holborn, April the 24th, 1755.” And in 1756 he
published “ Natural and Civil Events the Instruments of
God’s Moral Government; a Sermon preached on the last
public Fast-day, at Lincoln’s Inn Chapel.”
In 1757, Dr Warburton meeting with Mr Hume’s tract
entitled “ The Natural History of Religion,” filled the mar¬
gin of the book, as well as some interleaved slips of paper,
with many severe and shrewd remarks on the infidelity and
naturalism of the author. These he put into the hands of
his friend Dr Hurd, who, making a few alterations of the
style, added a short introduction and conclusion, and pub¬
lished them in a pamphlet, entitled “ Remarks on Mr Da¬
vid Hume’s Natural History of Religion, by a Gentleman
of Cambridge, in a Letter to the Reverend Dr Warbur¬
ton.” This fierce attack upon Mr Hume gave him so much
offence that he thought proper to vent his indignation on
the supposed author in the posthumous discourse which he
called his Pife ; and thus to do greater honour to Dr Hurd
than to any other of his numerous antagonists.
Towards the end of the year 1757, Dr Warburton was
promoted to the deanery of Bristol; and in the beginning
of the year 1760, he was, through Mr Allen’s interest with
Mr Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, advanced to the
bishopric of Gloucester. That great minister is known to
have declared, “ that nothing of a private nature since he
had been in office had given him so much pleasure as
bringing our author on the bench.” There was however
another minister who dreaded his promotion, and thought
he saw a second Atterbury in the new bishop of Gloucester,
but Warburton, says Bishop Hurd, had neither talents nor
inclination for parliamentary intrigue or parliamentary eio-
~ Tune in his hands, an
quence : he had other instruments of fame in —
was infinitely above the vanity of being caught
With the fine notion of a busy man
some time promised, it may, from the alarm whiot
r» Ir'K 1 4- a.1  a  1 • . v '■'*1 WaS
WAR
[e was consecrated on the 20th of January 1760, and
he 30th of the same month preached before the House
'oi>ords. In the next year he printed “ A Rational Ac-
cc it of the Nature and End of the Sacrament of the Lord’s
per.” In 1762 he published “ The Doctrine of Grace ;
or ie Office and Operations of the Holy Spirit vindicated
fp i the Insults of Infidelity and the Abuses of Fanati-
Cpi,” 2 vols. 12mo ; and in the succeeding year drew up-
or himself much illiberal abuse from some writers of the
Jar party, on occasion of his complaint in the House of
yds, on the 15th of November 1763, against Mr Wilkes,
fo jutting his name to certain notes on the infamous “ Es-
sa on Woman.”
i 1765 he published a new edition of the second part of
th Divine Legation, in three volumes; and as it had now
re ived his last hand, he presented it to his great friend
L d Mansfield, in a dedication which deserves to be read.
It as the appendix to this edition which produced the well-
kr ivn controversy between him and Dr Lowth, which we
lu j noticed elsewhere as doing no great honour, by the
mjle in which it was conducted, to either party. In the
in t year he gave a new and much improved edition of the
A ance between Church and State. This was followed,
in 767, by a third volume of Sermons, to which is added,
hinrst triennial Charge to the Clergy of the Diocese of
G ucester; which may be safely pronounced one of the
m t valuable discourses of the kind that is to be found in
oi own or any other language. With this publication he
cl ed his literary course; except that he made an effort
tcards publishing, and actually printed, the ninth and last
In k of the Divine Legation. This book, with one or two
otisional sermons, and some valuable directions for the
st ly of theology, has been given to the world in the
spndid edition of his works by his friend and biographer
tl late bishop of Worcester. That prelate confesses that
tl; ninth book of the Divine Legation displays little of
tl vigour of mind and fertility of invention which appear
sconspicuous in the former volumes; but he adds, perhaps
try, that under all the disadvantages with which it pa-
p< rs, it is the noblest effort which has hitherto been made
tt ive a rationale of Christianity.
Vhile the bishop of Gloucester was thus exerting his
la strength in the cause of religion, he projected a method
b which he hoped to render it effectual service after his
d th. He transferred L.500 in trust to Lord Mansfield,
5 Eardley Wilmot, and Mr Charles Yorke, to found a
Mure, in the form of a course of sermons, to prove the
h h of revealed religion in general, and of the Christian
ir 'articular, from the completion of the prophecies in the
t and New Testament, which relate to the Christian
c rch, especially to the apostasy of Papal Rome.
t is a melancholy reflection, that a life spent in the con¬
st it pursuit of knowledge frequently terminates in the loss
o hose powers, the cultivation and improvement of which
a attended to with too strict and unabated a degree of
al uir. This was the case with Dr Warburton ; and it
S'ns probable that the decline of intellectual vigour was
a ravated by the loss of his only son, a promising young
bn, who died of a consumption but a short time before
t' bishop, who himself closed his career on the 7th of June
I 9. In August 1781 his widow married John Stafford
^ ith, B. D., who had been his chaplain, and who in her
r it became owner of Prior Park. At her expense, and
II ler the superintendence of Bishop Hurd, a collective
e’ion of Warburton’s Works wras published in 1788 in
s en vols. 4to. In 1794 he added “ A Discourse by way of
' oral Preface to the quarto Edition of Bishop Warburton’s
irks, containing some Account of the Life, Writings,
‘l Character of the Author.” This biographical work is
6 le to many objections. It is not only meagre and un-
s‘ d^ctory in many of its details, but is deeply tinctured
WAR
773
with the narrow prejudices and cool malignity of the writer. Ward
He left for publication, after his own death, “ Letters from r II
a late eminent Prelate to one of his Friends.” This collec- Wardrobe-
tion has no tendency to increase our reverence for either' JI~ v
Warburton or Hurd. Here we must not entirely overlook
the singular publication of Dr Parr, entitled “ Tracts by
Warburton and a Warburtonian, not admitted into the re¬
spective collections of their Works.” Lond. 1789, 8vo.
WARD is variously used in our old books. A ward in
London is a district or division of the city, committed to
the special charge of one of the aldermen ; and in London
there are twenty-six wards, according to the number of the
mayor and aldermen, of which every one has his ward for
his proper guard and jurisdiction. A forest is divided into
w^ards ; and a prison is called a ward. Lastly, the heir of
the king’s tenant, that held in capite, was termed a ward
during his nonage; but this wardship is taken away by the
statute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
Ward, Seth, an English prelate, chiefly distinguished
for his knowledge in mathematics and astronomy, was born
at Buntingford in Hertfordshire ; and his biographer Dr
Pope places his birth in the year 1618. He was admitted
of Sidney College, Cambridge, where he applied with great
vigour to his studies, particularly to the mathematics, and
was chosen fellow of his college. He was much involved
in the consequences of the civil war, but he was more for¬
tunate than many of his brethren. He was appointed Sa-
vilian professor of astronomy at Oxford ; and here in 1654
he took the degree of D. D. In 1659 he was chosen presi¬
dent of Trinity College ; but being disqualified for the of¬
fice, he was obliged to resign it at the Restoration. In
1661 he became dean, and in 1662 bishop, of Exeter. In
1667 he was translated to Salisbury ; and in 1671 was made
chancellor of the order of the Garter. He was the first Pro¬
testant bishop that enjoyed that honour, and he procured
it to be annexed to the see of Salisbury. Bishop Ward was
one of those unhappy persons who have had the misfortune
to survive their senses, which happened in consequence of
a fever ill cured. He lived to the Revolution without know¬
ing any thing of the matter, and died at Knightsbridge on
the 6th of January 1689. He had rendered himself odious
by the severities which he exercised against the non-confor¬
mists. He published various works on theology, philoso¬
phy, mathematics, and astronomy.
WARDEN, or Guardian, one who has the charge or
keeping of any person, or thing, by office. Such is the
warden of the Fleet, the keeper of the Fleet prison, who
has the charge of the prisoners there, especially such as are
committed from the court of chancery for contempt.
WARDROBE, a closet or little room adjoining to a
bedchamber, serving to dispose and keep a person’s apparel
in ; or for a servant to lodge in, to be at hand to wait, &c.
Wardrobe, in a prince’s court, is an apartment wherein
his robes, wearing apparel, and other necessaries, are pre¬
served under the care and direction of proper officers. In
Britain, the Master or Keeper of the Great Wardrobe was
an officer of great antiquity and dignity. High privileges
and immunities were conferred on him by King Henry VI.
which were confirmed by his successors; and King James
I. not only enlarged them, but ordained that this office ’
should be a corporation or body politic for ever. It was
the duty of this office to provide robes for the coronations,
marriages, and funerals of the royal family ; to furnish the
court with hangings, cloths of state, carpets, beds, and other
necessaries; to furnish houses for ambassadors at their first
arrival; cloths of state, and other furniture, for the lord
lieutenant of Ireland, and all his majesty’s ambassadors
abroad ; to provide all robes for foreign knights ot the gar¬
ter, robes for the knights of the garter at home ; robes and
all other furniture for the officers of the garter ; coats for
kings, heralds, and pursuivants at arms ; robes for the lords
774
WAR
WAR
Wardship, of the treasury, and chancellor of the exchequer, &c.; livery
™ II. for the lord chamberlain, grooms of his majesty’s privy cham-
v ‘.fher, officer of his majesty’s robes ; for the two chief justices,
for all the barons of the exchequer, and several officers of
these courts ; all liveries for his majesty’s servants, as yeo¬
men of the guard, and wardens of the Tower, trumpeters,
kettle-drummers, and lifers ; the messengers, and all belong¬
ing to the stables, as coachmen, footmen, littermen, posti¬
lions, and grooms, &c.; all the king’s coaches, chariots,
harnesses, saddles, bits, bridles, &c.; the king’s watermen,
game-keepers, &c.; also furniture for the royal yachts, and
all rich embroidered tilts, and other furniture, for the barges.
Besides the master or keeper of the wardrobe, who had a
salary of L.2000, there were his deputy ,who had L.150, and
a comptroller and a patent clerk, each of whom had a salary
of L.300 ; besides many other inferior officers and ser¬
vants, who were all sworn servants to the king. There was
likewise a removing wardrobe, which had its own set of offi¬
cers, and standing wardrobe-keepers at St James’s, Windsor
Castle, Hampton Court, Kensington, and Somerset House ;
but the whole of the wardrobe establishment was abolished
by act of parliament in 1782, and the duty of it in future
was to be done by the lord chamberlain.
WARDSHIP, in chivalry, one of the incidents of tenure
by knight-service. See Feudal System.
WARE, a market-town of the county of Hertford, in the
hundred of Braughin, twenty-one miles from London. It
stands on the river Lea, which is navigable to the metropo¬
lis, and by which much malt, the principal commodity of
the place, is conveyed to the great porter breweries and dis¬
tilleries in London. It is a wmll-built town, and consists
of one long street, with several minor ones intersecting it.
The church is an ancient and noble structure. Near to it is
the spring by which the new river is mainly supplied. Ware
has a good market on Tuesday, and two yearly fairs. The
population amounted in 1821 to 3844, and in 1831 to 4214.
WAREHAM, a market-towm of the county of Dorset,
in the hundred of Winfrith and division of Blandford, 112
miles from London. It is situated on an eminence between
the mouth of the rivers Frome and Piddle, and consists of
four principal and several minor streets. The river Frome is
navigable up to the bridge for small craft from Poole. This
was formerly a place of more importance, having once seven¬
teen churches, now reduced to three, one only of which is
used. There are however several dissenting places of wor¬
ship. It was once fortified, and some remains of the works
are still visible. It has very little trade. The market is on
Saturday. It returns, with the parishes of Corfe Castle and
Bere Regis, one member to parliament. The population of
Wareham amounted in 1821 to 1939, and in 1831 to 2325.
WARKWORTH, a town of the county of Northum¬
berland, in the ward of Morpeth. It stands on the river
Coquet, 308 miles from London, it consists of three
streets, in which are good houses. It is remarkable for
the extensive ruins of the castle of its name, belonging to
the duke of Northumberland, with its park and hermitage.
The market has declined. The population amounted in
1821 to 591, and in 1831 to 639.
. W ARMING. Under the article Stove, the different
^ means of heating apartments, both directly by stoves, and
also by throwing in a supply of warm air, have been already
noticed; and under the article Steam, the means of using
it as a source of heat for warming buildings and fluids, and
also for drying articles, have been fully described. There
is still another method of warming to which we have to
advert; we mean by water. In considering the subject of
heat, its communication from one object to another, and the
mode by which it is conveyed through fluids, have been fully
discussed ; but before proceeding to describe the process of
warming by water, it may be proper to allude to the circum¬
stances accompanying the distribution of heat in this w'ay.
When heat is applied to the end of a bar of iron it
from particle to particle, and the whole of the
this way become warm, were it not for the operation ‘“r
other causes. But the process of heating a fluid is //
ferent. When heat is applied to the bottom of a vessel f
water, the particles below, as they receive caloric are °
panded, become specifically lighter, and ascend: cold m
tides must therefore fall to supply their place, which ^
their turn gain caloric and also rise ; and in this way hv ^
constant ascent of warm and descent of cold particles tlT
whole of the fluid is heated. The communication of heat
in this case is therefore not from particle to particle as in
solids, but by currents.
If, instead of a jar, an apparatus of the form fig. 1 be used
Fig. 1.
the currents will be established in a b when it is heated
and water will be found to flow from one vessel to another,
owing to a difference in the gravity of the water in the dif¬
ferent parts of the apparatus. Suppose at the commence¬
ment that the water is at 50°, and heat is applied to the
bottom of a b. Owing to the currents, the fluid in it becomes
warm, and is therefore of less specific gravity than before,
while that in c d continues cold, and is consequently not
altered in gravity ; the pressure on c, occasioned by the
column d c, is therefore greater than that on b, occasioned
by the column a b. There is therefore a movement towards
b corresponding to the difference in gravity, and consequent
difference of pressure, on c and on b. As the water flows
along c b into a b, there must be a flow along a d into c d,
and this current in the circuit a deb will continue as long as
there is any difference between the temperature of the water
in a b and c d. Now if a 6 have heat constantly applied to
it, and c d be constantly parting with it by exposure to a
colder atmosphere, there must be kept up a difference in
temperature, and thus the current will be continued; and the
heat which the water in a b receives will be given off dur¬
ing the circulation of the fluid along the other parts of the
apparatus. Hence the mode of conveying heat generated
by combustion to distant parts, as through the rooms of a
house. The method to be followed will obviously depend
on the construction of the building and the purposes for
which the heat is required. If the whole of the apartments
to be warmed are on the same level, the apparatus is very
simple. At a convenient part of the building an open
boiler is erected, and so situated that a fire can be kindled
under it. From the upper part of the side of the boiler a
tube, as a d in fig. 1, passes along the floor or near the
floor, and is made to traverse on the same level to the dis¬
tant parts, and again to return on the same level, and, after
making a turn downwards at any convenient part, to enter
the side of the boiler near the bottom, as at b, fig- h 1°
this way the heat which the water in the boiler receives
from the fire is conveyed by the fluid travelling along the
tubes, and in its passage is communicated to the surround¬
ing atmosphere of the apartment. The more rapidly the
heat is abstracted from the tubes, the greater will be t e
difference between the temperature of the water in the boi er
and in the other parts of the apparatus; the more rapid there¬
fore will be the current, owing to the difference in gravity
and consequently the more abundant will be the supplj 0
heat to the apartment.
In the method now described, the boiler is an open one,
%
i ^
WAR
d being placed on it to prevent loss of heat by eva-
^ ^ i ition. The tube conveying the warm water cannot go
al ve the level of the fluid in it, and hence this form of
aratus is restricted in its application. It is well adapted
fc hot-houses, for churches, and buildings with all the
r< ns on the same floor. When the apartments are situated
01 above another, such as in common dwelling-houses and
jr nanufactories, the boiler must be a closed one, so that
tl water may be transported to a greater height. Nume-
rc; forms of apparatus have been recommended, and are
m in use for this purpose. Suppose that the boiler is
ei ited in a room on the lower part of the building, and that
n< only the apartments on the same level, but also those
al ve, are to be warmed ; all that is required is to carry a
pi i from the upper part of the boiler through the different
rons, and after traversing these, to make it enter near the
]o 2r part of the boiler, as in the apparatus already describ¬
ee Thus «, fig. 2, being the boiler, the water in it, when
]](;ed, will flow in the direc-
ti< abedef g h, and again Fig. 2.
id the boiler at i. If we sup- j,
pj» the pipes to traverse dif-
fent apartments, then each
a[ -tment will receive heat from
th water in its passage through
it
rom what has been said of the
ci ’ents in the fluid, it is evident,
th as by the last process there
m t be a greater difference be-
tv;en the gravity of the water in
tl; different parts of the appara-
ti the current must be more
ra d, and consequently the heat
fr i the original source must be more quickly carried away,
lire is evidently a limit to this ; for when the height be¬
eves great, the pressure on the pipes is greatly increased,
w ch requires a corresponding strength in the materials, and
a cety in the junctures of the different parts of the appa-
rs s. Not that there is any danger from the formation of
h i-pressure steam, so as to cause explosion ; but should the
tit 3s be faulty at any part, there would be an escape of hot
w er, which, under the pressure given by the high column,
w Id rush out with great force.
»y using the shut boiler there is another advantage
gaed, namely, that of being able to carry the water down-
w ds, and again upwards, at any particular part where it
ir ’ be necessary, and, what is of still greater consequence,
U onvey it to a level above the boiler. In constructing
ai ipparatus for this purpose, it must be borne in mind,
tl when the fluid has to rise after having descended,
tl e is always a tendency to a retrograde motion, owing
t< he difference in pressure at different parts. Thus in
a stem of boiler and tubes, as in fig. 3, the ascent of the
Fig. 3.
WAR
775
■water from a to b, and its descent from g to h, and its re- Warming,
turn to the boiler, go on as in the other forms. At the
same time, however, when the fluid flows from c to d, as
that in y e is colder, and consequently of greater gravity,
than that in c d, there is a tendency to cause a motion back
again in the direction f c d e, and this will actually occur
unless the descending force \n g h be greater than that in
fe. This is obtained by taking care to have the ascending
pipe of sufficient height, and thus to cause a sufficient dif¬
ference in the temperature, and consequent gravity, of the
water, in the pipe passing from the boiler, and that in the
descending tube g h. Much must depend on the size of
the pipes, and the heat to be given off by the water in its
passage along them; for, as already stated, the greater the
difference between the temperature of the fluid in the as¬
cending and descending tubes, the greater the difference in
gravity, and consequently the more rapid the current. It
has been found, that when the pipes are not to ascend after
having descended, a sufficient current can in general be ob¬
tained when the exit from the boiler, as in fig. 1, is distant
from the entrance to it about sixteen inches. When the pipe
ascends after dipping, then the height to which the pipe
ascending from the boiler must be carried should be in
proportion to the descent and corresponding rise. Thus
suppose, in fig. 3, the ascent from e to / is twelve inches,
then the perpendicular height from i, where the water re¬
turns to the boiler, to b, ought to be twenty-eight, that is,
sixteen inches greater than ef, or thereabouts ; because, as
already stated, the other circumstances affecting the current
will cause a difference in the requisite height of the tubes.
By carrying the
ascending tube to a Fig. 4.
considerable height,
it thus affords the
means of construct¬
ing an apparatus in
which the ascent,
after the pipe has
dipt, may be much
greater; and thus it
is also that the pipe
may be carried be¬
low the level of the
boiler itself. In
causing water to
flow in an apparatus
similar to that of fig.
4, a great deal of
heat must be lost by
the coil, owing to
the great surface exposed; and the water will therefore
become in it proportionally of great gravity compared to
that in a b. At the same time, however, there is a tendency
to a back-flow from e to d, and also in the lower part of the
pipe i h, owing to the difference in temperature and gra¬
vity of the water in it and in k 1. But if, owing to the great
loss of heat from the coil, the gravity of the whole fluid in
e f g iy be greater than that from k to b, then the flow
will be established and kept up as long as the abstraction
of heat from the coil is continued. It is evident, that by
varying the form of an apparatus of this kind, water may
be conveyed to the different parts of a building, though
some of them are below the level of the boiler.
^ Different forms of boilers are used when the water is
confined in a closed apparatus. Much must depend on
the situation and on the particular purpose to which the
system of heating is to be applied ; and the same remarks
are also applicable to the construction of the furnaces.
When the boiler is a shut one, it is necessary to have a cis¬
tern to supply it with water, which must be placed above
the highest part of the tubes. The most convenient place
776
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Fig. 5.
Warming, for the entrance of the pipe from it, is immediately before
the water returns to the boiler: it is therefore generally
connected with the return pipe just before it pierces the
boiler.
It is well known that the expansion of iron by increase of
temperature is considerable. The pipes must therefore be
allowed free movement, so as to admit of expansion, other¬
wise they will give way. It is also necessary to have some
contrivance for securing the escape of the air from the
pipes, because, if left in, it impedes, nay sometimes prevents
altogether, the current of the water ; and hence the neces¬
sity of having an opening in the highest part of the tube,
by which not only the air in them, but also that disengaged
from the water when heated, will be expelled. The part
at which this aperture must be placed will depend entirely
on the form of the apparatus. In some, one opening will
be sufficient, but in others two or more will be required ;
for though the air has a tendency to pass to the highest
points, yet, from the difference in the levels, it may accu¬
mulate at different places. Thus, in fig. 4, it will be found
at b and e, and hence at these points small tubes of a few
inches in length, open at top, ought to be placed.
In addition to the forms
of apparatus now described,
there is still another now
much in use, called the
High Pressure apparatus.
It consists of a coil of tubes,
fig. 5, a b, about an inch
external, and half an inch
internal diameter, which is
the part of the apparatus
that is surrounded by the
fire, and of course acts in¬
stead of the boiler. From
the upper part of this the
ascending tube b c pro¬
ceeds, and from it the
others to the different parts £
of the building, and is then
conveyed to the bottom of
the coil at a, thus making
a continued circuit. In
this form of apparatus, al¬
lowance must be made for
the expansion, not only of
the tubes, but also for that
of the water ; a larger pipe
is therefore attached to the
highest point, which is generally vertical, as ef. This tube
being at first open, is employed for filling the apparatus;
the water being poured in till it rises a little way in it, as,
for instance, to the dotted line i k, after which the aperture
is secured by a cap and screw. Instead of filling the ap¬
paratus through the expansion tube, a small one is some¬
times attached to the highest part, as n o, after which the
screw on it and on the safety-pipe are put on. By using
this smaller tube, there is no risk of making the water too
high, as it cannot rise above the dotted line i k.
In an apparatus of this kind, due attention must be paid
to the strength of the tubes ; because, as a strong heat is ap¬
plied to the coil to raise the water beyond 212, were the
tubes not of sufficient strength, they would be burst by the
tendency to form steam of high elastic force. Thus the
temperature of the coil is sometimes 500, at which the
pressure on the inside of the pipes is upwards of 1000 lb.
on the square inch ; hence the necessity of having the
pipes to be used proved to a pressure beyond this. Those
employed are generally warranted to upwards of 2000
lbs. When an accident does occur, it is usually owing
to the coil giving way, partly from its resisting force being
ac- f.
area-
fin.
yw
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weakened by the high temperature; partly from th
tion of the water on the iron, by which its pronprtil
altered. 1 11163 are
This high-pressure apparatus, though it has manvaclv,
tages over the other forms, has also some disadvan J
The water in the coil can be heated to a greater de?8'
than in a boiler, consequently more heat can°be taken tf ^
the fire and conveyed to the apartments; but this it°m
generally allowed, is done at a comparatively greater cost
The system of heating by the transport of water from
one place to another, as now described, has advantages
which it is supposed recommend it above all others. It'
well adapted for warming the air in large and extensive
buildings, such as manufactories; and also for creatine a
requisite degree of heat for particular purposes, as in paper-
making, drying of gunpowder, and many others. As yet"
however, it remains to be proved whether it is equally eco¬
nomical with the more easy method of throwing into the
apartment a large supply of air, moderately warmed, as is
done by the means already described under the article
Stove. The apparatus itself is costly, and is more
troublesome to fit up. At the same time, however, it must
be admitted that a uniform temperature can be more easily
and more permanently maintained by it than when air or
steam is used as the heating medium, owing to the quan¬
tity of heat in water being great compared to that in the
others. When the water is once warmed, it retains its
heat for a long time. When uniformity of temperature is
a great desideratum, the water system has therefore its
advantages ; such as in hot-houses, where it is of the ut¬
most importance that, after the temperature is once raised,
it should not be allowed again to sink, or to sink rapidly,
which may be the case when an irregularity occurs in the
fire of a hot-air or steam apparatus. With regard to the
expense, we may state, that the cost of erecting a high-
pressure apparatus used for heating a large wareroom
amounted to L.70. The furnace is placed in a room be¬
low ; and from the coil the ascending tube proceeds directly
to the apartment above, and from it two tubes pass hori¬
zontally in different directions, and after traversing the
room, return in the same direction, and join near where
they took their origin, and then descend to the coil. The
apartment is ninety-four feet in length, twenty-five in
breadth at one place and forty-four at another, and varies
in height at different places from fourteen to twenty-five
feet. The cubic contents are in all very nearly 50,000 feet.
The door opens directly to the street. Small coal is used,
at five shillings and sixpence per ton, which lasts for two
weeks, say for twelve days, at an expense therefore of
about sixpence per day, by which the temperature is kept
easily at 57°. Though this is a trifling expense, yet it is
not less than would be required for a hot-air stove for the
same apartment, while the original cost of the apparatus is
much greater. (d- h-)
WARMINSTER, a market-town of the county of
Wilts, in the hundred of its own name, ninety-seven miles
from London and twenty-two from Salisbury. The river
Willy runs through the town, and falls into the Avon.
Warminster has a market on Saturday, at which the great¬
est quantity of corn is sold of any place in the county,
has some employment in making fine cloths, but of late year8
that trade has much diminished. It is considered one of the
healthiest towns in England. There is a spacious pan5
church with a square lofty tower, and a chapel of ease, re¬
sides several places of worship for dissenting sects. The po
pulation amounted in 1821 to 5612, and in 1831 to 61 •
WARNAWIN, a circle of the Russian government ot
Kostroma, extending in north latitude from 56® 48' to
33', and in east longitude from 43° 59' to 46° 12'. It is a jw0
and barren district, thinly inhabited, and scarcely yiel in&
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cf i sufficient for its scanty population, many of whom seek
enjoyment and subsistence in other provinces. It has but
or town, its capital, of the same name, on the river Bet-
. It does not contain more than 750 inhabitants. It
js 56 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 44. 45. E. Lat.
5120. N.
7ARP, in the manufactures, a name for the threads,
wither of silk, wool, linen, hemp, &c. that are extended
lerthwise on the weaver’s loom; and across which the
wrunan, by means of his shuttle, passes the threads of the
wrf, to form a cloth, ribband, fustian, or the like.
Vahp, a small rope employed occasionally to remove a
sl! from one place to another, in a port, road, or river.
A hence,
o Warp, is to change the situation of a ship, by pulling
lie rom one part of a harbour, &c. to some other, by means
of arps, which are attached to buoys, to anchors sunk in
th bottom, or to certain stations upon the shore, as posts,
trees, &c. The ship is accordingly drawn forwards
Ufliose stations, either by pulling on the warps by hand,
orty the application of some purchase, as a tackle, wind-
la/ or capstern, upon her deck. When this operation is
oetarmed by the ship’s lesser anchors, these machines, to-
gt; er with their warps, are carried out in the boats alter-
naly towards the place where the ship is endeavouring to
ar/e; so that when she is drawn up close to one anchor,
th other is carried out to a competent distance before her,
ar. being sunk, serves to fix the other warp, by which she
is irther advanced. Warping is generally used when the
sa are unbent, or when they cannot be successfully em-
pl.ed, which may either arise from the unfavourable state
ofie wind, the opposition of the tide, or the narrow limits
of ie channel.
/ARRANT is a power and charge to a constable or
ot r officer to apprehend a person accused of any crime.
It;iay be issued in extraordinary cases by the privy coun¬
ci k secretaries of state ; but most commonly it is issued
byustices of the peace.
/ARRANTY, Warrantia, in Law, a promise, or co¬
ve int by deed, made by the bargainer for himself and his
http, to warrant and secure the bargainee and his heirs,
agost all men, for enjoying the thing agreed on or granted
btto’een them.
’ARREE, or Sawcnt Warree, an extensive district
of ilindustan, in the province of Bejapoor, situated be-
tv'pn the sea and the western Ghaut Mountains, being
fo i miles in length and about twenty-five in breadth. It
ist ocky and unproductive, and formerly the inhabitants
"fp much addicted to piracy. In 1818 the British forces
er red the country, and put an end to the government,
al ving a pension to the ranny or female ruler.
j/ARREN is a franchise or place privileged by pre-
soption or grant from the king, for the keeping of beasts
at fowls of the warren, which are hares and coneys, part-
rHes, pheasants, and some add quails, woodcocks, and
wf:r-fowl, &c. These being ferce naturae, every one had
a tural right to kill as he could ; but upon the introduc-
ta of the forest-laws at the Norman conquest, these ani-
nf> being looked upon as royal game, and the sole pro-
Pfy °f our rude monarchs, this franchise of free-warren
" invented to protect them, by giving the grantee a sole
ai exclusive power of killing such game, as far as his war-
rt] extended, on condition of his preventing other persons.
A tan therefore that has the franchise of warren, is in
rcj ty no more than a royal gamekeeper ; but no man, not
ej> a lord of a manor, could by common law justify
sj| ting on another’s soil, or even on his own, unless he had
liberty of free-warren. This franchise is almost fallen
ln disregard since the new statutes for preserving the
e> ^le name being now chiefly preserved in grounds
1 are set apart for breeding hares and rabbits.
ol. xxi.
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WARRINGTON, a large market and borough town
o the county of Lapcaster, in the hundred of West Derby,
ft 18 a Place of great though doubtful antiquity. Its name
is most obviously of Saxon origin, Whoering in that lan¬
guage signifying an armed or defended town. It is placed
™ ?eLrivf Jersey, over which a bridge was erected in
1458, by the first earl of Derby, to facilitate the pro¬
gress of King Henry VII. in the north of England. As
the best passage over the river, it was the scene of fre¬
quent conflicts during the civil war, and in the reign of
Charles I. In 1643 the town was twice taken by storm by
the parliamentary forces. In 1648 the Scotish army made
a stand here; General Lambert here repulsed the troops
who accompanied Charles II. on his way to Worcester ; and
in 1745 the centre arches of the bridge were broken down
to impede the progress of the Highlanders under the Pre¬
tender. 1 he old bridge having been frequently repaired,
has been of late replaced by an elegant and convenient new
erection.
777
Warrino’-
ton
I!
Warsaw.
There was at one period an establishment for the edu¬
cation of one class of dissenters, which had men of cele¬
brity for tutors ; among others Dr Priestley, Dr Enfield, Dr
Aikin, and Gilbert Wakefield. It did not continue long,
partly from insufficient funds, and partly from the difficulty
of maintaining due discipline, so that it was dissolved about
the year 1//0, leaving no traces beyond an elegant poem
by Mrs Barbauld, the daughter of Dr Aikin. There are
three churches, one of which, dedicated to St Elphen or St
Helen, is a handsome building of red freestone, probably
of Saxon origin ; and it contains some curious old monu¬
ments. Two ancient chapels remain, in one of which are
some modern monuments of the Pattern family ; in the
other the magnificent tomb of Sir Thomas Boteler and his
lady: the former was murdered in his mansion at Bewsey
Hall. There are places of worship for almost every sect of
protestant dissenters, and a chapel for the Roman Catho¬
lics. The schools are numerous, among which are pre¬
eminent the free-school founded and endowed in 1526 by
the Boteler family, and the blue-coat school, which is a
flourishing institution, and richly endowed for the education
of 150 boys and forty girls. There is also a great number
of Sunday schools, with many other charitable institutions.
Among the public buildings, the most prominent are the
town-hall, the market, and the cloth-hall. There are, be¬
sides, assembly-rooms and a theatre. As the Mersey is na¬
vigable up to the bridge, it is an important auxiliary to the
intercourse with Liverpool, and through that town to fo¬
reign countries. Warrington is a place of great manufac¬
turing industry. Cotton goods and sail-cloth are largely
made; as also pins, files, and glass. It likewise supplies
large quantities of malt. It is a station on the railroad be¬
tween Birmingham and the towns of Liverpool and Man¬
chester, being distant from the former seventy-eight miles,
and from the two latter twenty miles. It is 173 miles from
London. It has a well-supplied market on Saturday, where
much corn is sold.
By the reform bill, Warrington has acquired the right of
returning one member to the House of Commons ; and it
gives the title of earl, in addition to that of Stamford, to the
Grey family. The population of the town amounted in
1821 to 12,570, and in 1831 to 16,018; but the whole
parish, which extends beyond the town, contained, in 1831,
19,155 inhabitants.
WARRIOR, a town of Hindustan, in the Carnatic,
thirty-eight miles north-east from Tanjore. Long. 79. 25.
E. Lat. il. 15. N.
WARSAW, the capital of the kingdom of Poland, is si¬
tuated on the left bank of the Vistula, in north lat. 52° 14',
and east long. 21° 2', in the midst of a vast sandy plain.
The city proper is ill built, with narrow dirty streets ; but
the suburbs are fine and spacious, with wide, straight, and
5 F
778
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Warton. well-paved streets. At the close of 1835, the number of
v'—“v'™—' buildings or houses was 4298, of which 2968 were of stone,
and 1330 of wood. The population at the same time
amounted to 133,884, including 33,389 Jews. The royal
palace is a vast structure ; and, besides it, there is a great
number of other fine palaces and public buildings, a ca¬
thedral dedicated to St John, and many other churches.
Since the late revolution and re-subjugation of Poland, the
Russian government has constructed a strong citadel at
Warsaw, to overawe the Poles. The city still contains a
number of scientific and literary establishments; but the
principal ones, namely, the university, re-opened so lately
as 1818, and the Royal Society of the Friends of Science,
have been suppressed. Before the revolution, no other
city in eastern Europe issued so great a number of perio¬
dical publications, in proportion to the amount of popula¬
tion ; it was, besides, the centre of the industry and the com¬
merce of the kingdom. The trade has again revived; and,
in 1835, the principal articles manufactured in the town
and exported were, carriages, in value 156,000 florins;
pianofortes, 87,520 ; saddlery, 82,480 ; silver-plated ware,
82,180 ; carpets, 63,400 ; agricultural machines and imple¬
ments, 47,850 ; woollen goods, 44,200. Praga, the largest
suburb, situate on the right bank of the river, and connect¬
ed with the city by a bridge of boats, is noted in the his-
tory of Poland for its terrible capture by Suwarrow in 1795.
In the immediate neighbourhood of the city is the superb
castle of Villanov or Willanow, built by the great king John
Sobieski, who died here in 1696 ; and the island of Kepa-
Saoka, embellished with gardens. Warsaw is 170 miles
S. S. E. of Dantzig. (c. h.)
WARTON, Joseph, an elegant poet and critic, was
born in the year 1722, in the house of his maternal grand¬
father, Joseph Richardson, rector of Dunsford in Surrey.
His father, Thomas Warton, B. D. fellow of Magdalen Col¬
lege, and professor of poetry at Oxford, and afterwards
vicar of Basingstoke in Hampshire, and of Cobham in Sur¬
rey, was descended from an ancient and honourable family
of Beverley in Yorkshire. The son was for a short time
sent to New College school, but was chiefly educated by
his father till he reached the age of fourteen, when he was
admitted on the foundation of Winchester College. He
was at this early period distinguished by his love of poetry,
and one of his school-fellows was William Collins. In Sep¬
tember 1740, being superannuated, he was removed from
Winchester; and as no vacancy occurred in New College,
he was entered of Oriel, when he prosecuted his studies
with diligence and success. In 1744 he took the degree
of A. B., and was ordained to his father’s curacy at Basing¬
stoke, and officiated in that church till February 1746.
He next removed to Chelsea, and afterwards to Cobham.
His father died in the year 1745, leaving two sons and a
daughter in circumstances far from affluent. Joseph, his
elder son, published by subscription a volume of “ Poems
on several occasions by the Rev. Mr Thomas Warton, Bat¬
chelor of Divinity, late Vicar of Basingstoke in Hampshire,
and some time Professor of Poetry in the University of
Oxford.” Lond. 1748, 8vo. This volume is closed by two
poems on the death of the author, one by his daughter
Jane, the other by the editor. He had previously published
a small collection of his own, entitled “ Odes on various
subjects.” Lond. 1746, 4to. In 1748 the duke of Bolton
presented him to the rectory of Winslade; and although
this provision was but scanty, he immediately married Miss
Daman, a young lady to whom he had for some time been
enthusiastically attached. In 1751 he accompanied the
same nobleman on a tour to the south of France. For this
arrangement, as Dr Wooll very coolly informs us, the duke
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had two motives, “ the society of a man of learning mvi
taste, and the accommodation of a protestant dergyni ^
who immediately on the death of the duchess, then ' ^
confirmed dropsy, could marry him to the lady with who3
he lived, and who was universally known and distinm,;^
by the name of Polly Peachum.”1 This, it must be all
mitted, was a very miserable commission for any protestant
clergyman to undertake, nor did Warton earn the wages ot
his iniquity ; for some unexplained reason induced orcom
pelled him to revisit England, before the duchess died • and
when, on her demise, he solicited the duke’s permission to
return, he had the mortification to learn that the worthy
pair had been joined in wedlock by the chaplain to the em¬
bassy at Turin.
Before this period, he had undertaken a translation of
the Eclogues and Georgies of Virgil; and having associ¬
ated with it Pitt’s translation of the Aineid, he added the
original text, and accompanied the whole with his own
notes. Lond. 1753, 4 vols. 8vo. The book is elegantly
printed ; but Dr Harwood remarks that the Latin text, es¬
pecially in the Georgies, is extremely incorrect. A second
edition followed in 1778. Warton added three essays, on
pastoral, didactic, and epic poetry. This publication laid
the foundation of his literary celebrity. Soon after its ap¬
pearance, he was requested to assist Dr Hawkesworth in
the Adventurer, which was commenced in 1752. The in¬
vitation was conveyed to him by Dr Johnson, who stated
that the department destined for him was that of criticism.
To this periodical work he contributed twenty-four papers,
of which the greater part relate to critical subjects, and all
of them are creditable to his talents and taste.
In 1754 he was instituted to the rectory of Tunworth;
and in the following year he was elected second master of
Winchester school. In 1756 Lord Lyttelton presented him
with a chaplain’s scarf. He now published the first volume of
“ An Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope.” Lond.
1756, 8vo. This is a very elegant and interesting morsel
of criticism. Of his claims to the higher characteristics of
a poet, Warton has formed a more moderate estimate than
many other critics ; but after all that has been written on
his side of the question, the lively fancy, sparkling wit, and
finished terseness of Pope have lost none of their attrac¬
tions. This wmrk, which appeared without the author’s
name, is dedicated to Dr Young, a professed admirer of
original composition. In 1759 tire university of Oxford
conferred upon him by diploma the degree of A. M. In
May 1766 he became head-master of Winchester school.
For this situation he possessed several qualifications. He
was a man of polished manners ; nor could his pupils fail
to imbibe some portion of his refined taste and loveof lite¬
rature. He was not however without defects. Though
an elegant scholar, he was not sufficiently able as a philo¬
logist. “ He held verbal criticism cheap, and, as a natural
consequence, frequently encountered insurmountable diffi¬
culties in Greek authors ; while the expedients to which he
resorted in order to conceal the fact were easy of detec¬
tion, and excited much amusement among the elder boys....
But Warton wanted other qualities essential to the head¬
master of a public school. He was inconsistent in Ins
plans, and deficient in moral courage; often conceding "it i
respect to points of discipline upon which he ought to have
been inflexible. These defects paved the way for what was
afterwards called the Row, when the school was in such a
state of rebellion that the interference of the magistrates
was required, and upwards of thirty of the boys were ex
pelled. Burgess had left the school before this catastrophe
occurred, but he used to tell, among other proofs o tie
insubordination which prevailed even in his time, tha
1 Woolf’s Biographical Memoirs of the late Rev. Joseph Wartcn, D. D. p. 15. Lond. 1806, 4to.
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i r; ous boy had the audacity, on one occasion, to hurl a
^ L in dictionary at Warton’s head ”1
In being placed at the head of this great school, Warton
retired to Oxford, and accumulated the degrees of B. and
1)). In 1772 he lost his wife, by whom he had six chil-
dm. Such a loss was severely felt; but he found himself
hti less without the superintending care of a domestic com-
pa on; and in the course of the following year he mar-
rit the daughter of Robert Nicholas, Esq. a descendant of
p Nicholas, formerly warden of Winchester. From his
sc-elastic toils he was accustomed to seek a relaxation in
fai>ionable as well as literary society. His vacations were
fn jently spent in London. Like his brother, he became
a umber of the famous Literary Club ; and being conspi-
cu is for the vivacity and pleasantry of his conversation,
th circle of his acquaintance was at once brilliant and ex-
teiive. His dignified friends did not however advance
hii to any eminent preferment. In 1782 Bishop Lowth
co erred upon him a prebend of St Paul’s and the living
of horley in Hertfordshire, which he was permitted toex-
eh; ge for Wickham. In the course of the same year, he
puiished the second volume of his Essay on Pope. In
17 i the interest of Lord Shannon procured him a prebend
at Winchester; and to Lord Malmesbury he was indebted
foi ;he rectory of Easton, which, before the close of the
ye, he exchanged for Upham. The amount of these pre-
fei ents was not inconsiderable, but they came too late to
he f much avail to his family. He was sixty years of age
beire he had any benefice, except the small livings of
Wslade and Tunworth, and nearly seventy before he ob-
tai'd those which afterwards fell to his share.
n the 23d of July 1793 he resigned his office of head-
mr er, and afterwards retired to his rectory of Wickham.
H literary ardour was not yet extinguished; and a liberal
oil from the London booksellers encouraged him to un¬
de ike a new edition of the works of Pope, which was pub-
lisid in the year 1797 in nine volumes octavo. For such
a sk he possessed many qualifications, but his edition
dieiot escape the sharpness of critical reprehension. It
we assailed with sufficient virulence by Mathias, in that
gr ; repository of literary and political malignity the Pur-
su of Literature. He next undertook an edition of Dry-
de and about the year 1799 he had completed two vo-
lut s, which were afterwards published. At a much ear-
lie )eriod of his life, he had projected a history of the re-
vi\ of learning; and about the year 1784< he issued pro-
l>o s for publishing “ The History of Grecian, Roman,
Ite m, and French Poetry, in four parts.’’ In this work,
wl li was to occupy two quarto volumes, he however ap-
peiji to have made little or no progress. All his labours
an Projects were terminated by an incurable disease in his
kuuys; and he died on the 23d of February 1800, in the
setoty-eighth year of his age. His widow survived till
• Besides three daughters, of whom the youngest
wa by his second wife, he left a son, the late John
g Jr11,’ wh° published a work entitled “ Death-bed
' Warton was a very elegant, rather than a very pro-
011 scholar; and with his classical learning he united
mi) knowledge of modern literature, Italian and French
as -11 as English. On subjects of criticism, he was an
,a£ and instructive writer. His poems, which are
^u ew in number, appear in the collection of Mr Chal-
'w • He is a skilful versifier, and is not destitute of poe-
fancy. (x.)
arton, Thomas, the brother of Dr Warton, was born
isingstoke in the year 1728. He was distinguished by
ery early love of letters; and a tetrastich w'hich he
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wrote at the age of nine, has been preserved by his bio-
grapher. He remained under the domestic tuition of his'
f ^ l^TS prepa,;ed for the university. On the 16th
of May 1743, he was admitted a commoner of Trinity Col-
lege, Oxford, and was soon afterwards elected a scholar of
tnat house.
779
Warton.
He continued to cherish his love of poetry; and in 1747
he published without his name “ The Pleasures of Melan¬
choly, ? written two years before. On the appearance of
Mason s Isis, an Elegy,’ which contains reflections on the
Jacobitical principles then prevalent at Oxford, Warton
was encouraged by Dr Huddesfield, president of his col-
1eJ>e’ t0 repel tins attack. He accordingly published, in
1/49, “ I he Friumph of Isis, occasioned by Isis, an Elegy.”
1 his poem, written at the age of twenty-one, extended his
reputation. The principal of St Mary Hall, who is highly
extolled for his Roman eloquence, sent the young author a
present of five pounds. The same individual is likewise
extolled for his patriotism. From the “ Political and Li¬
terary Anecdotes of his own Times,” published long after
his death, it is evident that Dr King was deeply implicated
in the schemes of the Jacobites; and we may thus ascer¬
tain the value of the commendation bestowed upon such a
“ patriot’s fire.”
Warton took the degree of A. M. on the first of Decem¬
ber 1750, and in the course of the following year succeed¬
ed to a fellowship. He was thus placed in a situation well
adapted to his character and pursuits. Though not rich,
he was easy and independent, and had abundant leisure for
the cultivation of those elegant studies in which he delight¬
ed. About this period he published various poems, either
in a separate form or in some of the miscellaneous collec¬
tions of the day. He was the editor of “ The Union, or
select Scots and English Poems,” first printed at Edin¬
burgh in 1753. This collection, of which there are three
editions, includes several of his own poems; two of which,
an ode and a pastoral, he has chosen to describe as written
by a gentleman formerly of the university of Aberdeen.
He afterwards published a work which evinces great know¬
ledge of English literature, and a very sound spirit of criticism,
“ Observations on the Fairie Queene of Spenser.” Lond.
1754, 8vo. An edition, in two volumes octavo, followed
in 1762. The first edition was attacked in a scurrilous
pamphlet, bearing the title of “ The Observer observed ;
or, Remarks on a certain curious Tract, entitled Observa¬
tions on the Fairie Queene of Spenser, by Thomas War-
ton, A. M.” Lond. 1756, 8vo. This pamphlet, which ap¬
peared without the author’s name, was written by Hug¬
gins, the unpoetical translator of Ariosto.
In 1757, on the resignation of Mr Hawkins of Pembroke
College, he was elected professor of poetry. For this
office, which is only tenable for ten years, he was eminent¬
ly qualified by his taste as well as his learning ; and we are
informed that he exerted himself to fulfil its duties, by a
constant recommendation of the elegance and simplicity of
the classic poets. His lectures are said to have been re¬
markable for elegance of diction, and justness of observa¬
tion. A specimen may be found in his dissertation “ De
Poesi Bucolica Graecorumwhich was originally delivered
as one of these lectures, and having afterwards been en¬
larged, was prefixed to his edition of Theocritus.
His next publication was an elegant little collection en¬
titled “ Inscriptionum Romanarum Metricarum Delectus.
Accedunt notulae.” Lond. 1758, 4to. The ancient are
mixed with a few modern inscriptions. One of these, by
Dr Jortin, had been printed as an ancient relique, in the
Miscellaneous Observations on various Authors. Warton,
who apparently entertained a doubt of its genuineness, has
3 Harford’s Life of Thomas Burgess, 1). L). late Lord Bishop of Salisbury, p. 5. Lond. 1840, 8vo.
780
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Warton. commended it as “ conditissimum carmen.’’ It however
contains one very unhappy pentameter:
Utque tuus rursum corpore sim posito.
The editor has inserted four inscriptions written by him¬
self, numbers 41, 44, 45, and 47, which he pretends were
transmitted to him from Italy by a learned friend. This
was evidently a mode of ascertaining his*" own proficiency
as an imitator of ancient simplicity and elegance; but
whether such a device is altogether excusable, may per¬
haps admit of some doubt.
To Dr Johnson’s Idler he contributed three papers, Nos.
33, 93, and 96; but Dr Mant has erroneously stated that
he was likewise a contributor to the Connoisseur, published
by Colman and Thornton. In 1760 he printed two little
works without his name. One of them is “ A Description
of the City, College, and Cathedral of Winchester.” The
other is entitled “ A Companion to the Guide, and a Guide
to the Companion; being a complete Supplement to all
the Accounts of Oxford hitherto published.” This face¬
tious production speedily reached a third edition, and it
was again printed at Oxford in 1806. He afterwards pub¬
lished “ The Life and Literary Remains of Ralph Bathurst,
M. D. Dean of Wells, and President of Trinity College in
Oxford.” Lond. 1761, 8vo. This volume, though chiefly in¬
teresting to the members of his own college, is not without
its attractions to those who delight in the history of lite¬
rature and its professors.
Reverting to his classical pursuits, he prepared for the
press “ Anthologias Graecse, a Constantino Cephala con-
ditae, libri tres, ad editionem Lipsiensem Joannis Jacobi
Reiske express!. Accedunt interpretatio Latina, poetarum
anthologicorum notitia, indices necessarii.” Oxon. 1766,
8vo. Warton has contributed an elegant preface, together
with some brief annotations. The Latin version, the elabo¬
rate account of the poets, and the six indices, are reprinted
from Reiske’s edition. After an interval of four years, he
published a more elaborate work : “ Theocriti Syracusii quae
supersunt, cum scholiis Grsecis auctioribus, emendationibus
et animadversionibus in scholia editoris et Joannis Toupii,
glossis selectis ineditis,” &c. Oxon. 1770, 2 tom. 4to. This
edition is elegantly and correctly printed; and, in a letter
to the editor, Toup described it as “ the best publication
that ever came from the Clarendon press.” In compli¬
ance with the recommendation of the delegates, it was
printed without accents, although Dr Foster, eight years
before, had made a solemn remonstrance against a practice
so heretical.1 The scholia are not conveniently disposed
for the purpose of reference; and in the opinion of Harles
as well as Brunck, the editor has not to the full extent
availed himself of all the valuable materials that were within
his reach. But an edition of a Greek poet by a scholar so
accomplished, and possessing so much elegance of taste, is
not very frequently recorded in the annals of classical liter¬
ature.
On the 7th of December 1767, he had taken the degree
oi B. D.; and on the 22d of October 1771, he was instituted
to the small living of Kiddington in Oxfordshire, on the
presentation of the earl of Lichfield, then chancellor of the
university. From April 1755 to April 1774, he served the
curacy of Woodstock, except during the long vacation.
His pulpit oratory does not appear to have had any peculiar
recommendation ; but it was stated by an anonymous writer
in 1803, that many were still alive who spoke of him with
more regard and affection than of any other person who
ever officiated at Woodstock. He likewise augmented his
income by taking pupils; and Mr North, afterwards earl of
Guildford, was placed under his care in 1774.
His situation in the university led to his next lit
undertaking, “ The Life of Sir Thomas Pope, Foumw' r
Trinity College, Oxford; chiefly compiled from ori<hn,i Pv°
dences. With an Appendix of Papers never before mint*,
Lond. 1772, 8vo. This work, of which the original sketrh
was inserted in the Biographia Britannica, was reprint!
in the year 1780. It extends to an ample vnlnmo
‘fton,
\~w
year 1/80. It extends to an ample volume and
written with his usual elegance. The author’s model i!
Bishop Lowth’s Life of William of WTykeham; and both
works afford very favourable examples of this species of
biography, in which the details of the antiquary are render-
ed graceful by the taste of the scholar.
This was followed by a more important publication
namely, the first volume of “ The History of English
Poetry, from the close of the eleventh to the commence¬
ment of the eighteenth century. To which are prefixed
two Dissertations: 1. On the Origin of Romantic Fiction
in Europe: 2. On the Introduction of Learning into En?-
land.” Lond. 1774, 4to. A second edition of this volume
was speedily required. The second volume was published
in 1778, and the third in 1781. To this last he prefixed
“ A Dissertation on the Gesta Romanorum.” The impres¬
sion of the work extended to 1250 copies; and the copy-right
is said to have been purchased for three hundred and fifty
pounds. He did not live to complete the plan which his
title announces ; for he only descended to the reign of
Elizabeth. Although he survived the publication of the
third volume for nine years, he had only printed eleven
sheets of the fourth ; nor does he appear to have left any
additional portion of it in a state of preparation. At the
end of an edition of his Poems, published in 1791, we find
this announcement: “Speedily will be published, by the
same author, the fourth and last volume of the History of
English Poetry; in which the subject will [be] carried
down to the commencement of the present century.” It
was the intention of Dr Warton to complete his brother’s
great work; but there is no evidence of his having made
any progress in such an undertaking.
The History of English Poetry experienced a very.fa¬
vourable reception, and greatly contributed to extend the
reputation of the author. With very extensive and varie¬
gated research Warton combines much knowledge of an¬
cient and modern literature ; and he enlivens the most
unpromising disquisitions with many flowers of an active
fancy and a refined taste. The book is written in an ex¬
cellent English style, generally elegant and often graceful,
never descending too low or rising too high. With these
impressions of his great and conspicuous merit, we hold it
to be impossible to acquiesce in the averment, that “his
history has been found so dry and oppressive as to subdue
the eagerness of the generality of readers.” Such readers
must certainly be in a very inadequate state of preparation.
Soon after the appearance of his third volume, he was as¬
sailed in an anonymous pamphlet, entitled “ Observations
on the three first volumes of the History of English Poetry,
in a familiar Letter to the Author.” Lond. 1782,4to. This
familiar letter was the production of Ritson, and is plenti¬
fully furnished with his inexhaustible virulence. Warton,
like every other man who has published a work in three vo¬
lumes, has exhibited errors and mistakes; but those whic
his rabid censor has detected are neither so numerous nor so
important as to warrant any great severity of reprehension.
In spite of such critics as these, the work has steadily mam
tained as much popularity as could reasonably have bee
anticipated. A valuable edition, “ carefully revised, vw 1
numerous additional notes by the late Mr Ritson, the ae
Dr [Mr] Ashby, Mr Douce, Mr Park, and other einin,e”e
antiquaries, and by the editor,” was published by the a
1 Foster’s Essay on the different Nature of Accent and Quantity, p. 226. Eton, 1752, 8vo.
WAR
W A R
781
Jchard Price, a man eminently qualified for the undertak- another to Herodotus Tn ^ . c u-
T nnfl 1824 4 vols 8vo His nrpfarp PYr^nrlino- i • 0 otiotus. In the other part of his criticism Warwick.
, . bond. ^ vois. o o. nib pretace, extending to he is more accurate; and Warton was
l ] pages, is very able and elaborate ; and the same remark this small error by recollectimr
iupplicable to many of his annotations. War ton’s tr an- 14/r-- 1 • - • - ”
s ipts from old manuscripts having too frequently been
pry and inaccurate, many of his errors are corrected by
t editor. This edition, with additional notes by Sir
Iideric Madden and other antiquaries, was reprinted in
tsee volumes in the year 1840. had continued to enjoy vigorous and uninteAupted health!
Having then been seized with the gout, he repaired to Bath
where he persuaded himself that a favourable change had
taken place; but on his return to Oxford, his appearance
did not convey the same impression to his friends. On the
20th of May 1790, he passed the evening in the common
r i , room tlie college and for some time was more cheerful
Ant, now bishop of Down, has accompanied it with me- than usual; but between ten and eleven o’clock, when only
„;r« of h,s life and writing, and wub notoc ™HoQl two of the fellows remained with him, he was suddenly al
fected with paralysis. He continued speechless, and only
survived till two o clock on the following day. His remains
were deposited in the college-chapel, with the highest aca¬
demical honours; the ceremony being attended not only
by the members of his own college, but likewise by the
vice-chancellor, heads of houses, and proctors.
I he personal character of Ihomas Warton presented
many amiable aspects. In his manners, he was remarkably
- , . . „ simple and unassuming. In the company of strangers, parti-
o he county of Oxford. As a specimen, he had printed for cularly those of a literary class, he was inclined to be sby and
tl inspection of his friends, twenty copies of the History of reserved ; but, within the circle of his friends, his conversa-
tl Parish of Kiddington; and an edition of it was after- tion was easy and gay, enriched with anecdote, enlivened
u ds published. Lond. 1/83, 4to. In 1782 he was pre- with humour, besprinkled with puns, and sparkling with wit.
sited by his college to the donative of Hill Farrance in His temper is described as habitually calm, his disposition
- Sfiersetshire. In 1785 he was elected Camden nrofessor as gentle, friendly, and forgiving. “ His resentments,
where he could be supposed to have any, were expressed
rather in the language of jocularity than anger.” Of Rit-
son’s foul and unprovoked abuse, he only expressed his
sense by calling him a black-letter dog. If he had possessed
as much worldly wisdom as many of his brethren, he might
probably have attained to much higher preferment in the
church; but, apparently contented with his moderate pro¬
vision, he continued to lead a tranquil and studious life,
little infested with the cares of this world, and alike free
from envy and ambition.
Asa writer he has displayed varied excellence. He was
au accurate as well as an elegant classical scholar; and to
his masterly knowledge of English literature he added an
extensive acquaintance with the polite literature of France
and Italy. He was no mean poet, nor are his Latin inferior
to his English verses. As a classical critic, he is advanta-
apparently led into
i to many of his annotations. Warton’sTant Mycalels ^-oupedwXa moufla“nPof Baotfa P,W’ Where
Et Mycale, natusque ad sacra Cithsron.
He had now approached the termination of his distin¬
guished career. Till he reached his sixty-second year he
   v nDn r'rmHnnorl •
During the progress of his great work, he published a
election of his Poems. Lond. 1777, 8vo. A second edi-
tji appeared in 1778, a third in 1779, a fourth in 1789,
ala fifth in 1791. This was followed by a more complete
etion of “The Poetical Works of the late Thomas War-
ti ,13. D.” Oxford, 1802,2 vols. 8vo. The editor, Dr
Jnt, now bishop of Down, has accompanied it with me-
n irs of his life and writings, and with notes critical and
eilanatory. His Poems are reprinted in the great col¬
li ;ions of Dr Anderson and Mr Chalmers.
fVarton took some share in the famous controversy re¬
siding the poems produced by Chatterton. He published
“fn Enquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems attributed
t< Thomas Rowley; in which the Arguments of the Dean
oExeter and Mr Bryant are examined.” Lond. 1782, 8vo.
I, opinion, it may easily be supposed, coincided with that of
I -whitt. He had now formed the plan of preparing a history
In 1785 he was elected Camden professor
o ,orient history, on the resignation of Dr Scott, afterwards
I d Stowell. He had been a candidate for the same office
ii .768, when one Vivian was preferred. On the fifth of
si % 1786, he read an inaugural lecture, written in his usual
st eof terse Latinity; but this seems to have been the
v fi extent of his labours in his new department. In the
cirseof the year 1785, he had succeeded Whitehead in
tl office of poet laureate ; an office which, till a very re¬
ed period, continued to be held by a tenure sufficiently
ahet. The barbaric exaction to which the laureate was so
1 ; subjected, is not very creditable to the taste of the
!i three sovereigns of the Hanoverian dynasty. Soon
al r his appointment, Warton was treated with some de-
■jv- of witty freedom, in a publication entitled “ Probation-
aiOdes for the Laureateship.” But he had too much good
n ire to be easily annoyed ; and, as his brother has stated,
always heartily joined in the laugh, and applauded the geously known by his edition of Theocritus. Most of his
i' msite wit and humour that appeared in many of these
o' inal satires.”
he last of his literary labours was an edition of “ Poems
!ji11 seyeral occasions, English, Italian, and Latin, with
hnslations, by John Milton: viz. Lycidas, L’Allegro, &c.
' h notes, critical and explanatory.” Lond. 1785, 8vo.
-1 ocond edition, with many alterations and large addi-
11 s> was published in 1791. One of these editions is an
Jindix containing “ Remarks on the Greek Verses of
nf?11’ bY hh' Burney. It was the design of the editor to
1H ls * a second volume, comprehending Paradise Regain-
e:in( Samson Agonistes. The notes exhibit a great
^ Ety of illustration, drawn from ancient as well as modern
afure> but they are not unfrequently disfigured by the
P‘ ul prejudices of a mere high-churchman. Dr Mant
J 1'’os tbat “ he has in one or two instances been guilty
n oversight, of which a remarkable example occurs in
I j10te 011 the twenty-second verse of Mansus, where he
dj niteS Homer to Plutarch instead of Hero-
st ? ^escribes Mycale as a mountain in Boeotia in-
^ As'a Minor.” The bishop evidently was not aware
1 !ere is one life of Homer ascribed to Plutarch and
publications are replete with variegated learning; but the
great foundation of his fame is the History of English
Poetry, a work which in its own department is unrivalled
in English literature. (x.)
WARWICK, a borough and market town, the capital of
the county of that name. It is within the hundred of King-
ton, and stands on the bank of the river Avon, seven miles
from Stratford and ninety-one from London. It is a well-
built and regular town. The county-hall is a fine structure,
as is also the county gaol. It had once six parish churches,
now reduced to two, St Mary’s and St Nicholas. The for¬
mer is a noble Gothic building, with several grand monu¬
ments to members of the noble family who derived their title
from the town. The latter church is chiefly distinguished by
its lofty tower and musical ring of bells. The most remark¬
able object connected with this place is the castle, the ancient
and magnificent residence of the earl of Warwick, with its gar¬
dens, waterfall, bridge, collection of paintings, and other ob¬
jects of attraction. As one of the most prominent residences
of the English nobility, and one most connected with his¬
torical recollections, it is much visited, and is deserving of
a more elaborate description than the limits of our work
782
WAR
WAR
^ arwick- will permit to be given here. Warwick is divided into two
^ >huo. wards, and is governed by a corporate body, consisting of
^ ^ ~ a mayor, six aldermen, and seventeen councillors; and it re¬
turns two members to the House of Commons. There is a
market on Saturday, which is well supplied; and in addi¬
tion there are no less than eight annual fairs. Within a
few years the town of Leamington, one mile from War¬
wick, has, on account of its mineral waters, grown up to the
resemblance of a new city, surpassing Warwick in popula¬
tion, and far exceeding it in the beauty and regularity of
its edifices, both public and private. The inhabitants of
Warwick amounted in 1821 to 8235, and in 1831 to 9109.
Bound- W ARWICKSHIRE, an inland county of England, and
tenT’and nearty ^ie centre °f the kingdom. It is bounded on the
divisions. western side, from north to south, by Staffordshire, Wor¬
cestershire, and Gloucestershire; and on the eastern side
by Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, and Oxfordshire. Its
greatest length from north to south is about forty-eight,
and its breadth across the middle thirty-two miles. It con¬
tains 902 square miles, or 577,280 statute acres. It is di¬
vided into four hundreds, besides the city of Coventry,
which, with its liberties, extends over about 18,000 acres.
The hundreds are subdivided into several smaller portions,
for the local administration of the law, in which petty ses¬
sions courts are held.
Population. In no part of England has the population increased of
late years in a greater ratio than in this county, the num¬
bers at the several decennial censuses having been as fol¬
lows, viz., in 1801, 208,130; in 1811, 228,733; in 1821,
274,392 ; in 1831, 336,610. If the augmentation has pro¬
ceeded with the same rapidity as in the ten years from 1821
to 1831, it will be found at the enumeration of 1841, that the
inhabitants have been doubled in forty years.
The number of inhabited houses in 1831 was 68,253,
comprising 72,357 families. Of those families, 15,880 were
chiefly employed in agriculture ; 43,291 were chiefly occu¬
pied in trade, manufactures, and handicraft; and 13,186
were not comprised in either of the two preceding classes.
The number of males twenty years of age was 83,239;
the occupiers of land employing labourers were 2838; the
occupiers of land not employing labourers, 1142 ; the la¬
bourers employed in agriculture were 15,644. The persons
employed in manufacture or in making manufacturing machi¬
nery were 11,357; in retail trade, or in handicraft as masters
or workmen, 32,579; the capitalists, bankers, professional or
other educated men, 4012; the labourers in employments not
agricultural, 10,358; the other males twenty years of age
(except servants), 3729 ; male servants under twenty years
of age, 3729 ; male servants more than twenty years of age,
1562 ; those under twenty years of age, 884 ; and female
servants of all ages, 13,089.
country U Although Warwickshire is an elevated district, it is in ge-
and agricul- nera-l level. The rivers flow with a languid course, and the
ture. undulations of the surface are rare and gentle. It is gene¬
rally enclosed, and the fields are of moderate extent. The
fences are for the most part high and umbrageous, being
thickly planted with forest-trees, so that, though woods are
rare, the face of the country seems, at a distance, to be one
continued tract of woodland. There are but few common
fields, and very little waste or barren land. The extent of
pasture land is greater than in most parts of England, and
is estimated to be more than half of the whole. The pas¬
ture land, calculated at 300,000 acres, may be said wholly
to be appropriated to the sustenance of the different species
of animals. 100,000 acres are annually mowed for hay,
and the other two thirds are used for feeding. The agri¬
culture of the country is well conducted. The cultivation
of turnips is practised to a great extent, with much skill,
and with very productive effects. The crops of wheat, bar¬
ley, oats, pease, beans, and tares, are quite as luxuriant as
in any portion of England. The cows are generally of the
long-horned kind, but among them there are many vari? 1
ties. The ancient breed of Warwickshire sheep has be
crossed with the Leicester breed, and this mixture has
duced a kind adapted to the land, and equal to any racet
the kingdom
The streams of this county are numerous, out, with theE
exception of the Avon, are inconsiderable ; though, by the«
means of irrigation which they furnish, they are of oTeatrita
value to its rural economy. The whole of them run di
rectly or indirectly to the Severn. The Avon is navigable
for barges from Stratford to its junction with that rivernear
Tewkesbury. The intercourse of the county is much fad-
litated by the numerous canals that intersect and connect
it with every part of England; supply every part with cheap
fuel; and serve to convey its heavy productions to the ex-
porting towns, London, Liverpool, and Bristol. These
canals are the Birmingham Old Canal, the Birmingham
and Fazeley, the Warwick and Birmingham, the Worcester
and Birmingham, the Coventry, the Warwick and Napton,
the Stratford, the Ashby de la Zouch, and, above all, the
Grand Junction. This county, as it is the central one of
the kingdom, is become also a focal point for the most easy
access from any one part of England to all the others.
This has arisen from the magnificent railroad completed
since 1834. A daily communication is by this great work
kept up between London and the most distant cities of the
kingdom. It enters the county near Rugby, and passes
through Coventry to Birmingham, where it enters into
Staffordshire; but in its passage sends out, or will soon do
so, branches to the midland counties, as well as by Not¬
tingham and Derby to York, from whence other branches
will be formed to the most distant parts of the kingdom.
The minerals and fossils of this county are coal, iron, J)
limestone, and freestone. At Leamington Priors are mi-a'
neral springs, whose celebrity has made that place one ofra
the resorts of fashionable company, as well as invalids. The
waters contain neutral and sulphureous salts, with carbonate
of iron. Owing to the growing reputation of these waters,
the town, which in 1801 contained only 500 inhabitants, is
said now to have increased its population to 12,000, and its
beauty has similarly increased. The numerous objects of
attraction near to it, and the fertility and salubrity of the
neighbourhood, have added to the growth and prosperity of
the place.
This county possesses considerable manufactories, ofJI £'
which the greatest are those in metals of all kinds, con¬
ducted upon a stupendous scale at Birmingham, and the
towns and villages in its vicinity. The minute divisions and
subdivisions of labour, the various mechanical inventions,
the discoveries in chemistry, and the industrious and eco¬
nomical habits of the people, have rendered this part of the
country the principal reservoir from whence the world is
supplied with domestic utensils, ornaments, and a thou¬
sand minute articles which add much to the comfort of ci¬
vilized life. The city of Coventry has long been celebrated
for its manufactures of ribbons, and other goods of silk,
which now give occupation, in that place and its vicinity, to
more than 15,000 persons. There are also at Coventry large
undertakings for making watches ; a trade that has of late
been much extended. Mills for spinning cotton and woo
have been erected at Warwick ; and to them is attribute
the great increase which has lately taken place in the popu¬
lation of that town. At Tamworth very large works are con¬
structed for printing calicoes. At Alcester, several hun¬
dred persons are employed in making needles. In severa
parts of the county much linen yarn is spun.
The most remarkable objects in the county are Kenl
A lit 111WOL 1 11110.1 IVCiUlt UUJttlO 111 I
worth Castle, now in a dilapidated state; Maxstoke tas >
 . — -i* ^ Cistertian convent,
a most extensive pile; Comb Abbey, a    , jn
the school-house at Rugby ; and the house at Strattor
which Shakspeare was born.
WAS
5 This county has furnished titles to two British peers,
f tl earl of Warwick and the earl of Coventry ; and one
J- i h peer, Baron Arden. For election purposes, the
only is divided into two parts, distinguished as the
"n thern and southern. The election for the northern
d sion is held at the town of Coleshill; and the other
; pi* ing places are Nuneaton, Coventry, Birmingham, and
Unchurch. The election for the southern division is
hilat Warwick; and the other polling places are Kine-
tc: Stratford, Henley, and Southam. Two members
I'm Warwick, two from Coventry, and since the reform
a(l two from Birmingham, are sent to the House of Com-
m is. Two are also sent from Tamworth, the largest part
oi /hich is in the adjoining county of Stafford.
"he towns of more than 3000 inhabitants, and their no-
pution, were, in 1831,
Birmingham 146,986
Coventry  27,070
Warwick  9,109
Nuneaton  7,799
Atherstone  3,871
Sutton Colefield  3,684
Stratford on Avon  3,488
Kenilworth  3,097
'he most remarkable among a great number of noble-
m and gentlemen’s seats are, Warwick Castle, earl of
Wbvick; Ragley Hall, marquis of Hertford; Walton
HI, Sir C. Mordaunt; Compton Verney, Lord Wil-
lo hby ; Guy’s Cliff, B. Greathead ; Great Packington,
L I Aylesford; Compton Wyngate, marquis of North-
ari ton ; Astley Castle ; Newdigate ; Hewill Grange, earl
of ’lymouth ; and Merevale, D. S. Dugdale.1
/ARYE, an open town of Hindustan, in the province of
G brat and district of Werrear, fourteen miles south-west
fnfi Ruhdunpoor. It is the residence of many of the
hall jhuts, and can muster from 800 to 1000 horsemen,
wi; mounted, and armed with spears and sabres.
^ASA, a circle of the Russian province of Finland,
wl h extends over 16,760 miles, comprehending six cities,
p»> hamlets or farms, with 145,700 inhabitants. The
ca ;al is the town of the same name, on a bay in the Baltic
Sd It is well built, though chiefly w ith wooden houses, but
ha i handsome stone church. It contains 630 dwellings,
wh 2830 inhabitants, who make some leather, and export
m; y deals, much pitch, and some little corn ; but the har-
bo is nearly choked up with sand. Long. 21.30. E. Lat.
63 35. N.
ASH, among distillers, the fermentable liquor used by
ni; ^distillers. See Brewery.
ASHINGTON, the capital of the United States of
h America, is finely situate on undulating ground in
th( ingle formed by the junction of the navigable river
fa mac with the Eastern Branch, in the centre of the fe-
district of Columbia, an area of 100 square miles,
can 1 by the states of Virginia and Maryland to the United
bt; s for the site of their capital. The plan of the city,
ginally laid out, forms nearly a parallelogram of about
tou miles by two and a half, consisting of streets crossing
at ht angles in the direction of the cardinal points, and
tr;l rsed diagonally by larger avenues, named after the
states of the union ; but only a small portion of the
Pa has yet been executed, and the city consists only of
str‘gling clusters of houses placed at inconvenient dis-
^ s from each other. Almost the only part that is com-
Wr built is that which extends along Pennsylvania
between the president’s house and the Capitol,
WAS
tS cJ^h areJlanasol”e buildings of white freestone.
Ihe Capitol contains the halls of the senate and house of
amrtmntf1VeS’ theJibr,ai7°f'Egress, and numerous other
partments, some of which are spacious and tastefully em-
centretv aW" S ^ scluare Elding, surmounted in the
ntre by a massy dome, its eastern front adorned with a
Corinthian colonnade, and it is surrounded by grounds taste-
u ly planted and laid out. There are various other public
buildings, of neat and substantial but unpretending archi¬
tecture, as the city hall, the halls of Columbia College
the penitentiary, twenty churches, the medical hall, &c’
About a mile south-east of the Capitol is the navy-yard, on
Eastern Branch, which is deep enough along shore for the
largest vessels ; and just above it is the naval hospital. At
the junction of the two rivers stands the United States ar-
senaL The principal educational establishment is Colum¬
bia College, founded by the Baptists, with nine instruc¬
tors, besides four professors connected with the medical
department. The city was founded in 1791, and became
the seat of government in 1800. In 1830 the population
amounted to 18,827, including 3129 free blacks and 2319
slaves ; but during the sessions of congress the place is
thronged with visitors from all parts of the world. Not¬
withstanding its advantageous situation on a large navigable
river, and in the centre of a productive country, Washing¬
ton has never become the seat of trade ; and its growth is
solely to be attributed to the expenditure of government
and the public functionaries. It has a bridge, one mile in
length, over the Potomac, leading to Alexandria, and two
across Eastern Branch. The Baltimore Railroad affords an
easy communication with the north, the Chesapeake and
Ohio Canal with the west, and the Potomac, to different
points, on which regular lines of steam-packets run, with
the south. Long. 76. 58. W. Lat. 38. 55. N. (c. h.)
WASHINGTON, George, the first president of the
United States, was born in the year 1732, in the parish of
Washington, in Virginia. He was descended from an an¬
cient family in Cheshire, of which a branch was establish¬
ed in Virginia about the middle of the seventeenth cen¬
tury. Little is known concerning his education, or the
early years of his life. Before he was twenty years of age,
he was appointed a major in the colonial militia, and had
then an opportunity of displaying those military and poli¬
tical talents which have since rendered his name so famous
throughout the world. In the disputes which arose be¬
tween the French and English officers, about settling the
limits of Canada and Louisiana, Major Washington was
employed by the governor of Virginia as a negotiator, and
he succeeded in preventing a threatened invasion of the
English frontiers by the French and their Indian allies; but
in the following year, when hostilities seemed inevitable, he
was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and soon after to the com¬
mand of a regiment raised by the colony for its owm de¬
fence. In 1755, Colonel Washington served as a volun¬
teer in the unfortunate expedition of General Braddock;
and in that expedition, which was attended with great dif¬
ficulty, he exhibited so much calmness and intrepidity,
that the utmost confidence was reposed in his talents, and
perfect obedience paid to his commands, by the whole
army. After having been employed in a different and
more successful expedition, to the river Ohio, the state of
his health required him, about the year 1758, to resign his
military situation ; and in the sixteen following years, dur-
ring w'hich period he married Mrs Custis, a Virginian lady
of amiable character and respectable connections, it would
appear that he resided chiefly at his beautiful seat of Mount
Vernon, and w as occupied in the cultivation of his estate.
, ; e Dug<kle’s Antiquities of Warwickshire; Marshall’s Rural Economy; Hutton’s History of Birmingham ; Beauties of England and
784 WAS
Wasil When the disaffection of the Americans to the British
government had become pretty general, and had at last
v 1)51 ow'spread to the colony of Virginia, Colonel Washington was
appointed a delegate from that state to the congress which
met at Philadelphia on the 26th October 1774; and soon
after he was appointed to the command of the American
army, which had assembled in the provinces of New Eng¬
land. The conduct of Washington during the whole of the
war, as well as during the period when he presided in the
government of the United States, has been so fully detail¬
ed in other parts of this work, that it would be unnecessary
repetition even to give a general outline of it in this place.
Washington resigned the presidency in 1796, after hav¬
ing published a farewell address to his countrymen. This
address was remarkably distinguished for the simplicity and
ingenuousness, moderation and sobriety, the good sense,
prudence, and honesty, as well as sincere affection for his
country and for mankind, which the author of it had al¬
ways exhibited. It seemed to be a perfect picture of his
whole life. From the time of his resignation till the month
of July 1798, he lived in retirement at his seat of Mount
Vernon. At this period, when the unprincipled actors in
the French revolution were carrying on their wicked ma¬
chinations in every part of the world to which their in¬
fluence extended, the United States resolved to arm by
land and sea in their own defence. General Washington
was called from his retirement, and the command of the
army was bestowed upon him. This he accepted, because
he considered, as he himself expressed it, “ every thing we
hold dear and sacred was seriously threatened, although he
had flattered himself that he had quitted for ever the
boundless field of public action, incessant trouble, and high
responsibility, in which he had long acted so conspicuous a
part.” In this situation he continued during the remain¬
ing short period of his life. On Thursday the 12th of De¬
cember 1799, he was seized with an inflammation in the
throat, and was carried off on Saturday the 14th of the same
month, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. In his dying
moments he displayed the same calmness, simplicity, and
regularity, which had uniformly marked his conduct through
life. He saw the approaches of death without fear, and he
met them without parade. The well-ordered state of his
private affairs bore the stamp of that constant authority of
prudence and practical reason over his actions which was
always the most prominent feature of his character. His
name will ever be remembered by, and precious to, all well-
wishers of mankind and of liberty, as that of the most pru¬
dent commander and the most virtuous ruler that history
has recorded. His life has been written by Marshall, chief
justice of America, and by Mr Sparks; and his state-papers
have been published, with an eloquent eloge, by M. Guizot.
WASIL, a circle of the Russian government of Nishe-
gorod, extending in north latitude from 55° 52' to 56°
40', and in east longitude from 45° 5' to 46° 22k It is
watered by the rivers Wolga, Sura, and Wetluga, is of mo¬
derate fertility, yielding corn, but more pasturage. The
population is 110,000, who find much employment in mak¬
ing mats from the bark of the trees. The capital is a town
of the same name, situated on the river Sura, where it falls
into the Wolga. It is chiefly built of wood, and contains
1500 inhabitants. It is 881 miles from St Petersburg.
Long. 46. 6. E. Lat. 63. 52. N.
WASILKOW, a circle in the Russian government of
Kiew, extending in north latitude from 49° 39' to 50°
13', and in east longitude from 31° 47' to 32° 23/. It has
the river Dnieper as its eastern boundary, and the banks are
both fertile and picturesque. It has good meadows, exten¬
sive woods, and yields a surplus of corn. The capital is of
the same name. Though called a city, it does not contain
1000 inhabitants, who are mostly Jews. It stands on the
W A T
river Stugena, and is 881 miles from St Petersburg I ,
32. 55. E. Lat. 50. 12. N. *1
WASSAH, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Gu
jerat, eighteen miles north by east from Cambav T J!" r
72. 52. E. Lat. 22. 39. N. J ng^ .
WASSOTA, a celebrated fortress of Hindustan, in the
province of Bejapore and district of the Concan. ’ There
are two forts, situated on rocks nearly perpendicular, and
3000 feet high. They were surrendered in 1818 to a Bri¬
tish force, notwithstanding their strength.
WATCH. See Clock and Watch Work.
WATCHET, a market-town of the county of Somerset
in the hundred of Willerton and Freemanners, 158 miles
from London. It is a seaport, situated on the Bristol
Channel, but its harbour has been much neglected; and
though means have been taken to improve it, small vessels
only can enter it. Watchet was formerly a place of repute
for making a kind of coarse cloth, well known in the western
counties by the name of the place. It is in summer visited
for the purpose of sea-bathing. It is within and forms the
chief part of the parish of St Deucemans, whose population
amounted in 1821 to 1865, and in 1831 to 2120.
WATEEHOO, an island in the South Pacific Ocean,
about six miles long and four broad, discovered by Captain
Cook in 1777. Long. 158. 15. W. Lat. 20. 1. S.
WATER, a well-known fluid, diffused through the at¬
mosphere, and over the surface of the globe, and abound¬
ing in a certain proportion in animals, vegetables, and mi¬
nerals. See Physical Geography.
Water, Holy, is used in the church of Rome, as also
by the Greeks, and by the other Christians of the east of
all denominations ; and it consists of water with a mix¬
ture of salt, blessed by a priest according to a set form
of benediction. It is used in the blessing of persons,
things, and places; and is likewise considered as tending
to excite pious thoughts in the minds of the faithful. The
priest, in blessing it, first, in the name of God, commands
the devils not to hurt the persons who shall be sprinkled
with it, or to abuse the things, or disquiet the places,
which shall likewise be so sprinkled. He then prays
that health, safety, and the favour of heaven, may be en¬
joyed by such persons, and by those who shall use such
things, or dwell in such places. Vestments, vessels, and
other such things that are set apart for divine service, are
sprinkled with it. It is sometimes sprinkled on cattle, with
an intention to free or preserve them from diabolical en¬
chantments ; and in some spiritual books there are prayers
to be said on such occasions, by which the safety of such
animals, as being a temporal blessing to the possessors, is
begged of God, whose providential care is extended to all
his creatures. As a ceremony, says the Catholic, water
brings to our remembrance our baptism, in which, by water,
we were cleansed from original sin. It also puts us in mind
of that purity of conscience which we ought to endeavour
always to have, but especially when we are to worship
our God. The salt, which is put into the water to pre¬
serve it from corrupting, is also a figure of divine grace>
which preserves our souls from the corruption of sin; ant
is likewise an emblem of that wisdom and discretion whic
ought to season every action that a Christian does, an
every word that he says. It is wont to be blessed an
sprinkled in churches on Sundays, in the beginning of te
solemn office. It is kept in vessels at the doors of t.e
same churches, that it may be taken by the faithfu as
they enter in. It is also often kept in private houses an
chambers.
Water-Spout, an extraordinary meteor, consisting
large mass of water collected into a sort of column,
moved with rapidity along the surface of the sea.
Physical Geography.
of a
and ,
See I
1
III
felt
£
''ij
vss
WATER-WORKS.
Under this name may be comprehended almost every
h; raulic structure or contrivance; such as canals, con-
’(ks, locks, mills, water-engines, See. But they may be
ccteniently classed under two general beads, 1st, w'orks
wbh have for their object the conducting, raising, or other-
w! managing, of water; and, 2dly, works which derive
th r efficacy from the impulse or other action of water. The
fi, class comprehends the methods of simply conducting
w»er in aqueducts or in pipes for the supply of domestic
cesumption or the working of machinery. It compre-
hcj:ls the methods of procuring the supplies necessary
fodiese purposes, by means of pumps, water or fire en-
gi s. It also comprehends the subsequent management
ofjie water thus conducted, whether in order to make the
prher distribution of it according to the demand, or to
eriloy it for the purpose of navigation, by lockage, or
otlrr contrivances. And in the prosecution of these things
m y subordinate problems will occur, in which practice
w derive great advantages from a scientific acquaintance
v the subject. The second class of water-works is of
m h greater variety, comprehending almost every kind of
]p aulic machine; and would of itself fill volumes. Many
I of iese have already occurred in various articles of this
w <, particularly in Hydrodynamics, part iii.— On Hy-
dndic Machinery. In describing or treating them, we
hfi; tacitly referred the discussion of their general princi-
pl , in which they all resemble each other, to some article
v re they could be taken in a connected body, suscepti-
bltof general scientific discussion, independent of the cir-
cv stances which of necessity introduced the particular
m: ifications required by the uses to which the structures
fwfe to be applied. That part of the present article,
tlrefore, which embraces these common principles, will
cl fly relate to the theory of water-mills, or rather of
w. jr-wheels; because, when the necessary motion is given
tope axis of the water-wheel, this may be set to the per-
fohance of any task whatever.
CLASS I.
Of the Conducting of Water.
bis is undoubtedly a business of great importance, and
fois a principal part of the practice of the civil engineer :
it also a business so imperfectly understood, that we be¬
lie: that very few engineers can venture to say, with
to able precision, what will be the quantity of water
*1 h his work will convey, or what plan and dimensions of
co uit will convey the quantity which may be proposed.
1 the article River we have given a sort of history of
th >rogress of our knowledge in hydraulics, a branch of me-
ch ical philosophy which seems to have been entirely un¬
to m to the ancients. Even Archimedes, the author of
th' st all we know in hydrostatics, seems to have been en-
tiry ignorant of any principle by which he could deter-
jp- the motion of water. The mechanical science of the
••fsnts seems to have reached no farther than the doc-
fo of equilibrium among bodies at rest. Guglielmini first
Jwired to consider the motion of water in open canals
®n n rivers. Its motion in pipes had been partially consi-
Wpl in detached portions by others, but not so as to make
ly of doctrine. Sir Isaac Newton first endeavoured to
rei sr hydraulics susceptible of mathematical demonstra-
XXI.
tion : but his fundamental proposition has not yet been Water-
freed from very serious objections; nor have the attempts Works.
of his successors, such as the Bernoullis, Euler, D’Alembert,' 
and others, been much more successful: so that hydraulics
may still be considered as very imperfect, and the general
conclusions which we are accustomed to receive as funda¬
mental propositions are not much better than matters of
observation, little supported by principle, and therefore re¬
quiring the most scrupulous caution in the application of
them to any hitherto untried case. When experiments
are multiplied so as to include as great a variety of cases
as possible, and when these are cleared of extraneous cir¬
cumstances, and properly arranged, we must receive the
conclusions drawn from them as the general laws of hy¬
draulics. The experiments of the Abbe Bossut, narrated
in his Hydrodynamique, are of the greatest value, having
been made in the cases of most general frequency, and
with great care. The greatest service, however, has been
done by the Chevalier du Buat, who saw the folly of at¬
tempting to deduce an accurate theory from any principles
that we have as yet learned, and the necessity of ad¬
hering to such a theory as could be deduced from experi¬
ment alone, independent of any more general principles.
Such a theory must be a just one, if the experiments
are really general, unaffected by the particular circum¬
stances of the case, and if the classes of experiment
are sufficiently comprehensive to include all the cases
which occur in the most important practical questions.
Some principle was howrever necessary for connecting
these experiments. The sufficiency of this principle was
not easily ascertained. Du Buat’s way of establishing
it was judicious. If the principle is ill-founded, the re¬
sults of its combination in cases of actual experiments must
be irregular; but if experiments, seemingly very unlike,
and in a vast variety of dissimilar cases, give a train of re¬
sults which is extremely regular and consistent, we may
presume that the principle, which in this manner harmo¬
nizes and reconciles things so unlike, is founded on the
nature of things ; and if this principle be such as is agree¬
able to our clearest notions of the internal mechanism of
the motions of fluids, our presumption approaches to con¬
viction.
Proceeding in this way, the Chevalier du Buat has col¬
lected a prodigious number of facts, comprehending almost
every case of the motion of fluids. He first classed them
according to their resemblance in some one particular, and
observed the differences which accompanied their differ¬
ences in other circumstances; and by considering what
could produce these differences, he obtained general rules,
deduced from fact, by which these differences could be
made to fall into a regular series. He then arranged
all the experiments under some other circumstances of
resemblance, and pursued the same method ; and by
following this out, he has produced a general proposi¬
tion, which applies to the whole of this numerous list
of experiments with a precision far exceeding our utmost
hopes.
We must however observe, that of this list of experi¬
ments there is a very large class which is not direct, but
requires a good deal of reflection to enable us to draw a
confident conclusion; and this is in cases which are very
frequent and important, viz. where the declivity is exceed¬
ingly small, as in open canals and rivers. The experiments
were of the following forms. Two large cisterns were
5 G
786
WATER-WORKS.
Water-
Works.
made to communicate with each other by means of a pipe.
The surfaces of the water in these cisterns were made to
differ only by a small fraction of an inch; and it is sup¬
posed that the motion in the communicating pipe will be the
same as in a very long pipe, or an open canal, having this
very minute declivity. We have no difficulty in admit¬
ting the conclusion; but we have seen it contested, and
it is by no means intuitive. We had, entertained hopes
that this important case would have been determined by
direct experiments, which the writer of this article was
commissioned to make by the Board for Encouraging Im¬
provements and Manufactures in Scotland; but the infirm
state of his health was always an effectual bar to the ac¬
complishment of this desirable object. This however need
not occasion any hesitation in the adoption of the Chevalier
du Buats general proposition, because the exwri
which we are now criticising fall in precisely with tii,^6^
ral train of the rest, and show no e§ene
ral train of the rest, and show no devkionfftJ
would indicate a fallacy in principle. Vllc^
We apprehend it to be quite unnecessary to adH n. i.
to what has been already delivered on the motion of w
in an open canal. Their general progressive motion 2
consequently the quantity delivered by an aqueduct of !
slope and dimension, are sufficiently determined • and n
that is wanted is the tables referred to in the article Rm
by which any person who understands common arithmS
may compute the quantity of water which will be delivered
by the aqueduct, canal, conduit, or pipe. These table’
which with great labour have been computed for this work’
here follow. >
1 ABLE I. Logarithms of the Values of the Numerator of the Fraction ~ every yalue 0y tk Hydmlk
mean Depth d: also the Value of 03 (Vd 0-1).
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,0
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
1,1
1,2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2,0
2,1
2,2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2,0
2.7
2.8
2.9
3,0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3,0
3.7
3.8
3.9
4,0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Log. of
307 (V^-O-l)
1-82208
2 02773
2-13815
2-21343
2-27040
2-31618
2-35441
2-38719
2-41588
2-44138
2-46431
2-4-8518
2-50426
2-52185
2-53818
2-55345
2-56769
2-58112
2-59381
2-60580
2-61713
2-62803
2-63839
2-64827
2-65772
2-66681
2-67556
2-68395
2-69207
2-69989
2-70743
2-71472
2-72181
2-72866
2-73531
2-74178
2-74805
2-75417
2-70009
2-76589
2-77153
2-77704
2-78240
2-78765
2-79277
2-79779
2-80269
2-80747
0-3
_x | d.
d-O-f
0,06
0,10
0,13
0,16
0,18
0,20
0,22
0,24
0,25
0,27
0,28
0,30
0,31
0,32
0,34
0,35
0,36
0,37
0,38
0,39
0,40
0,41
0,42
0,44
0.45
0,45
0,46
0,47
0,48
0,49
0,50
0,51
0,52
0,53
0,53
0,54
0,55
0,56
0,56
0,57
0,58
0,59
0,59
0,60
0,60
0,61
0,62
0,63
4,9
5,0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6,0
6,1
6,2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7,0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8,0
8,1
8,2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9,0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Log. of
307 0-l)
2-81216
2-81674
2-82125
2-82567
2-83000
2-83422
2-83840
2-84248
2-84648
2-85043
2-85431
2-85812
2-86185
2-86554
2-86916
2-87271
2-87622
2-87966
2-88306
2-88641
2-88971
2 89296
2-89614
2-89930
2-90241
2-90549
2-90851
2-91150
2-91445
2-91734
2-92022
2-92305
2-92584
2-92860
2-93133
2-93403
2-93670
2-93933
2-94192
2-94449
2-94703
2-94954
2 95202
2-95447
2-95690
2-95930
2-96167
2-96402
(\/ 0*i^
0,63
0,63
0,65
0,65
0,66
0,67
0,67
0,68
0,68
0,69
0,69
0,70
0,70
0,71
0,72
0,73
0,73
0,74
0,75
0,75
0,76
0,76
0,77
0,77
0,78
0,78
0,79
0,79
0,80
0,80
0,81
0,82
0,82
0,83
0,83
0.84
0,84
0,85
0,85
0,86
0,86
0,87
0,87
0,88
0,88
0,89
0,89
0,90
o,7
9.8
9.9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
Log. of
SOTCVrf-O-l)
2-96634
2-96865
2-97093
2-97319
2- 99454
3- 01401
3 03189
3 04843
3 06383
3-07820
3-09170
3-10441
3-11644
3-12783
3-13867
3-14899
3-15885
3-16828
3-17734
3-18601
3-19438
3-20243
3-21020
3-21770
3-22495
3-23196
3-23877
3-24537
3-25176
3-25799
3-26404
3-26993
3-27566
3-28125
3-28669
3 29201
3-29720
3 30227
3-30722
3-31207
3-31681
3-32145
3-32599
3 33043
3-33480
3-33908
3-34327
( f d—0-1)
0,90
0,91
0,91
0,92
0,97
1,01
1,05
1,09
1,13
U7
1,21
1,24
1,28
1,31
1,34
1,38
1,41
1,44
M7
1,50
1,53
1,56
1,58
1,61
1,64
1,67
1,69
1,72
1,74
1,77
1,79
1,82
1,84
1,87
1,89
1,91
1,93
1,95
1,98
2,00
2,03
2,05
2,07
2,09
2,11
2,13
2,15
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
. 91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Log. of •
307 (V^-0-l)
3-34738
3-35143
5-35539
3-35928
3-36312
3-36687
3-37057
3-37421
3-37778
3-38130
3-38477
3-38817
3-39153
3-39483
3-39809
3-40130
3-40446
3 40758
3-41065
3-41369
3-41667
3-41962
3-42253
3-42540
3-42823
3-43103
3-43380
3-43653
3-43923
3-44189
3-44452
3-44712
344968
3-45222
3-45473
3 45721
3 45965
3-46208
3-46448
3-46685
3-46920
3-47152
3-47381
3-47608
3-47833
3-48056
3-48277
2,17
2,19
2.21
2,23
2,25
2,27
2.30
2.31
2,33
2,35
2,37
2,39
2.41
2.42
2,44
2,46
2.48
2.49
2,51
2,53
2,55
2.57
2.58
2,60
2,62
2,63
2,65
2,67
2,70
2.72
2.74
2.75
2,77
2.73
2,70
2,81
2,83
2,85
2,88
2,89
2,91
2.93
2.94
2.95
2,97
W A T E R-W ORES.
_ Tbie II. Logarithms of the Values of the Denominator of the Fraction for evenj yahn, ^ (&
(S'fope s.
Log. of
^/r-L-v/i+i-e
9-71784
9-74210
9-76388
9-78376
9-80202
9-81889
9-83461
984930
9-86314
9-87622
9-88857
9-90031
9-91153
9-92227
9-93247
9-94231
9’95173
9-96085
9-96962
9-97818
9-98632
9-99427
0-00200
0 00945
001669
002373
003004
0-03733
0-04383
005015
01)5638
0 06245
0-06839
0-07412
0-07978
0-08533
0-09081
0 09615
010131
0-10644
0-11147
0-11635
0-12118
0-12595
0 13061
013519
0-13970
014410
0-14844
0-15274
0-15697
0-16113
0-16522
0-16927
0 17322
017713
0-18099
0-18477
0-18854
0-19229
0-19584
0-19946
0-20298
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8,0
8,1
8,2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9,0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10,
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
2?
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Log. of
$ — L^/s + 1‘6
0-20651
0-20997
0-21336
0-21674
0-22009
0-22335
0-22663
0-22982
0-23297
0-23611
0-23923
0-24229
0-24532
0-24832
0-25128
0-25422
0-25709
0-25996
0-26281
0-26560
0-26839
0-2711-6
0-27387
0-27656
0-27921
0-28186
0-28450
0-28709
0-31170
0-33425
0-35488
0-37420
0-39235
0-40926
0-42521
0-44028
0-45439
0-46776
0-48044
0-49262
0-50433
0-51548
0-52621
0-53656
0-54654
0-55606
0-56526
0-57415
0-58263
0 59095
0-59901
0-60692
0-61448
0-62180
0-62900
0-63599
0-64276
0-64933
0-65571
0-66200
0-66811
0-67413
Log. of
*]S—\j \js + \-(,
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
0-67997
0-68574
0-69135
0-69688
0-70226
0-70749
0-71265
0-71767
0-72263
0-72746
0-73223
0-73695
0 74155
0-74601
0-75043
0-75481
0-75906
0-76328
0-76745
0-77151
0-77546
0-77945
0-78333
0-78718
0 79092
0-79463
0-79824
0-80182
0-80536
0-80882
0-81231
0-81571
0-81908
0-82236
0-82562
0-82885
0-83206
0-83525
0-83835
0 84142
0-84442
0-84739
0 85034
0-85327
0-85618
0-85908
0-86189
0-86463
0-86741
0-87017
0-87286
0-87552
0-87818
0-88076
0-88338
0 88593
0-91014
0-93212
0-95236
0-97109
0-98843
1-00466
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
750
760
770
780
790
Log. of
sjT—la *]s + l
1-01983
1-03410
1-04751
1 06026
1 07237
1 08390
1-09489
110542
1-11553
1-12523
1 13453
114345
1-15204
1-16035
1 16838
1-17612
1-18363
1-19092
1-19803
1-20490
1-21158
1-21806
1-22435
1-23048
1-23647
1-24232
1-24805
1-25360
1-25903
1 -26433
1 26951
1-27461
1-27957
1-28445
1-28923
1-29391
1 29851
1-30300
1 30740
1-31172
1-31597
1-32015
1-32426
1-32830
1-33226
1-33614
1-33997
1-34373
1-34743
1-35108
1-35468
1-35823
1-36170
1 36513
1-36851
1-37185
1-37513
1-37839
1-38157
1-38471
1-38782
1-39089
1-39391
800
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
910
920
930
940
950
960
970
980
990
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
5100
Log. of
s] a — La/j+1’6
1-39690
1-39985
1-40277
1-40564
1-40847
1-41128
1-41408
1-41683
1-41953
1 -42220
1-42487
1-42746
1-43005
1-43263
1-43515
1-43764
1-44011
1-44254
1-44498
1-44737
1-44976
1-47223
1-49269
1-51148
1-52885
1-54497
1-56014
1-57416
1-58747
1-60004
1-61195
1-62325
1 -63403
1 -64432
1 65414
1-66358
1-67261
1-68133
1-68971
1-69780
1-70558
1-71313
1-72042
1-72750
1 73435
1-74099
1 -74746
1-75373
1-75984
1-76578
1-77159
1-77725
1 -78277
1-78814
1-79339
1-77851
1-80352
1-80840
1-81321
1-81790
1-82249
1-82699
5200
5300
5400
5500
5600
5700
5800
5900
6000
6100
6200
6300
6400
6500
6600
6700
6800
6900
7000
7100
7200
7300
7400
7500
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
8100
8200
8300
8400
8500
8600
8700
8800
8900
9000
9100
9200
9300
9400
9500
9600
9700
9800
9900
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
19000
20000
21000
22000
23000
24000
Log. of
s] s — L «+T6
1-83142
1-83575
1-84002
1-84421
1-84833
1-85237
1-85634
1-86022
1-86404
1-86778
1-87146
1 -87507
1-87863
1-88213
1-88558
1-88898
1-89233
1-89564,
1-89891
1-90214
1-90532
1-90845
1-91154
1-91458
1-91757
1-92052
1-92344
1-92632
1-92916
1-93197
1-93475
1 -93749
1-94020
1 -94287
1-94551
1-94811
1 -95069
1-95324
1-95576
1-95826
1-96073
1-96317
1-96559
1-96797
1-97033
1*97267
1-97497
1-97726
1- 97952
2- 00099
2-02056
2-03855
2-05518
2-07065
2-08512
2-09869
2-11148
2-12357
2-13503
2-14594
2-15633
2-16624
2 17573
I bleI. consists of three columns. Column 1, entitled
">0 tains the hydraulic mean depths of any conduit in
This is set down for every tenth of an inch in the
inches, that the answers may be more accurately
°utiied for pipes, the mean depth of which seldom ex-
three or four inches. The column is continued to
0 nches, which is fully equal to the hydraulic mean
of any canal.
Column 2 contains the logarithms of the values of </d
 0-1, multiplied by 307 ; that is, the logarithm of the
numerator of the fraction
307 (yd —0-1)
in the article
Vs—L-v^^q-1-6
RrvER- „ . . .
Column 3 contains the product of the values of
— 0-1 multiplied by 0*3.
WATER-WORKS.
Table II. consists of two columns. Column 1, entitled
sy contains the reciprocal of the number expressing the
' slope or declivity of any pipe or canal; that is, the quotient
of its length divided by the elevation of one extremity
above the other. Thus, if a canal of one mile in length
be three feet higher at one end than the other, then s is
S-f-°= 1760.
Column 2 contains the logarithms of the denominators
of the above-mentioned fraction, or of the different values
of the quantity Vs — LVs -j- 1*6.
Examples of the use of these Tables.
Example 1. Water is brought into the city of Edin¬
burgh in several mains. One of these is a pipe of five
inches diameter. The length of the pipe is 14,637 feet;
and the reservoir at Comiston is forty-four feet higher than
the reservoir into which it delivers the water on the Castle
Hill. Query, The number of Scotish pints which this
pipe should deliver in a minute ?
5
1. We have d—-7— 1*25 inches. The logarithm cor¬
responding to this d, being nearly the mean between the
logarithms corresponding to T2 and T3, is 2*49472.
14637
2. We have s — ——— or 332*7. The logarithm corre-
44
spending to this in Table II. is had by taking proportional
parts for the difference between the logarithms for s — 330
and s — 340, and is 1*18533.
3. From 2*49472
Take 1*18533
Remains 1*30939, the logarithm of 20*385 inches.
4. In column 3 of Table I. opposite to c? = 1*2 and
d — T3, are 0*3 and 0*31, of which the mean is 0*305 inches,
the correction for viscidity.
5. Therefore the velocity in inches per second is
20*385 — 0*305, or 20*08.
6. To obtain the Scotish pints per minute (each contain¬
ing 103*4 cubic inches), multiply the velocity by 60, and
this product by 52, and this by 0*7854 (the area of a circle
whose diameter is 1), and divide by 103*4. Or, by loga¬
rithms,
Add the log. of 20 08  T30276
log. of 60"  1*77815
log. 52 or 25  1*39794
log. of 0*7854  1*89509
Subtract the log. of 103*4.,
4*37394
2*01451
Remains the log. of 228*8 pints  2*35943
Example 2. The canal mentioned in the article River,
p. 270, was 18 feet broad at the surface, and 7 feet at the
bottom. It was 4 feet deep, and had a declivity of 4 inches
in a mile. Query, The mean velocity ?
1. The slant side of the canal corresponding to 4 feet
deep and 5^ projection, is 6*8 feet; therefore the border
touched by the water is 6*8 -j- 7 -j- 6*8 =z 20*6. The area
is 4 X
18 + 7
2
= 50 square feet.
50
Therefore d — -—
20*6
= 2*427 feet, or 29*124 inches. The logarithm corre¬
sponding to this in Table I. is 3*21113, and the correction
for viscidity from the third column of the same table is
1*58.
2. The slope is one third of a foot in a mile, or one foot
in three miles. Therefore s is 15840
corresponding to this is 2*08280.
The logarithm
3. From 3*21113
Subtract 2*08280
Remains 1*12833 — log. of 13*438 inches.
Subtract for viscidity  1*58
Velocity per second  11*858
This velocity is considerably smaller than what was nh
served by Mr Watt. And indeed we observe, that in th
very small declivities of rivers and canals, the formula is I
little different. We have made several comparisons with a
formula which is essentially the same with Du Buat’s and
comes nearer in these cases. Instead of taking the hyper-
bolic logarithm of Vs + 1*6, multiply its common low
rithm by or multiply it by 9, and divide the product
by 4; and this process is vastly easier than taking the
hyperbolic logarithm.
We have not however presumed to calculate tables on
the authority of our own observations, thinking too respect¬
fully of this gentleman’s labours and observations. But
this subject will ere long be fully established on a series
of observations on canals of various dimensions and de¬
clivities, made by several eminent engineers during the
execution of them. Fortunately the Chevalier du Buat’s
formula is chiefly founded on observations on small canals;
and is therefore most accurate in works where it is most
necessary, viz. in mill-courses, and other derivations for
working machinery.
We now proceed to take notice of a few circumstances
which deserve attention, in the construction of canals, in
addition to those delivered in the article River.
When a canal or aqueduct is brought off from a basin
or larger stream, it ought always to be widened at the en¬
try, if it is intended for drawing off a continued stream of
water; for such a canal has a slope, without which it can
have no current. Suppose it filled to a dead level to the
farther end: take away the bar, and the water immedi¬
ately begins to flow off at that end; but it is some time
before any motion is perceived at the head of the canal,
during all which time the motion of the water is augment¬
ing in every part of the canal; consequently the slope is
increasing in every part, this being the sole cause of its
stream. When the water at the entry begins to move, the
slope is scarcely sensible there; but it sensibly steepens
every moment with the increase of velocity, which at last
attains its maximum relative to the slope and dimensions of
the whole canal; and this regulates the depith of water in
every point down the stream. When all has attained a
state of permanency, the slope at the entry remains much
greater than in any other part of the canal; for this slope
must be such as will produce a velocity sufficient for sup¬
plying its train. And it must be remembered, that the
velocity w'hich must be produced greatly exceeds the mean
velocity corresponding to the train of the canal. Suppose
that this is twenty-five inches: there must be a velocity
of thirty inches at the surface, as appears by the table in
the article River, p. 273. This must be groduced by a
real fall at the entry.
In every other part the slope is sufficient if it merely
serves to give the water (already in motion) force enoug
for overcoming the friction and other resistances. But at
the entry the water is stagnant if in a basin, or it is mov-
inn* nnst Int^rallxr if* animsliiof ic rlorlvpfl from 3 riVGr?
ing past laterally if the aqueduct is derived from a ^ ^
and having no velocity whatever in the direction
 1 , • -.Jn , m,.therefore
canal, it must derive it from its slope. The water 1
which has acquired a permanent form in such an aqueduct,
must necessarily take that form which exactly performs t ie
offices requisite in its different portions. The surface re
mains horizontal in the basin, as KC (fig. 1)>1,11 ’f COI|!e
near the entry of the canal AB, and there it acquires
f
*
E
W A T E R-W ORES.
forr of an undulated curve
CD and then the surface ac- Fig. 1.
'quin an uniform slope EF, T A
in t lower part of the canal,
tfies: the water is in train.
jf is is a drain, the dis- &
cha e is much less than might
be oduced by the same bed if this sudden slope could
be coided. If it is to be navigated, having only a very
gen:: slope in its whole length, this sudden slope is a very
greaimperfection, both by diminishing the depth of water
whir might otherwise be obtained along the canal, and by
renoring the passage of boats into the basin very difficult,
and *ie coming out very hazardous.
* A this may be avoided, and the velocity at the entry
ma\ ie kept equal to that which forms the train of the ca¬
nal, jy the simple process of enlarging the entry. Suppose
thathe water could accelerate along the slopes of the ca¬
nal, ii a heavy body would do on a finely polished plane.
If w now make the width of the entry in its different parts
invij ely proportional to the fictitious velocities in those
part it is plain that the slope of the surface will be made
panel to that of the canal which is in train. This will re¬
quire form somewhat like a bell or speaking trumpet, as
mayeasily be shown by a mathematical discussion. It
worn however be so much evasated at the basin as to oc-
cuptmuch room, and it would be very expensive to make
suchan excavation; but we may, at a very moderate ex¬
pen i of money and room, make the increase of velocity at
the atry almost insensible. This should always be done,
and.!, is not all expense ; for if it be not done, the water
wilhndermine the banks on each side, because it is mov¬
ing pry swiftly, and will make an excavation for itself,
leawg all the mud in the canal below. We may observe
thistnlargement at the entry of all natural derivations
fronti basin or lake. It is a very instructive experiment
to ftlup this enlargement, continuing the parallel sides of
the tain quite to the side of the lake. We shall immedi¬
ate! bserve the water grow shallower in the drain, and its
perilmance will diminish. Supposing the ditch carried on
will mrallel sides quite to the side of the basin, if we build
two ills or dikes from the extremities of those sides, bend¬
ing twards with a proper curvature (and this will often be
lessmstly than widening the drain), the discharge will be
gre;iy increased. We have seen instances where it w7as
nea doubled.
1; enlargement at the mouths of rivers is generally
own to the same cause. The tide of flood up the river
preices a superficial slope opposite to that of the river, and
this dens the mouth. This is most remarkable when the
tideiire high, and the river has little slope.
A2r this great fall at the entry of the canal, in which
>111 i filaments are much accelerated, and the inferior ones
tnosftf all, things take a contrary turn. The water, by
nibli ig on the bottom and the sides, is retarded; and there¬
fore! ie section must, from being shallow, become a little
b and the surface will be convex for some distance,
comes into train. When this is established, the fila-
nearest the bottom and side are moving slowest, and
die rface, in the middle especially, retains the greatest
2? y> sliding over the rest. The velocity in the canal,
•n! ie depth of the section, adjust themselves in such a
roan r that the difference between the surface of the basin
' and e surface of the uniform section of the canal corre-
exactly to the velocity. Thus, if this be observed
j , 'vo ^eet in a second, the difference of height will be
ighsaf an inch.
A he practical questions that are of considerable import-
especting the motion of water in aqueducts, may be
W dhough not elegantly, solved by means of the tables,
it is to be remembered, that these tables relate only
mei
to uniform motion, that is, to water that is in train, and
where_ the velocity suffers no change by lengthening the
conduit, provided the slope remain the same. It is much'’
more difficult to determine what will be the velocity, &c in
a canal of which nothing is given but the form, and slope,
and depth of the entry, without saying how deep the water
runs in it. And it is here that the common doctrines of
hydraulics are most in fault, and unable to teach us how
deep the water will run in a canal, though the depth of the
basin at the entry be perfectly known. Between the part
of the canal which is in train and the basin, there is an in¬
terval where the water is in a state of acceleration, and is
afterwards retarded.
The determination of the motions in this interval is ex¬
ceedingly difficult, even in a rectangular canal. It was one
great aim of Du Buat’s experiments to ascertain this by
measuring accurately the depth of the water. But he
found that when the slope was but a very few inches
in the whole length of his canal, it was not in train for want
of greater length ; and when the slope was still less, the
small fractions of an inch, by which he was to judge of the
variations of depth, could not be measured with sufficient
accuracy. It would be a most desirable point to determine
the length of a canal, whose slope and other dimensions are
given, which will bring it into train; and what is the ratio
which will then obtain between the depth at the entry, and
the depth which will be maintained. Till this be done, the
engineer cannot ascertain by a direct process what quantity
of water will be drawn off from a reservoir by a given canal.
But as yet this is out of our reach. Experiments however
are in view which will promote the investigation.
But this and similar questions are of such importance
that we cannot be said to have improved hydraulics unless
wre can give a tolerably precise answer. This we can do
by a sort of retrograde process, proceeding on the principles
of uniform motion established by the Chevalier du Buat.
We may suppose a train maintained in the canal, and then
examine whether this train can be produced by any fall that
is possible at the entry. If it can, we may be certain that
it is so produced, and our problem is solved.
We shall now point out the methods of answering some
chief questions of this kind.
Quest. 1. Given the slope s and the breadth w of a canal,
and the height H of the surface of the water in the basin
above the bottom of the entry ; to find the depth h and ve¬
locity Y of the stream, and the quantity of water Q which
is discharged.
The chief difficulty is to find the depth of the stream
where it is in train. For this end, we may simplify the
hydraulic theorem of uniform motion in the article River ;
789
Water-
Works.
making V —
VN 9 d
VS
where g is the velocity (in inches)
acquired in a second by falling, d is the hydraulic mean
depth, and V® stands for \/s— L V 5 “h N is a
number to be fixed by experiment (see River), depending
on the contraction or obstruction sustained at the entry of
the canal, and it may in most common cases be taken
= 244; so that VN g may be somewhat less than 307.
To find it, we may begin by taking for our depth of stream
a quantity h, somewhat smaller than H the height of
the surface of the basin above the bottom of the canal.
With this depth, and the known width w of the canal,
we can find the hydraulic depth d (see River, p. 265).
Then with Vd and the slope find V by the table : make
vvs
this V :=
VN g d
This gives VN g =
This
vs  ^
value of N g is sufficiently exact; for a small error of depth
hardly affects the hydraulic mean depth.
After this preparation, the expression of the mean velo-
I
790
W A T E R-W O R K S.
Water-
Works.
wh
city in the canal will be
V'Np' w -j- 24
VS
which will produce this velocity is
J 2GS \w + 24/
three inches, nor be less than one. Suppose it tum • >
and therefore the depth of the stream in the canal1?"?
The height sixteen inches; find the mean width of the canal byth
equation w
4
Now
2GS \w + 24,
this is the slope at the entry of the canal which produces
the velocity that is afterwards maintained against the ob¬
structions by the slope of the canal. It is therefore r=
H — 4. Hence we deduce
' 'n which Q js
4=-
2H]
4
If there be no contraction at the entry, ff = G and
JL — i
2G ~ 2’
Having thus obtained the depth 4 of the stream, we ob¬
tain the quantity of water by combining this with the width
w, and the velocity V.
But as this was but an approximation, it is necessary to
examine whether the velocity V be possible. This is very
easy. It must be produced by the fall H — 4. We shall
have no occasion for any correction of our first assumption,
if 4 has not been extravagantly erroneous, because a small
mistake in 4 produces almost the same variation in d. The
test of accuracy however is, that 4, together with the
height which will produce the velocity V, must make up
the whole height H. Assuming 4 too small, leaves H — 4
too great, and will give a small velocity V, which requires
a small value of H — 4. The error of H — 4 therefore is
always greater than the error we have committed in our
first assumption. Therefore when this error of H — 4 is
but a trifle, such as one fourth of an inch, we may rest sa¬
tisfied with our answer.
Perhaps the easiest process may be the following: Sup¬
pose the whole stream in train to have the depth H. The
velocity V obtained for this depth and slope by the table
requires a certain depth u. Make : H = H : 4,
and 4 will be exceedingly near the truth. The reason is
obvious.
Quest. 2. Given the discharge (or quantity to be fur¬
nished in a second) Q,, the height H of the basin above
the bottom of the canal, and the slope; to find the dimen¬
sions of the canal.
Let x and y be the depth and mean width. It is
Q   
plain that the equation ~ —v2GvH — x will give
a value of y in terms of x. Compare this with the
Q V% /
— V ,
value of y obtained from the equation
xy
xy VS y -f- 2a;
This will give an equation containing only x and known
quantities. But it will be very complicated, and we must
have recourse to an approximation. This will be best un¬
derstood in the form of an example.
Suppose the depth at the entry to be 18 inches, and the
slope Let 1200 cubic feet of water per minute be
the quantity of water to be drawn off for working ma
chinery, or any other purpose; and let the canal be sup¬
posed of the best form recommended in the article
River, where the base of the sloping side is four thirds
of the height.
V2
The slightest consideration will show us, that if be
taken for the height producing the velocity, it cannot exceed
twenty cubic feet (the sixtieth part of 1200), Vs js _
28*153 ~ V1000 — LVlOOO-j-1*6, and 4 — Kj ti ■
gives w = 5*52 feet. The section n ~ 7*36 feet ami
32*6 inches. This requires a fall of 1*52 inches ’instead
two inches. Take this from eighteen, and there m™;,,
16*48, which we shall find not to differ one tenth of an inch
from the exact depth which the water will acquire and
maintain. We may therefore be satisfied with assumin?
5*36 feet as the mean width, and 3*53 feet for the width at
the bottom.
This approximation proceeds on the consideration, that
when the width diminishes by a small quantity, and in the
same proportion that the depth increases, the hydraulic
mean depth remains the same, and therefore the velocity
also remains, and the quantity discharged changes in the
exact proportion of the section. Any minute error which
may result from this supposition, may be corrected bv in¬
creasing the fall producing the velocity, in the proportion
of the first hydraulic mean depth to the mean depth cor¬
responding to the new dimensions found for the canal. It
will now become 1*53, and V will be 32*72, and the depth
will be 16*47. The quantity discharged being divided by
V, will give the section = 7*335 feet, from which, and the
new depth, we obtain 5*344 for the width.
This and the foregoing are the most common questions
proposed to an engineer. We asserted with some confi¬
dence that few of the profession are able to answer them
with tolerable precision. We cannot offend the professional
gentlemen by this, when we inform them that the Academy
of Sciences at Paris were occupied during several months
with an examination of a plan proposed by M. de Parcieux,
for bringing the waters of the Yvette into Paris, and after
the most mature consideration, gave in a report of the
quantity of water which M. de Parcieux’s aqueduct would
yield ; and that their report has been found erroneous-in the
proportion of at least two to five ; for the waters have
been "brought in, and exceed the report in this proportion.
Indeed, long after giving in the report, M. Perronet, the
most celebrated engineer in France, affirmed that the di¬
mensions proposed were much greater than were necessary,
and said that an aqueduct of five and a half feet wide and
three and a half deep, with a slope of fifteen inches in a
thousand fathoms, would have a velocity of twelve or thirteen
inches per second, which would bring in all the water fur¬
nished by the proposed sources. The great diminution of
expense occasioned by the alteration encouraged the com¬
munity to undertake the work. It was accordingly begun,
and a part executed. The water was found to run with a
velocity of near nineteen inches when it was three and a half
feet deep. M. Perronet founded his computation on his own
experience alone, acknowledging that he had no theory to
instruct him. The work was carried no farther, it being
found that the city could be supplied at a much smaller
cuuiu ue auppucu at a uiuv,*.
expense by steam-engines erected by Boulton and Watt.
13—a. _ y*_ _ j— —1_ ^ 1 # ^ q^* the
But the facts which occurred in the partial execution
aqueduct are very valuable. If M. Perronet’s aqueduct be
examined by our general formula, s will be found == mni’
and d — 18*72, from which we deduce the velocity =
agreeing with the observation with astonishing precision.
The experiments at Turin by Michelotti on canals were
very numerous, but complicated with many circumstances
which would render the discussion too long for this p ace-
When cleared of these circumstances, which we have done
with scrupulous care, they are also abundantly conforma e
b
:
i t
t.
I z
a
5'
w A T E R-W ORES.
to cr theory of the uniform motion of running waters.
ButP return to our subject. _
S mid it be required to bring off at once from the basin
a n: -course having a determined velocity for driving an
und.diot wheel, the problem becomes easier, because the
velo’ty and slope combined determine the hydraulic mean
depi at once; and the depth of the stream will be had by
meal; of the height which must be taken for the whole
depff at the entry, in order to produce the required velo¬
city
Ii ike manner, having given the quantity to be discharg¬
ed, u'i the velocity and the depth at the entry, we can find
the her dimensions of the channel; and the mean depth
beiafound, we can determine the slope.
V en the slope of a canal is very small, so that the depth
of ti uniform stream differs but a little from that at the
ejtn the quantity discharged is but small. But a great
velo ,y, requiring a great fall at the entry, produces a great
dimmtion of depth, and therefore it may not compensate
fort's diminution, and the quantity discharged may be
smiilr. Improbable as this may appear, it is not demon-
strak? false; and hence we see the propriety of the follow¬
ing ;estion.
Q’stion 3. Given the depth H at the entry of arectan-
gulacanal, and also its width w; required the slope, depth,
and rlocity which will produce the greatest possible dis-
chari:.
h kr be the unknown depth of the stream. H — a: is
the oductive fall, and the velocity is V"Z G VH — x.
Thkinultiplied by w x will give the quantity discharged.
Thedbre ioxV2 G VH — x must be made a maximum.
The bmmon process for this will, give the equation 2 H
=3 4or a1 == IH. The mean velocity will be VZ G Vi H;
the .Ttion will be •§ w H, and the discharge —
51 Sp w IIVJ H, and d ■= —U . With these data the
w-f f H
slopes easily had by the formula for uniform motion.
If ne canal is of the trapezoidal form, the investigation is
mornitroublesome, and requires the resolution of a cubic
equa )n.
It lay appear strange that increasing the slope of a canal
3yo*l the quantity determined by this problem can di-
mini the quantity of water conveyed. But one of these
two ngs must happen ; either the motion will not acquire
unili nity in such a canal for want of length, or the dis-
chai i must diminish. Supposing, however, that it could
augiint, we can judge how far this can go. Let us take
me Areme case by making the canal vertical. In this
5*®e 1 becomes a simple weir or waste-board. Now the
791
fse °f a waste-board is f VZ Gw (h 2—(| /<) “ The
urn determined by the preceding problem is to that
Jf tl waste-board of the same dimensions as H H :
I-PH)^, or as HVpT: H ^/H — ^ HV|~H =
W: G465, nearly =r 9 : 10.
K ing given the dimensions and slope of a canal, we
i cover the relation between its expenditure and the
time )r we can tell how much it will sink the surface of a
pond i twenty-four hours, and the gradual progress of this
e ec an(i this might be made the subject of a particular
Pro n, but it is complicated and difficult. In cases
jy'eij this is an interesting object, we may solve the ques-
on i th sufficient accuracy, by calculating the expenditure
* i beginning, supposing the basin kept full. Then, from
o * Pwn area of the pond, we can tell in what time this
“xpe;iture will sink an inch; do the same on the supposi-
100 at the water is one third lower, and that it is two
ur ower (noticing the contraction of the surface of the
pond occasioned by this abstraction of its waters). Thus Water-
we shall obtain three rates of diminution, from which we Works,
can easily deduce the desired relation between the expen-
diture and the time. ^
Aqueducts derived from a basin or river are commonly
furnished with a sluice at the entry. This changes exceed¬
ingly the state of things. The slope of the canal may be
precisely such as will maintain the mean velocity of the
water which passes under the sluice; in which case the
depth of the stream is equal to that of the sluice, and the
velocity is produced at once by the head of water above it
But if the slope is less than this, the velocity of the issuing
water is diminished, and the water must rise in the canal.
This must check the efflux at the sluice, and the water will
be as it were stagnant above what comes through below it.
It is exti emely difficult to determine at what precise slope
the water will begin to check the efflux. The contraction
at the lower edge of the board hinders the water from at¬
taining at once the whole depth which it acquires afterwards,
when its velocity diminishes by the obstructions. While
the regorging which these obstructions occasion does not
reach back to the sluice, the efflux is not affected by it.
Even when it does reach to the sluice, there will be a less
depth immediately behind it than farther down the canal,
where it is in train; because the swift moving water which
is next the bottom drags with it the regorged water which
lies on it: but the canal must be rapid to make this differ¬
ence of depth sensible. In ordinary canals, with moderate
slopes and velocities, the velocity at the sluice may be safely
taken as if it were that which corresponds to the difference
of depths above and below the sluice, where both were in
train.
Let therefore H be the depth above the sluice, and h the
depth in the canal. Let e be the elevation of the sluice
above the sole, and let b be its breadth. The discharge
will be e&vH — hVZG for the sluice, and wh
VS
J
w-^-Zh
for the canal. These must be the same. This
gives the equation e b^/U. — hVZ G=:w /a——^
vS w -f- 2 A’
containing the solution of all the questions which can be
proposed. The only uncertainty is in the quantity G, which
expresses the velocity competent to the passage of the water
through the orifice, circumstanced as it is, namely, subject¬
ed to contraction. This may be regulated by a proper
form given to the entry into this orifice. The contraction
may be almost annihilated by making the masonry of a
cycloidal form on both sides, and also at the lower edge of
the sluice-board, so as to give the orifice a form resembling
fig. 5, D, in the article River. If the sluice is thin in the
face of a basin, the contraction will reduce 2 G to 296. If
the sluice be as wide as the canal, 2 G will be nearly 500.
Question 4. Given the head of water in the basin H, the
breadth b, and the elevation e of the sluice, and the breadth
w and slope s of the canal, to find the depth h of the stream,
the velocity, and the discharge.
We must (as in Question 2) make a first supposition for
h, in order to find the proper value of d. Then the equa-
. /7J ia/7TF J V'Ngd . , G^2S
tion eovH — k v2 G —w h ——— gives h — —-——, 4.
d 1
If this value shall differ con-
y
Ge262SH
+
'Ge^Sy
wl N <7 1 N g d,
siderably from the one which we assumed in order to begin
the computation, make use of it for obtaining a new value
of d, and repeat the operation. We shall rarely be obliged
to perform a third operation.
The following is of irequent use.
WATER-WORKS.
Question 5. Given the dimensions and the slope, with the
velocity and discharge of a river in its ordinary state ; re¬
quired the area or section of the sluice which will raise the
waters to a certain height, still allowing the same quantity
of water to pass through. Such an operation may render
the rivers navigable for small craft or rafts above the sluice.
The problem is reduced to the determination of the size
of orifice which will discharge this water with a velocity
competent to the height to which the river is to be raised ;
only we must take into consideration the velocity of the
water above the sluice, considering it as produced by a fall
wdiich makes a part of the height productive of the whole
velocity at the sluice. Therefore H, in our investigation,
must consist of the height to which we mean to raise
the waters, and the height which will produce the velocity
with which the waters approach the sluice; h, or the depth
of the stream, is the ordinary depth of the river. Then (using
the former symbols) we have e bzz W ^ ^ ^
a
V2 GS (H — h)
V2 G (I I—h)
If the area of the sluice is known, and we would learn
the height to which it will raise the river, we have H — h —
Q2
■g f°r ^le expression of the rise of the water above
its ordinary level. But from this we must take the height
which would produce the velocity of the river; so that if
the sluice were as wide as the river, and w'ere raised to the
Q2
ordinary surface of the water, —^ ^ which expresses
the height that produces the velocity under the sluice, must
be equal to the depth of the river, and H — h will be = 0.
The performance of aqueduct drains is a very important
object, and merits our attention in this place. While the
art of managing waters, and of conducting them so as to
answer our demands, renders us very important service, by
embellishing our habitations, or promoting our commercial
intercourse, the art of draining creates as it were new
riches, fertilizing tracts of bog or marsh, w'hich were not
only useless, but hurtful by tbeir unwholesome exhalations,
and converting them into rich pastures and gay meadows.
A wild country, occupied by marshes which are inaccessi¬
ble to herds or docks, and serve only for the haunts of
water-fowls, or the retreat of a few poor fishermen, when
• once it is freed from the waters in which it is drowned,
opens its lap to receive the most precious seeds, is soon
clothed in the richest garb, gives life and abundance to nu¬
merous herds, and never fails to become the delight of the
industrious cultivator who has enfranchised it, and is at¬
tached to it by the labour which it cost him. In return, it
procures him abundance, and supplies him with the means
of daily augmenting its fertility. No species of agriculture
exhibits such long-continued and progressive improvement.
New families dock to the spot, and there multiply; and
there nature seems the more eager to repay their labours,
in proportion as she has been obliged, against her will, to
keep her treasures locked up for a longer time, chilled by
the waters. The countries newly inhabited by the human
race, as is a great part of America, especially to the south¬
ward, are still covered to a great extent with marshes and
lakes ; and they would long remain in this condition, if po¬
pulation, daily making new advances, did not increase in¬
dustry, by multiplying the cultivating hands, at the same
time that it increases their wants. The Author of this
beautiful world has at the beginning formed the great mas¬
ses of mountain, has scooped out the dales and sloping
hills, has traced out the courses, and even formed the beds,
of the rivers; but he has left to man the care of making
his place of abode, and the field which must feed him, dry
and romfortaMe. For this task is not beyond his powers
as the others are. Nay, by having this given to h • ’
charge, he is richly repaid for his labour by the vervTt 'A
m which he finds those countries into which henPnY 6
for the first time. Being covered with lakes aid w!
tne juices of the soil are kept for him as it were in reser ’
The air, the burning heat of the sun, and the continJl
washing of rains, would have combined to expend and d
sipate their vegetative powers, had the fields been exposed
in the same degree to their action as the inhabited and cul
tivated countries, the most fertile moulds of which are Ion'
since lodged in the bottom of the ocean. All this would
have been completely lost through the whole extent of
South America, had it not been protected by the forests
which man must cut down, by the rank herbage which he
must burn, and by the marsh and bog which he must de
stroy by draining. Let not ungrateful man complain of
this. It is his duty to take on himself the task of opening
up treasures, preserved on purpose for him with so much
judgment and care. If he has discernment and sensibility
he will even thank the Author of all good, who has thus
husbanded them for his use. He will co-operate with his
beneficent views, and will be careful not to proceed by
wantonly snatching at present any partial good, and by
picking out what is most easily procured, regardless of him
who is to come afterwards to uncover and extract the re¬
maining riches of the ground. A wise administration of
such a country will think it their duty to leave a just share
of this inheritance to their descendants, who are entitled to
expect it as the last legatees. National plans of cultivation
should be formed on this principle, that the steps taken by
the present cultivators for realizing part of the richesofthe
infant country shall not obstruct the works which will after¬
wards be necessary for obtaining the remainder. This
is carefully attended to in Holland and in China. No man
is allowed to conduct the drains, by which he recovers a
piece of marsh, in such a w^ay as to render it much more
difficult for a neighbour, or even for his own successor, to
drain another piece, although it may at present be quite
inaccessible. There remain in the middle of the most cul¬
tivated countries many marshes, w7hich industry has not yet 1
attempted to drain, and where the legislature has not been 1
at pains to prevent many little abuses which have produced 1
elevations in the beds of rivers, and rendered the complete
draining of some spots impossible. Administration should 1
attend to such things, because their consequences are great.
The sciences and arts, by which alone these difficult and
costly jobs can be performed, should be protected, en¬
couraged, and cherished. It is only from science that ire
can obtain principles to direct these arts. The problem of
draining canals is one of the most important, and yet has
hardly ever occupied the attention of the hydraulic specu-
latist. We apprehend that the Chevalier du Buafs theory
will throw great light on it; and regret that the very limited
condition of our present work will hardly afford room for a
slight sketch of what may be done on the subject.
shall, however, attempt it by a general problem, which will
involve most of the chief circumstances which occur in
works of that kind.
Quest. 6. Let Fig. 2.
the hollow7 ground
A (fig. 2) be in¬
undated by rains
or springs, and
have no outlet but
the canal AB, by
which it discharges
its water into the neighbouring river BCDE, and let1
surface be nearly on a level with that of the river at 1 ■ ^
can only drain when the river sinks in the droug ts o
summer; and even if it could then drain completely
i;
I
\k\
w ATER-WORKS.
put.l marsh would only be an infecting neighbour. It
jpaipe proposed to drain it by one or more canals, and it
is ri uired to determine their lengths and other dimensions,
so £ to produce the best effects. It is evident that there
are any circumstances to determine the choice, and many
con tions to be attended to.
I the canals AC, AD, AE, are respectively equal to
the roportions BC, BD, BE, of the river, and have the
satn,slopes, they will have the same discharge; but they
are:ot for this reason equivalent. The long carnal AE
muylrain the marsh completely, while the short one AC
wjll nly do it in part; because the difference of level be-
twe A and C is but inconsiderable. Also the freshes of
thcirer may totally obstruct the operation of AC, while
the nal AE cannot be hurt by them, E being so much
loweithan C. Therefore the canal must be carried so far
(low the river, that no freshes there shall ever raise the
wattii in the canal so high as to reduce the slope in the
uppit part of it to such a level that the current shall not
be s iicient to carry off the ordinary produce of water in
the jirsh.
Sfl the problem is indeterminate, admitting many solu¬
tion:! This requisite discharge may be accomplished by a
shonmt wide canal, or by a longer and narrower. Let us
firsti:e what solution can be made, so as to accomplish
our impose in the most economical manner, that is, by
raea of the smallest equation. We shall give the solution
tl form of an example.
Si'pose that the daily produce of rains ami springs raises
i the iter 1|- inch on an area of a square league, which
give about 120,000 cubic fathoms of water. Let the bot¬
tom if the basin be three feet below the surface of the
fresh; in the river at B in winter. Let the slope of the
river e two inches in 100 fathoms, or ant^ r^e canal
six fit deep.
T. canal being supposed nearly parallel to the river,
t m :: be at least 1800 fathoms long before it can be ad-
nitte into the river, otherwise the boctom of the bog will
re her than the mouth of the canal; and even then a
rune: d or two more fathoms added to this will give it so
ittle ope, that an immense breadth will be necessary to
naki he discharge with so small a velocity. On the other
landif the slope of the canal be made equal to that of the
iyerln extravagant length will be necessary before its ad-
nissi i into the river, and many obstacles may then inter¬
vene! and even then it must have a breadth of thirteen
eet, may easily be calculated by the general hydraulic
ileoi n. By receding from each of these extremes, we
inlll Iminish the expense of excavation. Therefore,
lair and y be the breadth and length, and h the depth
dx i;t), of the canal. Let q be the depth of the bog be-
m' ’ surface of the river, opposite to the basin, D the
being supposed of nearly equal length with the river, •- will
a
express the whole difference of height, and - o is the dif-
CL *
ference of height for the canal. This quantity being divided
l-q
by#, gives the value of - — ^ 
S y
Therefore the equation
liscl ge in a second, and — the slope of the river. We
lust lake h x y & minimum, or xdy-\-ydxzzQ.
Tl general formula gives the velocity
- _ 0-3 {Vd _ 0* 1). This would
v—-L */s L6
i i>ve and y; but the logarithmic term renders it very
orril :ated. We may make use of the simple form
= A|!A., making v' N nearly 296. This will be
v S J
i flatly exact for all cases which do not deviate far from
; ■y cause the velocities are very nearly in the subdu-
1 i ratio of the slopes.
Tcfntroduce these data into the equation, recollect that
It ^ ) , h x
v - -» d--
x
V(: XXI.
x 2 ti
As to S, recollect that the canal
for the canal becomes =: VN o / ^ x
hx * x + 2h
Hence we deduce y - K g q V x3
N ^ A3 a?3 -p. „ .
 DHx + 2h)
a v '
SN g q h? x* d x
V a
, and
dy —
N ^ A3
D2 (ar + 2 h)
FN q Id x3 , “12
[_ a D- (a? -f- 2 J
If w'e substitute these values in the equation y d x x d y
= 0, and reduce it, we obtain finally
N g tv5 x°
a D2
3 x = 8 h.
If we resolve this equation by making N ^ = (29'G)2, or
87616 inches, h = 72,^ = and D = 518400, we
D
kx’
obtain x — 392 inches, or 32 feet 8 inches, and
V = 18*36 inches. Now putting these values in the exact
formula for the velocity, we obtain the slope of the canal,
which is nearly 0*62 inches in 100 fathoms.
Let l be the length of the canal in fathoms. As the
river has two inches fall in 100 fathoms, the whole fall is
^ ^ 0*621
TOO’ and that °f the CanaI is TOO-' The of these
two must be three feet, which is the difference between
the river and the entry of the canal. We have therefore
(2 — 0*62\ , _ - . ,
(—Jqq— J * = 36 inches. Hence l — 2604 fathoms; and
this multiplied by the section of the canal gives 14,177
cubic fathoms of earth to be removed.
This may surely be done, in most cases, for eight shillings
each cubic fathom, which does not amount to L.6000, a
very moderate sum for completely draining nine square
miles of country.
In order to judge of the importance of this problem, we
have added two other canals, one longer and the other
shorter, having their widths and slopes so adjusted as to
insure the same performance.
Width.
Feet.
42
32g
21
Velocity,
Inches.
14*28
18*36
28*57
Slope.
Tsihrs
TTiTfiT
itVl
Length.
2221
2604
7381
Excavation.
15547
14177
15833
We have considered this important problem in its most
simple state. If the basin is far from the river, so that the
drains are not nearly parallel to it, and therefore have less
slope attainable in their course, it is more difficult. Perhaps
the best method is to try two very extreme cases and a
middle one, and then a fourth, nearer to that extreme
which differs least from the middle one in the quantity of ex¬
cavation. This will point out on which side the minimum of
I
794
WATER-WORKS.
Water- excavation lies, and also the law by which it diminishes and
Works, afterwards increases. Then draw a line, on which set off
from one end the lengths of the canals. At each length
erect an ordinate representing the excavation, and draw a
regular curve through the extremities of the ordinates.
From that point of the curve which is nearest to the base
line, draw another ordinate to the base. This will point
out the best length of the canal with sufficient accuracy.
The length will determine the slope, and this will give
the width, by means of the general theorem. These
draining canals must always come off from the basin with
evasated entries. This will prevent the loss of much fall
at the entry.
Two canals may sometimes be necessary. In this case
expense may frequently be saved, by making one canal
flow into the other. This however must be at such a dis¬
tance from the basin, that the swell produced in the other
by this addition may not reach back to the immediate
neighbourhood of the basin, otherwise it would impede the
performance of both. For this purpose, recourse must be
had to Problem III. p. 283, of the article River. We
must here observe, that in this respect canals differ ex¬
ceedingly from rivers: rivers enlarge their beds, so as al¬
ways to convey every increase of waters ; but a canal may
be gorged through its whole length, and will then greatly
diminish its discharge. In order that the lower extremity
of a canal may convey the waters of an equal canal admit¬
ted into it, their junction must be so far from the basin that
the swell occasioned by raising its waters nearly ^ more
(viz. in the subduplicate ratio of I to 2) may not reach
back to the basin.
This observation points out another method of economy.
Instead of one wide canal, we may make a narrower one of
the whole length, and another narrow one reaching part of
the way, and communicating with the long canal at a pro¬
per distance from the basin. But the lower extremity
will now be too shallow to convey the waters of both,
therefore raise its banks by using the earth taken from its
bed, which must at any rate be disposed of. Thus the
waters will be conveyed, and the expense, even of the lower
part of the long canal, will scarcely be increased.
These observations must suffice for an account of the
management of open canals; and we proceed to the consi¬
deration of the conduct of water in pipes.
This is much more simple and regular, and the general
theorem requires very trifling modifications for adapting it
to the cases or questions that occur in the practice of the
civil engineer. Pipes are always made round, and there¬
fore d is always ^th of the diameter. The velocity of water
feet. The slope is
V3
1__ H— 2G
, which must be pm intov
the general formula. This would make it very complicated
We may simplify it by the consideration that the velocity
is very small in comparison of that arising from the height
H ; consequently h is very small. Also, in the same pL
the resistances are nearly in the duplicate ratio of the ve
locities when these are small, and when they differ little*
among themselves. Therefore make s = taking h by
guess, a very little less than H. Then compute the mean
velocity v corresponding to these data, or take it from the
table. If h -f- — be = H, we have found the mean ve-
locity V = v. If not, make the following proportion.
v*
1 : 2G
y2 yz
H * 2Cj5 v Inch is the same with this,
h -f
2G
— H : V2, and V2 is n
H
2GH
~ V2 + 2G/i‘
If the pipe has any bendings, they must be calculated
for in the manner mentioned in the article River; and the
head of water necessarv for overcoming this additional re-
V2
sistance being called —, the last proportion must be chan¬
ged for
Qtiest. 2. Given the height of the reservoir, the length
of the pipe, and the quantity of water which is to be drawn
off in a second, to find the diameter of the pipe which will
draw it off.
Let d be considered as r= ^th of the diameter, and let
1 : c represent the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its
circumference. The section of the pipe is AccP. Let the
quantity of wTater per second be Q; then is the mean
. Tr 307 (Vd
in a pipe which is m train, is V =:     
Vs — L v' ^ -j- P6
o-i) ^
velocity. Divide the length of the pipe by the height of ,
the reservoir above the place of delivery, diminished by a ,
very small quantity, and call the quotient s. Consider this 1
as the slope of the conduit; the general formula now be¬
comes
Q 307 (Vd — 0*1)
' — 0-3 (Vd - 0-1), or
■0-3 (Vd-
0-3^.
0T), or = (\/d — 0‘1) f 
KVs —
307
0-3 (Vd — 0-1). We may
The chief questions are the following.
Quest. 1. Given the height H of the reservoir above the
place of delivery, and the diameter and length of the pipe,
to find the quantity of water discharged in a second.
Let L be the length, and h the fall which would produce
the velocity with which the water enters the pipe, and
actually flows in it, after overcoming all obstructions.
bed2 Vs — L Vs + F6
Q _ (307 (Vd — 0-1)
  W2 “ ^/S
'V/s L + I'd neglect the last term in every case of civil practice, andalso
the small quantity OT. Thus gives the very simple for¬
mula
q _ 307 Vd
\cdl ~ VS ’
from which we readilv deduce
_ q vs
3858
V2
This may be expressed in terms of the velocity by —, G
2G
small
denoting the acceleration of gravity corresponding to the
manner of entry. When no methods are adopted for faci¬
litating the entry of the water, by a bell-shaped funnel or
otherwise, 2G may be assumed as rr 500 inches, or 42
feet, according as we measure the velocity in inches or
4« x 307
This process gives the diameter somewhat too
But we easily rectify this error by computing the quantity
delivered by the pipe, which will differ a little (rom f *
quantity proposed. Then observing, by this equation, »
two pipes having the same length and the same s°p^
give quantities of water, of which the squares are
the fifth powers of the diameter, we form a new oiame
in this proportion, which will be almost perfectly exac
W A T E R-W 0 R K S.
] mav be observed that the height assumed for deter-
pii ig the slope in these two questions, will seldom differ
0 than an inch or two from the whole height of the reser-
voi above the place of delivery ; for in conduits of a few
hui red feet long, the velocity seldom exceeds four feet
ptrscond, which requires only a head of three inches.
V , no inconvenience worth minding results from making
the ipes a tenth of an inch or so wider than is barely suf-
fjcj t, and as this generally is more than the error arising
froi even a very erroneous assumption of h, the answer
fjrs-obtained may be augmented by one or two tenths of
an ch, and then we may be confident that our conduit
wjl [raw off the intended quantity of water,
i 1e presume that every person who assumes the name of
encieer knows how to reduce the quantity of water mea-
gur.i in gallons, pints, or other denominations, to cubic
incjs, and can calculate the gallons, &c. furnished by a
pip, of known diameter, moving with a velocity that is
me ured in inches per second. We further suppose that
all re is taken in the construction of the conduit, to avoid
obfluctions occasioned by lumps of solder hanging in the
insfe of the pipes; and particularly that all the cocks and
pirn by the way have waterways equal to the section of
tlic ipe. Undertakers are most tempted to fail here, by
nia:ng the cocks too small, because large cocks are very
cosy; but the employer should be scrupulously attentive
to is, because a simple contraction of this kind may be
tlichrowing away of many hundred pounds in a wide pipe,
wh o yields no more water than can pass through the small
coi;
' le chief obstructions arise from the deposition of sand
or ud in the lower parts of pipes, or the collection of air
in e upper parts of their bendings. The velocity being
alvys very moderate, such depositions of heavy matters
arcmnavoidable. The utmost care should therefore be
taUi to have the water freed from all such things at its
enty by proper filtration ; and there ought to be cleansing
ph fi at the lower parts of the bendings, or rather a very
lift; way beyond them. When these are opened, the
war issues with greater velocity, and carries the deposi-
tio i with it.
is much more difficult to get rid of the air which
clx js the pipes by lodging in their upper parts. The air
is sine times taken in along with the water at the reservoir,
wh> the entry of the pipe is too near the surface. This
shed be carefully avoided, and it costs no trouble to do so.
If e entry of the pipe is twTo feet under the surface, no
air in ever get in. Floats should be placed above the
entijs, having lids hanging from them, which will shut the
pipibefore the water runs too low.
1 t air is also disengaged from spring-water by merely
pas ig along the pipe. When pipes are supplied by an
enj ie, air is very often drawn in by the pumps in a dis-
enj-ged state. It is also disengaged from its state of che-
union when the pumps have a suction-pipe of ten or
t«i e feet, which is very common. In whatever way it is
inti luced, it collects in all the upper parts of bendings, and
ch( s the passage, so that sometimes not a drop of water
is i livered. Our cocks should be placed there, which
sh( d be opened frequently by persons who have this in
ckc ;e. Desaguliers describes a contrivance to be placed
°[1 1 such eminences, which does this of itself. It is a
pip with a cock, terminating in a small cistern. The key
2 cock has a hollow ball of copper at the end of a lever.
| n there is no air in the main pipe, water comes out
uy is discharger, fills the cistern, raises the ball, and thus
the cock. But when the bend of the main contains
ftfi rises into the cistern, and occupies the upper part of
jt* Thus the floating ball falls down, the cock opens and
®ts ut the air, and the cistern again filling with water, the
ises, and the cock is again shut.
795
Fig. 3.
A very neat contrivance for this purpose was invented
by the late Professor Russell of Edinburgh. The cylindri¬
cal pipe BCDE (fig. 3), at the upper
end of a bending of the main, is screwed
on, the upper end of which is a flat plate
perforated with a small hole F. This
pipe contains a hollow copper cylinder
G, to the upper part of which is fasten¬
ed a piece of soft leather H. When
there is air in the pipe, it comes out by
the hole A, and occupies the discharger,
and then escapes through the hole F.
Ihe wrater follows, and, rising in the
discharger, lifts up the hollow cylinder G, causing the
leather H to apply itself to the plate CD, and shut the
hole. Thus the air is discharged without the smallest loss
of water.
It is of the most material consequence that there be no
contraction in any part of a conduit. This is evident; but
it is also prudent to avoid all unnecessary enlargements.
For when the conduit is full of water moving along it, the
velocity in every section is inversely proportional to the
area of the section : it is therefore diminished wherever the
pipe is enlarged; but it must again be increased where the
pipe contracts. This cannot be without expending force
in the acceleration, which consumes part of the impelling
power, whether this be a head of water, or the force of an
engine. See what is said on this subject in the article
Pump. Nothing is gained by any enlargement; and every
contraction, by requiring an augmentation of velocity, em¬
ploys a part of the impelling force precisely equal to the
weight of a column of water whose base is the contracted
passage, and whose height is the fall which would produce
a velocity equal to this augmentation. This point seems
to have been quite overlooked by engineers of the first
eminence, and has in many instances greatly diminished
the performance of their best works. It is no less detri¬
mental in open canals, because at every contraction a
small fall is required for restoring the velocity lost in the
enlargement of the canal, by which the general slope and
velocity are diminished. Another point wdiich must be at¬
tended to in the conducting of water is, that the motion
should not be subsultory, but continuous. When the water
is to be driven along a main by the strokes of a recipro¬
cating engine, it should be forced into an air-box, the
spring of which may preserve it in motion along the whole
subsequent main. If the water is brought to rest at every
successive stroke of the piston, the whole mass must again
be put in motion through the wThole length of the main.
This requires the same useless expenditure of powTer as to
communicate this motion to as much dead matter; and
this is over and above the force which may be necessary
for raising the water to a certain height, which is the only
circumstance that enters into the calculation of the power
of the pump-engine.
An air-box removes this imperfection, because it keeps
up the motion during the returning stroke of the piston.
The compression of the air by the active stroke of the pis¬
ton must be such as to continue the impulse in opposition
to the contrary pressure of the water (if it is to be raised
to some height), and in opposition to the friction or other
resistances which arise ifom the motion that the water
really acquires. Indeed a very considerable force is also
employed here in changing the motion of the wrater, which
is forced out of the capacious air-box into the narrow pipe;
and when this change of motion is not judiciously managed,
the expenditure of power may be as great as if all were
brought to rest and again put in motion. It may even be
greater, by causing the water to move in the opposite di¬
rection to its former motion. Of such consequence is it to
have all these circumstances scientifically considered. It
Water-
Works.
796
Water-
Works.
W A T E R-W 0 R K S.
is in such particulars, unheeded by the ordinary herd of
^ engineers or pump-makers, that the superiority of an intel¬
ligent practitioner is to be seen.
Another material point in the conduct of water in pipes
is the distribution of it to the different persons who have
occasion for it. This is rarely done from the rising main.
It is usual to send the whole into a cistern, from which it
is afterwards conducted to different places in separate
pipes. Till the discovery of the general theorem by the
Chevalier du Buat, this has been done with great inaccuracy.
Engineers think that the different purchasers from water¬
works receive in proportion to their respective bargains
when they give them pipes whose areas are proportional to
these payments; but we now see that when these pipes are
of any considerable length, the waters of a larger pipe run
with a greater velocity than those of a smaller pipe having
the same slope. A pipe of two inches diameter will give much
more water than four pipes of one inch diameter; it will
give as much as five and a half such pipes or more; be¬
cause the squares of the discharges are very nearly as the
fifth powers of the diameters. This point ought therefore
to be carefully considered in the bargains made with the
proprietors of water-works, and the payments made in this
proportion. Perhaps the most unexceptionable method
would be to make a double distribution. Let the water be
first let off in its proper proportions into a second series of
small cisterns, and let each have a pipe which will convey
the whole water that is discharged into it. The first distribu¬
tion may be made entirely by pipes of one inch in dia¬
meter ; this would leave nothing to the calculation of the
distributor, for every man would pay in proportion to the
number of such pipes which runs into his own cistern.
In many cases, however, water is distributed by pipes
derived from a main; and here another circumstance
comes into action. When water is passing along a pipe,
its pressure on the sides of the pipe is diminished by its
velocity; and if a pipe is now derived from it, the quan¬
tity drawn off is also diminished in the subduplicate ratio
of the pressures. If the pressure is reduced to one fourth,
one ninth, one sixteenth, &c. the discharge from the lateral
pipe is reduced to one half, one third, one fourth, &c. It
is therefore of great importance to determine what this di¬
minution of pressure is which arises from the motion alono-
the main.
It is plain, that if the w'ater suffered no resistance in the
main, its velocity would be that with which it entered, and
it wrould pass along without exerting any pressure. If the
pipe were shut at the end, the pressure on the sides would
be the full pressure of the head of w'ater. If the head of
water remain the same, and the end of the tube be con¬
tracted, but not stopped entirely, the velocity in the pipe is
diminished. If we wxmld have the velocity in the pipe
with this contracted mouth augmented to what it wras be¬
fore the contraction w7as made, we must employ the pres-
sui e of a piston, or of a head of water. This is propagated
through the fluid, and thus a pressure is immediately ex¬
cited on the sides of the pipe. New obstructions of any
kind, arising from friction or any other cause, produce a
diminution of velocity in the pipe : but when the natural
velocity is checked, the particles re-act on what obstructs
their motion ; and this action is uniformly propagated
through a perfect fluid in every direction. The resistance
therefore which we thus ascribe to friction, produces the
same lateral pressure w'hich a contraction of the orifice,
which equally diminishes the velocity in the pipe, would
do. Indeed this is demonstrable from any distinct notions
that we can form of these obstructions. They proceed
Lfrom the wrant of perfect smoothness, which obliges the
particles next the sides to move in undulated lines. This
excites tiansverse forces in the same manner as any con¬
strained curvilineal motion. A particle in its undulated
path tends to escape from it, and acts on the lateral
tides in the same manner that it would doif movinv • T
in a capillary tube having the same undulations- it* ijp
press on the concave side of every such undulation.
a pressure is exerted among the particles, which is
Thus
gated to the sides of the pipe; or the diminution nfA'i
r*itxr otr nvl   « ^ *GlO-
propa-
city may arise from a viscidity or want of perfect flniA
This obliges the particle immediately pressed to drag aW5'
with it another particle which is withheld by adhel? ,g
the sides. This requires additional pressure from a ni,^
or an additional head of water; and this pressureai?’
propagated to the sides of the pipe. P ls° 18
Hence it should follow, that the pressure which water;
motion exerts on the sides of its conduit is equal to th
which is competent to the head of water which imneH
into the pipe, diminished by the head of water competent
to the actual velocity with which it moves alon<r the nine
Let H represent the head of water which impels it into the
entry of the pipe, and h the head which would produce the
actual velocity ; then H — h is the column which would
produce the pressure exerted on its sides.
This is abundantly verified by very simple experiments
Let an upright pipe be inserted into the side of the main
pipe. _ When the water runs out by the mouth of the
main, it will rise in this branch till the weight of the co¬
lumn balances the pressure that supports it; and if we
then ascertain the velocity of the issuing water by means
of the quantity discharged, and compute the head or
height necessary for producing this velocity, and subtract
this from the height of water above the entry of the main,
we shall find the height in the branch precisely equal to
their difference. Our readers may see this by examining
the experiments related by Gravesande, and still better by
examining the experiments related by Bossut, which are
detailed with great minuteness. The results corresponded
accurately with this proposition. The experiments indeed
were not heights of water supported by this pressure, but
water expelled by it through the same orifice. Indeed the
truth of the proposition appears in every way we can con¬
sider the motion of water. And as it is of the first import¬
ance in the practice of conducting water (for reasons which
will presently appear), it merits a particular attention.
When an inclined tube is in train, the accelerating power
of the water (or its weight diminished in the proportion of
the length of the oblique column to its vertical height, or
its weight multiplied by the fraction -, which expresses the
slope) is in equilibrio with the obstructions; and therefore
it exerts no pressure on the pipe but what arises from its
weight alone. Any part of it would continue to slide
down the inclined plane with a constant velocity, though
detached from what follows it. It therefore derives no
pressure from the head of water which impelled it into the
pipe. The same must be said of a horizontal pipe infi¬
nitely smooth, or opposing no resistance. The water would
move in this pipe with the full velocity due to the head of
water which impels it into the entry. * But when the pipe
opposes an obstruction, the head of water is greater than
that which would impel it into the pipe with the velocity
that it actually has in it; and this additional pressure is
propagated along the pipe, where it is balanced by the
actual resistance, and therefore excites a quaquaversum
pressure on the pipe. In short, whatever part of the head
of water in the reservoir, or of the pressure which impels it
along the tube, is not employed in producing velocity, is
employed in acting against some obstruction, and excites,
by the re-action of this obstruction, an equal pressure
on the tube. The rule therefore is general, but is subject
to some modifications which deserve our attention.
In the simply inclined pipe BC(fig.4), the pressure onany
point S is equal to that of the head of water AS which
■
Lei'die water into the pipe, vvant-
Lpr minus that of the head of
Va* which would communicate
to the velocity with which it ac¬
tual/ moves. This we shall call
j, id consider it as the weight of
a’cumn of water whose length
alsos x. In like manner H may
be ;ie column AB which impels the water into the pipe,
anevould communicate a certain velocity ; and h may re-
prent the column which would communicate the actual
verity. We have therefore x ■= H — h.
I ] the pipe HIKL, the pressure at the point I is
AJ,! h — 10 = H — h —10 ; and the pressure at K is
hU + pk.
id in the pipe DEFG, the pressure on E is = APi —h
__ ,M = H — h — EM ; and the pressure at F is H — h
+ .N.
e must carefully distinguish this pressure on any square
ini; of the pipe, from the obstruction or resistance which
tk|inch actually exerts, and which is part of the cause of
tin ircssure. The pressure, by the laws of hydrostatics,
istjj same with that exerted on the water by a square inch
of e piston or forcing head of water. This must balance
tlu inited obstructions of the whole pipe, in as far as they
aniiot balanced by the relative weight of the water in an
enosed pipe. Whatever be the inclination of a pipe, and
tlu/elocity of the water in it, there is a certain part of
tliiiresistance which may not be balanced by the tendency
whih the water has to slide along it, provided the pipe be
lorj enough; or if the pipe is too short, the tendency
do i the pipe may more than balance all the resistances
thi obtain below. In the first case, this overplus must be
ba iced by an additional head of water ; and in the latter
cat the pipe is not in train, and the water will accelerate.
Tli-e is something in the mechanism of these motions
whh makes a certain length of pipe necessary for bring-
ingit into train ; a certain portion of the surface which
ic in concert in obstructing the motion. We do not
co iiletely understand this circumstance, but we can form
a i etty distinct notion of its mode of acting. The film of
fair contiguous to the pipe is withheld by the obstruc-
tio hut glides along ; the film immediately within this is
wi held by the outer film, but glides through it: and thus
all lie concentric films glide within those around them,
somvhat like the sliding tubes of a spy-glass when we
dm it'out by taking hold of the end of the innermost.
Tils the second film passes beyond the first and outer-
nn , and becomes the outermost, and rubs along the tube.
Tl! third does the same in its turn ; and thus the central
fllients come at last to the outside, and all sustain their
g>'test possible obstruction. When this is accomplished
th >ipe is in train. This requires a certain length, which
wt jannot determine by theory. We see however that
pi; S of greater diameter must require a greater length, and
th in a proportion which is probably that of the number
o! nments, or the square of the diameter. Du Buat found
tl' supposition agree well enough with his experiments.
A pe of one inch in diameter sustained no change ot ve-
lo< y by gradually shortening it till he reduced it to six
ft'i and then it discharged a little more water. A pipe
°i tvo inches diameter gave a sensible augmentation of
re ;ity when shortened to twenty-five feet. He therefore
S:i that the square of the diameter in inches, multiplied
W eventy-two, will express, in inches, the length neces-
sa for putting any pipe in train.
, he resistance exerted by a square inch of the pipe
WEs but a small part of the pressure which the whole re-
Sls nces occasion to be exerted there before they can be
♦'■come. The resistance may be represented by —, where
W A T E R-W O R K S.
Fig 4.
d is the hydraulic depth (one fourth of the diameter), and
s the length of a column whose vertical height is one inch,
and it is the relative weight of a column of water whose base
is a square inch, and height is d. For the resistance of any
length .v of pipe which is in train is equal to the tendency
ot the water to slide down (being balanced by it) ; that is,
is equal to the weight of this column multiplied by -. The
magnitude of this column is had by multiplying its length
by its section. The section is the product of the border h,
or circumference multiplied by the mean depth d, or it is
bd. This multiplied by the length is bds ; and this multi¬
plied by the slope - is bd> the relative weight of the column
whose length is s. The relative weight of one inch is
therefore — ; and this is in equilibrio with the resistance
of a ring of the pipe one inch broad. This, when unfold¬
ed, is a parallelogram b inches in length. One inch of this
therefore is the relative weight of a column of water
having d for its height and a square inch for its base. Sup¬
pose the pipe four inches in diameter, and the slope = 253,
the resistance is one grain, for an inch of water weighs 253
grains.
This knowledge of the pressure of water in motion is of
great importance. In the management of rivers and canals
it instructs us concerning the damages which they produce
in their beds by tearing up the soil: it informs us of the
strength which we must give to the banks, but it is of more
consequence in the management of close conduits. By
this we must regulate the strength of our pipes ; by this
also we must ascertain the quantities of water which may be
drawn off by lateral branches from any main conduit.
With respect to the first of these objects, where security
is our sole concern, it is proper to consider the pressure in
the most unfavourable circumstances, viz. when the end of
the main is shut. The case is not unfrequent. Nay, when
the water is in motion, its velocity in a conduit seldom ex¬
ceeds a very few feet in a second. Eight feet per second
requires only one foot of water to produce it. We should
therefore estimate the strain on all conduits by the whole
height of the reservoir.
^ In order to adjust the strength of a pipe to the strain,
we may conceive it as consisting of two half cylinders of
insuperable strength joined along the two seams, where the
strength is the same with the ordinary strength of the ma¬
terials of which it is made. The inside pressure tends to
burst the pipe by tearing open these seams; and each of
these two seams is equal to the weight of a column of
water whose height is the depth of the seam below the
surface of the reservoir, and whose base is an inch broad
and a diameter of the pipe in length. This follows from
the common principles ot hydrostatics.
Suppose the pipe to be of lead, one foot in diameter and
100 feet under the surface of the reservoir. Water weighs
62ijr pounds per foot. The base of our column is there¬
fore jVth of a foot, and the tendency to burst the pipe is
100 X 62-|- X tV = 6ff° = 521 pounds nearly. There¬
fore an inch of one seam is strained by 260J- pounds. A
rod of lead one inch square is pulled asunder by 8G0 pounds
(see Strength of Materials). Therefore, if the thickness
of the seam is = §£$ inches, or one third of an inch, it
will just withstand this strain. But we must make it much
stronger than this, especially if the pipe leads from an en¬
gine which sends the water along it by starts. Belidor
and Desaguliers have given tables of the thickness and
weights of pipes which experience lias found sufficient for
797
Water-
Works.
798
WATEII-W ORES.
Water-
W orks.
the different materials and depths. Desaguliers says, that
a leaden pipe of three fourths of an inch in thickness is
strong enough for a height of 140 feet and diameter of
seven inches. From this we may calculate all others.
Belidor says, that a leaden pipe twelve inches diameter and
sixty feet deep should be half an inch thick. But these
things will be more properly computed by means of the list
given in the article Strength of Materials.
The application which we are most anxious to make of
the knowledge of the pressure of moving waters, is the de¬
rivation from a main conduit by lateral branches. This
occurs very frequently in the distribution of waters among
the inhabitants of towns; and it is so imperfectly under¬
stood by the greater part of those who take the name of
engineers, that individuals have no security that they shall
get even one half of the water they bargain and pay for;
yet this may be as accurately ascertained as any other pro¬
blem in hydraulics by means of our general theorem. The
case therefore merits our particular attention.
It appears to be already determined, when we have as¬
certained the pressures by which the water is impelled into
these lateral pipes, especially after we have said that the
experiments of Bossut on the actual discharges from a la¬
teral pipe fully confirm the theoretical doctrine. But much
remains to be considered. We have seen that there is a
vast difference between the discharge made through a hole,
or even through a short pipe, and the discharge from the
far end of a pipe derived from a main conduit. And even
when this has been ascertained by our new theory, the dis¬
charge thus modified will be found considerably different
from the real state of things: for when water is flowing
along a main with a known velocity, and therefore exert¬
ing a known pressure on the circle which we propose for
the entry of a branch, if we insert a branch there, water
will go along it; but this will generally make a consider¬
able change in the motion along the main, and therefore
in the pressure which is to expel the water. It also makes
a considerable change in the whole quantity which passes
along the anterior part of the main, and a still greater
change on what moves along that part of it which lies be¬
yond the branch : it therefore affects the quantity necessary
for the whole supply, the force that is required for propel¬
ling it, and the quantity delivered by other branches. This
part therefore of the management of water in conduits is of
considerable importance and intricacy. We can propose
in this place nothing more than a solution of such leading
questions as involve the chief circumstances, recommending
to our readers the perusal of original works on this subject?
M. Bossut’s experiments are fully competent to the esta¬
blishment of the fundamental principle. The hole through
which the lateral discharges were made was but a few feet
from the reservoir. The pipe was successively lengthened,
by which the resistances were increased, and the velocity di¬
minished : but this did not affect the lateral discharges, ex¬
cept by affecting the pressures ; and the discharges from the
end of the main were supposed to be the same as when the
lateral pipe was not inserted. Although this was not strictly
true, the difference was insensible, because the lateral pipe
had but about the eighteenth part of the area of the main.
Suppose that the discharge from the reservoir remains the
same after the derivation of this branch, then the motion of
the water all the way to the insertion of the. branch is the
same as before; but beyond this the discharge is diminish¬
ed by all that is discharged by the branch, with the head
x equivalent to the pressure on the side. The discharge
by the lower end of the main being diminished, the velocity
and resistance in it are also diminished. Therefore the dif¬
ference between x and the head employed to overcome the
friction in this second case, would be a needless or ineffici¬
ent part of the whole load at the entry, which is impossible;
for every force produces an effect, or it is destroyed by some
re-action. The effect of the forcing head of water is to
duce the greatest discharge corresponding to the obstr ° 1
tions ; and thus the discharge from the reservoir o'r dN'
supply to the main, must be augmented by the insertion f'
the branch, if the forcing head of water remains the sam°
A greater portion therefore of the forcing head was emplov
ed in producing a greater discharge at the entry of the main'
and the remainder, less than x, produced the pressure o’
the sides. This head was the one competent to the obatm
tions resulting from the velocity beyond the insertion of the"
branch; and this velocity, diminished by the dischanre
already made, was less than that at the entry, and even
than that of the main without a branch. This will appear
more distinctly by putting the case into the form of an
equation. Therefore let H — x be the height due to the
velocity at the entry, of which the effect obtains only hori-
zontally. The head x is the only one which acts on the
sides of the tube, tending to produce the discharge by the
branch, at the same time that it must overcome the obstruc¬
tions beyond the branch. If the orifice did not exist, and
if the force producing the velocity on a short tube be repre¬
sented by 2 G, and the section of the main be A, the supply
at the entry of the main would be AV2 G Vll x; and if
the orifice had no influence on the value of a;, the discharge
by the orifice would be D being its discharge by
H
means of the head H, when the end of the main is shut;
for the discharges are in the subduplicate ratio of the
heads of water by whichjhey are expelled; and therefore
V^H : \/x = D : d. But we have seen that x
* H
must diminish ; and we know that the obstructions are nearly
as the square roots of the velocities, when these do not differ
much among themselves. Therefore, callingy the pressure
or head which balances the resistances of the main without
a branch, while x is the head necessary for the main with a
branch, we may institute this proportion, y : H — y — x\
a;(H — y)
   ; and this fourth term will express the head pro¬
ducing the velocity in the main beyond the branch (as
H—y would have done in a main without a branch). This
velocity beyond the branch will be V2G
-, and
If
  G(H—y)
the discharge at the end will be A V2 G J v ^ ■
to this we add the discharge of the branch, the sum will
be the whole discharge, and therefore the whole supply.
Therefore we have the following equation, Av'SG vT —^
= AV2GV^—■H ~ V) + D^. From this we deduce
y
H’
the value of x z=
2GHA2
(a^gvA^+vb)*20'''
This value of x being substituted in the equation of the dis¬
charge d of the branch, which was = D^/A will g've ^
discharges required, and they will differ so much the more
from the discharges calculated according to the simp e
theory, as the velocity in the main is greater, by
simple theory, we mean the supposition that the laterals
charges are such as would be produced by the head -j >
where H is the height of the reservoir, and /< the hca u
to the actual velocity in the main. ,
And thus it appears that the proportion of the
by a lateral pipe from a main that is shut at the far en >
the discharge from a main that is open, depends not on y
L
In
W A T E R-W 0 R K S.
799
i ressures, but also on the size of the lateral pipe, and
'ts (tance from the reservoir. When it is large, it greatly
' ite- the train of the main, under the same head, by alter-
* v ic discharge at its extremity, and the velocity in it be-
° branch; and if it be near the reservoir, it greatly
gltu the train, because the diminished velocity takes place
thrtgh a greater extent, and there is a greater diminution
0f t ; resistances.
^ icn the branch is taken off at a considerable distance
fror the reservoir, the problem becomes more complicated,
andhe head x is resolved into two parts, one of which ba-
feno-; the resistance in the first part of the main, and the
oth balances the resistances beyond the lateral pipe, with
a verity diminished by the discharge from the branch. A
bra-h at the end of the main produces very little change
in tj; train of the pipe.
t hen the lateral discharge is great, the train may be so
altetd, that the remaining part of the main will not run
fulliind then the branch will not yield the same quantity.
Th Velocity in a very long horizontal tube may be so small
(by small head of water and great obstructions in a very
lonjtube) that it will just run full. An orifice made in its
up] • side will yield nothing, and yet a small tube inserted
intnt will carry a column almost as high as the reservoir ;
so ut we cannot judge in all cases of the pressures by the
disvirges, and vice versa.
| ] there be an inclined tube, having a head greater than
wh1 is competent to the velocity, we may bring it into
tra byan opening on its upper side near the reservoir.
Thl will yield some water, and the velocity will diminish
in tube till it is in train. If we should now enlarge the
holi it will yield no more water than before.
. id thus we have pointed out the chief circumstances
whn affect these lateral discharges. The discharges are
afwvards modified by the conduits in which they are con-
ve^l to their places of destination. These, for the sake of
ecci imy, being generally of small dimensions, the velocity
is inch diminished. But, at the same time, it approaches
ne;. ‘r to that which the same conduit would bring directly
fro the reservoir, because its small velocity will produce
a 1 i change in the train of the main conduit.
e should now treat of jets of water, which still make
an rnament in the magnificent pleasure-grounds of the
wulhy. Some of these are indeed grand objects, such as
thdwo at Peterhoff in Russia, which spout about sixty
feet high a column of nine inches diameter, that falls
ag;.i, and shakes the ground with its blow. Even a spout
of i inch or two inches diameter, lancing to the height of
15 feet, is a gay object, and greatly enlivens a pleasure-
grcud, especially when the changes of a gentle breeze
be the jet to one side. But we have no room left for
tn ing this subject, which is of some nicety; and must con-
ckb this article with a very short account of the manage-
nu of water as an active power for impelling machinery.
CLASS II.
Of Machinery driven by Water.
his is a very comprehensive article, including almost
€v y possible species of mill. It is no less important, and
it therefore matter of regret that we cannot enter into
tl' letail which it deserves. The mere description ot the
in ense variety of mills which are in general use would
fil| olumes, and a scientific description of their principles
maxims of construction would almost form a complete
' ot mechanical science. But this is far beyond the
iin s of a work like ours. Many of these machines have
hi i already described under their proper names, or under
th articles which give an account of their manufactures;
411 lor others we must refer our readers to the original
works, where they are described in minute detail. Tire Water-
great academical collection Des Arts et Metiers, published Works,
in Paris in many folio volumes, contains a description of''-~v~“
the peculiar machinery of many mills ; and the volumes of
the Encyclopedic Methodique, which particularly relate
to the mechanical arts, contain many more. All that
we can do in this place is, to consider the chief circum¬
stances that are common to all water-mills, and from which
all must derive their efficacy. These circumstances are to
be found in the manner of employing water as an acting
power, and most of them are comprehended in the con¬
struction of water-wheels. When we have explained the
principles and the maxims of construction of a water-wheel,
every reader conversant in mechanics knows that the axis
of this wheel may be employed to transmit the force im¬
pressed on it to any species of machinery. Therefore no¬
thing subsequent to this can with propriety be considered
as water-works.
Water-wheels are of two kinds, distinguished by the
manner in which water is made an impelling power, viz. by
its weight, or by its impulse. This requires a very differ¬
ent form and manner of adaptation; and this forms an os¬
tensible distinction, sufficiently obvious to give a name to
each class. When water is made to act by its weight, it
is delivered from the spout as high on the wheel as pos¬
sible, that it may continue long to press it down ; but when
it is made to strike the wheel, it is delivered as low as pos¬
sible, that it may have previously acquired a great velocity.
And thus the wheels are said to be overshot or under¬
shot.
Of Overshot Wheels.
This is nothing but a frame of open buckets, so disposed
round the rim of a wheel as to receive the water delivered
from a spout; so that one side of the wheel is loaded with
water, while the other is empty. The consequence must
be, that the loaded side must descend. By this motion the
water runs out of the lower buckets, while the empty
buckets of the rising side of the wheel come under the
spout in their turn, and are filled with water.
If it were possible to construct the buckets in such a
manner as to remain completely filled with water till they
come to the very bottom of the wheel, the pressure with
which the water urges the wheel round its axis would be
the same as if the extremity of the horizontal radius were
continually loaded with a
quantity of water sufficient
to fill a square pipe whose
section is equal to that of the
bucket, and whose length is
the diameter of the wheel.
For let the buckets BD and
EF, fig. 5, be compared to¬
gether, the arches DB and
EF are equal. The me¬
chanical energy of the water
contained in the bucket BD,
or the pressure with which
its weight urges the wheel,
is the same as if all this
water were hung on that point T of the horizontal arm CF,
where it is cut by the vertical or plumb-line BT. This is
plain from the most elementary principles of mechanics.
Therefore the effect of the bucket BD is to that of the
bucket EF as CT to CF or CB. Draw the horizontal
lines PB b b, QD d d. It is plain, that if BD is taken very
small, so that it mav be considered as a straight line, BD :
ROzrCB : BP, and EF : CF : CT, and EF X CT =
6 c/X CF. Therefore, if the prism of water whose vertical
section is b b d d, were hung on at F, its force to urge the
Fig. 5.
800
W A T E R-W O R K S.
Water
Works.
■ wheel round would be the same as that of the water lying
^ in the bucket BD. The same may be said of every bucket;
and the effective pressure of the whole ring of water A jf
HKFI, in its natural situation, is the same with the'piHar °f
water ah h a hung on at F. And the effect of any portion
BF of this ring is the same with that of the corresponding
portion 6 F/6 of the vertical pillar. We do not take into
account the small difference which arises from the depth
B/3 or F f, because we may suppose the circle described
through the centres of gravity of the buckets. And in the
further prosecution of this subject, we shall take similar
liberties, with the view of simplifying the subject, and sav¬
ing time to the reader.
But such a state of the wheel is impossible. The bucket
at the very top of the wheel may be completely filled with
water ; but when it comes into the oblique position BD, a
part of the water must run over the outer edge 8, and the
bucket will only retain the quantity ZBD d; and if the
buckets are formed by partitions directed to the axis of
the wheel, the whole water must be run out by the time
that they descend to the level of the axis. To prevent this,
many contrivances have been adopted. The wheel has
been surrounded with a hoop or sweep, consisting of a cir¬
cular board, which comes almost into contact with the rim
of the wheel, and terminates at H, where the water is al¬
lowed to run off. But unless the work is executed with
uncommon accuracy, the wheel made exactly round, and
the sweep exactly fitting it, a great quantity of water escapes
between them ; and there is a very sensible obstruction to
the motion of such a wheel, from something like friction
between the water and the sweep. Frost also effectually
stops the motion of such a wheel. Sweeps have therefore
been generally laid aside, although there are situations
where they might be used with good effect.
Mill-wrights have turned their whole attention to the
giving a form to the buckets which shall enable them to
retain the water along a great portion of the circumference
of the wheel. It would be endless to describe all these
contrivances ; and we shall therefore content ourselves with
one or two of the most approved. The intelligent reader
will readily see that many of the circumstances which con¬
cur in producing the ultimate effect (such as the facility
with which the water is received into the buckets, the place
which it is to occupy during the progress of the bucket from
the top to the bottom of the wheel, the readiness with which
they are evacuated, or the chance that the water has of be¬
ing dragged beyond the bottom of the wheel by its adhe¬
sion, &c. &c.) are such as do not admit of precise calcula¬
tion on reasoning about their merits ; and that this or that
form can seldom be evidently demonstrated to be the very
best possible. But, at the same time, he will see the gene¬
ral reasons of preference, and his attention will be directed
to circumstances which must be attended to in order to
have a good bucketed wheel.
Fig. 6 is the outline of a wheel
having forty buckets. The ring of
board contained between the con¬
centric circles QDS and PAR,
making the ends of the buckets, is
called the shrouding, in the lan¬
guage of the art, and QP is called
the depth of shrouding. The inner
circle PAR is called the sole of
the wheel, and usually consists of
boards nailed to strong wooden
rings of compass-timber of consi¬
derable scantling, firmly united
with the arms or radii. The par¬
titions which determine the form
of the buckets consist of three dif¬
ferent planes or boards AB, BC,
Fig. 6.
CD, which are variously named by different artists w
have heard them named the start or shoul- "e
DER, the ARM, and the wrest (probably Fi„ 7
for wrist, on account of a resemblance of the 8‘ ,
whole line to the human arm) ; B is also called
the elbow. Fig. 7 represents a small portion
of the same bucketing on a larger scale, that
the proportions of the parts may be more dis¬
tinctly seen. AG, the sole of one bucket, is
made about J-th more than the depth GH of
the shrouding. The start AB is \ of AI.
The plane BC is so inclined to AB" that it
would pass through H ; but it is made to ter- A
minate in C, in such a manner that FC is ^ths
of GH or AI. Then CD is so placed that < • 1
HD is about £th of IH.
By this construction, it follows that the area FARf ■
very nearly equal to DABC; so that the water which will
fill the space I ABC will all be contained in the bucket
when it shall come into such a position that AD is a hnri
zontal line; and the line AB will then make an angle rf
nearly 35° with the vertical, or the bucket will be 35° from
the perpendicular. If the bucket descend so much lower
that one half of the water runs out, the line AB will make
an angle of 25°, or 24° nearly, with the vertical. There-
fore the wheel, filled to the degree now mentioned, will
begin to lose water at about £th of the diameter from the
bottom, and half of the water will be discharged from the
lowest bucket, about ^th of the diameter farther down!
These situations of the discharging bucket are marked at T
and V in fig. 6. Had a greater proportion of the buckets
been filled with water when they were under the spout, the
discharge would have begun at a greater height from the
bottom, and we should lose a greater portion of the whole
fall of water. The loss by the present construction is less
than Ajth (supposing the water to be delivered into the
wheel at the very top), and may be estimated at about ^th;
for the loss is the versed sine of the angle which the radius
of the bucket makes with the vertical. The versed sine of
35° is nearly J-th of the radius (being 0-18085), or^thof
the diameter. It is evident that if only 1 of this water
were supplied to each bucket as it passes the spout, it would
have been retained for 10° more of a revolution, and the
loss of fall would have been only about T^th.
These observations serve to show, in general, that an
advantage is gained by having the buckets so capacious
that the quantity of water which each can receive as it passes
the spout may not nearly fill it. This may be accomplished
by making them of a sufficient length, that is, by making
the wheel sufficiently broad between the two shroudings.
Economy is the only objection to this practice, and it is
generally very ill placed. When the work to be performed
by the wheel is great, the addition of power gained by a
greater breadth will soon compensate for the additional ex¬
pense.
The third plane CD is not very frequent, and mill-wrights
generally content themselves with continuing the board all
the way from the elbow B to the outer edge of the wheel
at H ; and AB is generally no more than one third of the
depth AI. But CD is a very evident improvement, caus¬
ing the wheel to retain a very sensible addition to the
water. Some indeed make this addition more considerable,
by bringing BC more outward, so as to meet the rim of the
wheel at H, for instance, and making HD coincide with
the rim. But this makes the entry of the water somewhat
more difficult during the very short time that the opening
-1 1 > ■ •’ ^ - — ■ .Li- — much
of the bucket passes the spout. To facilitate this as a 
as possible, the water should get a direction from the spout,
such as will send it into the buckets in the most penect
manner. This may be obtained by delivering water throug 1
an aperture that is divided by thin plates of board or metal,
W A T E R-W O R K S.
Fig. 8.
pl ied in the proper position, as we have represented in
fy, 6. The form of bucket last mentioned, having the
vwr t concentric with the rim, is unfavourable to the ready
ad ission of the water ; whereas an oblique wrest conducts
thi vater which has missed one bucket into the next below.
he mechanical consideration of this subject also shows
us hat a deep shrouding, in order to make a capacious
bu et, isnot a good method : it does not make the buckets
retR their water any longer, and it diminishes the effec-
ultiv fall of water ; for the water received at the top of the
jdil immediately falls to the bottom of the bucket, and
tin shortens the fictitious pillar of water, which we showed
to ; the measure of the effective or useful pressure on the
wh :1: and this concurs with our former reasons for recom-
mesling as great a breadth of the wheel, and length of
bu>«ets, as economical considerations will permit.
bucket-wheel was some
tin ago executed by Mr Robert
nK$uS.s, at the cotton-mills of
Hoiton, of a construction en¬
tire’ new, but founded on a
got. principle, which is suscep-
tih.of great extension. It is re-
prefnted in fig. 8. The bucket
consts of a start AD, an arm BC, and a wrest CD, con-
cenic with the rim. But the bucket is also divided by a
pan ion LM, concentric with the sole and rim, and so placed
as make the inner and outer portions of nearly equal ca-
paoy. It is evident, without any further reasoning about
it, at this partition will enable the bucket to retain its
wair much longer. When they are filled one third, they
retn the wholq water at 18° from the bottom, and they
retm one half at 11°. They do not admit the water quite
so ;ely as buckets of the common construction ; but by
mens of the contrivance mentioned a little ago for the
spot (also the invention of Mr Burns, and furnished with
a rik-work, which raised or depressed it as the supply of
wair varied, so as at all times to employ the whole fall of
th< rater), it is found that a slow moving wheel allows one
hamf the water to get into the inner buckets, especially if
tin partition do not altogether reach the radius drawn
thiuigh the lip D of the outer bucket.
lis is a very great improvement of the bucket-wheel;
am vhen the wheel is made of a liberal breadth, so that
tht rater may be very shallow in the buckets, it seems to
car the performance as far as it can go. Mr Burns made
tin rst trial on a wheel of twenty-four feet diameter ; and
its rformance is manifestly superior to that of the wheel
whib it replaced, and which was a very good one. It has
a lalshnother valuable property : when the supply of water
is M*y scanty, a proper adjustment of the apparatus in the
sp<; will direct almost the whole of the water into the
out buckets, which, by placing it at a greater distance
fro the axis, makes a very sensibly addition to its me-
. chii cal energy.
"t ■ I o said that this principle is susceptible of considerable
oxt ision; and it is evident that two partitions will increase
dm fleet, and that it will increase with the number of par-
>4 htifis; so that when the practice now begun, of making
p P^'-wheels of iron, shall become general, and therefore
vei thin partitions are used, their number may be greatly
®c ased without any inconvenience, and it is obvious that
thi cries of partitions must greatly contribute to the stiff-
nfr and general firmness of the whole wheel.
^ iere frequently occurs a difficulty in the making of
hui et-wheels, when the half-taught mill-wright attempts
to tain the water a long time in the buckets. The water
pi into them with a difficulty which he cannot account
or md spills all about, even when the buckets are not
rootig away from the spout. This arises from the air,
Wl i must find its*way out to admit the water, but is ob-
i- xxi.
B
801
structed by the entering water, and occasions a great splut- Water-
teiing at the entry. I his may be entirely prevented by Works,
making the spout considerably narrower than the wheel,
which will leave room at the two ends of the buckets for the
escape of the air. This obstruction is vastly greater than
one would imagine, for the water drags along'with it a great
quantity of air, as is evident in the water-blast described
by many authors.
There is another and very serious obstruction to the mo¬
tion of an overshot or bucketed wheel. When it moves in
back-water, it is not only resisted by the water when it
moves more slowly than the wheel, which is very frequently
the case, but it lifts a great deal in the rising buckets. In
some particular states of back-water, the descending bucket
fills itself completely with water, and in other cases it con¬
tains a very considerable quantity, and air of common den¬
sity ; while in some rarer cases it contains less water, with
air in a condensed state. In the first case the rising bucket
must come up filled with water, which it cannot drop till
its mouth get out of the water. In the second case, part
of the water goes out before this, but the air rarefies, and
therefore there is still some water dragged or lifted up by
the wheel, by suction, as it is usually called. In the last
case there is no such back-load on the rising side of the
wheel, but (which is as detrimental to its performance) the
descending side is employed in condensing air ; and al¬
though this air aids the ascent of the rising side, it does not
aid it so much as it impedes the descending side, being (by
the form of the bucket) nearer to the vertical line drawn
through the axis.
All this may be completely prevented by a few holes
made in the start of each bucket. Air being at least 800
times rarer than water, will escape through a hole almost
thirty times faster with the same pressure. Very moderate
holes will therefore suffice for this purpose ; and the small
quantity of water which these holes discharge during the
descent of the buckets, produces a loss which is altogether
insignificant. The water which runs out of one runs into
another, so that there is only the loss of one bucket. We
have seen a wheel of only fourteen feet diameter working
in nearly three feet of back-water. It laboured prodigiously,
and brought up a great load of water, which fell from it in
abrupt dashes, rendering the motion very hobbling. When
three holes of an inch diameter were made in each bucket
(twelve feet long), the wheel laboured no more, there
was no more plunging of water from its rising side, and
its power on the machinery was increased more than one
fourth.
These practical observations may contain information
that is new even to several experienced mill-wrights. To
persons less informed they cannot fail of being useful. We
now proceed to consider the action of water thus lying in
the buckets of a wheel, and to ascertain its energy as it
may be modified by different circumstances of fall, velocity,
&c.
With respect to variations in the fall, there can be little
room for discussion. Since the active pressure is measured
by the pillar of water reaching from the horizontal plane
where it is delivered on the wheel, to the horizontal plane
where it is spilled by the wheel, it is evident that it must
be proportional to this pillar, and therefore we must deliver
it as high and retain it as long as possible.
This maxim obliges us, in the first place, to use a wheel
whose diameter is equal to the whole fall. We shall not
gain any thing by employing a larger wheel; for although
we should gain by using only that part of the circumference
where the weight will act more perpendicularly to the ra¬
dius, we shall lose more by the necessity of discharging the
water at a greater height from the bottom: for we must
suppose the buckets of both the wheels equally well con¬
structed ; in which case, the heights above the bottom where
b i
1
802
WATER-WORKS.
Fig. 9.
Water- they will discharge the water, will increase in the propor-
Works. tion 0f t]ie (liameter of the wheel. Now, that we shall lose
v--more by this than we gain by the more direct application
of the weight, is plain, without any further reasoning, by
taking the extreme case, and supposing our wheel enlarged
to such a size that the useless part below is equal to the
whole fall. In this case the water will be spilled from the
buckets as soon as it is delivered into them. All interme¬
diate cases therefore partake of the imperfection of this.
When the fall is exceedingly great, a wheel of an equal
diameter becomes enormously large and expensive, and is of
itself an unmanageable load. We have however seen wheels
of fifty-eight feet diameter, which worked extremely well;
but they are of very difficult construction, and extremely
apt to warp and go out of shape by their weight. In cases
like this, where we are unwilling to lose any part of the
force of a small stream, the best form of a bucket-wheel is
an inverted chain-pump. Instead of employing a chain-
pump of the best construction, ABCDEA (fig. 9), to raise
water through the upright pipe CB, by means
of a force applied to the upper wheel A, let
the water be delivered from a spout F, into
the upper part of a pipe BC, and it will
press down the plugs in the lower and nar¬
rower bored part of it with the full weight
of the column, and escape at the dead level
of C. This weight will urge round the wheel
A without any defalcation; and this is the
most powerful manner in which any fall of
water whatever can be applied, and it exceeds
the most perfect overshot wheel. But though
it excels all chains of buckets in economy and
in effect, it has all the other imperfections of
this kind of machinery. Though the chain
of plugs be of great strength, it has so much motion in its
joints that it needs frequent repairs; and when it breaks, it
is generally in the neighbourhood of A, on the loaded side,
and all comes down with a great crash. There is also a
loss of pov/er by the immersion of so many plugs and chains
in the w^ater; for there can be no doubt but that if the
plugs were large enough and light enough, they wTould buoy
and even draw up the plug in the narrow part at C. They
must therefox*e diminish, in all other cases, the force with
which this plug is pressed down.
The velocity of an overshot wheel is a matter of very
great nicety; and authors, both speculative and practical,
have entertained different, nay opposite, opinions on the
subject. M. Belidor, wrhom the engineers of Europe have
long been accustomed to regard as sacred authority, main¬
tains that there is a certain velocity related to that obtain¬
able by the whole fall, which will procure to an overshot
wheel the greatest performance. Desaguliers, Smeaton,
Lambert, De Parcieux, and others, maintain that there is
no such relation, and that the performance of an overshot
wheel will be the greater, as it moves more slowly by an
increase of its load of work. Belidor maintains that the
active power of water lying in a bucket-wheel of any dia¬
meter is equal to that of the impulse of the same water on
the floats of an undershot wheel when the water issues
from a sluice in the bottom of the dam. The other writers
whom we have named assert that the energy of an undershot
wheel is but one half of that of an overshot, actuated by
the same quantity of water falling from the same height.
To a manufacturing country like ours, that derives as¬
tonishing superiority, by which it more than compensates
for the impediments of heavy taxes and luxurious living,
chiefly from its machinery, in which it leaves all Europe
far behind, the decision of this question, in such a manner
as shall leave no doubt or misconception in the mind even
of an unlettered artist, must be considered as a material
service, and we think that this is easily attainable.
When any machine moves uniformly, the accelerate J
force or pressure actually exerted on the impelled point f t
the machine is in equilibrio with all the resistances wi
are exerted at the working point, with those arisino' f
friction, and those that are excited in different parts o/tT
machine by their mutual actions. This is an incontestal/
truth, and though little attended to by the mechanicians is
the foundation of all practical knowledge of machines8
Therefore, when an overshot wheel moves uniformly, with
any velocity whatever, the water is acting with its whole
weight, for gravity would accelerate its descent, if not com!
pletely balanced by some re-action ; and in this balance "ra!
vity and the re-acting part of the machine exert equal ant'
opposite pressures, and thus produce the uniform motion o
the machine. We are thus particular on this point, becaust
we observe mechanicians of the first name employing ;
mode of reasoning on the question now before us which i-
specious, and appears to prove the conclusion which they
draw, but is nevertheless contrary to true mechanical prin'
ciples. They assert that the slower a heavy body is de¬
scending (suppose in a scale suspended from an axis in
peritrochea), the more does it press on the scale, and the
more does it urge the machine round; and therefore the
slow er an overshot wheel turns, the greater is the force with
which the water urges it round, and the more work will be
done. It is very true that the machine is more forcibly
impelled, and that more work is done; but this is not be¬
cause a pound of water presses more strongly, but because
there is more water pressing on the wheel, for the spout
supplies at the same rate, and each bucket receives more
water as it passes by it.
Let us therefore examine this point by the unquestion¬
able principles of mechanics.
Let the overshot wheel A/H (fig. 5) receive the water
from a spout at the very top of the wheel; and in order
that the wheel may not be retarded by dragging into mo¬
tion the water simply laid into the uppermost bucket at A
let it be received at B, with the velocity (directed in ?
tangent to the wheel) acquired by the head of water AR
This velocity therefore must be equal to that of the rim of
the wheel. Let this be v, or let the wheel and the water
move over v inches in a second. Let the buckets be of
such dimensions, that all the water which each receives as
it passes the spout is retained till it comes to the position
R, wLere it is discharged at once. It is plain that, in place
of the separate quantities of water lying in each bucket, wi
may substitute a continued ring of water, equal to their
sum, and uniformly distributed in the space BERf/p-
This constitutes a ring of uniform thickness. Let the are
of its cross section /SB and F/be called a. We have al
ready demonstrated, that the mechanical energy with whin
this water on the circumference of the wheel urges it round
is the same with what would be exerted by the pillar brn
pressing on F^ or Acting by the lever CF. The weight
of this pillar may be expressed by a X hr, or a X PS; an('
if we call the radius CF of the wheel R, the momentum or
mechanical energy of this weight will be represented by
« x PS x R.
Now, let us suppose that this wheel is employed to raise
a weight W, which is suspended by a rope wound roun
the axis of the wheel. Let r be the radius of this ax e.
Then W x is the momentum of the work. Let the weig 1
rise with the velocity u when the rim of the wheel turns
with the velocity v, that is, let it rise u inches in a second
Since a perfect equilibrium obtains between the povor
and the work when the motion is uniform, we must ave
W x. r — a X. PS x R- Put it is evident that R: r
Therefore Wx« = «X^xPS. _ , .i
Now the performance of the machine is undou y
measured by the weight and the height to which it is rais
in a second, or by W x u. Therefore the machine is m
W A T E R-W O R K S.
803
' w
. I be possible state when aXvX PS is a maximum. But
. it plain that os X v is an invariable quantity, for it is the
c, c inches of water which the spout supplies in a second,
ff ie wheel moves fast, little water lies in each bucket, and
j small. When v is small, a is great, for the opposite
re on ; but a X v remains the same. Therefore we must
nl e PS a maximum, that is, we must deliver the water as
hj-i up as possible. But this diminishes AP, and this di-
ti ishes the velocity of the wheel; and as this has no limit,
-h proposition is demonstrated, and an overshot wheel
dr; the more work as it moves slowest.
lonvincing as this discussion must be to any mechani-
cii, we are anxious to impress the same maxim on the
irrcls of practical men, unaccustomed to mathematical
reioning of any kind. We therefore beg indulgence for
a( ng a popular view of the question, which requires no
su>i investigation.
. vTe may reason in this way. Suppose a wheel having
thry buckets, and that six cubic feet of water are deliver-
edjn a second on the top of a wheel, and discharged with-
o\ |any loss by the way at a certain height from the bot-
to of the wheel. Let this be the case whatever is the
ra: of the wheel’s motion, the buckets being of a sufficient
caiicity to hold all the water which falls into them. Let
th: wheel be employed to raise a weight of any kind, sup-
pq: water in a chain of thirty buckets, to the same height
an with the same velocity. Suppose further, that when
thrload on the rising side of the machine is one half of that
onjhe wheel, the wheel makes four turns in a minute, or
01 turn in fifteen seconds. During this time ninety cubic
fe of water have flowed into the thirty buckets, and each
ha received three cubic feet. Then each of the rising
bmets contains 1^ feet, and forty-five cubic feet are de-
livi-ed into the upper cistern during one turn of the wheel,
ai 180 cubic feet in one minute.
ow, suppose the machine so loaded, by making the
rii! g buckets more capacious, that it makes only two turns
in minute, or one turn in thirty seconds. Then each de-
’se ding bucket must contain six cubic feet of water. If
e; i bucket of the rising side contained three cubic feet, the
m ion of the machine would be the same as before. This
is point which no mechanician will controvert. When
tv: pounds are suspended to one end of a string which
pates over the pulley, and one pound to the other end, the
doient of the two pounds will be the same with that of a
fo pound weight which is employed in the same manner
to raw up two pounds. Our machine would therefore con-
tiile to make four turns in the minute, and would deliver
nu ty cubic feet during each turn, and 360 in a minute.
B i by supposition, it is making but two turns in a minute:
th must proceed from a greater load than three cubic feet
ot ater in each rising bucket. The machine must there-
fo be raising more than ninety feet of water during one
tii of the wheel, and more than 180 in the minute.
bus it appears, that if the machine be turning twice as
si as before, there is more than twice the former quantity
H' ie rising buckets, and more will be raised in a minute
by he same expenditure of power. In like manner, if the
bine go three times as slow, there must be more than
Wi limes the former quantity of water in the rising
bi <ets, and more work will be done,
nt we may go further, and assert, that the more we re-
: the machine, by loading it with more work of a simi-
!; “Rind, the greater will be its performance. This does
l‘l r®f| ^mediately appear from the present discussion: but
h: t"'ls call the first quantity of water in the rising bucket
A the water raised by four turns in a minute will be
J ^ X A = 120 A. The quantity in this bucket, when
1 machine goes twice as slow, has been shown to be
p ter than 2 A (call it 2 A -f- a1); the water raised by
M turns in a minute will be 2 X 30 X (2 A -J- x) =
120 A -f- 60 x. Now, let the machine go four times as slow,
making but one turn in a minute, the rising bucket must
now contain more than twice 2 A or more than
41 A + 2 x ; call it 4 A 2 x + y. The work done by
one turn in a minute will now be 30 x (4A4-2x4-?/'l —
120 A + 60x + 30 ?/. J
By such an induction of the work, done with any rates
of motion we choose, it is evident that the performance of
the machine increases with every diminution of its velocity
that is produced by the mere addition of a similar load of
work, or that it does the more work the slower it goes.
We have supposed the machine to be in its state of perma¬
nent uniform motion. If we consider it only in the begin¬
ning of its motion, the result is still more in favour of slow
motion: for, at the first action of the moving power, the
inertia of the machine itself consumes part of it, and it ac¬
quires its permanent speed by degrees, during which the
resistances arising from the work, friction, &c. increase, till
they exactly balance the pressure of the water; and after
this the machine accelerates no more. Now the greater
the power and the resistance arising from the work are in
proportion to the inertia of the machine, the sooner will all
arrive at its state of permanent velocity.
There is another circumstance which
impairs the performance of an overshot
wheel moving with a great velocity, viz.
the effects of the centrifugal force on
the water in the buckets. Our mill¬
wrights know well enough, that too great
velocity will throw the water out of the
buckets; but few, if any, know exactly
the diminution of power produced by
this cause. The following very simple
construction will determine this. Let
AOB (fig. 10) be an overshot wheel,
of which AB is the upright diameter,
and C is the centre. Make CF the
length of a pendulum which will make
two vibrations during one turn of the
wheel. Draw FE to the elbow of any
of the buckets. The water in this
bucket, instead of having its surface ho¬
rizontal, as NO, will have it in the di¬
rection nO perpendicular to FE very
nearly.
For the time of falling along half of FC is to that of two
vibrations of this pendulum, or to the time of a revolution
of the wheel, as the radius of a circle is to its circumfe¬
rence ; and it is well known that the time of moving along
half of AC, by the uniform action of the centrifugal force,
is to that of a revolution as the radius of a circle to its cir¬
cumference. Therefore the time of describing one half of
AC by the centrifugal force, is equal to the time of describ¬
ing one half of FC by gravity. These spaces, being simi¬
larly described in equal times, are proportional to the acce¬
lerating forces. Therefore | FC : ^ AC, or FC : AC = gra¬
vity : centrifugal force. Complete the parallelogram FCEK.
A particle at E is urged by its weight in the direction KE
with a force which may be expressed by FC or KE; and
it is urged by the centrifugal force in the direction CE,
with a force = AC or CE. By their combined action it is
urged in the direction FE. Therefore, as the surface of
standing water is always at right angles to the action of
gravity, that is, to the plumb-line, so the surface of the
water in the revolving bucket is perpendicular to the action
of the combined force FE.
Let NEO be the position of the bucket, which just holds
all the water which it received as it passed the spout when
not affected by the centrifugal force; and let NDO be its
position when it would be empty. Let the vertical lines
through D and E cut the circle described round C with the
Water-
Works.
804
W A T E R-W O R K S,
radius CF in the points H and I. Draw HC, IC, cutting
the circle A OB in L and M. Make the arch d! h equal to
AL, and the arch e's equal to AM: then C 3 and C s will
be the positions of the bucket on the revolving wheel, cor¬
responding to CDo and CEO on the wheel at rest. Wa¬
ter will begin to run out at s, and it will be all gone at 3.
The demonstration is evident.
The force which now urges the wheel is still the weight
really in the buckets; for though the water be urged in
the direction with the force FE, one of its constituents, CE,
has no tendency to impel the wheel; and KE is the only
impelling force.
It is but of late years that mills have been constructed
or attended to with that accuracy and scientific skill
which are necessary for deducing confident conclusions from
any experiments that can be made with them ; and it is
therefore no matter of wonder that the opinions of mill¬
wrights have been so different on this subject. There is a
natural wish to see a machine moving briskly; it has the
appearance of activity ; but a very slow motion alw’ays
looks as if the machine were overloaded. For this reason
mill-wrights have always yielded slowly, and with some re¬
luctance, to the repeated advices of the mathematicians:
but they have yielded, and we see them adopting maxims
of construction more agreeable to sound theory, making
their wheels of great breadth, and loading them with a
great deal of work. Euler says that the performance of
the best mill cannot exceed that of the worst above one
fifth ; but we have seen a stream of water completely ex¬
pended in driving a small flax-mill, which now drives a cot¬
ton-mill of 4000 spindles, with all its carding, roving, and
drawing machinery, besides the lathes and other engines of
the smith and carpenter’s workshops, exerting a force not
less than ten times what sufficed for the flax-mill.
The above discussion only demonstrates in general the
advantage of slow motion, but does not point out in any
degree the relation between the rate of motion and the
Avork performed, nor even the principles on which it de¬
pends. Yet this is a subject fit for a mathematical inves¬
tigation, and we would prosecute it in this place if it were
necessary for the improvement of practical mechanics. But
we have seen that there is not, in the nature of things, a
maximum of performance attached to any particular rate
of motion which should therefore be preferred. For this
reason we omit this discussion of mere speculative curio¬
sity. It is very intricate; for we must now express the
pressure on the wheel by a constant pillar of water incum¬
bent on the extremity of the horizontal arm, as we did be¬
fore when we supposed the buckets completely filled; nor
by a smaller constant pillar, corresponding to a smaller but
equal quantity lying in every bucket. Each different ve¬
locity puts a different quantity of water into the bucket as
it passes the spout, and this occasions a difference in the
place where the discharge is begun and completed. This
circumstance is some obstacle to the advantages of very-
slow motions, because it brings on the discharge sooner.
All this may indeed be expressed by a simple equation of
easy management; but the whole process of the mecha¬
nical discussion is both intricate and tedious, and the re¬
sults are so much diversified by the forms of the buckets,
that they do not afford any rule of sufficient generality to
reward our trouble. The curious reader may see a very
full investigation of this subject in two dissertations by
Elvius in the Swedish Transactions, and in the Hydrody-
namique of Professor Kastner of Gottingen, who has
abridged these dissertations of Elvius, and considerably
improved the whole investigation, and has added some com¬
parisons of his deductions with the actual performance of
some great works. These comparisons however are not
very satisfactory. There is also a very valuable paper on
this subject by Lambert, in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Berlin for the year 1775. From these dissertations and
from the Hydrodynamique of the Abbe Bossut, the read
will acquire all that theory can teach of the relation b”
tween the pressures of the power and work on the machuT
and the rates of its motion. The practical reader may rest
with confidence on the simple demonstration which we have
given, that the performance is improved by diminishing th^
velocity.
All we have to do, therefore, is to load the machine, and
thus to diminish its speed, unless other physical circum¬
stances throw obstacles in the way; but there are such ob¬
stacles. In all machines there are little inequalities of ac¬
tion that are unavoidable. In the action of a wheel and
pinion, though made with the utmost judgment and care
there are such inequalities. These increase by the changes
of form occasioned by the wearing of the machine: much
greater irregularities arise from the subsultory motions of
cranks, stampers, and other parts which move unequally or
reciprocally. A machine may be so loaded as just to be in
equilibrio with its work, in the favourable position of its
parts. When this changes into one less favourable, the
machine may stop; if not, it at least staggers, hobbles, or
works unequally. The rubbing parts bear long on each
other, with enormous pressures, and cut deep, and increase
friction. Such slow motions must therefore be avoided.
A little more velocity enables the machine to get over those
increased resistances by its inertia, or the great quantity of
motion inherent in it. Great machines possess this advan¬
tage in a superior degree, and will therefore work steadily
with a smaller velocity. These circumstances are hardly
susceptible of mathematical discussion, and our best reli¬
ance is on well-directed experience.
For this purpose, the reader will do well to peruse with
care the excellent paper by Mr Smeaton in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions for 1759. This dissertation containsa
numerous list of experiments, most judiciously contrived by
him, and executed with the accuracy and attention to the
most important circumstances which is to be observed in
all that gentleman’s performances.
It is true, these experiments were made with small mo¬
dels ; and we must not, without great caution, transfer the
results of such experiments to large works. But we may
safely transfer the laws of variation which result from a
variation of circumstances, although we must not adopt
the absolute quantities of the variations themselves. Mr
Smeaton was fully aware of the limitations to which con¬
clusions drawn from experiments on models are subject, and
has made the applications with his usual sagacity.
His general inference is, that, in smaller works, the rim
of the overshot wheel should not have a greater velocity
than three feet in a second; but that larger mills may be
allowed a greater velocity than this. Wben’every thing is
executed in the best manner, he says that the work per¬
formed will amount to fully two thirds of the power ex¬
pended ; that is, that three cubic feet of water descending
from any height will raise two to the same height.
It is not very easy to compare these deductions with ob¬
servations on large works; because there are few case
where we have good measures of the resistances opposed
by the work performed by the machine. Mills employe
for pumping water afford the best opportunities. But the
inertia of their working gear diminishes their useful per¬
formance very sensibly, because their great beams, pump-
rods, &c. have a reciprocating motion, which must be te-
stroyed and produced anew in every stroke. hav|j
examined some machines of this kind which are esteeme
good ones, and we find few of them whose performance
exceeds one half of the power expended. l h t
By comparing other mills with these, we obtain the es
information of their resistances. The comparison m
mills worked by Watt and Boulton’s steam-engines, is pe
: jjrff
I •till
Mi i
|i inti
He the
Is of:
ftpet
tftlj
Ink
tuha;
lid
I son
%
fill)
v to
tot
..Ply
|ipei
lie
itnif )l
liai
tffecl
tlatf1
t'froi1
W A T E R-W O R K S.
},ap< better measure of the resistances opposed by dif-
ferer kinds of work, because their power is very distinctly
kno' • We have been informed by one of the most emi¬
nent ngineers, that a ton and a half of water per minute
fallii one foot will grind and dress one bushel of wheat
per fur. This is equivalent to nine tons falling ten feet.
Iftn overshot wheel opposed no resistance, and only
one ‘icket were filled, the wheel would acquire the velo¬
city tie to a fall through the whole height. But when it
is jnjiis state of accelerated motion, if another bucket of
wateiis delivered into it, its motion must be checked at
the fet, by the necessity of dragging forward this water.
Iftlilbuckets fill in succession as they pass the spout, the
velouy acquired by an unresisting wheel is but half of
' that I'hich one bucket would give. In all cases, there-
bre,pe velocity is diminished by the inertia of the enter¬
ing i ter when it is simply laid into the upper buckets.
Theierformance will therefore be improved by delivering
the ' ter on the wheel with that velocity with which the
wheilis really moving. And as we cannot give the direc¬
tion ' a tangent to the wheel, the velocity with which it
is dil/ered on the wheel must be so much greater than
the tended velocity of the rim, that it shall be precisely
equao) it when it is estimated in the direction of the tan-
1 getttj Three or four inches of fall are sufficient for this
purple; and it should never be neglected, for it has a
verypnsible influence on the performance. But it is high-
auroper to give it more than this, with the view of im-
pelli i the wheel by its stroke ; for even although it were
>rop to employ part of the fall in this way (which we
hallkesently see to be very improper), we cannot pro-
curejhis impulse; because the water falls among other
watei or it strikes the boards of the wheel with such ob-
iquiithat it cannot produce any such effect.
Itls a much debated question among mill-wrights,
Hvhelfcr the diameter of the wheel should be such that
the iter will be delivered at the top of the wheel; or
so that the water is received at some distance from
II), where it will act more perpendicularly to the arm.
We prehend that the observations formerly made will de¬
cide i favour of the first practice. The space below,
ivheirthe water is discharged from the wheel, being pro-
’orti ial to the diameter of the wheel, there is an undoubt-
of ;d ki of fall attending a large wheel; and this is not com-
>ens:„'d by delivering the water at a greater distance from
i he p pendicular. We should therefore recommend the
ise (i the whole descending side, and make the diameter
)f tb!wheel no greater than the fall, till it is so much re-
i lucemhat the centrifugal force begins to produce a sen-
fiblefleet. Since the rim can hardly have a smaller ve-
ocitthan three feet per second, it is evident that a small
nii vheitimust revolve more rapidly. This made it proper to
nserrhe determination that we have given of the loss of
produced by the centrifugal force. But even with
bis view, we should employ much smaller wheels than
ire g'fierally done on small falls. Indeed the loss of water
‘t th,bottom may be diminished, by nicely fitting the arch
bic.'surrounds the wheel, so as not to allow the water to
seaji by the sides or bottom. While this improvement
emais in good order, and the wheel entire, it produces a
il'ery ‘nsible effect; but the passage widens continually by
ie faring of the wheel. A piece of wood or stone fall-
ng ' About the wheel tears off part of the shrouding or
111 llj’ an^ frosty weather frequently binds all fast. It
fierifre seldom answers expectations. We have nothing
it oi°n case t0 what we have already extracted from
jwlleaton’s Dissertation on the subject of Breast or Half
Jvefi\ot Wheels.
U re is another form of wheel by which M ater is made
0 acbn a machine by its weight, which merits consider-
ltlon It is known in this country by the name of Bar-
this
i, or
iitkii
■Mthe
fcrW/ and has been described by Desaguliers, vol. ii.
p. 4b0. It consists of an upright pipe
or trunk AB (fig. 11), communicating
with two horizontal branches BC, Be,
which have a hole Cc near their ends,’
opening in opposite directions, at right
angles to their lengths. Suppose water w
to be poured in at the top from the spout
F, it will run out by the holes C and c
with the velocity corresponding to the
depth of these holes under the surface.
The consequence of this must be, that
the arms will be pressed backwards ; for
there is no solid surface at the hole C, on which the late'
ral pressure of the water can be exerted, while it acts with
its full force on the opposite side of the arm. This unba¬
lanced pressure is equal to the weight of a column having
the orifice for its base, and twice the depth under the sur¬
face of the water in the trunk for its height. This measure
of the height may seem odd, because if the orifice were
shut, the pressure on it is the Mreight of a column reaching
from the surface. But when it is open, the water issues
with nearly the velocity acquired by falling from the sur¬
face, and the quantity of motion produced is that of a co¬
lumn of twice this length, moving with this velocity. This
is actually produced by the pressure of the fluid, and must
therefore be accompanied by an equal re-action.
Now suppose this apparatus set on the pivot E, and to
have a spindle AD above the trunk, furnished with a cy¬
lindrical bobbin D, having a rope wound round it, and
passing over a pulley G. A weight W may be suspended
there, which may balance this backward pressure. If the
weight be too small for this purpose, the retrograde motion
of the arms will wind up the cord, and raise the weight;
and thus we obtain an acting machine, employing the pres¬
sure of the water, and applicable to any purpose. A run¬
ner millstone may be put on the top of the spindle ; and we
should then produce a flour-mill of the greatest simplicity,
having neither wheel nor pinion, and subject to hardly any
wear. It is somewhat surprising, that although this was
invented at the beginning of last century, and appears to
have such advantage in point of simplicity, it has not come
into use. So little has Dr Desaguliers’s account been at¬
tended to (although it is mentioned by him as an excel¬
lent machine, and as highly instructive to the hydraulist),
that the same invention was again brought forward by a
German professor (Segner) as his own, and has been ho¬
noured by a series of elaborate disquisitions concerning
its theory and performance by Euler and by John Ber¬
noulli. Euler’s Dissertations are to be found in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Berlin, 1751, &c. and in the J\rov.
Comment. Petropol. tom. vi. Bernoulli’s are at the end of
his Hydraulics. Both these authors agree in saying that
this machine excels all other methods of employing the
force of water. Simple as it appears, its true theory, and
the best form of construction, are most abstruse and deli¬
cate subjects ; and it is not easy to give such an account of
its principles as will be understood by an ordinary reader.
We see in general that the machine must press back¬
wards ; and little investigation suffices for understanding
the intensity of this pressure when the machine is at rest.
But when it is allowed to run backwards, withdrawing it¬
self from the pressure, the intensity of it is diminished; and
if no other circumstances intervened, it might not be dif¬
ficult to say what particular pressure corresponded to any
rate of motion. Accordingly, Desaguliers, presuming on
the simplicity of the machine, affirms the pressure to be
the weight of a column which would produce a velocity of
efflux equal to the difference of the velocity of the fluid and
of the machine; and hence he deduces that its performance
will be the greatest possible when its retrograde velocity
805
Water-
Works.
806
WATER-WORKS.
Water-
Works.
is one third of the velocity acquired by falling from the
, surface, in which case it will raise ^ths of the water ex¬
pended to the same height, which is double of the perfor¬
mance of a mill acted on by the impulse of water.
But this is a very imperfect account of the operation.
When the machine (constructed exactly as we have de¬
scribed) moves round, the water which issues descends in
the vertical trunk, and then, moving along the horizontal
arms, partakes of this circular motion. This excites a cen¬
trifugal force, which is exerted against the ends of the
arms by the intervention of the fluid. The whole fluid is
subjected to this pressure (increasing for every section
across the arm in the proportion of its distance from the
axis), and every particle is pressed with the accumulated
centrifugal forces of all the sections that are nearer to the
axis. Every section therefore sustains an actual pressure
proportional to the square of its distance from the axis.
This increases the velocity of efflux, and this increases the
velocity of revolution ; and this mutual co-operation would
seem to terminate in an infinite velocity of both motions.
But, on the other hand, this circular motion must be given
anew to every particle of water as it enters the horizontal
arm. This can be done only by the motion already in the
arm, and at its expense. Thus there must be a velocity
which cannot be overpassed even by an unloaded machine.
But it is also plain, that by making the horizontal arm very
capacious, the motion of the water from the axis to the jet
may be made very slow, and much of this diminution of
circular motion prevented. Accordingly, Euler has re¬
commended a form by which this is done in the most emi¬
nent degree. His machine consists of a hollow conoidal
Fig. 12.
ring, of which fig. 12 is a section. The
part AHha is a sort of funnel-basin,
which receives the water from the spout
F, not in the direction pointing towards
the axis, but in the direction, and with the
precise velocity, of its motion. This pre¬
vents any retardation by dragging forward
the water. The water then passes down
between the outer conoid ACra and the
inner conoid HGgh along spiral channels formed by parti¬
tions soldered to both conoids. The curves of these chan¬
nels are determined by a theory which aims at the annihi¬
lation of all unnecessary and improper motions of the
water, but which is too abstruse to find a place here. The
water thus conducted arrives at the bottom CGcg. On
the outer circumference of this bottom is arranged a num¬
ber of spouts (one for each channel), which are all directed
one way in tangents to the circumference.
Adopting the common theory of the re-action of fluids,
this should be a very powerful machine, and should raise
287ths of the water expended. But if we admit the re¬
action to be equal to the force of the issuing fluid (and we
do not see how this can be refused), the machine must be
nearly twice as powerful. We therefore repeat our won¬
der that it has not been brought into use. But it appears
that no trial has been made even of a model; so that we
have no experiments to encourage an engineer to repeat
the trial Even the late author Professor Segner has not
related any thing of this kind in his Exercitationes Hydrau¬
lics, where he particularly describes the machine. Such
remissness has probably proceeded from fixing the atten¬
tion on Euler’s improved construction. It is plain that this
must be a most cumbrous mass, even in a small size re¬
quiring a prodigious vessel, and carrying an unwieldy load.
If we examine the theory which recommends this construc¬
tion, we find that the advantages, though real and sensible,
bear but a small proportion to the whole performance of
the simple machine as invented by Dr Barker. It is there¬
fore to be regretted that engineers have not attempted to
realize the first project. We be? leave to recommend it,
Fig-13.
with a further argument taken from an addition
to it by M. Mathon de la Cour, in Rozier’s JourmU
Physique, January and August 1775. This gentleman'
brings down a large pipe FEH (fig. 8 raan
13) from a reservoir, bends it upward
at H, and introduces it into two ho¬
rizontal arms DA, DB, which have
an upright spindle DK, carrying a
millstone in the style of Dr Barker’s
mill. The ingenious mechanician
will have no difficulty of contriving
a method of joining these pipes, so
as to permit a free circular motion
without losing much water. The operation of the machine
in this form is evident. The water, pressed by the column
F (Jr, fl°ws out at the holes A and B, and the unbalanced
pressure on the opposite sides of the arms forces them
round. The compendiousness and other advantages of
Fig. 14.
this construction are more striking, allowing us to make
use of the greatest fall without any increase of the size of
the machine. It undoubtedly enables us to employ a
stream of water too scanty to be employed in any other
form. The author gives the dimensions of an engine
which hei had seen at Bourg Argental. AB is 92 inches,
and its diameter 3 inches; the diameter of each orifice is
1£; FG is 21 feet; the pipe D was fitted into C by grind¬
ing, and the internal diameter of D is 2 inches.
WTen the machine was performing no work, or was un¬
loaded, and emitted water by one hole only, it made 115
turns in a minute ; thus giving a velocity of forty-six feet
per second for the hole. This is a curious fact; for the
water would issue from this hole at rest with the velocity
of 37)r. This great velocity (which was much less than the
velocity with which the water actually quitted the pipe)
was undoubtedly produced by the prodigious centrifugal
force, which was nearly seventeen times the weight of the
water in the orifice.
The empty machine weighed eighty pounds, and its
weight was half supported by the upper pressure of the
water, so that the friction of the pivots was much dimi¬
nished. It is a pity that the author has given no account
of any work done by the machine. Indeed it was only
working ventilators for a large hall. His theory by no
means embraces all its principles, nor is it well founded.
We think that the free motion round the neck of the
feeding pipe, without any loss of water or any considerable
friction, may be obtained in the following
manner. AB (fig. 14) represents a portion
of the revolving horizontal pipe, and CEec
part of the feeding pipe. The neck of the
first is turned truly cylindrical, so as to
turn easily, but without shake, in the col¬
lar Cc of the feeding pipe, and each has a'
shoulder which may support the other.
That the friction of this joint may not be
great, and the pipes destroy each other by
wearing, the horizontal pipe has an iron o h
spindle EF, fixed exactly in the axis of the joint, and rest¬
ing with its pivot F in a step of hard steel, fixed to tbe
iron bar GH, which goes across the feeding pipe, and is
firmly supported in it. This pipe is made bell-shaped*
widening below. A collar or hose of thin leather is fitted
to the inside of this pipe, and is represented (in section) by
LKMwA/. It is kept in its place by means of a metal
or wooden ring Nw, thin at the upper edge, and taper¬
shaped. This is drawn in above the leather, and stretc *
ing it, causes it to apply to the side of the pipe all around.
There can be no leakage at this joint, because the water
will press the leather to the smooth metal pipe; nor can
there be any sensible friction, because the water gets a
the edge of the leather, and the whole unbalanced pressure
W A T E R-W O R K S.
ig a the small crevice between the two metal shoulders.
XIk 3 shoulders need not touch, so that the friction must
be [sensible. We imagine that this method of tightening
a tuning joint may be used with great advantage in many
Bg6|
V; have only further to observe on this engine, that any
•ppwfection by which the passage of the water is diminish¬
ed obstructed produces a saving of water, which is in
exa proportion to the diminution of effect. The only in-
actxicy that is not thus compensated, is when the jets are
notright angles to the arms.
V: repeat our wishes, that engineers would endeavour
to l: ng this machine into use, seeing many situations where
itnf be employed to great advantage. Suppose, for in-
stare, a small supply of water from a great height applied
in t s manner to a centrifugal pump, or to a hair belt pass¬
ing fer a pulley, and dipping in the water of a deep well.
Thijwould be a hydraulic machine exceeding all others in
sim icity and durability, though inferior in effect to some
othdconstructions.
Of Undershot Wheels.
Il»| / wheels go by this name where the motion of the water
fefc is q cker than that of the partitions or boards of the wheel,
aniL therefore impels them. These are called the jloat-
hous, or floats, of an undershot wheel. The water, run-
ninjiin a mill-row, with a velocity derived from a head of
wat. or from a declivity of channel, strikes on these floats,
anch ccasions, by its deflections sidewise and upwards, a
presire on the floats sufficient for impelling the wheel.
lore are fewr points of practical mechanics that have
bee (more considered than the action of water on the floats
of s ’heel; hardly a book of mechanics being silent on the
subfct. But the generality of them, at least such as are
intdgible to persons who are not very much conversant
in dinarnical and mathematical discussion, have hardly done
anyiiingmore than copied the earliest deductions from the
sim : theory of the resistance of fluids. The consequence
hasten, that our practical knowledge is very imperfect;
and is chiefly from experience that we must still learn the
per:! mance of undershot wheels. Unfortunately this stops
thei: improvement; because those who have the only op-
por uties of making the experiments are not sufficiently
acq anted with the principles of hydraulics, and are apt to
ascr e differences in their performance to trifling nostrums
m t ir construction, or in the manner of applying the im-
puf of the water.
\; have said so much on the imperfection of our theories
oftl: impulse offluids in the article Resistance of Fluids,
thai , e need not here repeat the defects of the common
(ixpnations of the motions of undershot wheels. The part
oft > theory of the impulse of fluids which agrees best with
obs i/ation is, that the impulse is in the duplicate proportion
f t velocity with which the water strikes the float; that
1S> ip be the velocity of the stream, and u the velocity of
the >at, we shall have F, the impulse on the float when
helnkst, to its impulse f on the float moving with the velo¬
city, as to (v — u f, and/ = F x
I' S is the pressure acting on the float, and urging the
phi round its axis. The wheel must yield to this motion,
if th resistance of the work does not exert a superior pres-
surein the float in the opposite direction. By yielding,
tnebat withdraws from the impulse, and this is therefore
mnt ished. The wheel accelerates, the resistances increase,
he impulses diminish till they become an exact ba-
for the resistances. The motion now remains uniform,
5"',‘6 momentum of impulse is equal to that of resistance,
he erformance of the mill therefore is determined by this ;
and, whatever be the construction of the mill, its perform-
ance is best when the momentum of impulse is greatest.
Ibis is had by multiplying the pressure on the float by its
velocity. Therefore the momentum will be expressed by
Tj (v — uf
-b X ^ X u. But since F and v~ are constant quan¬
tities, the momentum will be proportional to w x (v u)2.
Let x represent the relative velocity. Then v~x will be
= and the momentum will be proportional to (v sc) x x2,
and will be a maximum when (v—a?) x a? is a maximum, or
when vx2—x3 is a maximum. This will be discovered by
making its fluxion = 0; that is,
2vxdx—3x2dx = 0
and 2vx-—3a;2 0,
or 2v — 3a; = 0
and 2v = 3x, and x — ; and therefore v — x, or u —
\v. That is, the velocity of the float must be one third of
the velocity of the stream. It only remains to say what is
the absolute pressure on the float thus circumstanced. Let
the velocity v be supposed to arise from the pressure of a head
of water h. The common theory teaches that the impulse on
a given surface S at rest is equal to the weight of a column
h S; put this in place of F, and ^v2 in place of (v—uf and
for u. This gives us S x fjv for the momentum. Now
the power expended is Shv, or the column Sh moving with
the velocity v. Therefore the greatest performance of an
undershot wheel is equivalent to raising /7-ths of the water
that drives it to the same height.
But this is too small an estimation; for the pressure exert¬
ed on a plane surface, situated as the float of a mill-wheel,
is considerably greater than the weight of the column S/z.
This is nearly the pressure on a surface wholly immersed
in the fluid. But when a small vein strikes a larger plane,
so as to be deflected on all sides in a thin sheet, the impulse
is almost double of this. This is in some measure the case
in a mill-wheel. When the stream strikes it, it is heaped
up along its face, and falls back again, and during this mo¬
tion it is acting with a hydrostatic pressure on it. When
the wheel dips into an open river, this accumulation is less
remarkable, because much escapes laterally ; but in a mill-
course it may be considerable.
We have considered only the action on one float, but
several generally act at once. The impulse on most of
them must be oblique, and is therefore less than when the
same stream impinges perpendicularly ; and this diminution
of impulse is, by the common theory, in the proportion of
the sine of the obliquity. For this reason it is maintained,
that the impulse of the whole stream on the lowest float-
board, which is perpendicular to the stream, is equal to the
sum of the impulses made on all the floats which then dip
into the water; or that the impulse on any oblique float is
precisely equal to the impulse which that part of the stream
would have made on the lowest float-board had it not been
interrupted. Therefore it has been recommended to make
such a number of float-boards, that when one of them is at
the bottom of the wheel, and perpendicular to the stream,
the next in succession should be just entering into the water.
But since the impulse on a float by no means annihilates all
the motion of the water, and it bends round it and hits the
one behind with its remaining force, there must be some
advantage gained by employing a greater number of floats
than this rule will permit. This is abundantly confirmed
by the experiments of Smeaton and Bossut. The latter
formed three or four suppositions of the number of floats,
and calculated the impulse on each, according to the ob¬
servations made in a course of experiments by the Aca¬
demy of Sciences, and inserted by us in the article Re¬
sistance of Fluids ; and when he summed them up, and
compared the results with his experiments, he found the
agreement very satisfactory. He deduces a general rule,
807
Water-
Works.
808
W A T E R-W O R K S.
Water- that if the velocity of the wheel is one third of that of the
AV orks. stream, and if seventy-two degrees of the circumference are
^immersed in the stream, the wheel should have thirty-six
floats. Each will dip one fifth of the radius. The velocity
being still supposed the same, there should be more or fewer
floats according as the arch is less or greater than seventy-
two degrees.
Such is the theory, and such are the circumstances which
it leaves undetermined. The accumulation of the water on
a float-board, and the force with which it may still strike
another, are too intricate to be assigned with any tolerable
precision: for such reasons we must acknowledge that the
theory of undershot wheels is still very imperfect, and that
recourse must be had to experience for their improvement.
We therefore strongly recommend the perusal of Mr Smea-
ton’s experiments on undershot wheels, contained in the
same dissertation with those which we have quoted on over¬
shot wheels. We have only to observe, that to an ordinary
reader the experiments will appear too much in favour of
undershot wheels. His aim is partly to establish a theory,
which will state the relation between their performance and
the velocity of the stream, and partly to state the relation
between the power expended and the work done. The
velocity in his experiments is always considerably below
that which a body would acquire by falling from the surface
of the head of water; or it is the velocity acquired by a
shorter fall. Therefore if we estimate the power expended
by the quantity of water multiplied by this diminished fall,
we shall make it too small, and the difference in some cases
is very great; yet, even with these concessions, it appears
that the utmost performance of an undershot wheel does
not surpass the raising one third of the expended water to
the place from which it came. It is therefore far inferior
to an overshot wheel expending the same power ; and M.
Belidor has led engineers into very mistaken maxims of
construction, by saying that overshot wheels should be given
up, even in the case of great falls, and that we should always
bring on the water from a sluice in the very bottom of the
dam, and bring it to the wheel with as great a velocity as
possible. Mr Smeaton also says, that the maximum takes
place when the velocity of the wheel is two fifths of that of
the stream, instead of two sixths according to the theory;
and this agrees with the experiments of Bossut. But he
measured the velocity by means of the quantity of water
which ran past. This must give a velocity somewhat too
small, as will appear by attending to Du Buat’s observations
on the superficial, the mean, and the bottom velocities.
The rest of his observations are most judicious, and well
adapted to the instruction of practitionei’s. We have only
to add to them the observations of De Parcieux and Bossut,
who have evinced, by very good experiments, that there is a
very sensible advantage gained by inclining the float-boards
to the radius of the wheel about twenty degrees, so that
the lowest float-board shall not be perpendicular, but have
its point turned up the stream about twenty degrees. This
inclination causes the water to heap up along the float-board,
and act by its weight. The floats should therefore be
made much broader than the vein of water interrupted by
them is deep.
Some engineers, observing the great superiority of over¬
shot wheels above undershot wheels driven by the same
expense of power, have proposed to bring the water home
to the bottom of the wheel on an even bottom, and to make
the float-board no deeper than the aperture of the sluice,
which would permit the water to run out. The wheel is
to be fitted with a close sole and sides, exactly fitted to the
end of this trough, so that if the wheel is at rest, the water
may be dammed up by the sole and float-board. It will
therefore press forward the float-board with the whole force
of the head of water. But this cannot answer; for if we
suppose no float-boards, the w7ater will flow out at the bot-
er-
i.;"
tom, propelled in the manner those persons suppose-
it will be supplied from behind, the water cotninsr «} /
from all parts of the trough to the hole below the w] | v ^
But now add the floats, and suppose the wheel in m t' ' lp"r
with the velocity that is expected. The other floats m ^
drag into motion all the water which lies between th ^
giving to the greatest part of it a motion vastly greater tlT’
it would have taken in consequence of the pressure of tli"
water behind it; and the water out of the reach of the flo f
will remain still, which it would not have done independent
ly of the float-boards above it, because it would have contri"
buted to the expense of the hole. The motion therefor"
which the wheel will acquire by this construction must be
so different from what is expected, that we can hardly sav
what it will be.
We are therefore persuaded that the best way of deliver,
ing the water on an undershot wheel in a close mill-course
is, to let it slide down a very smooth channel, without
touching the wheel till near the bottom, where the wheel
should be exactly fitted to the course; or to make the floats
exceedingly broader than the depth of the vein of water
which glides down the course, and allow it to be partly in-
tercepted by the first floats, and heap up along them, acting
by its weight after its impulse has been expended. If the
bottom of the course be an arch of a circle described with
a radius much greater than that of the wheel, the water
which slides down will be thus gradually intercepted bvthe
floats.
Attempts have been made to construct water-wheels
which receive the impulse obliquely, like the sails of a com¬
mon wind-mill. This would, in many situations, be a very
great acquisition. A very slow but deep river could in this
manner be made to drive our mills; and although much
power is lost by the obliquity of the impulse, the remainder
may be very great. It is to be regretted that these at¬
tempts have not been more zealously prosecuted; for we
have no doubt of their success in a very serviceable degree.
Engineers have been deterred, because when such wheels
are plunged in an open stream, their lateral motion is too
much impeded by the motion of the stream. We have
however seen one which was very powerful. It was a long
cylindrical frame, having a plate standing out from it about
a foot broad, and surrounding it with a very oblique spiral
like a cork-screw. This was plunged about one fourth of
its diameter (which was about twelve feet), having its axis
in the direction of the stream. By the work which it was
performing, it seemed more powerful than a common wheel
which occupied the same breadth of the river. Its length
was not less than twenty feet: it might have been twice as
much, which would have doubled its power, without occu¬
pying more of the water-way. Perhaps such a spiral, con¬
tinued to the very axis, and moving in a hollow canal
wholly filled by the stream, might be a very advantageous
way of employing a deep and slow stream.
But mills with oblique floats are most useful for employ¬
ing small streams, which can be delivered from a spout with
a great velocity. Bossut has considered these with due
attention, and ascertained the best modes of construction.
There are two wdiich have nearly equal performances.
1. The vanes being placed like those of a wind-null,
round the rim of a horizontal or vertical wheel, ®u
being made much broader than the vein of water wine
is to strike them, let the spout be so directed that the
vein may strike them perpendicularly. By this measure
it will be spread about on the vane in a thin sheet, an
exert a pressure nearly equal to twice the weight o a
column w'hose base is the orifice of the spout, and whose
height is the fall producing the velocity. Mills of t ‘S
kind are much in use in the south of Europe,
wheel is horizontal, and the vertical axis carries the mi
stone; so that the mill is of the utmost simplicity13n
t :
11
WAT
♦his its chief recommendation, for its power is greatly in-
feri< t° diat of a wheel constructed in the usual manner.
2. The vanes may be arranged round the rim of the
ffhe not like the sails of a wind-mill, but in planes in-
clini to the radii, but parallel to the axis, or to the planes
pass ? through the axis. They may either stand on a sole,
{ike ae oblique floats recommended by De Parcieux, as
3bov mentioned; or they may stand on the side of the
nnijiat pointing to the axis, but aside from it. This dis-
posil n will admit the spout to be more conveniently dis¬
pose
either for a horizontal or a vertical wheel.
shall conclude this article by describing a contri-
vanc of Mr Burns, the inventor of the double bucketed
; ,vhei' for fixing the arms of a water-wheel. It is well
know to mill-wrights that the method of fixing them by
t -mak g them to pass through the axle, weakens it exceed-
inglmnd by lodging water in the joint, soon causes it to rot
and til. They have therefore of late years put cast-iron
f tlanc.;s on the axis, to which each arm is bolted; or the
dancus are so fashioned as to form boxes, serving as mor-
t11 tises ) receive the ends of the arms. These answer the
'purple completely, but are very expensive ; and it is found
that rms of fir bolted into flanches of iron are apt to work
loost! Mr Burns has made wooden flanches of a very
i-;i curios construction, which are equally firm, and cost much
is an the iron ones.
T ? flanch consists of eight pieces, four of which com-
ne ring represented in fig. 15, meeting in the joints
l, ab, ab, directed to the centre O. The other four
are i /ered by these, and their joints are represented by
the < tied lines a/3, a/3, a/3, a/3. These two rings break
• 'joint;h such a manner that an arm MN is contained be-
i twee the two nearest joints a'b' of the one, and a'/3' of the
Jthe i The tenon formed on one end of the arm A, &c.,
w A t
809
is of a particular shape: one side, Fi°-. 15.
GF, is directed to the centre O;
the other side, BCDE, has a small
shoulder BC ; then a long side
CD directed to the centre O ; and
then a third part DE parallel to
GF, or rather diverging a little
from it, so as to make up at E
the thickness of the shoulder BC ; “
that is, a line from B to E would
be parallel to CD. This side of
the tenon fits exactly to the corre¬
sponding side of the mortise; but
the mortise is wider on the other
side, leaving a space GFKA a little narrower at FK than at
G h. These tenons and mortises are made extremely true to
the square; the pieces are put round the axle, with a few
blocks or wedges of soft wood put between them and the axle,
leaving the space empty opposite to the place of each arm, and
firmly bolted together by bolts between the arm-mortises.
The arms are then put in, and each is pressed home to the
side CDE, and a wedge HF of hard wood is then put into
the empty part of the mortise and driven home. When it
comes through the flanch and touches the axle, the part
which has come through is cut off with a thin chisel, and the
wedge is driven better home. The spaces under the ends
of the arms are now filled w ith wedges, which are driven
home from opposite sides, till the circle of the arms stands
quite perpendicular on the axle, and all is fast. It needs no
hoops to keep it together, for the wedging it up round the
axle makes the two half rings draw close on the arms, and
it cannot start at its joints till it crushes the arms. Hoops
however can do no harm when all is once wedged up, but
it would be improper to put them on before this be done.
(b. b. b.)
i: :ies
byt
>11,
1
W TERFORD, a maritime county of the province of
a-, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by the coun-
Tipperary and Kilkenny, on the east by that of
isjrd, on the south by the Atlantic, and on the west
q county of Cork. It lies between 51° 55' and 52°
iO'nith latitude, and 6° 58' and 8° 10' west longitude; ex¬
tend g twenty-eight miles in its greatest length from
lortit o south, and fifty-two in breadth from east to west,
ind mprehending an area of 736 square miles, or 471,281
icre;i)f which 353,247 are cultivated land, and 118,034
uncuvated mountain or bog. It ranks as the twenty-
(unty in superficial extent, and the twentieth in that
iff Cultivated land.
hnie time of Ptolemy the geographer, it. was inhabited
by tli tribe of the Brigantes, whose territory extended
lit romiiiarnsore Point in Wexford, westward along the coast
^ ”! Blackwater. It was afterwards peopled by the
iOesil who are supposed to have emigrated from a tribe of
sue name in Meath; and having spread themselves
'er the plain country of Tipperary, those settled in
Wat1 ord were distinguished by the name of South Desii,
m<* e others by that of North Desii. Here the Danes
S*! died a permanent settlement in the ninth century,
the city of Waterford their chief seat of govern-
and though frequently involved in wars with the
'urr< iding natives, they retained possession of the city
trict until their ’ ‘ ■* ’ 1 ^ 1-1
.ar— nmu ineir subjugation by the English, who, in
under Strongbow, stormed Waterford, took their
duel:
or Prmce prisoner, and brought the whole of
(ft |ic'es into the possession of the English. Shortly
Rob , nr^ fP^nted the greater part of the county to
1 le Poer, and the remainder, with that of Cork, then
P11 kingdom, to Milo de Cogan, two of his followers.
V(~ xxi. p
In 1210, King John erected the territory into a county,
from which the city was excepted, being under a separate
jurisdiction. In 1444 the county, together with the great¬
er part of the rest of Munster, was granted to James earl
of Desmond. A few years after, both county and city
w ere granted to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who was
then created earl of Waterford; but both lands and title
were resumed by the king under the statute 28th Hen. VIII.,
which vested the lands of absentee proprietors in the crown.
The county suffered severely in the reign of Elizabeth,
through the rebellion of the earl of Desmond, and the Spa¬
nish invasion ; and also in the wars of 1641, during the first
years of which, its possession was the subject of continued
sanguinary contention between the English and Irish forces,
until it was ultimately reduced under the authority of the
English parliament by Cromwell. During the war of the
Revolution, it took part with King James, and was reduced
by King William’s forces under General Kirk, after the
decisive battle of the Boyne.
The general character of the county is mountainous.
The Knockmeledown ridge, the highest point of which is
2598 feet above the sea-level, ranges along its north-west¬
ern boundary, forming the line of demarcation on the side
of Tipperary. The Cummeragh and Monevolagh Moun¬
tains lie in a direction nearly north and south from the
east of Clonmel to Dungarvan; their loftiest summit,
Knockanafrian, is 2469 feet high. On several of the sum¬
mits of these mountains are large piles of stones, apparent¬
ly of artificial construction, but of unknown origin. To
the south of Dungarvan are the Drum Mountains, much
low er than the preceding, but rugged and difficult of pass¬
age. They form the division betw een two of the baronies.
The south-eastern district is low, of alluvial formation, and
5 K
810
WATERFORD.
Water- forms a kind of peninsula, cut off from the remainder of
0L‘^, ^e county by a line of marshy land, which has the appear- Lismore are raised at an average of ‘^SOoTons
ance of having been once under water. There are no large 1 T .
rivers in the interior. The Suir forms its northern boun-
terior from east to west. Slates from the quarries sontl, r
Lismore are raised at. an averao-c nf yQn7w_ uin°i
dary, from beyond Clonmel, to the estuary formed by its
junction with the combined waters of the Barrow and Nore.
Vessels of 800 tons come up to the city of Waterford,
where they can discharge their cargoes at the quay; barks
and large lighters can proceed upwards to Carrick-on-Suir,
and boats of fifty tons to Clonmel. The Black water, called
also the Owenduff and Owenmore, “ the black and the
great river,” after flowing through the western part of the
county, forms part of the boundary on the side of Cork
county, and discharges itself into Youghal harbour. It is
navigable for vessels under 100 tons to its confluence with
the Bride, a smaller stream which joins it from the west.
The Brickey empties itself into Dungarvan harbour. The
Neir, in the west of the county, is a small tributary of the
Suir. There are no lakes, except a few of very small size
in the Cummeragh Mountains, the largest, called Cumme-
loughs, are but six or eight acres in extent, the others,
called Stilloughs, smaller. A tract at Ballyscanlan,. in
Middlethird barony, covered with water during winter,
subsides into a small lake in the dry season. The county
enjoys the benefit of an extensive line of sea-coast. Two
miles east of the city is the Little Island, of triangular
shape; after which the coast takes a southern direction,
forming the western side of Waterford harbour, at the en¬
trance of which is the pier harbour of Dunmore, with a light¬
house exhibiting a fixed light, red towards the sea and
bright inland. The harbour, in which vessels of fifteen
feet draught may lie afloat, covers a cove of six acres.
West of Dunmore are the small islands of Fileskirt.
Farther westward, between Brownstown and Newtown-
heads, is Tramore Bay, notorious for shipwrecks. A ves¬
sel caught in it finds it almost impossible to work out by
plying to windward. The ground is so foul and rocky,
that cables are frequently cut and ships lost. The north¬
west is the only part which affords a possibility of escape,
the east being so shoal and rocky that vessels driven on
that side are involved in terrible breakers at a considerable
distance from shore. Proceeding westward are the small
grassy rocks called the Islands of Jeane, and the inlets
called Bonmahon, Clonea, and Rineshark. Dungarvan
harbour affords shelter to vessels of ten feet water. Ard¬
more Bay and Whiting Bay are still farther west. You¬
ghal harbour forms the western boundary of the county.
Off the coast, and extending along that of the southern
part of the adjoining county of Wexford, is the Nymph
Bank, long looked upon as an inexhaustible source of sup¬
ply of round fish, but, according to late reports, much less
productive than had been represented ; the fish not being
abundant, and of a poorer description than those taken on
other banks.
The eastern part of the county consists of clay-slate, in¬
terrupted by small patches of primitive limestone, suscep¬
tible of a high polish, and by conglomerate and basalt,
which latter appears in a columnar form on the cliffs over
the sea. A copper mine at Knockmahon has been worked
for several years, with good profit, by the Mining Company
of Ireland. The ore is sent in a crude state to Swansea to
be smelted. The average annual produce is stated at 4500
tons, valued at L.40,000. Lead was formerly raised in
large quantities in the same district. The veins in the hill
of Cruach and on the shore at Kilmurrin are said to have
given out a large quantity of silver. The western part of
the county is old conglomerate, with red, purple, green,
and gray clay-slate. It is bordered in many parts by a
band of millstone grit and white sandstone, which also con¬
stitutes the fringe of a broad bed of carbonated or moun¬
tain limestone, that passes through a great part of the in¬
value L.4200. Mineral veins are also found in thisH' '
trict. At Ardmore an iron mine was formerly wro K
from which steel of superior quality was said to have hr!’
fabricated. 1 he sandstone in many places is wrought im
millstones. Ochres, boles, and clays, fit for the nfanuf °
ture of earthenware, are found in various places aC"
The population of the county, according to calculations
made at different periods, was as follows:
Date. Authority.
1760 De Burgo 
Number of Inhabitants.
1792 Beaufort 75,000
*812 Parliamentary census 119,457
1821 DiRo 127,842
1831
■Ditto..... 148,077
According to the last of these returns, there was one in-
habitant to every 3f th acres of the entire surface, and the
same to every 24d acres of cultivated land. The popula¬
tion, according to the return of the Commissioners of Pub"
lie Instruction in 1834, which, being stated in dioceses in-
stead of counties, cannot be considered numerically ac¬
curate, gives a total population of 182,018; of which num¬
ber the members of the established church were 8391
the Protestant dissenters 861, and the Roman Catholics
172,766. The proportion of Roman Catholics to Protes¬
tants, including Protestant dissenters, is as 1 to 0'05352,or
as 1 toy^th nearly; or the Protestants are to the Roman
Catholics as 1 to 18’67. The number of children receiving
instruction in public schools was as follows, according to
the returns under the population act in 1821, those ofthe
Commissioners of Education in 1824-6, of the Commis¬
sioners of Public Instruction in 1834, and of the Board of
National Education in 1836-7-8-9.
Date. Males. Females.
1821 6088 2119.,
1824-6 9476 5524.,
1834 7200 4100.,
1836- 7 3498 1397.,
1837- 8 2901 1774.,
1838- 9 3510 2644.,
Sex not
ascertained.
.182.
.300.
Total.
. 8,207
.15,121
.11,600
. 4,895
. 4.675
. 6,154
According to the return of 1824-6, in which only the
religious persuasion of the people is noticed, the numbers
are, of the established church, 1373; dissenters, 100;Ro¬
man Catholics, 13,662; religious persuasion not ascertain¬
ed, 46. Out ofthe total number of 284 schools, stated in
the same return, 22, having 1363 pupils, were maintained
wholly by grants of public money; 32, having 3548 pu¬
pils, by voluntary contribution ; the remaining 230 scbools,
containing 10,271 pupils, were maintained wholly by the
fees paid by the relatives of the children.
The county is divided into the eight baronies of Cosh-
bride, Coshmore, Decies within Drum, Denies without
Drum, Gualtier, Glenaheiry, Middlethird, and Uppedhird,
which are subdivided into seventy-four parishes, thirty-
three in the diocese of Waterford, and forty-one in that of
Lismore ; the cathedrals of each of these being in the cities
of the same name with the respective dioceses. Itsent
eight members to the Irish parliament, two for the county,
and two each for the city of Waterford and the boroughs
of Dungarvan, Lismore, and Tallow. By the arrange¬
ments at the time of the union, the number was reduce
to four, two for the county, and one each for Waterfor
city and Dungarvan. The reform act for Ireland ad e
one member to the city. The constituency of the county
under the act of 1829, by which the forty-shilling "W-
holders were disfranchised, and at other periods since t
passing of the reform act in 1832, was as follows;
I 4
it
WATERFORD.
1831.
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
.1422
.1452
.1448
.1481
.1492
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
.1478
.1478
.1478
1200
1,2 number of electors is, according to the last of these
retuis, to that of the number of inhabitants, as 1 to 12.3,
and i’ that of families of six individuals each, as 1 to 20.
Xhtmunty is included in the Leinster circuit. The as-
size ire held in the city of Waterford, where the county
plL is fixed. General sessions of the peace are held
founimes in the year in that city; twice a year at Dun-
gano, and twice at Lismore; in each of which towns there
are tcourt-house and a bridewell. The local government
is vi'.ed in a lieutenant, fourteen deputy-lieutenants, fifty-
nincfther unpaid magistrates, and a stipendiary magistrate.
Thuonstabulary force consists of a county inspector, five
sub jspectors, six head constables, and 150 constables and
sub bnstables. The county infirmary and the lunatic
asyl u for the county and city are in Waterford city,
whc also is a fever hospital; and there are others in Dun-
ganp, Lismore, and Tallow. There are twelve dispen-
sarii] in various towns. Waterford, Dungarvan, and Lis-
mon have been fixed on as sites for the workhouses of
pooiiaw unions.
Ubugh the land is in general coarse, there is a consi¬
derate tract of rich soil, particularly in the south-eastern
quau r; and the mountainous districts afford good pas-
tura- for cattle. The estates are in general very large :
thatiif the duke of Devonshire is the most extensive.
Tillie has increased very rapidly within the present cen¬
tury In 1779, not one thirtieth part was under the plough.
Atifsent, nearly two thirds are under tillage. The change
has fsen in some degree from the custom of dividing
farn: When the eldest daughter of a farmer married,
the tther divided the land with his son-in-law; the next
dauuter got half of his remaining share for her portion, the
syst i of subdivision being continued as long as there were
any laughters to be thus provided for. The sons were left
to sift for themselves as best they could. But the atten-
tioiutterly paid to introduce the most approved agricul-
turmiractices, has contributed in a much greater degree
to t ls effect. The lands of resident gentry are now spe-
cimifi worthy of imitation. The settlement of the reli-
gioujfraternity of St Bernard la Trappe, near Cappoquin,
the Timbers of which devote much attention to the re¬
claim ion and improvement of a large mountainous tract
granted to them for their residence, has still further sti¬
mulated the spirit of industrious exertion, and given it a
Judicious direction. Wheat is largely raised, clover very
generally grown ; but other kinds of green crops are not yet
so general as in England. Lime for manure is abundant
in the western parts, and large quantities of coralline sea-
sand are carried into the interior for the same purpose.
The fences are mostly banks of earth topped with furze in
the flat country, and dry stone walls in the mountainous
paits. I he best breeds of cattle are to be seen on the pas¬
tures. Sheep are not a common stock ; swine, raised chiefly
for export, are very numerous, as are goats in the higher
lands. Waterford is the principal dairy county in the
island. The chief produce of these farms is butter, the
export of which has increased considerably for several
years. Very little cheese is made. The want of timber,
both for ornamental and useful purposes, is much felt; but
the deficiency is yearly diminished by the increased atten¬
tion to plantations, ihere is but little bog. The exten¬
sive range of sea-coast, indented by numerous creeks and
inlets, holds out great inducements for profitable employ¬
ment in the fisheries. During the ten years’ continuance
of the system of bounties, and of grants and loans tor the
building and repairs of boats and the purchase of fishing
gear, adopted by the Board of Fisheries instituted in 1819,
the sea-fishery was carried on with much spirit, and caused
a large circulation of money, particularly in Dungarvan,
the centre of the system. Some working fishermen accu¬
mulated capital; some became boat-owners, and some
boat-owners masters of trading vessels. But on the termi¬
nation of the bounties and grants, the business declined
rapidly. The boats fell into decay, and were laid up.
Those fishermen who had no land, but depended wholly on
the success of their occupation at sea, were reduced to po¬
verty, and, in seasons when the fishery wholly failed, to a
state of utter destitution. Yet the market is so far from
being overstocked, that the quantity of fish taken on the
coast never equals the demand in the local markets, 8co-
tish and Newfoundland fish being sold in very large quan¬
tities. A company formed in Waterford between thirty
and forty years ago, for supplying the English markets
with round fish from the Nymph Bank by well-boats,
failed, owing, it is alleged, to mismanagement. The follow¬
ing summary exhibits the number of vessels employed
in the last year in which the bounty and loan system was
in operation, and in that when a second board of commis¬
sioners repeated the inquiries as to the state of the Irish
fisheries.
811
Water¬
ford.
830.
836.
Decked Vessels.
Number. Tonnage.
....69 1239..
Half-decked. Open Sail-boats. Row-boats. Number of
Number. Tonnage. Number. Number. Fishermen.
....64 960 40 270 1983
..101 1668 52 266 2516
H
p|v coasts abound with shell-fish. Salmon, and other
°f river-fish, are taken in large numbers in the
Ulai tvater and Suir, and in the numerous smaller streams.
C rick-on-Suir was once the centre of a very exten¬
sive oollen manufacture, which branched out into most
P^jOf this county. It has been for many years almost
ext! t, the supply at present serving only for the do-
n*®811 consumption of the peasantry. Linen is made in
the rm-houses, but only for family use. A cotton fac-
toty as been established at Portlaw, to the west of Wa-
tem 1 city, which gives employment to a large number
0 'j rkers. There are distilleries, breweries, and paper-
ni1*1 Hour is also extensively manufactured, and largely
e*Pj.ed. Some glass is made at Waterford, and coarse
Hjnware in several places; but Waterford is not a
acturing county. The inland trade chiefly centres
® derford city, which is also a good emporium for the
exP' - of grain and salted provisions. Some business in
both departments is also done at Dungarvan and Youghal.
The exports and imports in 1838 were stated in a parlia¬
mentary return to be,—
Exports. Value. Imports. Value.
Tons. £. Tons. £.
Waterford 118,000....2,060,000....130,000....1,572,000
Dungarvan 7,500 75,000 11,000 15,000
Total 125,500 2,135,000 141,000 1,587,000
An act has passed for a railroad from Waterford city, to
proceed along the northern side of the Suir, by Carrick-on-
Suir and Clonmel, to join the great southern line near
Cahir. There are six banking establishments in the county;
of which one is a branch of the Bank of Ireland, two of the
Provincial Bank, and the other three of the National Bank.
There are eight loan companies, established under a late
act, in different places. The amount of the loans in the
I
812
Water¬
ford.
WATERFORD.
borrowers’ hands at the close of 1839 was L.4011, and the
number of borrowers during the year, 3482.
Among the mansions of the nobility and gentry of large
estates, the most remarkable are Lismore Castle, the seat
of the duke of Devonshire, and Curraghmore, that of the
marquis of Waterford. The habitations, dress, and manners
of the peasantry in the rural districts, resemble those simi¬
larly circumstanced in other parts of the province, being
distinguished chiefly by the difference of their modes of
life, as residing on the sea-coast, the rich pasture-lands,
the mountain districts, or the vicinity of a populous town.
The county contains numerous remains of ancient struc¬
tures. A pillar-tower at Ardmore is in a state of high pre¬
servation. Near the same place is a large rath, and seve¬
ral others in various parts. The remains of small circular
intrenchments, mostly at short distances from each other,
can. also be traced. Cromlechs are also numerous, and some
very large. The names of upwards of twenty monastic
establishments have been preserved, but the sites of few of
them are now discernible. The same may be said of the
numerous castles erected in many parts of this county,
long the theatre of petty wars. Natural caves are to be
seen, both on the coast and in the interior, as well as others
which have every appearance of owing their origin to hu¬
man ingenuity. There are several mineral springs, chiefly
chalybeate.
ihe city of Waterford is situate on the northern verge
of the county, and on the southern bank of the Suir, about
twenty miles from the mouth of the harbour. It was
founded by the Danes, according to some authorities, as
early as the middle of the second century, but, as stated by
others with more probability, in the ninth century. It
continued in the possession of these settlers, wholly inde¬
pendent of the surrounding native princes, and generally
at variance with them, till the arrival of the English under
Strongbow, who took it by storm, and was in the act of
consummating his victory by an indiscriminate massacre of
the inhabitants, when he was prevented by the interference
of'his ally and protector Dermott M‘Murrough, king of Lein¬
ster, whose daughter Eva he soon after married in the city.
Henry II. afterwards landed here, and from that period it
long continued to be one of the principal places of com¬
munication with England, and a considerable mart for fo¬
reign trade. King John, when earl of Morton, landed here
in 1183. On his accession to the throne, he granted its first
charter, and again visited the city the year after. In the
next century it suffered twice by conflagrations, the lat¬
ter time so severely, that it remained several years in a de¬
cayed state. In 1368, the citizens, under the command of
the mayor, suffered a severe defeat from the Poers and
O’DriscolIs. At the close of the same century, Richard
II. landed here on both the occasions on which he visited
this part of his dominions. Money was coined here by the
Danes, and a mint established by John ; a privilege con¬
firmed by Edward IV. when he abolished all the mints in
Ireland^ except those of this city, Dublin, and Drogheda.
Waterford signalized itself by its steady attachment to
the royal interests during the attempts of Simnel and War-
beck, in the reign of Henry VII. The latter of these pre¬
tenders laid siege to it, but was forced to withdraw his
forces, in commemoration of which the city obtained its
motto, “ Urbs intacta manet.” At the close of the long-
continued warfare which had devastated Ireland during the
latter part of Elizabeth’s reign, the citizens objected to
having James proclaimed, and refused admission to Lord
Mountjoy, then lord-deputy, and his forces, until com¬
pelled by his threats to submit. In the wars of J641, they
sided with the confederate Catholics, and after several
vicissitudes of fortune, ultimately capitulated to the par¬
liamentary army under Ireton. In the subsequent war in
1688, they took part with King James, who here embarked
for France after his defeat at the Boyne; and the cit
shortly afterwards surrendered, upon terms,’to Kin^W?
liam’s forces under General Kirk. 8 VVl1'
The walls of the Danish city enclosed a triansniW „
of about fifteen acres. The only remaining vesti^f
them is a round tower, built by one of the Danish f °
reigns, and from him named Reginald’s Tower whichT"
been rebuilt from its ruins, and is now occupied as h ^
rack. The county of the city extends along the river frl*
Carrick-on-Suir to Passage, and on the north side bevnmt
the river into Kilkenny county. This portion is connects
with the mam body by a wooden bridge. It comprehend
an area of 9683 acres, including 822 on which the cit
stands, and contains twelve parishes, three of which are
rural. The corporation consists of a mayor, who has
sword borne before him, two sheriffs, eighteen aldermen
and eighteen assistants, with a recorder and inferior civic
officers. The city returns two members to the imperial
parliament. The constituency, since the passing of the
reform act, consists of the resident freemen, the L.10 free-
holders, the L.20 and L. 10 leaseholders for a term of years
and the 40 shilling freeholders during the continuance of
the existing lives. The numbers registered have been
In 1833 1241 In 1837  1473’
...1834 1241 ...1838 ”’1473
-. 1835 1241 ...1839  1220
... 1836 1473
The municipal courts are, a court of record twice in the
week; a civil bill court, for debts from forty shillings to ten
pounds ; a court of conscience, for debts under forty shil¬
lings; the mayor’s court, for disputes as to servants’wages;
and a court leet and court of admiralty, both now obso¬
lete. The city business is transacted in the town-hall, an
elegant modern building. Besides the county court-house
and prison already noticed, there is a city gaol, and a pe¬
nitentiary or house of correction. The ecclesiastical build¬
ings are, the cathedral, founded in 1076, but since taken
down and rebuilt; several parochial churches, Roman Ca¬
tholic chapels, and dissenting meeting-houses. There are
several endowed schools, the principal of which are the
blue-coat schools for boys and girls. Among the chari¬
table institutions are, the Widows’ Houses; the Leper House,
now a general infirmary ; the Hospital of the Holy Ghost;
the Fever Hospital, the first founded in Ireland; and the
District Lunatic Asylum, confined to the county and city,
and maintaining at present 101 patients, of whom eighteen
are idiots, and eighty-three lunatics, of whom thirty-four
are supposed to be curable. The literary and scientific
institutions are, the Waterford Institution, with a library
and museum; the Literary and Scientific Society, where
lectures are delivered; an Agricultural, and a Horticul¬
tural Society. There are cattle-markets twice in the week)
and chartered fairs three times in the year.
The quay, which extends along the bank of the river
from one end of the town to the other, and from which
most of the other streets branch out, is the most ornament¬
ed part of the city. The custom-house is in its centre.
Waterford derives its wealth and importance from its com¬
merce, which is now chiefly with Great Britain. So early
as the commencement of last century, it adopted the libe¬
ral policy of admitting foreign traders to the freedom ot the
city, which induced several intelligent merchants from the
continent to settle here. The exports are mostly cattle,
sheep, pigs, grain, flour, and salted and dried provisions.
Mercantile affairs are superintended by the Chamber of
Commerce, incorporated in 1815, and by the Board of Har¬
bour Commissioners, established by act of parliament in
4:
1816 for the improvement of the port. Under their ma¬
nagement a dock-yard has been constructed, capable of
receiving vessels of very large dimensions, and the main pas¬
sages of the river have been cleansed and deepened. fne
liiil
pter
.11
first
b&u
111
Mop]
-it
W A T
corequence has been a rapid and extensive increase of
traSteamers of the first class have for several years
pli regularly to Liverpool and Bristol.
’ ie population of the county of the city amounted in
to 28,679, in 1831 to 28,821, and in 1834 to 29,352.
y
18'
Ofthe last-named number, 4427 were members of the
aftilished church, 429 Protestant dissenters, and 24,433
Rc an Catholics. The population of the other towns con-
taijng more than 2000 souls each, was, in 1831, Dungar-
van6519; Tallow, 2998; Lismore, 2894; Carrickbeg (a
sulirb of Carrick-on-Suir), 2704 ; Cappoquin, 2289 ; and
Tmore, 2224. (c. p.)
ATERLAND, an island in the South Pacific Ocean,
fevered by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616. Long. 149.
30)W. Lat. 14. 46. S.
ATERLAND, Daniel, D. D., a learned English di-
vir who greatly distinguished himself in theological con-
trcersies, was born in 1683, at Wasely in Lincolnshire, of
wh'h place his father was rector. He had his academical
leadngat Magdalen College, Cambridge, where he drew up
a ifcful tract, which went through several editions, entitled
Alice to a Young Student, with a Method of Study for
thnirst four years. In 1713 he became master of the col-
lep was soon after appointed chaplain to George I., and
at ie time of his death, in 1740, was canon of Windsor,
andeacon of Middlesex, and vicar of Twickenham. A
cdlictive edition of his Works, with a review of his life and
wrings, was published by Bishop Van Mildert. Oxford,
181, 10 vols. 8vo. A general index, forming the eleventh
(vo:me, was added in 1828.
ATERLOO, a village of Belgium, ten miles south of
Brlsels, with about 1600 inhabitants. Its name has been
reihred famous by the battle which decided the fate of
Natleon. For an account of that battle, see the article
W|.
ATFORD, a market-town of the county of Hertford,
m lie hundred of Caisho, miles from London. It
stafils on the river Colne, a few miles from its source at
Otjrpool. It is well built and pleasantly situated, consist-
ingrincipally of one street. There is a good market on
Sairday, and two annual fairs are held. The chief trade
is Inning silk. The population amounted in 1821 to
47:';, and in 1831 to 5293; but this estimate includes the
inlbitants of three hamlets which form a portion of the
paili, though not of the town.
ATLINGTON, an irregularly built market-town of
thiRounty of Oxford, in the hundred of Pirton, forty-three
mi ; from London. It stands in a hilly district, called the
Criern Hills, has an endowed school, and a market on
Sairday, with two annual fairs. The population amount-
edti 1821 to 1479, and in 1831 to 1833.
ATSON, Robert, LL. D., an elegant historian, was
bo at St Andrews, about the year 1730. He was the
so 6f an apothecary of that place, who was also a brewer.
Hijing gone through the usual course of languages and
pb 'sophy at the school and university of his native
Cl1 and also entered on the study of divinity, a de-
sin of being acquainted with a larger circle of literati,
an of improving himself in every branch of knowledge,
called him, first to the university of Glasgow, and after-
wCs to that of Edinburgh. The period of theological
stiles at the universities of Scotland is four years; but
dmig that period, young men of ingenious minds find
SU!:ient leisure to carry on and advance the pursuits of
ral knowledge. Mr Watson pursued his studies with
•fur. Few men ever studied more constantly. It was
with him to study eight hours every day; and this
rul-lie observed during the whole course of his life. An
ac aintance with the polite writers of England, after the
un n of the two kingdoms, became general in Scotland;
an in Watson’s younger years, an emulation began to
WAT
prevail of writing pure and elegant English. He ap¬
plied himself with great industry to the principles of phi-'
losophical or universal grammar; and by a combination of
these with the authority of the best English writers, form¬
ed a course of lectures on style or language. He proceed¬
ed to the study of rhetoric or eloquence, the principles of
which he endeavoured to trace to the nature of the human
mind. He delivered a course of lectures in Edinburgh on
these subjects, and met with the countenance, approbation,
and friendship of Lord Kames, Mr Hume, with other men
of genius and learning.
At this time he had become a licentiate ; and a vacancy
having happened in one of the churches of St Andrews, he
offered himself a candidate for that living, but was disap¬
pointed. Soon after he was appointed professor of logic;
and he also obtained a patent from the crown, constituting
him professor of rhetoric and belles lettres. The study of
logic in St Andrews, as in most other places, was at this
time confined to syllogisms, modes, and figures. Watson,
whose mind had been opened by conversation, and by
reading the writings of the wits that had begun to flourish
in the Scotish capital, prepared and read to his students a
course of metaphysics and logics on the most enlightened
plan ; in which he analysed the powers of the mind, and
entered deeply into the nature of the different species of
evidence of truth or knowledge. By his History of the
Reign of Philip II. King of Spain, published at London in
1777, in 2 vols. 4to, Dr Watson attained in his lifetime a
considerable degree of celebrity; and his History of the
Reign of Philip III., published after his death, added to his
fame. Of this last performance, however, he has only com¬
pleted the first four books; the two last were written by
Dr Thomson, at the desire of the guardians of his children.
Lond. 1783, 4to.
Dr Watson was appointed principal of United College
on the death of Dr Tulideph, but he only enjoyed this pre¬
ferment for a few years. He married a lady of singular
beauty and virtue, the daughter of Dr Shaw, professor of
divinity in St Mary’s College. By this lady he had five
daughters, who survived him. He died in the year 1780.
Watson, Richard, Bishop of Landaff, celebrated as an
able theologian, and as a professor of chemistry, was born
in August 1737, at Heversham near Kendal, in Westmore¬
land. His ancestors had been farmers of their own estates
for several generations; and his father had for forty years
been master of the free school at Heversham, but was be¬
come infirm, and had resigned it a little before his birth.
He was however educated at this school, and continued
there till 1754, when he was sent as a sizer to Trinity Col¬
lege, Cambridge. He applied without intermission to his
studies, and in 1757 he obtained a scholarship, with parti¬
cular expressions of approbation from Dr Smith, who was
then master. He had made it a constant practice in his
mathematical pursuits, to think over the demonstration of
every proposition that he studied, in his solitary walks.; a
habit which must certainly have been very conducive to the
improvement of geometrical talent, though it could scarcely
be adopted without great labour by those who follow the
algebraical mode of analysis in all their investigations. After
this period he passed many hours daily, for a considerable
portion of his life, in the occupation of instructing others,
without much enlarging the scale of his own information,
though certainly not without adding to the solidity and pre¬
cision of his knowledge of the most important elementary
truths of science ; and when he graduated in 1759, he was
classed as the second wrangler, which he seems to have
considered, not without reason, as the place of honour for
the year, the senior wrangler, who was a Johnian, having,
as it was generally believed, been unfairly preferred to him.
In October 1760, he became a fellow of Trinity, and in
November, assistant tutor of the college. Having taken
813
Watson.
814
WAT
W A T
^Watson, his degree of M. A. in 1762, he was soon afterwards made
s'“—v'——^ moderator of the scholastic exercises of the university, an
arduous and honourable office, which he also filled in several
subsequent years.
In 1764, he undertook a journey to Paris, though with¬
out being able to speak the language, in order to take
charge of his young friend and pupil Mr Luther, who re¬
turned to England with him soon after. He was elected
in the same year professor of chemistry, though he had
never devoted any portion of his attention to that science;
but he soon rendered himself sufficiently master of all that
was then known of the science, to give a very popular course
of lectures on the subject about a year after his election,
with the assistance of an operator whom he had brought
from Paris, and to become the author of a series of essays,
which served for many years as the most agreeable intro¬
duction to the elementary doctrines and the ordinary pro¬
cesses of chemistry. He obtained from the government,
by proper representations, a salary of L.1Q0 a year for him¬
self, and for all future professors. He also paid some atten¬
tion to theoretical and practical anatomy, as having some
relation to the science of chemistry. In 1767, he became
one of the principal tutors of Trinity College ; in 1769, he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in October
1771, he unexpectedly obtained the important and lucrative
appointment of regius professor of divinity, upon the
premature death of Dr Rutherforth, and in that capacity
he held the rectory of Somersham in Huntingdonshire.
He had been little accustomed to the study of the divinity
of the schools, or even of the fathers; but his eloquence
and ingenuity supplied the want of theological learning,
though he gave some offence to his more orthodox col¬
leagues, by confining his arguments more strictly to the
text of the scripture than they thought perfectly consistent
with the duty of a champion of the church of England,
which they considered to be the description of a professor
of divinity in an English university. He attracted, how¬
ever, as long as he officiated in person, audiences as nume¬
rous, to the exercises in the schools at which he presided,
as had attended his chemical lectures.
He married, in December 1773, Miss Wilson of Dallam
Tower in Westmoreland. Their union continued uninter¬
rupted for more than forty years. In 1774 he obtained a
prebend of Ely, in exchange for a rectory in Wales, which
the duke of Grafton had procured for him; and he became
archdeacon of Ely in January 1780: in the same year
Bishop Keene presented him with the rectory of Northwold
in Norfolk; and in 1782, his pupil, the duke of Rutland,
gave him the rectory of Knaptoft in Leicestershire: the
same interest obtained him also from Lord Shelburne the
bishopric of Landaff. Here his episcopal preferment rested.
He generally joined the politics of the opposition, and
especially on the question of the unlimited regency ; but
he was too independent in his sentiments to become a very
useful member of any administration ; and he retired, before
the end of the year 1789, without books, and with some¬
what more of disgust than he ought in justice to have
felt, to an estate which he had bought at Calgarth, on the
banks of Winandermere, and occupied himself entirely,
besides the education of his family, in agricultural improve¬
ments, especially in planting, for which he received a me¬
dal from the Society of Arts in 1789. His pupil, Mr
Luther of Ongar in Essex, had died in 1786, and left him
an estate, which he afterwards sold for something more than
L.20,000.
He considered as one of the best practical results of his
chemical studies, the suggestion which he made to the duke
of Richmond, then master of the ordnance, respecting the
preparation of charcoal for gunpowder, by burning the
wood in close vessels, which, it seems, very materially im¬
proved the quality of the powder.
He had the liberality to confer, in 1804, a small liv'
as a reward for literary merit only, on Mr DaviPe 7’,
author of the Celtic Researches. The next year h’ ^
plied with success to the duke of York for the promot‘P"
of his son, who had then the rank of a major; and his
highness speedily complied with his solicitation, as a person!
favour only, without waiting for any ministerial influence
His health had been seriously impaired by an i]ln ’
which attacked him in 1781, and which his friends attr'S
buted, though perhaps without sufficient reason, to excessive
study. In October 1809, he had a slight paralytic affection
and another in 1811; but it was in 1813 that his last illness
might be said to begin, and he sunk gradually till the 4th nf
July 1816. The elder of his two sons was in the army the
younger in the church: he left also several daughters
His writings are as miscellaneous as they are numerous'
but none of them are bulky.
1. Institutionurn Chemicarum pars Metallurgica. Cambr. 1768
8vo. Repr. Ess. vol. v.
2. Experiments and Observations on the Solution of Salts
Phil. 1 rans. 1770, p. 325, Ess. v. Especially on the specific
gravities of salts and their solutions. 3. Remarks on the Effects
of Cold in February 1771. Phil. Trans. 1771, p. 213, Ess v
With some experiments on congelation. 4. Experiment with a
Thermometer having its bulb blackened. Phil. Trans. I773 p.
40, Ess. v. Raised 10°. 5. Chemical Experiments and Ob
servations on Lead Ore. Phil. Trans. 1778, p. 863, Ess. v!
C. Observations on the Sulphur Wells at Harrowgate’. Phil’
Trans. 1786, p. 171, Ess. v.
7. An Essay on the Subjects of Chemistry, and their General
Division.
8. Assize Sermon, preached at Cambridge. 1769, 4to.
9. Letters to the Members of the House of Commons, by a
Christian Whig, 1772.
10. 11. Two Sermons. Cambr. 1776, 4to. On the Revolution,
and on the King’s Accession.
12. A brief State of the Principles of Church Authority, 17/3.
Reprinted in 1813 as a charge.
13. A Fast Sermon, Feb. 1780.
14. A Sermon addressed to the Clergy of Ely, 1780. Recom¬
mending oriental literature.
15. An Apology for Christianity, in a series of Letters address¬
ed to Edward Gibbon, Esq. Lond. 1776, 12mo. Often re¬
printed, and considered as very satisfactory, though the author
confesses, with more of the courtier than of the orthodox divine,
in a letter to Mr Gibbon, that the essay “ derives its chief merit
from the elegance and importance of the work it attempts to
oppose.”
16. Chemical Essays. Lond. 1781-7,5 vols. 12mo. Addressed
to his pupil the duke of Rutland. The work was intended for
general information, and became extremely popular as a first in¬
troduction. The first volume relates to salts, sulphurs, vitriols,
and gunpowder; the second to common salt, distillation, lime,
clay, and pit-coal; the third to bitumens, charcoal, evaporation,
lead, and lead ores; and the fourth to zinc, gum, metal, tin,
copper, iron, and stones ; the fifth is a republication of the author's
earlier chemical tracts. After the completion of these volumes,
he had the resolution to burn all his chemical papers.
17- A Letter to Archbishop Cornwallis on the Church Reve¬
nues, 1782. A plan for equalizing the bishoprics.
18. A Sermon preached the 30th Jan. before the Lords. I781>
4to.
19. Visitation Articles, for the Diocese of Landaff.
20. Theological Tracts. Lond. 1785, 6 vols. 8vo. Collected
from various authors, not excluding many works of dissenters
from the church.
21. A Sermon on the Wisdom and Goodness of God, in having
made Rich and Poor, 1785, 1793. Adapted to allay the discon¬
tents which were then prevalent among the lower classes.
22. Sermons and Tracts. Lond. 1788, 8vo. Chiefly republi¬
cations.
23. An Address to Young Persons after Confirmation. 1W
12mo.
24. Considerations on the Expediency of Revising the Liturgy-
1790, 8vo. Anonymous.
25. A Sermon preached for the Westminster Dispensary in
1785, with an Appendix. 1792.
26. A Charge to the Clergy of his Diocese. 1792, 4to.
27. Two Sermons and a Charge. 1795, 4to. The firsl se™on
is entitled Atheism refuted ; the second, The Christian Relig10U
no Imposture,
tic
H liai
teas
WAT
W A T
815
l Anei
2i“ An Apology for the Bible, in a series of Letters addressed to
Thm^ Paine. Lond. 1796, 12mo. An able and judicious an-
j-q the contemptible work of a mischievous incendiary : it
Lento have been singularly successful in producing clear and
jjconviction. Thanks were returned to the author from lre-
[andind from America, and he gained L.1000 by the sale of the
Kuolibesides allowing it to be often reprinted gratuitously.
2'> An Address to the People of Great Britain. 1798, 8vo.
Enfpag ^ necessity of submission to the exigencies of the
timo It "ent through fourteen editions, besides several piracies;
in(] | was reprinted in Ireland by order of Lord Camden, then
j orjfdeutenant. Mr Wakefield answered it somewhat intem-
iierafly, and the bishop attempted ineffectually, out of respect
for !Vclassical acquirements, to lighten the punishment which
was lotted to him.
3(jCharge to the Clergy of Landaff. 31. Second Charge,
]80ii On similar subjects.
3iA Charge relating to Ecclesiastical Reform, 1802.
3;|A Sermon preached at the London Hospital, 1802. Against
the jinciples of Paine.
Ill Thoughts on the intended Invasion, 8vo.
3,|Substance of a Speech intended to have been delivered,
180 ( In favour of Catholic Emancipation.
3i| Sermon preached before the Society for the Suppression of
Vic 1804.
3; A Charge to the Clergy, 1805. 38. Another Charge, on
the utholic Question, 1808.
3:| Two Apologies, two Sermons, and a Charge. 1800, 8vo.
Reputed.
4'fA second Defence of Revealed Religion, 1807- In two
sernjns, preached in the Chapel Royal.
4i A Paper on Planting and on Waste Land. Cotnmunica-
tiom to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vii. 1808, 4to. 42. He
had iso written some Preliminary Observations in the Agricul-
turdteport of Westmoreland.
41 Miscellaneous Tracts. Lond. 1815, 2 vols. 8vo. Re¬
lights, political, and agricultural. u His discourse on the first
andjcond Adam, and the nature of death as affected by each, is
alm i; unequalled in originality of thought and vigour of expres-
siora Quarterly Review.
(4- It has been said that he published some papers in the
Mawester Memoirs ; but they do not appear in the indices.
41 Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson, Bishop of Lan-
dail!written by himself at different times, and revised in 1814.
Pullhed by his son Richard Watson, LL. B. Prebendary of
Lati If and Wells. I .end. 1817, 4to. Lond. 1818, 2 vols. 8vo.
Quaerly Review, xviii. p. 229. Treated with great ability, but
witllioo much severity. His chief mistake indeed seems to have
beeathat he expected his literary merits alone to secure him
poll al advancement; further than this, there is nothing disgust¬
ing. > a candid reader, in the sincerity with which he displays
the nisciousness of his own merits. The praises of the reviewer
hinvulf are at least as energetic as those of the friends whose
lanpige he has occasionally copied ; his censures are not less im-
preiiee; but for an author’s censure of himself, it would be idle
to 1 k in a work of autobiography.
Hmgh somewhat reserved, Dr Watson is said to have been
remicable lor the simplicitv of his manners and the equality of
his hiper. With respect to his conduct in the school of divinity,
the wiewer confesses that “ he ascended the chair with many
oniilnt qualifications for his difficult and distinguished functions.
Jhifexercise of four years, as moderator of the philosophical
sehi
by:
con
all:
in a
His
dee
s, had rendered his faculty of speaking Latin perfectly easy ;
at assiduity, the vices of his early education had been so far
ted that a false quantity was never heard to escape him ;
' tricks and shifts of school logic were familiar to his mind,
ition to which, his acuteness and ingenuity were admirable,
ajestic and commanding figure, his terrific countenance, his
sonorous voice, the uninterrupted tenor of his sentences,
"’hi, though far from classical, were never either barbarous or
istic, and, above all, the boldness and originality of his senti-
seldom left the under graduates’ places unoccupied in the
Igical school. It was sport to see how the grave professor
'm glide over the surface of the subject with every appearance
fl‘P lundity, or when pinned, as his opponent hoped, into a corner,
wind himself out with all the lubricity of an eel. Still he
had large mind; he endured, he encouraged, he delighted in the
tyft'Hun of able men ; he never flinched from the strokes of those who
Whre information than himself, secure in the consciousness of his
WijJ'bility to encounter learning by invention. The same toler-
aiK-V'i contradiction, the same dexterity in parrying attacks, he
"roiht with him into private conversation, which rendered him,
"he the poison of polities did not operate on his constitution, a
most agreeable and amusing debater. In these happier hours, and Watt,
they were not few, he would even smile at the pomp and magni-«.
ficence of his own manner, and relax into all the playfulness and
pleasantry which are almost inseparable from real genius."
Our critic appears, however, to have exceeded the limits of can¬
dour and of charity, when he asserts that “ he was governed
through life by the two leading principles of interest and ambition,
both of which were thwarted in his political conduct, by a temper
so wayward, and a presumption so overweening, that the disap¬
pointment produced by their collision embittered his mind, and
exasperated his latter days to a very high degree of malignity.
Accomplished as he was in academical learning, he had no ingenu¬
ous or disinterested love of knowledge : he read only that he might
teach, and he taught only that he might rise.”
“ When he felt himself neglected, he avowedly and professedly
abandoned all study, because, says he, ‘ eagerness in the pursuit
of knowledge was a part of my temper till,’ and only till, ‘ the ac¬
quisition of knowledge was attended with nothing but the neglect
of the king and his ministers.’ Disgusted, therefore, and disap¬
pointed, as much as broken in constitution, he withdrew into the
wilds of Westmoreland without a library, and to this privation he
voluntarily submitted almost thirty years. From taste he derived
neither amusement nor occupation, for of taste he never had a
tincture ; placed amidst the most delicious scenes of England, he
thought of nothing but turning his own portion of them to emolu¬
ment !” Thus “ this violent declaimer against sinecures and non¬
residence was the first who converted the regius professorship of
divinity into a sinecure: this enemy of pluralities held at least
fourteen places of preferment; this man of moderation in his wishes,
and calm contentment, under the shade of retirement, spent the
last twenty-nine years of his life in ‘execrating’ [complaining of]
those who, for his factious obstinacy, had left him to that retire¬
ment, while he was occupied in nursing up a fortune, till, accord¬
ing to his own boast, with the poorest bishopric in the kingdom,
he became the richest bishop upon the bench.”
With respect to the merits of the question between him and the
administration of his early friend Mr Pitt, there will probably he
as many different opinions as there are readers of different politi¬
cal parties; but he had surely no right to expect that a ministry
determined to support every minute article of the established con¬
stitution of the country, both in church and in state, should volun¬
tarily add to the power and authority of a person who had repeat¬
edly declared himself rather hostile than indifferent to many points
which they thought essential to both ; or even of one who felt so
decided a conviction of the importance of every single opinion
which he had himself adopted, as to refuse his concurrence in such
measures of legislation as they might deem of vital importance to
the good of the country, and such as had been sanctioned by the
concurrent determination of the majority of a cabinet taking on
themselves the whole responsibility of their proceedings. He must
have been aware that a house divided against itself cannot stand,
and that the members of every administration, in a country not
despotic, must consent to give up something to each other’s feel¬
ings, and to make a small sacrifice of private conviction for the
great objects of public energy and unanimity. (n. l.)
WATT, James, a philosopher, mechanician, and civil
engineer, whose inventive talents, extensive knowledge of
the sciences and arts, and practical application of them to
the purposes of life, place him in the foremost rank of those
illustrious men whose discoveries have influenced the state
of society, and conferred distinction upon their country and
age. His great-grandfather farmed his own small estate in
the county of Aberdeen, but engaging in the civil wars,
was killed in one of Montrose’s battles, and his property
lost to his family. His son, Thomas Watt, left an infant,
was brought up by relations, and having a turn for the ma¬
thematical sciences, made such proficiency by his own ex¬
ertions, under very untoward circumstances, occasioned by
the persecutions of the times, as to enable him at a later
and quieter period to establish himself at Greenock as a
teacher of these sciences, and of the dependent arts of sur¬
veying and navigation. There he acquired reputation, and
dying in 1734, at the advanced age of ninety-one, left a
brief record of his partiality to his profession in the inscrip¬
tion upon his tomb in the West Church-yard. He is there
styled professor of the mathematics. He had two sons,
John and James; the former, brought up as a mathemati¬
cian, settled first at Ayr, and afterwards at Glasgow, where
he was much employed in surveying and directing the im-
816
W A T T.
Watt.
provement of estates ; was an able man, and drew neatly
and accurately, which was not very common in those days.
He died in 1737, at an early age, leaving “ A Survey of the
River Clyde, from Glasgow to the Point of Toward,” which
was published by his brother several years afterwards.
James, his younger brother, of an active, ingenious, and
enterprising mind, became a merchant in Greenock, and
was for upwards of twenty years a member of the town
council, a magistrate, and a zealous promoter of the im¬
provements of the town. By his wife, Agnes Muirhead, he
had two sons, James, the subject of the present article, and
John, a youth of promising abilities, who was lost at sea
soon after he became of age. Misfortunes in trade, and
the decay of the faculties of his mind, occasioned his retire¬
ment from business some years before his death, which
happened in 1782, in his eighty-fourth year.
James Watt, his eldest son, and only surviving child,
was bora at Greenock, the 19th January 1736. He re¬
ceived the rudiments of his education in the public schools
of his native town ; but, from the extreme delicacy of his
constitution, was with difficulty enabled to attend the clas¬
ses, and owed much of his acquirements to his studious
habits at home. Little more is known of his early years,
than that, from the first, he manifested a partiality for me¬
chanical contrivances and operations, and frequently em¬
ployed himself in that way. The desire of improvement in
an art then little practised in Scotland, induced him to go
to London in his eighteenth year, and there to place him¬
self under the tuition of a mathematical instrument maker;
but he remained little more than a twelvemonth, the infirm
state of his health compelling his return to his paternal
roof.
In that short period, he appears to have made great pro¬
ficiency, and he continued, after his return to Scotland, to
perfect himself in this art, both at home and on his visits to
his mother’s relations at Glasgow, where it was his wish to
establish himself. But some opposition being made by the
corpoi ations, who considered him as an intruder upon their
privileges, the professors of the university took him under
their protection, and accommodated him with an apartment
and premises for carrying on his business within their pre¬
cincts, with the title and office of Tnnthematical instrument
maker to the university. This took place in 1757, when
he was twenty-one years of age, and it must be inferred,
that he had already given satisfactory proofs of talent to
the eminent men who then adorned that seat of learning;
of whom it is sufficient to mention the names of Robert
Simson, Adam Smith, Dr Black, and Dr Dick the pro¬
fessor of natural philosophy. There Mr Watt applied se¬
dulously to business, and in the few intervals which its
concerns and ill health allowed, cultivated those various
talents which distinguished him in after life; and there a
lasting friendship was formed with the kindred minds of Dr
Black, and of Mr, afterwards Dr Robison, then a student at
the university, and nearly of his own age. He remained
in the college until some time in the year 1763, when he
removed into the town previously to his marriage with his
cousin, Miss Miller, which took place in the summer of the
following year.
The steam-engine had been a frequent subject of con¬
versation between Mr Robison and himself, and the for¬
mer had suggested the possibility of its application to the
moving of wheel-carriages. About the year 1761 or 1762,
Mr Watt had tried some experiments on the force of steam
in a Papin’s digester, and had constructed and worked with
strong steam a small model, consisting of an inverted sy¬
ringe, the bottom of the rod of wdiich w as loaded with a
weight, alternately admitting the steam below the piston,
and letting it off to the atmosphere. Observing the im¬
perfections of this construction, he soon abandoned it; but
the attention necessary to be bestowed upon his business
prevented his reconsidering it, until the winter of Daq
wlior* ]~10 TiroO r-vl✓-vTT/'A.dl 4-L   P r. * *DO~4l
when he was employed by the professor of natural ’ v
sophy to put in order a working model of a steam Pn •
upon Newcomen’s construction. When he had renaS"6
and set it to work, he found that the boiler, though 1 ^
in proportion to the cylinder, was barely able to sunn?
with steam for a few strokes per minute, and that a v 11
quantity of injection-water was required, though it uJ!
lightly loaded by the pump attached to it 1,°™,,
red that the cause lay in the little cylinder (two incU
diameter, six inches stroke), exposing a greater surface
condense the steam than the cylinders of larger enein
did, in proportion to their respective contents.*3 By short8
ening the column of water in the pump, less steam and less
injection-water were required, and the model worked at a
proper speed. Thus the purpose for which it was pm into
his hands was accomplished; and with this mode of account
ing for the defect, and this result, most artists would have
been satisfied; but the case was different with Mr Watt. He
had now become aware of a great consumption of steam and
his curiosity was excited to a more accurate investigation of
the causes, in which he proceeded in a truly philosophical
manner. The cylinder of his small model being of brass, he
conceived that less steam would be condensed by substitut¬
ing cylinders of some material which would transmit heat
more slowly. He made a larger model, with a cylinder (six
inches diameter, and one foot stroke) of wood soaked in oil
and baked to dryness. He ascertained, from experiments
made with boilers of various constructions, that the evapo¬
ration of boiling water is neither in proportion to the eva¬
porating surface, nor to the quantity of water, as had been
supposed, but to the heat that enters it; and that the lat¬
ter depended chiefly on the quantity of surface exposed to
the action of the fire. He likewise determined the weight
of coal required for the evaporation of any given quantity
of water. Being convinced that there existed a great error
in the statement which had been previously given of the
bulk of water when converted into steam, he proceeded to
examine that point by experiment, and discovered that
water, converted into steam of the heat of boiling water,
was expanded to 1800 times its bulk, or, as a rule for ready
calculation, that a cubic inch of water produced a cubic
foot of steam. He constructed a boiler to be applied to
his model, which should show, by inspection, the quantity
of water evaporated, and consequently would enable him
to calculate the quantity of steam used in every stroke of
the engine. This he now proved to be several times the
full of the cylinder. He also observed, that all attempts to
improve the vacuum, by throwing in more injection-water,
caused a disproportionate waste of steam ; and it occurred
to him that the cause of this was the boiling of water in
vacuo at very low heats (recently determined, by Dr Cul¬
len, to be under 100°); consequently, at greater heats, the
injection-water was converted into steam in the cylinder,
and resisted the descent of the piston. He now' perceived
clearly, that the great waste of steam proceeded from its
being chilled and condensed by the coldness of the cylin¬
der before it was sufficiently heated to retain it in an elas¬
tic state; and that, to derive the greatest advantage, the
cylinder should always be kept as hot as the steam which
entered it, and that, when the steam was condensed, it
should be cooled down to 100°, or lower, in order to make
the vacuum complete. Early in 1765, the fortunate thought
occurred to him of accomplishing this by condensing the
steam in a separate vessel, exhausted of air, and kept cool
by injection, between which and the cylinder a communi¬
cation was to be opened every time steam was to be con¬
densed, while the cylinder itself was to be kept constantly
hot. No sooner had this occurred to him, than the means of
effecting it presented themselves in rapid succession. These
 O V to 111 ICIJ^IVI
in a great measure have already been described in
the
ihicl
Wo
Ned
P.V
;tij:
WAT T.
817
work. A model was constructed, and the expe-
■rae-!S made with it placed the correctness of the theory,
.'id t- advantages of the invention, beyond the reach of
joub
c| in ie course of these trials he was much struck by the
pat ieat communicated to the injection-water by a small
an iV of steam; and he proceeded by a very simple ex-
rirrnt to satisfy himself upon that subject, when he dis-
veil that water converted into steam will heat about six
jiejjts own weight of water at 47° or 48° to 212°. He
nelined this extraordinary fact to Dr Black, who then
pl^ed to him his doctrine of latent heat, to the support
,fBh Mr Watt had afterwards the satisfaction of con-
ibuug his experiments. From some of these he was led
osmose the latent heat of steam to be above 1000s, but
-al rwards considered 960° a more accurate determina-
:oB..From others, he deduced the important conclusion,
“[iiat e sum of the latent and sensible heat of steam, at
(feint temperatures, is a constant quantity, the latent
aieat icreasing as the sensible heat diminishes; or, in other
1 sSthat a given weight of water in the state of steam
Mntt’.s nearly the same quantity of heat, whatever may be
tiie 1 Ik or density of the steam.
Hialso, at this time, made experiments upon the capa-
citietof different bodies for heat, and upon the heats at
vvhio water boils under various pressures ; from which he
see lined, that where the heats proceeded in an arithme¬
tical l he elasticities proceeded in a geometrical ratio, the
curvi of which he laid down. These he repeated some
yeamfter with more accuracy.
Vi have been thus minute in our details of the succes¬
sive eps by which Mr Watt proceeded to his great im-
rovnent upon the principle of the steam-engine, in order
toc .vey some idea of the sagacity, ingenuity, and science,
: iBwhich he conducted the investigation. Our limits
willblige us to be more brief in our narrative of his sub-
se4u.it improvements.
F m this period (the early part of 1765), his mind be-
< ami very much engaged in contriving the machinery for
(xenting his improvement upon a large scale ; but the
u v/an of funds prevented his attempting it, until he was in¬
duct!' to address himself to Dr Roebuck, who had a short
timi before completed his establishment of the Carron
Iro:forks, and who, in addition to his known qualities of
ingeiiity and enterprise, was considered to be possessed of
amp means of introducing the invention to the public,
de freed to enter into the plan, upon having the proceeds
lift) thirds of the invention assigned to him; and an en-
gin< ipon a large scale was then constructed by Mr Watt,
JlineiU, near Borrowstounness, where the doctor then
resbid; the trials made with which gave satisfaction. But
the troduction of the invention to the public was retarded,
<>n l} one hand, by the pecuniary difficulties in which the
'toe - became involved, by the failure of several of his
inul ’arious undertakings; and, on the other, by the em-
oloyient which the rising reputation of Mr Watt, for
knciledge and skill in the line of a civil engineer, pro-
cur him.
fjl was employed in 1767 to make a survey for a canal
°f jpetion between the rivers Forth and Clyde, by what
was ailed the Lomond Passage, and attended parliament
°n e part of the subscribers, where the bill was lost. An
offeivas then made to him of undertaking the survey and
ostpate of an intended canal from the Monkland Collieries
ro jlasgow; and these proving satisfactory, the superin-
tenj'mce of the execution was confided to him. This was
jiii ly followed by his being employed by the Trustees for
‘'is,Ties and Manufactures in Scotland, to make a survey
Hat
of a canal from Perth to Forfar, through Strathmore ; and
soon afterwards by the Commissioners of the Annexed^
Estates, to furnish a report and estimate of the relative ad¬
vantages of opening a communication between the Firth of
Clyde and the Western Ocean, by means of a navigable
canal across the isthmus of Crinan,1 or that of Tarbert.
Business of this description now crowded upon him ; and
surveys, plans, and estimates, were successively undertaken
by him for the harbours of Ayr, Port-Glasgow, and Green¬
ock ; the deepening of the river Clyde ; the rendering na¬
vigable the rivers Forth and Devon, and the water of
Leven ; the making of a canal from Machrihanish Bay to
Campbeltown, and of another between the Grand Canal
and the harbour of Borrowstounness; the building of bridges
at Hamilton and at Rutherglen, Ac. &c. In these surveys
he made use of a new micrometer, and a machine for draw¬
ing in perspective, which he had invented to facilitate his
operations. Our limits do not allow us to go into the de¬
tails of his Reports, which are remarkable for their perspi¬
cuity and accuracy, although the work of a self-taught
engineer. The last and greatest work upon which he was
employed was the survey and estimate of the line of a ca¬
nal between Fort-William and Inverness, since executed by
Mr Telford upon a larger scale than was at that time pro¬
posed, under the name of the Caledonian Canal.
Whilst engaged upon this survey, in the latter part of
the year 1773, Mr Watt received the account of the death
of his affectionate wife, who left him a daughter and a son.
He appears soon after to have made up his mind to adopt
the advice of his friend Dr Small of Birmingham, and the
invitation of Mr Boulton, to settle in England. He had
secured his title to his Improvements for saving Steam and
Fuel in Fire-Engines, by patent, in the year 1769; but all
hopes of carrying them into effect by the assistance of Dr
Roebuck being at an end, he had induced that gentleman
to agree, for certain considerations, to transfer his share of
the patent to Mr Boulton of Soho, near Birmingham ; a
gentleman equally distinguished by his knowledge of the
arts and his enterprising spirit, who had some years before
established his manufactory upon a scale as unrivalled for
extent and elegance as for the variety and perfection of the
processes carried on. In conjunction with him, an appli¬
cation was made to parliament for an extension of the term
of the patent, and an act prolonging it for twenty-five
years was obtained in the year 1775, when the business of
making steam-engines was commenced by the firm of Boul¬
ton and Watt.
Mr Watt now married for his second wife Miss Macgri-
gor, the daughter of an old friend at Glasgow, and devoted
himself to the improvement of the details of the engine with
a degree of application and exertion not to be expected
from his delicate and infirm state of health; and he found
in his partner a zealous and able coadjutor. Some engines
for pumping water were soon made upon a large scale, and
the savings in fuel were demonstrated by repeated compara¬
tive trials to amount to three fourths of the quantity con¬
sumed by those of the best construction previously in use.
A deputation from the mining interest of Cornwall was
sent to ascertain the fact, and their report led to the in¬
troduction of the improved engines into that county, to
which they have proved of such vast utility.
The immediate application of the powers of steam to
giving a rotary motion to mills had formed an early object
of Mr Watt’s attention, and he had deeply considered the
various means of effecting this. One method of producing
a continued movement in one direction was by a steam-
wheel, described in his patent of 1769. Various others of
a similar kind suggested themselves to him, of some of
Watt.
1 The Crinan Canal was executed several years afterwards, under the direction of his friend Mr Rennie, with some variations.
PL. XXI. 5 L
818
Watt.
WATT.
which drawings and models were made; but the difficulty
^ of rendering them steam and air tight, and the loss of power
by friction, induced him to turn his thoughts to the adap¬
tation of the reciprocating motion to the production of a
continued regular rotary one. This he accomplished by a
series of improvements, the exclusive property of which he
secured by successive patents in the years 1781, 1782,
1784, and 1785, including, among other inventions the ro¬
tary motion of the sun and planet wheels,1 the expansive
principle, the double engine, the parallel motion, and the
smokeless furnace. The application of the centrifugal re¬
gulating force of the governer gave the finishing stroke to
the machine.
The invention of the separate condenser, and the con¬
trivances necessary to give it full effect, would alone have
established the fame of Mr Watt; but when to these are
added the various inventions called forth to perfect his ro¬
tative engines, we are impressed by a union of philosophi¬
cal research, of physical skill, and of mechanical ingenuity,
which has, we believe, no parallel in modern times. The
perfection thus given to the rotative engine soon led to its
general application for imparting motion to almost every
species of mill-work and machinery, and gave an impulse,
unexampled in the history of inventions, to the extension
of our manufactures, wealth, and population.
Nor were Mr Watt’s inventive powers confined to the
steam-engine. The necessity of preserving accurate copies
of his various drawings and of his letters, containing long
and important calculations, and the desire of avoiding that
labour himself, which he did not think it right to intrust to
others, led him, in the year 1780, to contrive a copying
apparatus, the exclusive property in which he secured by
letters patent, and commenced the manufactory of them, in
partnership with Mr Boulton and his friend Mr Keir, un¬
der the firm of James Watt and Cpmpany; a contrivance
of great simplicity, and of which he reaped an ample bene¬
fit in the time, labour, and expense it saved to himself, to
say nothing of its advantages to the public.
In the winter of 1784-5, he put up an apparatus for
heating, by means of steam, the room in which he drew and
wrote. The possibility of doing this had been suggested by
Colonel Cooke in the Philosophical Transactions for 1745;
but we know not whether this was known to Mr Watt
when he made this first practical attempt, from which he
deduced proportions of surface, &c., which afterwards serv¬
ed to guide his firm in the introduction of the process in
larger buildings.
Chemical studies engaged much of his attention during
his busiest time: and at the very period when he was most
engaged in perfecting his rotative engines, and in manag¬
ing a business become considerable, and, from its novelty,
requiring close attention, he entered deeply into the inves¬
tigations then in progress relative to the constitution and
properties of the different gases. Early in 1783, he was
led, by the experiments of his friend and neighbour Dr
Priestley, to the important conclusion, that water is a com¬
pound of dephlogisticated and inflammable airs (as they
were then called) deprived of their latent or elementary
heat, and he was the first to make known this theory. This
was done in a letter to Dr Priestley, dated the 28th April
1783, in which he states the doctor’s experiments to have
come in aid of some prior notions of his own, and supports
his conclusions by original experiments. That letter Dr
se- \v
Priestley received in London; and, after showing itfn
veral members of the Royal Society, he delivered it t^'
Joseph Banks, with a request that it might be read &ir
of the public meetings of the society; but before that col
be complied with, Mr Watt, having heard of some n,
experiments made by Dr Priestley, begged that the read
mg might be delayed. Those new experiments soon aft!!'
wards proved to have been delusive; and Mr Watt se
revised edition of his letter to M. de Luc on the 26th N
vember of the same year, which was notread to the snril'
until the 29th April 1784, and appears in the Philosophical
Transactions for that year, under the title of “ Thought
on the constituent Parts of Water and of Dephlogisticated
Air, with an Account of some Experiments upon ffiat sut,
ject.” In the interim, on the 15th January 1784, a papeJ
by Mr Cavendish had been read, containing his “ Experi-
ments on the Combustion of the Dephlogisticated and In-
flammable Airs,” and drawing the same inference as Mr
Watt, with this difference only, that he did not admit ele¬
mentary heat into his explanation. He refers in it to his
knowledge of Mr Watt’s paper, and states his own experi¬
ments to have been made in 1781, and mentioned to Dr
Priestley : but he does not say at what period he formed
his conclusions ; he only mentions that a friend of his had
in the summer of 1783 given M. Lavoisier some account
of his experiments, as well as of the conclusion drawn
from them. It is quite certain that Mr Watt had never
heard of them; and Dr Blagden has stated, that he men¬
tioned at Paris the opinions of both the English philoso¬
phers, which were not admitted without hesitation, nor
until the French chemists had satisfied themselves by ex¬
periments of their own.2
Mr Watt also has the merit of being the first person to
introduce into this country, and to carry into effect, on a
practical scale, in any country, the bleaching of linens and
cottons by oxymuriatic acid, the invention of his friend M.
Berthollet. That gentleman had communicated his inven¬
tion to Mr Watt at Paris in the winter of 1786-7, whither
he had proceeded with Mr Boulton, at the instance of the
French government, to suggest improvements in the mode
of raising water at Marly ; and his mind was instantly alive
to the extensive application of which it admitted. He ad¬
vised M. Berthollet to secure the property by an English
patent; but that he declined, and left his friend to make
such use of it as he thought proper. He, in consequence,
communicated it to his father-in-law Mr Macgrigor, and
gave directions for the construction of the proper vessels
and machinery; and soon afterwards he himself superin¬
tended the first trials at his bleachfield near Glasgow,
which proved eminently successful.
Some years after this, Mr Watt was led, by the illness of
the daughter, and some apprehensions entertained for the
son, who were the issue of his second marriage, to consider
the subject of the medical application of the factitious airs,
and to contrive various apparatuses for that purpose, which
were described by himself, in his friend Dr Beddoes’s pub¬
lications on Pneumatic Medicine.
M e have not space to particularise other improvements
introduced by Mr Watt, or at his suggestion, into various
arts; for there were few arts with the details of which he
was not intimately acquainted, and to the practical profes¬
sors of which he was not able and willing to impart infor¬
mation. We shall only mention, that before he left Glas-
i d Tlglna y ln,ten<le<. deMve ,he rotary motion from the working-beam by means of a connecting rod and crank; m w
Wan^ u -P yed T\U the modt'l commumcated it to a neighbouring manufacturer, who took out a patent for it. This stimulated Mr
l ^the invention of other means of effecting the same object, of which five are described in his patent of 1781. He afterwards used the
but the
Wan to tl, ; J - , 11 lo a neignoourmg manufacturer, who took out a patent foi
° v V .10,n fhel' n’ean1S °f ,effectlnS the object, of which five are described in his patent of 1781.
crank, which was indeed his own, when he saw occasion, in defiance of the patentee, who never troubled him.
dated ogth dT\m the.fco.unts of thls affair- Mr Watt’s letter to M. de Luc in the Philosophical Transactions appears
Wrn ’s naner « Utri :,Thc h ls,evlde,?tly an e"or of the P^- Mr Cavendish, in his letter, read 15th January 1784, speaks of Mr
not expfain J read bef°re the society’ whereas tbe PaP*r ‘‘self purports to have been read on the 29th April 1784. This we can-
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row0 settle in England, he had assisted some of his friends
!*, 11 establishment of a pottery there, to the success of
whib his experiments and advice had greatly contributed,
an(J which he afterwards continued a partner. At a later
nerio, he occupied himself much upon a composition hav-
|ng e transparency, and nearly the hardness, of marble,
fronwhich he had many casts. This promoted, if it did
not i eate, a taste for sculpture and statuary, and led to his
implying himself, during the last years of his life, in the
( intyance of a machine for multiplying busts and other
cam work, which he left in a very forward state.
MlWatt did not escape the common lot of eminent men,
that meeting with pirates of his inventions, and detractors
froniiiis merit. The latter indeed were but few, and their
jfon transitory; but the former were numerous, and in
jiioBStion to the benefits expected to arise from an evasion
of tl patent-dues claimed by Boulton and Watt; though
thesiwere established upon the liberal footing of receiving
onlyine third of the savings of fuel compared with the
best;eam-engines previously in use. In consequence, the
atten on both of Mr Watt and Mr Boulton was greatly oc-
cupi 1, from the year 1792 to the year 1799, in defending
heiinatent rights against numerous invaders, the principal
'of worn were supported by a portion of the mining inte¬
rest ‘Cornwall, although the respectable part of it refused
tocrcur in their measures. The admission of their re-
speci/e sons into the partnership in 1794, infused vigour
intfljheir proceedings; and after repeated verdicts, esta-
blislhg the novelty and utility of Mr Watt’s inventions,
thStlidity of his claim was finally confirmed in the year
179' by the unanimous decision of all the judges of the
Com of King’s Bench.
IitlSOO, upon the expiration of the act of parliament
pass*! in his favour, he withdrew from business, resigning
tis sares to his two sons, of whom the youngest, Mr Gre-
gomVatt, died soon after, having given splendid proofs of
liteny and philosophical talents, and left a durable record
of ti: latter in his paper on Basalt in the Philosophical
Tfractions. Mr Watt continued to the close of life to
mte
t himself in the pursuits of his former associates, and
to rintain an uninterrupted friendship with Mr Boulton,
what he survived several years.
two occasions afterwards, in 1811 and 1812, he gave
prom; of the undiminished powers of his mind in his former
provision. In the one instance, he was induced, by his
ul recollections of his residence in Glasgow, to assist
roprietors of the water-works there with a plan for
supping the town with better water, by means of a suc-
tiomipe with flexible joints, laid across the bottom of the
, accompanied with instructions for insuring the sup-
water on the opposite side ; a plan w hich answered
Cly
ply
comlletely, and for which the proprietors presented him
witlji handsome memorial of their gratitude. In the other
instlice he was prevailed upon, by the earnest solicitation
of i|? Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to attend a
lepiation of the Navy Board, and to give, with his friend
Can in Huddart, and Mr J. Jessop, an opinion upon the
'•vow then carrying on at Sheerness dock-yard, and the
iiirtferones projected by Messrs Rennie and Whidby. On
this Occasion, he no less gratified the gentlemen associ-
oteijtwith him, by the clearness of his general views, than
hy I knowledge of the details, and received the thanks of
the .dmiralty. In 1814, he yielded to the washes of his
tdejjls in undertaking a revision of Professor Robison’s
wtibs on Steam and Steam-Engines in the Encyclo-
T T. S19
psedia Britannica; and enriched them with valuable notes, Watt,
containing his own experiments upon steam, and a short
history of his principal improvements upon the engine itself.
His originally infirm health had been subjected to severe
trials by the great exertions of his mind, during the period
of carrying into execution his improvements on the steam-
engine, and had with difficulty resisted the cares and anx¬
ieties attending upon business, and those created by the
subtilties of the law, during the protracted proceedings of
seven long years. There appears to have been an organic
defect in his digestion, and its effects were intensely severe
sick headaches ; but by continual temperance, and good
management of his constitution, which he treated with
much medical skill, it improved as he advanced in years;
and with faculties little impaired he reached his eighty-
fourth year, when, after a short illness, rather of debility
than of pain, he expired in the bosom of his family at his
house at Heathfield, in the county of Stafford, on the 25th
August 1819.
His remains are deposited in the chancel of the adjoining
parochial church of Handsworth, near those of Mr Boulton.
An excellent bust had been made of him some years before
his death by Mr Chan trey; and a statue was afterwards finish¬
ed by the same great artist, intended by filial piety to be
placed upon his tomb, and to convey to distant ages a faith¬
ful representation of those features in which the lines of
intense thought were blended with the mild expression of
benevolence.
Mr Watt w^as elected a member of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh in 1784, of the Royal Society of London in
1785, and a corresponding member of the Batavian So¬
ciety in 1787. In 1806, the honorary degree of LL. D.
was conferred upon him by the spontaneous and unanimous
vote of the senate of the university of Glasgow; and in
1808, he was elected, first a corresponding, and afterwards
a foreign member, of the Institute of France.
In this brief narrative of his long, busy, and useful life,
we have endeavoured to confine ourselves to a statement of
the principal facts, and shall now add the character drawn
up soon after his death, by a distinguished wTiter, who knew
him well, and enjoyed a large portion of his esteem.1
“ It is with pain that we find ourselves called upon, so soon
after the loss of Mr Playfair, to record the decease of another of
our illustrious countrymen, and one to whom mankind has been
still more largely indebted—Mr James Watt, the great improver
of the steam-engine.
“ This name fortunately needs no commemoration of ours ; for
he that bore it survived to see it crowned with undisputed and
unenvied honours ; and many generations will probably pass away
before it shall have ‘ gathered all its fame.’ We have said that
Mr Watt was the great improver of the steam-engine; but, in
truth, as to all that is admirable in its structure, or vast in its uti¬
lity, he should rather be described as its inventor. It was by his
inventions that its action was so regulated as to make it capable
of being applied to the finest and most delicate manufactures, and
its power so increased as to set weight and solidity at defiance.
By his admirable contrivances, it has become a thing stupendous
alike for its force and its flexibility—for the prodigious power
which it can exert, and the ease, and precision, and ductility
with which it can be varied, distributed, and applied. The trunk
of an elephant that can pick up a pin or rend an oak is as nothing
to it. It can engrave a seal, and crush masses of obdurate metal
like wax before it,—draw out without breaking, a thread as fine
as gossamer, and lift a ship of war like a bauble in the air. It can
embroider muslin and forge anchors,—cut steel into ribbands, and
impel loaded vessels against the fury of the winds and waves.
“ It would be difficult to estimate the value of the benefits
which these inventions have conferred upon the country. There
is no branch of industry that has not been indebted to them ; and
Uyl
* iis article was written for and published in the Supplement to the preceding editions; the editor, as is stated in a note appended to
't, h-ing received it from a quarter entitling him to aver that it contains ap accurate and faithful account ot Mr att. It was written,
in fit, ]jy }]js son. The brilliant eulogium with which it concludes was written by Mr, now Lord Jeffrey. An admirable account of Mr
a,ftnd his discoveries has lately been given to the world by M. Arago, of the National Institute of I ranee.
820
WATT.
Watt, in all the most material, they have not only widened most magni-
—ficently the field of its exertions, but multiplied a thousandfold the
amount of its productions. It is our improved steam-engine that
has fought the battles of Europe, and exalted and sustained,
through the late tremendous contest, the political greatness of our
land. It is the same great power which now enables us to pay
the interest of our debt, and to maintain the arduous struggle
in which we are still engaged, with the skill and capital of coun¬
tries less oppressed with taxation. But these are poor and narrow
views of its importance. It has increased indefinitely the mass of
human comforts and enjoyments, and rendered cheap and acces¬
sible all over the world the materials of wealth and prosperity. It
has armed the feeble hand of man, in short, with a power to which
no limits can be assigned, completed the dominion of mind over
the most refractory qualities of matter, and laid a sure foundation
for all those future miracles of mechanic power which are to aid
and reward the labours of after generations. It is to the genius
of one man, too, that all this is mainly owing; atsd certainly no
man ever before bestowed such a gift on his kind. The blessing
is not only universal, but unbounded; and the fabled inventors
of the plough and the loom, who were deified by the erring grati¬
tude of their rude contemporaries, conferred less important bene¬
fits on mankind than the inventor of our present steam-engine.
“ This will be the fame of Watt with future generations ; and
it is sufficient for his race and his country. But to those to whom
he more immediately belonged, who lived in his society, and en¬
joyed his conversation, it is not perhaps the character in which he
will be most frequently recalled—most deeply lamented—or even
most highly admired. Independently of his great attainments in
mechanics, Mr Watt was an extraordinary, and in many respects
a wonderful man. Perhaps no individual in his age possessed so
much and such varied and exact information,—had read so much,
or remembered what he had read so accurately and well. He had
infinite quickness of apprehension, a prodigious memory, and a
certain rectifying and methodizing power of understanding, which
extracted something precious out‘of all that was presented to it.
His stores of miscellaneous knowledge were immense,—and vet
less astonishing than the command he had at all times over them.
It seemed as if every subject that was casually started in conver¬
sation with him, had been that which he had been last occupied in
studying and exhausting; such was the copiousness, the precision,
and the admirable clearness of the information which he poured
out upon it without effort or hesitation. Nor was this prompti¬
tude and compass of knowledge confined in anv degree to the
studies connected with his ordinary pursuits. ThaT he should
have been minutely and extensively skilled in chemistry and the
arts, and in most of the branches of physical science, might per¬
haps have been conjectured ; but it could not have been inferred
from his usual occupations, and probably is not generally known,
that he was curiously learned in many branches of antiquity, me¬
taphysics, medicine, and etymology, and perfectly at home' in all
the details of architecture, music, and law. He was well acquainted,
too, with most of the modern languages, and familiar with their
most recent literature. Nor was it at all extraordinary to hear
the great mechanician and engineer detailing and expounding, for
hours together, the metaphysical theories of the German logicians,
or criticising the measures or the matter of the German poetry.
“ TIis astonishing memory was aided, no doubt, in a great mea¬
sure, by a still higher and rarer faculty—by his power of digesting
and arranging in its proper place all the information he received^
and of casting aside and rejecting, as it were instinctively, what¬
ever was worthless or immaterial. Every conception that was
suggested to his mind seemed instantly to take its place among
its other rich furniture, and to be condensed into the smallest and
most convenient form. He never appeared, therefore, to be at all
encumbered or perplexed with the verbiage of the dull books he
perused, or the idle talk to which he listened ; but to have at once
extracted, by a kind of intellectual alchemy, all that was worthy
of attention, and to have reduced it, for his own use, to its true va¬
lue and to its simplest form. And thus it often happened that a
great deal more was learned from his brief and vigorous account
of the theories and arguments of tedious writers, than an ordinary
student could ever have derived from the most faithful study of
the originals,—and that errors and absurdities became manifest
from the mere clearness and plainness of his statement of them,
which might have deluded and perplexed most of his hearers with¬
out that invaluable assistance.
It is needless to say, that, with those vast resources, his con¬
versation was at all times rich and instructive in no ordinary de¬
gree ; but it was, if possible, still more pleasing than wise, and
had all the charms of familiarity, with all the substantial treasures
of knowledge. No man could be more social in his spirit, less as¬
suming or fastidious in his manners, or more kind and mduHent
towards all who approached him. He rather liked to talk, at feast
in his later years ; but though he took a considerable share nf
the tl
conversation, he rarely suggested the topics on which it Wa
turn, but readily and quietly took up whatever was presented 1!°
those around him, and astonished the idle and barren pronoun 1 '
of an ordinary theme, by the treasures which he drew from H
mine they had unconsciously opened. He generally seemel ^
deed to have no choice or predilection for one subject of disco ^
rather than another ; but allowed his mind, like a great cvclu^
dia, to be opened at any letter his associates might choose to ti-
up, and only endeavoured to select from his inexhaustible store’
what might be best adapted to the taste of his present hearer
As to their capacity he gave himself no trouble; and indeed
such was his singular talent for making all things plain,clear an!
intelligible, that scarcely any one could be aware of such a defid
ency in his presence. His talk, too, though overflowing with i--'
formation, had no resemblance to lecturing or solemn discoursing"
but, on the contrary, was full of colloquial spirit and pleasantrv
He had a certain quiet and grave humour, which ran through
most of his conversation, and a vein of temperate jocularity, wlii'h
gave infinite zest and effect to the condensed and inexhaustible
information which formed its main staple and characteristic
There was a little air of affected testiness, and a tone of pretended
rebuke and contradiction, with which he used to address his younger
friends, that was always felt by them as an endearing mark of his
kindness and familiarity—and prized, accordingly, far beyond all
the solemn compliments that ever proceeded from the lips of au¬
thority. His voice was deep and powerful, though he commonly
spoke in a hw and somewhat monotonous tone, which harmonized
admirably with the weight and brevity of his observations, and set
off to the greatest advantage the pleasant anecdotes which hede-
livered with the same grave brow and the same calm smile playing
soberly on his lips. There was nothing of effort, indeed, or in",
patience, any more than of pride or levity, in his demeanour; and
there was a finer expression of reposing strength and mild self-pos¬
session in his manner, than we ever recollect to have met within
any other person. He had in his character the utmost abhorrence
for all sorts of forwardness, parade, and pretension; and indeed
never failed to put all such impostors out of countenance, by the
manly plainness and honest intrepidity of his language and de-
portment.
“ In his temper and dispositions he was not only kind and af¬
fectionate, but generous, and considerate of the feelings of all
around him, and gave the most liberal assistance and encourage¬
ment to all young persons who showed any indications of talent,
or applied to him for patronage or advice. His health, which was
delicate from his youth upwards, seemed to become firmer as he
advanced in years ; and he preserved, up almost to the last mo¬
ment of his existence, not only the full command of his extraor¬
dinary intellect, but all the alacrity of spirit and the social gaiety
which had illuminated his happiest days. His friends in this part
of the country never satv him more full of intellectual vigour and
colloquial animation, never more delightful or more instructive,
than in his last visit to Scotland in autumn 1817. Indeed it was
after that time that he applied himself, with all the ardour of early
life, to the invention of a machine for mechanically copying all
sorts of sculpture and statuary, and distributed among his friends
some of its earliest performances, as the productions of a young
artist just entering on his eighty-third year.
“ This happy and useful life came at last to a gentle close. He
had suffered some inconvenience through the summer; but was
not seriously indisposed till within a few weeks from his death.
He then became perfectly aware of the event which was approach¬
ing ; and, with his usual tranquillity and benevolence of nature,
seemed only anxious to point out to the friends around him tin-
many sources of consolation which were afforded by the circum¬
stances under which it was about to take place. He expressed
his sincere gratitude to Providence for the length of days witu
which he had been blessed, and his exemption from most of the
infirmities of age, as well as for the calm and cheerful evening 01
life that he had been permitted to enjoy, after the honourable La¬
bours of the day had been concluded. And thus, full of years am
honours, in all calmness and tranquillity, he yielded up his sou
without pang or struggle, and passed from the bosom of his famil)
to that of his God !
“ He was twice married, but has left no issue but one son, long
associated with him in his business and studies, and two grand¬
children by a daughter who predeceased him. He was a fello"
of the Koval Societies both of London and Edinburgh, and ont
of the few Englishmen who were elected members of the Nations
Institute of France. All men of learning and science were 1S
cordial friends ; and such was the influence of his mild charac er,
and perfect fairness and liberality, even upon the pretenders ^
these accomplishments, that he lived to disarm even envy use* >
and died, we verily believe, without a single enemy-”
on
'■Oill
WAX
W/.TTS, Isaac, D. D., a learned ana eminent dissenting
aini er, was born at Southampton in 1674, of parents emi-
lentpr piety, and considerable sufferers for conscience-
tkg., In 1690 he was sent up to London for academical
die ion under the tuition of tfte Rev. Thomas Rowe;
;)(j j 1696 was himself engaged as tutor to the son of Sir
joliniHartopp, Bart, at Stoke Newington. He began to
)rea<j in 1698, and met with general acceptance ; and af-
eriojeiatingas an assistant to the Rev. Dr Isaac Chauncy,
lesipeeded in his pastoral charge in 1702, and continued
opnitle over that church as long as he lived. Though
,iswtole income did not amount to a hundred a year, he
illotld one third of it to the poor. He died in 1748. His
rumpus works have rendered his name famous among
eopt of every denomination, both in this and other coun-
ries,;nd have been translated into a variety of languages,
dis vric Poems, his Psalms and Hymns, and his Divine
long: for Children, have had an amazing number of edi-
Jions! His logic and philosophy have been much admired.
e aio wrote works upon a variety of other subjects, and
jrlitji! several volumes of his sermons. He was admired
or tl mildness and benevolence of his disposition. After
lisiuith, his Works were collected, and published in six
olur ?s quarto.
Wt UFGORN, a town of Hindustan, province of Au-
uflgijiad, twenty-four miles north from Poonah, w hence ori-
inatl the Holcar family.
Wi UGUR, an extensive district of Hindustan, province
>f Gierat, tributary to the Guicowar. It is intersected by
rter Mahy.
WJ UJPGRE, a town of Hindustan, province of Guje-
trty-five miles from Surat. Long. 73. 47. E. Lat.
gi.a n.
W/ USSIM, a town of Hindustan, province of Berar,
"fituatld on a small stream which falls into the Wurdah.
mpll. 28. E. Lat. 20. 10. N.
Ml YE, in Philosophy, water, or any other fluid, raised
ibov ithe general level of the surface.
Tl waves of the sea are of two kinds, natural and acci-
iient; The natural wraves are those which are exactly
roptioned in size to the strength of the wind, whose
;i\ ilowi g gives origin to them. The accidental waves are
liosibccasioned by the wind’s re-acting upon itself by re-
xmsion from hills and mountains, or high shores, and by
jlie irishing of the waves themselves, otherwise of the na-
uralllind, against rocks and shoals: all these causes give
»e rives an elevation which they can never have in their
,trite state.
Wl WUL, a village of Hindustan, province of Guje-
nt, »;ated on the Sereswati, a few miles to the south-east
>1 IfIdunpoor. It contains about 300 houses.
Wi X, or Bees’ Wax, in Natural History, a firm and
ubstance, moderately heavy, and of a fine yellow
dom formed by the bees from the pollen of flowers.
T|' best sort is that of a lively yellow colour, and an
tgre'hie smell, somewdiat like that of honey. When new,
: is i ughish, yet easy to break ; but by age it becomes
late and more brittle, loses its fine colour, and in a great
ueareits smell.
Rtipears that wax and the pollen have for their basis a
at o:1 which passes to the state of resin by its combination
ih Ixygen. If the nitric or muriatic acid be digested
;)nitxed oil for several months, it passes to a state re-
aanbng wax. Wax, by repeated distillations, affords an
,1‘ yck possesses all the properties of volatile oils. It
> raliced into water and carbonic acid by combustion,
tejolouring matter of wax is insoluble in water and in
ilcoll
Fi>d alkalies dissolve wax, and render it soluble in
'‘4ei It is this saponaceous solution which forms the
)unHlvax. It may be used as the basis of several colours,
orl
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\m
\m
u
Me
gR
nic
[for
Hi
towrb
Sith;
iesi]4
iUF1
iU,t
:dtlie
1UG
ijerat,
wilhe
1UJI
'y-ii'at,
IN. :
iUSi
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1VE,
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;* olid
WAY 821
and may be made into an excellent paste for washing the Way.
hands. Ammoniac likewise dissolves it; and as this sol- ^
vent is evaporable, it ought to be preferred when it is pro¬
posed to use the wax as a varnish.
From the common yellow wax, by bleaching, is formed
white wax, sometimes called, very improperly, virgin-wax.
The greater the surface is in proportion to the quantity,
the sooner and more perfectly this operation is performed.
The usual way is to melt the wax in hot water. When
melted, they press it through a strainer of tolerably fine
linen, and pour it into round and very shallow moulds.
When hardened by cooling, it is taken out and exposed to
the sun and air, sprinkling it now and then with water, and
often turning it: by this means it soon becomes white.
The best sort is of a clear and almost transparent whiteness,
dry, hard, brittle, and of an agreeable smell, like that of
the yellow wax, but much weaker.
The common yellow wax is of very great use both in
medicine and in many of the arts and manufactures, it has
sometimes been given internally in dysenteries and erosions
of the intestines ; but its great use is in the making of oint¬
ments and plasters, and the greater part of those of the
shops owe their consistence to it. The white wax is also
an ingredient in some of the cerates and ointments of the
shops; and it is used in making candles, and in many of
the nicer arts and manufactures where wax is required.
Sealing- Wax, or Spanish Wax, is a composition of
gum-lac, melted and prepared with resins, and coloured
with some suitable pigment. There are two kinds of seal¬
ing-wax in use ; the one hard, intended for sealing letters,
and other such purposes; the other soft, designed for re¬
ceiving the impressions of seals of office to charters, pa¬
tents, and such written instruments. The best hard red
sealing-wax is made by mixing two parts of shell-lac, well
powdered, and resin and vermilion, powdered, of each one
part, and melting this combined powder over a gentle fire ;
and when the ingredients seem thoroughly incorporated,
working the wax into sticks. Seed-lac may be substituted
for the shell-lac ; and instead of resin, boiled Venice tur¬
pentine may be used. A coarser hard red sealing-wax may
be made by mixing two parts of resin and of shell-lac, or
vermilion and red lead, mixed in the proportion of one
part of the vermilion to two of the red lead, of each one
part, and proceeding as in the former preparation. For a
cheaper kind, the vermilion may be omitted, and the shell-
lac also for very coarse uses. Wax of other colours is
made by substituting other colouring matters for vermi¬
lion, as verditer for blue, ivory black for black wax. For
uncoloured soft sealing-wax, take of bees’ wax one pound,
of turpentine three ounces, and of olive oil one ounce ;
place them in a proper vessel over the fire, and let them
boil for some time; and the wax will then be fit to be
formed into rolls or cakes for use. For red, black, green,
blue, yellow, and purple soft sealing-wax, add to the pre¬
ceding composition an ounce or more of any ingredients
directed above for colouring the hard sealing-wax, and stir
the mass till the colouring ingredients be incorporated with
the wax.
WAY, a passage or road. The Roman ways were di¬
vided into consular, praetorian, military, and public ; and of
these we have four remarkable ones in England. The first
is Watling Street or Watheling Street, leading from Dover
to London, Dunstable, Towcester, Atherston, and the Se¬
vern, extending as far as Anglesea in Wales. The second,
called Hihenild or Ikenild Street, stretches from Southamp¬
ton over the river Isis at Newbridge; thence by Camden
and Litchfield ; then passes the Derwent near Derby, and
ends at Tynemouth. The third, called Fosse-way, because
in some places it w^as never perfected, but lies as a large
ditch, leads from Cornwall through Devonshire, by Teth-
bury, near Stow in the Wold, and beside Coventry, to
822
W E A
W E A
"Wayghtes Leicester, Newark, and so to Lincoln. The fourth, called
w Erming or Erminage Street, extends from St David’s, in
Wales, to Southampton.
^ WAYGHTES, or Waits, a word which is used only in
the plural number, and signifies hautboys. It is now ap¬
plied to the performers on these and other musical instru¬
ments, by a transition from the instruments themselves, and
particularly to those performers who parade the streets by
night, about the Christmas season of the year.
WAYGIOU. See Wageeo.
WA YTE, a rocky island in the Straits of Macassar, near
the west coast of Celebes. Long. 119. IS. E. Lat. 0. 40. S.
WAYWODE is a title formerly given to the governors
of the chief places in the dominions of the czar of Muscovy.
The palatines or governors of provinces in Poland also bore
the quality of waywodes or waiwodes. The Poles likewise
called the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia waywodes, as
esteeming them no other than on the footing of governors,
pretending that Wallachia and Moldavia are provinces of
Poland. Everywhere else these are called hospodars. Du
Cange says, that the name waywode is used in Dalmatia,
Croatia, and Hungary, for a general of an army ; and Leun-
clavius, in his Pandects of Turkey, tells us it usually signi¬
fies captain or commander.
WEARY Bay, on the north-east coast of New Holland,
south of Endeavour River.
WEATHER. The term weather is used, in the popular
sense which is commonly attached to the word, to express
the general condition of the atmosphere resulting from heat
or cold, tranquillity or commotion, dryness or humidity, in
all its modifications of visible and invisible vapour, together
with the other variable phenomena accompanying the me¬
teorological changes which are exhibited in ceaseless rota¬
tion by that great mass of attenuated matter. There being
no department of physical inquiry where the desire of
knowledge and the gratification of a rational curiosity is so
constantly and inseparably connected with our personal
comfort, the state of the weather has, in all ages and in
every country, occupied a large share of the attention of na¬
turalists, as well as of ordinary observers. It is not a little
remarkable, however, that notwithstanding the general in¬
terest which the subject is fitted to excite, and the constant
attention that has been devoted to it, there is no branch of
science in which, with all the advantages of accurate instru¬
ments and accumulated observations, there is less of syste¬
matic and well-established principles, or more of arrogant
and unfounded pretension. This must be ascribed, not so
much to the defective state of our knowledge concerning
the actual condition of that portion of the atmosphere which
is within the immediate sphere of our observation, as to the
fact that the causes which contribute to produce changes
in the meteorological phenomena which it exhibits in some
particular geographical situation, frequently have their origin
in regions far beyond the reach of the observer; and hence
predictions respecting the state of the weather must be
founded more upon conjectures suggested by a cautious
induction than upon the indications of instruments which,
however well fitted to give precise and accurate information
respecting the condition of the surrounding air with regard
to pressure, temperature, or humidity, furnish no means of
discovering the remote causes by which that condition was
produced, or may be afterwards affected and even entirely
subverted.
It may be hoped, however, that the efforts which have
been lately made for the erection of magnetic and meteo¬
rological observatories in almost every important station of
the globe, and the liberal encouragement which has been
granted by the various governments of Europe for supplying
these establishments with suitable instruments, under th
perintendence of skilful observers, will, at no distant period" si
furnish precise and accurate data for determinino- the '
multaneous condition of the atmosphere over an exten ;SI"
portion of the surface of the earth, and thus enabling usT
ascertain whether the meteorological appearances which di°
tinguish different seasons are altogether of an anomalou"
character; or, otherwise, to what extent they are, like other
physical phenomena, the result of fixed and invariable lawj
which, though involved in obscurity as to their mode 0f
action, do not fail, after a certain lapse of time, to display
their operation by the periodical revolutions in the weather
to which they give birth.
Though this country can scarcely claim the honour of
having first set the example to other states, of engaging with
zeal and alacrity in this great and important undertakhw
it must be admitted that the British Association for the
Advancement of Science has contributed in no small degree
to draw the attention of other learned bodies to the subject,
while it has annually devoted a considerable portion of its
funds to the investigation of objects which are calculated to
throw great light upon the leading principles of meteorology.
At the recommendation of that institution, the British go¬
vernment has established magnetic and meteorological ob¬
servatories at various places in the empire, as well as in the
colonies, particularly at Greenwich, Dublin, Plymouth, the
Cape of Good Hope, Van Diemen’s Land, Madras, Sinca-
pore, Simla in the Himalaya range, Aden in the Arabian
Gulf, and Toronto in Canada. It has also furnished instru¬
ments to the observatories established at Breslau in Prussia,
at Hammerfest in Norway, as well as to those established
at Cairo and at Algiers. The liberal and enlightened views
evinced by the British government for the support of these
institutions have been followed by corresponding efforts on
the part of other civilized states; and accordingly we learn
that establishments for similar purposes are now fixed at
St. Petersburg, Kasan, Catherinebourg, Barnaoul, NicolaiefF,
and various other places in the Russian empire, as well as
at Berlin, Brussels, Copenhagen, Gottingen, Gotha, Ha¬
nover, Heidelberg, Leipzig, Milan, Munich, Philadelphia,
Prague, Upsala, &c.
It is only by the co-operation of numerous observers pur¬
suing with regularity and perseverance a system of judicious
observations, at stations so remote from each other, that we
can obtain, in the first place, an accurate register of the
meteorological phenomena which are connected with geo¬
graphical position, and be afterwards enabled to apply suit¬
able equations to the general laws by which these pheno¬
mena are regulated, for the purpose of adapting them to
the local peculiarities which distinguish the climates of par¬
ticular places. Many years may be necessary for the full
development of these laws; but already have the magnetic
observations recorded at stations separated widely by dis¬
tance indicated the existence and operation of a diffusive
principle, probably of a thermo-electric character, which,
exerting its influence in the bowels of the earth, is capable
of producing contemporaneous magnetic effects of the most
palpable kind at the surface. The relation subsisting be¬
tween caloric and the distribution of the electric fluid may
lead us to expect from these observations new discoveries
respecting the mysterious laws which govern the periodical
and secular changes of terrestrial temperature that have so
long perplexed geologists, and may thus authorize us to an¬
ticipate some of the great thermal revolutions to which our
globe is from time to time exposed. For further informa¬
tion on this subject, the reader may consult the articles Ba-
rometer, Climate, Clouds, Cold, Evaporation, Hy-
GEOMETRY, METEOROLOGY. TEMPERATURE. (V* V. V.)
ra
'arts
823
WEAVING.
Vi wing is the art of arranging yarn or thread of vari¬
ous laterials, flax, cotton, wool, silk, &c., so as to form
(iotl In all woven cloths, of whatsoever material, one
,ySt( i of threads is made to pass alternately under and
ovenuiother system of threads, so as to resemble, when
old p to the light, a piece of close net-work.
Tinigh, for the sake of effecting this in less time, and
withl-SS labour, than common instruments are capable of,
steaa power, and somewhat complicated machinery, have
beertresorted to, a very simple contrivance is all that is
absoitely necessary to accomplish the object. The threads,
whid run longitudinally, or from end to end of the piece,
and diich are called the warp, or, among the silk-weavers,
the akie (from /a chaine, Fr.), must be arranged evenly
side y side. There must then be some contrivance, first,
to ise every alternate thread, and therefore half the
threils which form the warp; second, to pass the thread
whiii forms the weft between the alternate threads so
raisi?; and, lastly, to strike home the thread of weft so
jiassil through. The process is then repeated by depress¬
ing ;e half of the threads previously raised, and raising the
lialfl’eviously depressed; by again passing the weft through
andltriking it home ; and so on until the whole warp is
come tel y wefted. The instrument for effecting this is
call! a loom, the different improvements of which we shall
herufter describe.
Te art of weaving was probably known before that of
spin ng. Many of the rude nations with which we have
becfie acquainted, even within the last century, have
pransed the former, while they have been completely igno-
rannf the latter. The fibrous parts of many plants, and
eve: the bark of some trees, afford a thread which bar-
bans nations know how to weave into a species of mat¬
ting Specimens of this kind of weaving—for such it
rauisbe deemed, though perhaps not produced by the loom
—ai to be found in the British Museum ; and the mats of
the t ew Zealanders, made from what has been called the
Nei Zealand flax (phormium ten ax), are of this character.
Na;i even the most savage nations seem to have known
hovito avail themselves of the felting property of wool be-
fortiEven the knowledge of weaving. (Woon, and its
Maijfactures.) Other substances are also made to co-
her together, apparently after being reduced to a pulp,
as icthe manufacture of paper. We have before us a New
Zefund production of this character, made of the fibre of
thehormium tenax; but the matting to which we have
allied must be familiar to every reader of any one of the
inslllictive compilations of voyages among barbarous na¬
tion; books which are now happily multiplied at a very
mo s rate price, and in every variety of form.
le art of weaving from spun yarn is of very remote
ant nty. In the linen cloths in which the mummies
are nveloped, we have specimens of one of the woven
i’abi's of ancient Egypt. From the nations of the east, a
knoledge of weaving gradually spread to the west, where
it h; rapidly improved ; while in the east it remains nearly
wh: it was in the most ancient times ; and the very per-
fecr tate of the manufacture shows with what rude instru-
roo's it is possible to produce the most perfect plain
fabji's.
tis difficult to say when the art of weaving found its way
inti his country. Caesar states that it was not known when he
invked the island. This however has been contradicted,
thogh we are at a loss to know on what authority. It is
praffily from a mere inference, that as the Gauls introduced
otl) arts into Britain, they may have introduced the art
of weaving from spun yarn. As for the mere art of matting, Weaving,
that was probably practised by them as we find it among >—-v—^
all barbarous nations.
Among the Romans, when they invaded Britain, the
manufactures of cloth and linen were in great perfection,
and it is well known that they had a manufactory at Win¬
chester ; but it does not appear that in the Saxon times
manufactures were much attended to. A specimen of very
ancient manufacture is still preserved in the cathedral of
Bayeux. It is % web of linen sixty-seven yards long, em¬
broidered with a history of the conquest of England by
William the Norman, commencing with Harold’s embassy,
and ending with the battle of Hastings and Harold’s death
in 1066. This specimen of ancient art is supposed to have
been executed by Matilda, the wife of the conqueror; but
although it may have been embroidered in England, the
cloth on which the figures are wrought was probably the
production of some other country.
After the Norman invasion, manufactures seem to have
sprung up in England, having probably met with some en¬
couragement from the conqueror; and this'seems the more
probable, from the fact that the business of manufactures
was for many centuries chiefly in the hands of foreigners.
For two or three centuries after the conquest, the only-
records to be found of manufactures consist in the pream¬
bles of antiquated statutes for the regulation of the trade in
wool and woollens (See the article Wool, and its Manu¬
factures); but even these only show that England was
immeasurably behind her neighbours in ingenuity and skill;
and it was not until the reign of Edward III. that the en¬
couragement of foreign artisans was systematically attended
to. By that monarch, direct encouragement was given to
foreign weavers and cloth-workers; and the establishment
of some Brabant weavers, who settled in York, soon gave a
great reputation to that city.
But that which promoted the establishment of manufac¬
tures in this country to a far greater extent than direct
encouragement, was the persecutions to which, from time
to time, the Flemish and French manufacturers were sub¬
jected. The persecution of the duke of Alva, for instance,
in 1576, drove a large number of Flemish weavers to this
country, who introduced the manufacture of baizes, serges,
and crapes, in various parts of England; and the revoca¬
tion of the edict of Nantes had the same effect in import¬
ing the silk manufacture into this country. It is said that
the persecutions of Louis XIV. drove about 50,000 manu¬
facturers to England.
A reference to the several articles on cotton, linen, silk,
and woollen manufactures, will show the very remarkable
manner in which our manufactures have grown up of late
years; and it will at once be seen, that our present supe¬
riority is owing much more to improved methods of spinning
than to any improvement in weaving. The steam or power-
loom, though it is certainly very superior, in its results to
the common hand-loom, and still more so to the loom of
the East Indies, does not exhibit that marked superiority
which the mule does to the ancient spinning-wheel,
or the still more ancient distaff. To the multiplication of
the spindle in the form of the jenny, the throstle, and the
mule, we are indebted for our pre-eminence in the cotton
manufacture ; and although great improvements are visible
in every branch of our manufactures, the whole of these
taken together do not constitute so complete a revolution
as the improvements of Arkwright, Crompton, and Kelly,
and the application of steam by Watt.
We have already shown how few and simple are the
824
WEAVING.
Weaving, operations necessary to perfect weaving. The loom of the
Hindu has been described in the article Cotton Manu¬
factures. In Baines’s history of that branch of our industry
are some characteristic figures of the Hindu manufacture in
all its stages; and when it is considered that the muslins of
the. east have never been surpassed, the truth of the above
proposition will at once be admitted. To perform the
same operation equally well, but in less time and at a less
cost, has always been deemed an object of sufficient import¬
ance to occupy the attention of men of superior intelligence
and energy; and although much has been done within the
last sixty or eighty years, there is still ample room for im¬
provement.
The common European loom, which is one stage in ad¬
vance of the rude loom of the Hindu, has, been essentially
the same for centuries. The loom itself indeed remains
unaltered, and it is only in the mode of throwing the shut¬
tle that any improvement has taken place. Of that im¬
provement we shall presently speak.
The loom consists, first, of a strong frame-work of four
upright posts, with beams at top from post to post, some¬
thing like a four-post bedstead. It is further strengthened
by two longitudinal pieces of wmod, in which the posts rest,
with two similar pieces about half way up, with cross pieces
at each end. These form the frame-work of the loom, and
it must be obvious that their arrangement is of little mo¬
ment.
The essential parts of the loom consist of, 1st, the appara¬
tus for stretching the warp; 2d, the simple contrivance for
raising half the strings of the warp and depressing the other
half, so as to open a space for the weft to be cast through;
3d, the instrument for casting the weft between the opened
threads of the w'arp; and, 4th, that for striking it home.
At one end ol the frame above described, is a beam call¬
ed the warp-beam, round which the longitudinal yarns
which form the warp are wound. This beam is, in some
better made looms, a well-rounded roller, but in the looms
generally in use, even at this time, it is but rudely rounded ;
it has, in fact, the appearance of an originally square beam,
with the edges roughly taken off.
At the other end of the loom is another and correspond-
ing beam, called the cloth-beam, on which the woven por¬
tion of the work is wound. This cloth-beam is generally
more carefully constructed than the warp-beam. It is fur¬
nished with a rack-wheel, for the purpose of letting in or
winding on the doth, as portions of it become woven. This
keeps it in a state of tension, with the aid of a pulley;
sometimes an iron weight, but often a stone, slung over
the warp-beam. As the web is wound on the cloth-beam,
the unwoven warp is of course wound off the warp-beam,
the whole being kept distended during the progress of the
work.
We now come to the arrangement for raising the threads
or yarns of the warp, half and half alternately. Slung across
two pulleys at the top of the frame-work of the loom, are
two pieces of wood, called, with the apparatus attached to
them, heddles. Ihese pieces of wood are of length just
equal to the breadth of the cloth to be woven." If the
warp consist of 100 yarns or threads, each of these heddles
has fifty pieces of twine descending about a foot below the
warp, with a loop or eye-let hole, through each of which a
thread of the warp passes alternately. The hanging ends
of these pieces of twine are attached to two pieces of wmod
similar to the heddles, and are made fast to two treadles, so
that when one treadle is pressed down with the weaver’s
foot, half the yarns of the w'arp will be raised, and the others
depressed, so as to give to the warp an opening which,
on a side view, has the appearance of an elongated lozenge.
This opening is called the shed, and should "be about two
inches between the yarns.
It is in the shuttle, the instrument for passing the weft
between the opened warps, and the batten nr in.,
for striking the weft home, that thn rumeni "
for striking the weft home, that the great -
tween the Hindu and the European loom consists i"
Hindu shuttle was, and we believe still is in - lfte
thing like a long netting-needle ; and when the weamT'
passed the weft, the same instrument serves him to 1 r
home; but in the European loom they are distinct i™ ,?
ments, though intimately connected in the same nm-ev r
the loom. We shall now describe both.
The batten, which is also called the lay or lathe
sists of a moveable swing frame, suspended to a eZ'
bar resting easily upon the upper bars of the loom. From
this cross beam descend two swords, as they are called t
the bottom of which is a sort of shelf, called the shuttle
race. The two ends of this shuttle-race are closed up at
the sides, so as to form short troughs, in which two move
able pieces of wood, called pickers, or peckers, traverse
along pieces of wire extending only the length of the two
troughs, or each about one quarter of the length of the bat¬
ten. To each of these two pickers is fastened a strine
both strings loosely meeting at a handle which is held in
the right hand of the weaver. When the shuttle is in one
of the troughs, a smart jerk or pull at the picker projects
the shuttle along the shuttle-race, and another sharp'jerk
or pull in the contrary direction projects it the other wav.
Formerly the shuttle wms thrown by the hand, but about
one hundred years ago, the picker, or fly-shuttle, was in¬
vented by one John Kay of Bury, in Lancashire; but it
was opposed by the workmen, and not generally adopted
for some time after. It nearly doubled the produce of a
man’s labour.
The reed is a frame with pieces of cane or wire fixed at
equal distances upon the shuttle-race, and not unlike a comb
in appearance. The canes or wires of the reed are called
the dents (no doubt from the French dents, teeth); the
yarns of the w\arp pass between them, and they serve to
keep the work even, and to strike home the weft evenly.
The reed is kept firmly in its place by a piece of wood fit¬
ting closely over it. This is called the cap or lay-cap, and
the weaver, while working, holds it firmly grasped in his
left hand.
The shuttle is a small piece of wood, pointed at each
end, and hollowTed in the middle, to contain the bobbin of
yarn which is to form the weft. There is a small hole at
the side of the shuttle called the eye, through which the
yarn runs freely at each pick or jerk of the picker. On
Fig. 1.
WEAVING.
Fig. 3.
th under side of the shuttle are two small wheels, travers-
/ in very freely on their axes, on which the shuttle travels
to id fro along the shuttle-race.
I ihis description will be Fig. 2.
pevctly intelligible to the
reiser by an examination of
tkmnexed cuts, which we
ne^ not encumber by re-
fenice marks, as they appear
to s to be rendered un-
nei-ssary by the manner in
whh our description is di-
vioih Figure 1 represents
th(;iom, with the warp ex-
teraid; fig. 2 is the batten,
witrthe reed, the picker, and
theihuttle-race ; and fig. 3
is t(! shuttle.
leliminary to the operation of weaving, there
is r ch to be done in the way of preparation, which
it ijiecessary that we should describe.
' ic yarn, as it comes from the spinner, whether
intuded for the warp or the weft, is usually in
ban; of a known length. The yarn destined for
thecarp is wound off upon little spools of wood
calil bobbins. For this purpose the hank is pla-
ceuipon a reel, from which it is wound upon the
bohin by a child.
' ie next process is that of warping, which is
simiy stretching the number of threads necessary
to l m the warp equally, and laying them parallel
toe ih other. Phis is usually done by means of a warping
miliis it is usually called, which consists of two parts, name¬
ly, vertical frame or rack in which the bobbins are placed,
ant the reel on to which the warp is wound. The vertical
fran is constructed so as to allow about fifty bobbins to be so
fixet as to revolve easily, and as to keep the yarn as it leaves
theiobbin at equal distances. The several yarns are then
brotht to a focus, as it were, and made to pass through what
is cited a heck-box, whence it is wound round a large reel,
so nstructed in point of size as to gauge or measure off
thetrarp. The reel is six feet in diameter and seven or
eig in height, and is made to revolve by an endless rope
p>s«ig round two wheels, one of which is turned by the
"ai t. In order that the warp may be wound spirally on
theiiiel, the heck-box, containing the rollers which guide
thenrns, is made to rise and fall by a simple contrivance.
It i nade to slide up and down one of the upright support¬
ers a the reel by being suspended from a cord, which,
pas!»g over a wheel or pulley, winds round the axle of the
reelnr is unwound, according to the way in which the reel
•s titled.. One sixth part of the warp is usually wound off
t e obbins at once. When the first portion of yarn is
word off, the clue or end of the yarns is crossed over pins
pro iting from the frame of the reel, and the reel is turned
el verse way, so that the yarn from the next set of bob-
*nidescends by the descending motion of the heck-box,
comning the guide-rollers. This process is repeated
®C' ards and forwards until the whole warp is completed,
^ fl it is taken from the reel, and wound upon a stick in-
0 b undle or large ball, the different doublings of the suc-
e portions of the warp, as above described, forming
"j-Pkte crossings, in appearance not unlike a ball of lamp
. Jl on a gigantic scale. The equal portions of the warp
j e weaver in counting the yarns thereof.
■'ides this division, the warp-mill makes another, which
Wtes the yarns alternately, so as to facilitate their alter-
i Arrangement in the geer or heddles. In the heck-
x s we have already explained, are the guide-pins, which
0Jct ^le yarns from the vertical frame to the reel. The
P6 ion of these pins it is almost impossible to understand
•l. xxi.
825
ZtB:tZith0M The pins are inserted in Weaving,
two separate p.eces of wood alternately. One piece of' s--
Z°rnlr vL?7 T^"1116 f°r *he “ taP£Cse.ht
the two slrt of rh'S 0CCITn? “ Space or division httwwn
the two sets of yarns, in which a wooden peg is placed
tWres^TfalharTM8 then raiSed by simi^
e result is that the alternate yarns are crossed over the
ends of the intermediate yarns. This is called the lease,
and is carefully tied up so as to guide the weaver when he
Deams the warp.
In the state in which the warp is wound off the reel as
just described, it is delivered to the weaver; but before5he
winds it on to the warping beam, it must be sized. This
consists in treating the warp with some glutinous solution,
size or starch, for mstance ; the object being to render the
yarns or threads of the warp smooth and even for wefting
Ibis is done sometimes by the hand and sometimes by a
machine. Generally it is dipped into the warm size, and
squeezed by the hands and dipped again, until it is thoroughly
soaked through. The machines in use merely imitate this
process, the yarn being dipped and passed through rollers
twice or thrice, by which the size or starch is introduced
into the interstices of the yarn. It is then dried, in the
case of woollen yarn, by being spread out in a field, and in
other cases in a drying-house for the purpose. When thus
sized, the yarn is ready for the loom.
1 he.perfect equality of tension to which the warp is sub¬
jected in the loom, is of the greatest importance to the per¬
fection ot the cloth. If some of the yarns be looser than
the rest, the cloth will be of unequal strength, and uneven
to the eye, and its value will be less in proportion. The
first operation towards extending the warp is framing or
winding it on to the warp-beam: equality of tension much
depends on skilful beaming. In order that the warp may
be laid evenly on the beam, an instrument is used similar
to the reel already described, except that it is not so fine.
It is called a ravel or separator, and is composed of strips of
cane fastened into a rail of wood, and secured at the upper
part or extremities of the teeth by another piece of wood
called the cape. This cape is moveable, and before it is
put on, the yarns of the warp are passed between the teeth
of the ravel, and the cape is put down to secure the yarns
in their places. This being done, the warp is gradually and
carefully wound upon the beam in the order in which it is
destined to be wound off in the process of weaving.
In very broad goods, whether of cotton, linen, or woollen,
the co-operation of several hands is necessary to the effect¬
ing of this process. Two persons must hold the ravel, one
at least must watch the proper tension of the threads, and a
fourth gradually turns the beam. In this the weavers aid
each other.
The French weavers have an additional process, which
certainly produces better beaming, and perhaps even saves
time. Before passing the yarns through the ravel, the warp
is wound from the bale on to a small reel: from this reel the
yarns are drawn through the teeth of the ravel by the mere
winding of the beam, equality of tension being preserved
by a weight attached to the reel.
The warp being now upon the beam, every yarn has to
be passed through a loop or eye of the heddles: this is
called drawing. Two rods of wood are first inserted into what
is called the lease, that is, the two crossings formed by the
guide-pins of the warping mill, as already described. These
rods are tied firmly together at the ends, the original ties
are cast off, and the warp is spread out to its proper breadth.
The effect of these lease-rods is to keep the alternate yarns
which pass through one heddle from the intermediate yarns
which pass through the other.
The warp-beam is suspended behind the heddles, and the
passing of the yarns through the loops is done by two per¬
sons, the weaver and his assistant. The former, being in
5 M
826
WEAVING.
Weaving, front of the heddles, opens the loops; and the latter, select-
'‘""''v"—'*' ing the proper thread, which, as we have explained, cannot
well be mistaken, delivers it to be drawn through the open
loop or eye. This being done, the yarns are drawn through the
reed by a hook called the reed-hook or sley. Two threads
pass through each interval of the reed, the one below and
the other above the warp: and in order to preserve this
division, there is another rod of wood, which divides the
warps into what are called spitfuls, the division being just
the reverse of the lease-rods. By these several contriv¬
ances, the threads of the warp are so easily distinguished,
that if one break in the course of weaving, a very common
occurrence in the case of a break-warp, it is easily traced
and taken up.
The accuracy of the lease being thus carefully preserved,
the cords which move the heddles are attached. This is so
arranged that the motion communicated by the heddle is
continuous, that is, while one heddle is depressed, the other
must be equally raised, so that the warp is opened equally,
as already described. The reed is now attached to the
lay or batten, and is kept firmly in its place by the cap,
and the whole is so nicely hung as not to overstrain the
weaver’s arm in striking the weft home. An ill-poised bat¬
ten creates great fatigue; and to avoid this, and perform its
work effectually, it should be hung midway between the
heddle and the woven portion of the work. The whole
distance between the last woven shoot of the weft, called
thefall, and the heddle, forms the space in which the bat¬
ten describes its arc; and the greater it is, the harder the
stroke. In light goods it is accordingly small, in heavy
goods greater; and as this also in part depends upon the
length of the sivord, or pendulous portion of the batten, the
whole must necessarily bear a proportion to the size of the
loom. The loom for narrow and light goods is small in all
its parts ; the loom for broad and heavy goods is of course
large and strong. Properly poised, the batten returns to
its position by its own weight as soon as the stroke is made.
All that now remains to lie done is to knot the near ends
of the warp into small portions, and to tie them to a shaft
attached to the cloth-beam. The warp-beam being pro¬
perly adjusted, and the due degree of tension being given
to the warp lying thus evenly between the two beams, the
weaver’s operations may commence.
The weaving of coarse, light, narrow cottons, linens, and
stuffs, is so extremely simple, that children are soon able
to perform it; but the finer descriptions of fabrics re¬
quire more skill, and it is only a very few that can be¬
come first-rate workmen. It has been calculated that out
of 10,000 hand-loom weavers in Leeds and the clothing
the reed, and also to undue stress of the warp. The threads We
or yarns consequently break, and this is one of the great^
causes of delay, and of the small earnings of some weavers
compared with others.
2. The weft is now shot by the jerk of the picker already
~— —  j v v.* cmrqgY
described ; and although swift wefting is a great object with
i 1    — *4. 414" ♦‘.Til nrt Vi TT +V»/-4 (*
the weaver, it must not be attained by the mere force of
the shoot or pick, as that would cause the shuttle to recoil
and bring back, and therefore loosen the yarn of the weft. ’
3. The weft is beaten close by the batten or lay. Here
again the degree of force is of the utmost importance, and
this is a matter of extreme difficulty to regulate, because
the wrought portion of the web is wound on to the cloth-
beam at intervals, so that as the wefting proceeds, the arc
described by the batten is diminished, and the force of the
stroke becomes less and less. The cloth should be taken
up as frequently as possible, so as to preserve the equality
of the wefting.
A patent was obtained in 1803, for a simple method of
continually turning round the cloth-beam as the work pro¬
ceeded, so as to wind on or let in the cloth shoot by shoot,
with every stroke of the batten. This was easily effected
by a racket, fixed on the end of the cloth-beam, with a catch
moved by the stroke of the batten by one tooth at a time.
Such an apparatus is attached to every power-loom; hut,
strange to say, simple as it is, it has not been universally
adopted among the hand-loom weavers.
Making allowance for the difference of force and nicety,
all kinds of weaving are really the same in principle. Nay,
even the most complicated figures depend chiefly on the
number of yarns raised together, and the number depressed,
while the power-loom has not one feature different from
what we have described, except as regards the source of
motion ; a point which should be always kept in view.
In the progress of the work, some kinds of yarn, in
addition to the dressing and sizing of the w^arp before it
is tied in, require a further dressing as they stand in the
loom. This dressing is not required by woollen warps, and
is decidedly injurious to silk; but in the case of flax and
cotton it is absolutely necessary, in order to lay the fibres
close. It is composed of some glutinous substance, which
is applied with a brush to that portion of the warp which
lies between the heddles and the warp-beam. As the dressed
portion of the yarn is wrought, the process must be re¬
peated. Besides laying the fibres of the yarn, the dressing
gives strength and tenacity, and greatly facilitates the ope¬
ration of the batten. It diminishes friction, and renders
the cloth, when finished, equal, even, and smooth.
Various substances have been recommended for dressing
the warp, but they all consist of the farina of grain or
villages around, less than 150 were able to earn the very —j ---    „ .
highest wages in the market; and the difference of skill and toes, made into a gelatinous paste, similar to that used DJ
speed was so great, that of two weavers working together in bookbinders. An inconvenience to which this is ia e
the same factory, at the same kind of work, one earned from the hard and glassy substance it forms when d ied,
nearly twice as much as the other. “ One man having had hence it must be applied only to so much of the warpj
a full average of good work, has made in these six months can be woven at once. Every weaver however has hi o«n
16s. 4d. a week; the man on the next loom to him has method of using the dressing, so as to remedy this ditticuuy
earned in the same time, and with the same work, 24s. a Some mix salt with the dressing, others apply grease
week ; the best weaver we have has earned, with not quite warp is drying; indeed this last method is generally aa p
such good work, in the same time, 28s. a week. Here to facilitate the process of weaving. ,
then we have a difference arising out of skill, strength, and So important has the dressing of the warps een
diligence alone, excluding greater duration of labour, of that it has been the subject of several pa en s. J
nearly SO per cent.”1 Mr Foden recommended the addition of d
The distinct operations performed by the weaver are as gypsum, alum, and sugar; and in 1801 Mr wi
follows 1 patent for a method of preparing the starch of potatoes.
1. The treadle is pressed down by the foot, so as to raise 1800, Mr Stuart took out a patent for starching cotton
one heddle and depress the other. This must be done in the cop; andin 1805 Mr Peter Marslandobtaine ^ ^
with force duly proportioned to the work in the loom. Too patent for the same object, by subjecting ? ^
strong a pressure on the treadle subjects the yarns of the action of hot starch in an exhausted receiver, whereby
warp to unnecessary friction, both from the heddles and starch was made to penetrate to t e very cen _
1 Assistant Hand-Loom Commissioners’ Reports. Chapman, part iii. p. 530.
*:
'lit
in O'
WEAVING.
icli fabrics as do not require dressing, silk and woollen,
'for nstance, require the yarn to be cleared from time to
tjr, with a comb, in order to remove obstructions, which
tni st impede their progress through the reed. The comb
removes many inequalities, but such as do not yield
to are removed either by a pair of nippers or a pair of
gcftors. In what the weavers call bad, that is, unequal
wa;s, this clearing takes up a considerable portion of their
tim The inequality and weakness of a warp is a great
evUas more time is occupied in clearing and tying than
in feaving, and wages, already inadequate, are thereby
rerbred insufficient to the support of life. Many kinds
of brics, such, for instance, as the finer kinds of worsted
goes, namely, double twilled shalloons, called by the Lon-
doiiihopkeepers “ French merinoes,” wildbores, &c. re-
qui picking after weaving, that is, going over the work
wit a pair of steel nippers, and taking off knots, threads,
aixiother imperfections left by the process of weaving.
If :j weaver do this for himself, as he often does, it will
talslfabout one third as much time as the weaving; but
thi!soften done by the wife, and perhaps still more fre-
qmitly by the weaver and his wife together.1
i } ch is the ordinary process of weaving in the common
Bri'h, or, more properly speaking, European loom, in
wlin a large proportion of the textile fabrics are still pro-
duul.2 It now remains to notice the contrivances for pro-
duatg figures, and the more modern improvement of sub¬
string steam for human power; an improvement which, as
weuve already said, does not alter the nature of weaving,
butiperely regards the source of motion, and the method
of immunicating it, and of connecting the different mo¬
tion to be produced, with one single source.
•Ilf ried and complicated as figure-weaving is in practice,
it nevertheless extremely simple in principle. We have
seethat in plain weaving each yarn or thread of weft passes
oveland under the threads of warp alternately, so that the
sepiate crossings of the yarns form equilateral parallelo¬
gram, or net-like squares. In the case supposed, we have
assnied one hundred warp yarns to be so arranged that
eacipressure of the treadle raises the alternate fifty yarns,
so at the result is a plain fabric, taking up
evei alternate thread of warp. The threads,
as | have stated, will be arranged in squares, K5WW&3
vv, suppose the two heddles, instead of taking up the
altciate threads of the warp, were so arranged that one of
the; took up three threads in succession, and the other
onl one, it would follow that the threads of weft would not
app r equally exposed on the surface of the warp, but
'V01“ in some places pass over three threads,
andn others only one. The result would be a
d face, as depicted in the annexed dia-
The white portion of this figure repre-
the threads of warp, the black the threads of the
coverinsr one out of four and three out of four
827
Fis. 4.
thn
for
diff,
reqi
req;
reqi
loop.
pro.
I
thnlfls alternately. This variation of the number of
Is of warp exposed is the simplest species of figure,
can be produced by two heddles. It supposes no
nee in the yarns as compared with plain weaving; it
es no difference in the operations of the weaver; it
es no increase in the number of the heddles; all it
es is a different arrangement of the warps through the
or eyes of the heddles, and when that is done, all the
sses proceed as before.
the above description we have supposed no difference
in the colour of the warp and weft, the only alteration in Weaving.
the appearance of the cloth being produced by the threads    
of weft exposed on the surface of the warp; but it must be
evident, that if the warp yarns consist of different colours,
t le cloth produced by the loom, arranged in the ordinary
way, will be striped in the longitudinal direction of the web ;
and if the heddles be arranged as just described, the result
will be a checked fabric, and this still without any change
in the process of weaving.
I he simplest variation in the operation of weaving, is the
employment of two or more shuttles containing bobbins of
different coloured threads. If woven in the common loom,
the weaver making an equal number of shoots of two co¬
lours alternately, the cloth produced would be striped in
the transverse direction. With the heddles arranged as
above described, or with two coloured warps, any variety of
check may be produced.
F or the convenience of using two or more shuttles con¬
taining weft different in colour, fineness, or material, move-
able shuttle-boxes are employed, so contrived as to slide up
and down the swords or bars of the batten or lay, and by
means of a loom capable of being adjusted to the shuttle-
race on a level with the opposite driver.
A further means of varying the pattern consists in in¬
creasing the number of the heddles, each having a certain
proportion of the warp-yarns attached to it, and each be¬
ing moved by a separate treadle. The threads raised
cover that shoot of weft which passes over the warp
yarns not raised, and is exposed to view on their surface.
The number of threads thus raised being capable of being
varied as many times as there are heddles, being indeed
capable of an immense number of combinations, it follows
that figures may be described, or names and sentences
woven in, to suit the fancy of the w eaver, or the caprice of
his customers. It will be observed that the employment
of an additional number of heddles is only a contrivance to
increase the weaver’s means of varying the distribution of
the warp, and consequently of the weft, for the one cannot
be accomplished without the other; and when we add to
this the employment of two or more coloured warp yarns,
and of two or more coloured wefts, together with the adap¬
tation of the said colours to the figure produced by the
arrangement of the heddles, we at once perceive that the
possible combinations are extremely numerous.
Twilled fabrics are extremely various and complicated
in their character, and it is difficult to convey an idea of
their structure within the space to which we are limited.
The best way to gain a clear conception of the nature of
a twilled cloth, is to take a small piece, say of merino or
shalloon, and partially unravelling it, so as not wholly to
disengage the weft from the warp, examine its structure
through a single magnifier. It will then be seen that the
weft yarns, instead of interlacing the warp yarns alternately
and at regular intervals, as in the above figures, take up only
every third thread, and that too at irregular ^ ^
intervals, so that the interlacing marches across _ir(0' ^
the piece diagonally, and not transversely, thus:
In some of the finer fabrics, the interlacings Siri^
occur only at the fourth, fifth, or sixth threads; and it is stated
in the treatise on the silk manufacture, forming paVt of the
Cabinet Cyclopaedia, “ that in proportion as the materials
wrought are finer, longer intervals are allowed, until, in some
of the finest silks, the interlacing takes place with only each
sixteenth thread.” P. 237. To aid the reader still further in
gaining a clear conception of the nature of a twilled cloth,
)n one occasion,” says the Assistant Commissioner, “ I save a piece of shalloons woven under the following circumstances . 1. The man
tfce loom weaving ; 2. a boy often years of age was winding bobbins; 3. the wife was at her husband’s elbow picking the work ; 4. bis
“r was at the hack of the loom taking off the broken threads of the warp. When the piece was taken home, the wages would be paid
arnings of one man, yet the piece was really the work of a family.” (Assistant Commissioners Hand-Loom Reports, 1839, p. 599.)
ms been computed that there are about 85,000 power-looms and about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain.
828
WEAVING.
Weaving, we subjoin a section (all the above being in the nature of
ground plans, so to speak) cut across the piece, so as to
expose the ends of the warp and the whole course of the
weft. Here the shoot Fig. 7.
of weft passes over    
four yarns and under
one. The next shoot will pass over the one and under the
four. At the next stage of the process, the interlacing will
shift one thread laterally, so as to produce the diagonal
structure already described. We have already stated, that
by increasing the number of colours, and varying the ar¬
rangement of the heddles, a considerable number of com¬
binations may be produced. That number may, of course,
be increased by an increased number of heddles ; and the
only check to this is the want of force possessed by a single
weaver to work a large number, and the inconvenient man¬
ner in which they would crowd the space of an ordinary
loom. To remedy these inconveniences, the draw-loom
was formerly very generally resorted to, and it is now used
to a very considerable extent in weaving carpets and
figured damasks.
A reference to the article on Carpet-Weaving, and to
the plates belonging to it, will explain the general nature
of the draw-loom; but the harness part requires further
explanation. The harness of the draw-loom is so arranged
that no part of the warp is depressed, but such of the
threads as are to be above the weft are raised, and the
shuttle is passed through.1
Each cord of the harness of the draw-loom has a metallic
eye or loop for the warp, called a snail, and the cord is kept
stretched by a weight of lead. A frame C is placed hori¬
zontally over the loom, either perforated with holes or
divided by wires, so as to form guide-holes or guide-pins to
the cords of the harness. In practice the cords are very
numerous and close to each other, as in the plates already
referred to; but their operation will be best understood
by exposing a small number, as in the annexed figure,
which may be deemed an analysis of the gearing of the
draw-loom.
Fig. 8.
warp out of the weaver’s way, and so marking a certain nor
tion of the figure, so long as the portion of the warp includedy
in each set of cords affected is kept above the weft. Wh Q
the figure requires a change, the cord previously held down
is permitted to regain its position, which it does by th
combined operation of the warp yarns, and of the weights
ddd attached to the cords. Another set of threads is
then raised, and the weaver again works in the ordinary
way as long as necessary. *
But the draw-loom has of late years been to a consider-
able extent superseded by the Jacquard engine, so named"
from its inventor, a weaver of Lyon. It is not too much
to say, that this machine, simple in fact, though complicated
in its appearance, has raised the silk manufactures of
Spitalfields to their present state of excellence. Until the
introduction of this machiner the production of the superior
figured silks depended wholly on the skill of the weaver
and that to a degree which few attained. The necessity
of extreme carefulness and skill is now considerably dimi-
nished; in other words, the production of the most costly
fabrics is laid open to a larger number of operatives.
The Jacquard engine may be attached to almost any
loom, and is generally owned by the manufacturer, and is
furnished to the weaver with the warp. It is fixed to the
top of the loom, in a direction perpendicular to the har-
ness, the cords of which are attached to the lifting hooks
Every one of
aaaa
these lifting hooks is
passed perpendicularly
through an eye in a
corresponding needle
bbbb. These needles
lie in rows in the frame
c c c c. Let it be re¬
membered that the fi¬
gure is a mere skeleton
of the engine itself, as
the holes and needles
are extremely nume¬
rous, say eight rows of
fifty each, forming as
many leases in the warp.
The horizontal needles
protrude through the
frame c c 2X b b b b,
and are kept extended
in their position by
spiral springs e e e.
Fig. 9.
placed in cavities at the opposite end of the frame ««•
By this arrangement the needles have a play in the direc¬
tion of the spring. They yield to pressure, and on its
removal return to their former position. The needles have
an elongated loop at the extremity nearest the spiral
spring f f with a pin passing through it so as further to
limit the range of the needle. The following figure repre¬
sents one of these needles, with its eye-let, loop and pin, and
spring.
Fig. 10.
Immediately over the frame c c, is a corresponding fra®
The perpendicular cords A, called the simples, and termi¬
nating each in a handle called a bob, descend from the tail
of the cords, each of which passes over a pulley at B, and
is made fast to a piece of wood at D, called the table. If        . ^
one of the handles or bobs A be pulled, it will depress the g, having bars arranged across, that is, at right angles
tail of one set of cords at a, and raise the set or system of the needles. There is one bar for every row or i
cords ddd attached to it. In addition to this harness, the hooks. This frame, when the engine is hi
loom is geared in the ordinary way with heddles and their
corresponding treadles, so that the weaver works as usual;
and all that the draw-loom does, is to raise a portion of the
of lifting
2 IS in 'T '
alternately lowered upon the frame c c, and raised roal'
by a strong lever attached to the treadle and moved t er ^
When the frame is lowered, the lifting bars, the en
1 Carpet-weaving is the only branch of manufacture in which we have seen the picker or fly-shuttle dispensed with,
carpet factory at Leeds, where many colours are used in the warps, the shuttles are thrown in the primitive manner.
In
Mr Howard5
K
WEAVING.
whi i are seen at h, h, make their way immediately under
the jirved ends of the lifting hooks, so as to raise them, or
guclpf them as are not prevented from being taken up, in
the manner presently to be described, when the frame is
jaist . Supposing all the wires to be taken up, the hooks
ffiH ppear as at fig. 13 ; but that would take up the whole
829
war
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
> o ooooc o c
3 0 0 On
)0 OCOO 1
0 O O 0 C(j
> o C0° o oj j
o o o oO|.
O^COoOQ o
DO CQOCOO
cha;;
terr
perforations^ j j j in the former. The studs will be seen Weaving,
projecting from the section of the bar in fig. 13, the letter- ‘
Fig. 13.
Ii.hould be observed, that the lifting bars are shaped
like.'lunted knife-blades, having the broad part inclined
out the perpendicular, so that in descending their lower
edge steer clear of the curved head of the lifting hooks.
As*'wever they descend still farther, the flat parts of the
barsj'ress against the curved heads and force them against
the brings. The lifting bars, still continuing to descend,
at 1. gth get entirely below the curved head, when the
spins springs cause the horizontal needles, and consequently
the ding hooks, to regain their position'; and when the
fram g, with its lifting bars, is again raised, the bars must
necAarily raise the lifting hooks.
b order to prevent the taking up of the whole warp, it
willie obvious that any pressure upon any number of the
horimtal needles a.t b b will force in the spiral springs,
and thus remove the lifting hooks out of the reach of
the 'iting bars. In fig. 9, half of the hooks are so pressed
in. ,:o produce a figure, therefore, all that is necessary is
to l:/e the power of regulating the order in which the
nee<t:s b b b b are pressed forward upon the spiral springs;
and ibis is effected by means of a square revolving bar,
fig. pierced with holes corresponding in number and posi¬
tion ith the needle points bb ; and a number of perforated
carc iioards, fig. 12, which pass over it in endless succession
wit! ts revolutions.
reader will now clearly comprehend the operation of
the |r and the cards. If the bar be moved against the
fian; c c, the needle-ends b b will pass into the holes, and
lifting hooks will remain within the influence of the
liftini bars; but if the cards, fig. 12, being partly perfo¬
rate and partly whole, be placed over the perforated bar,
be obvious that such of the needles as are prevented
tron ntering the holes of the bar, by the intervention of the
unpl forated portions of the cards, will be pressed against
the rings, and the lifting hooks will be removed from the
°pe’ ion of the lifting bars; while those needles which
pass hrough the perforated portions of the cards into the
cwt ponding holes of the bar will be unaffected, and the
utii hooks connected with them will be taken up.
A the perforation of the cards is the means by which
f e irness is raised, the absence of perforation deterrnin-
,ng hat part of the warp shall not be raised, it is ne-
cm y to have one card or slip for every shoot of weft,
jroti he whole pattern is described. The whole are loose-
IJ together at the corners, so as to form an endless
one whole revolution of which completes the pat¬
's cards are exactly fitted to the bar by means of
U( * i i i upon the latter, corresponding with larger
ing of the whole of which figure corresponds with the
others, so as to enable the reader to trace each part of the
machine.
The mode of setting the Jacquard engine in operation is
as follows: The bar, fig. 11, marked k in the section, the
end only being there seen, is suspended in a frame m m by its
axis l, which is swung so as to hang something like the lay or
batten of the loom, and to move upon the side of the frame
c, through which the needle-ends protrude, and to retire
therefrom with an equable motion. It will be seen by fig. 11,
that the bar has at one end four pillars n, o, p, rj ; n, o, and
p only being seen in fig. 11. Each of these pillars is
seized in succession by the hook r, by which means each
revolution is divided into fourths. The equability and pre¬
cision of this movement is secured by the T-shaped bar,
which is pressed uniformly on the uppermost pillars by the
action of a spring.
A careful inspection of figs. 9 and 13 will now, we hope,
convey to the reader a clear conception of the manner in
which the machine works. It will be seen that a roller u is
attached to the frame ^ by a curved arm. This roller works
in a hook-shaped bar v, and as the frame g is raised, the
roller u ascends with it, and necessarily moves the frame m,
to which it is attached, away from the frame c, through
which the needle-heads project. In like manner, when the
frame g is lowered, the roller u descending with it, the
frame m, with the bar h, is permitted to approach the
needle-heads b b. The section, fig. 13, shows the frame
and bar in both positions.
The revolution of the perforated bar is provided for by
the operation of the catching hook r ; for when the bar is
in its place against the needle-heads, the hook slips over
the furthermost pillar, and there the bar would be firmly
locked against the frame c, if it did not revolve on its axis;
and it can only yield to the repelling operation of the
roller by making a quarter revolution. It will be readily
seen, that the revolution is the only means by which the
pillar of the bar is extricated from the hook.
The use of the under hook y is to reverse the operation.
The hooks r and y are connected by a cord w x, by which
the former is thrown out of action, and the latter brought
into operation. The movement of the card-slips is of
course reversed; and the weaver is enabled to repair an
830
WEAVING.
Weaving, accident, such as the breaking of a warp-yarn, so as to avoid
" any break in the pattern. The lines marked A, A repre¬
sent the chain of perforated cards.
There are many slight modifications of the Jacquard
engine in use in this country, but in principle they all
agree. Of late years, the operations of the loom and of the
Jacquard engine have been made familiar to the public in
consequence of the various galleries of practical science
and art which have sprung up in London and other cities
and towns. Seen without explanation, however, this beau¬
tiful machine appears complicated and unintelligible; but
with descriptive diagrams, its beauty and simplicity are
readily appreciated.
In figure-w'eaving, every thing depends on the proper ar¬
rangement of the warp-yarn. Whether the draw-loom or
the Jacquard engine be employed, a single yarn misplaced
must necessarily render the figure imperfect. The taking
up of the proper warp-yarns, and drawing them through
the appropriate eye or mail, is called drawing in or cording
in. To facilitate the operation, the
design or pattern is drawn upon
paper, divided into squares similar
to the patterns sold in the shops
in all our large towns for German
embroidery work. The annexed
diagram will explain the nature of
the design.
In cording in, two persons usually
work together, one taking up the threads, and the other
counting off the pattern. Thus, in the annexed figure, the
direction given to the first arrangement of the warp-yarns
could be, “ Take up one”—“ pass eight”—“ take up two”—
“ pass eight’'—“ take up two”—“ pass eight”—take up
one.” In this way he proceeds from shoot to shoot, until
the draught is completed. It will be observed that the
counting is facilitated by every ten spaces being divided by
stronger lines.
To punch the holes in the cards for the Jacquard en¬
gine, an ingenious machine is employed. It is a sort of
counterpart of the engine itself, being provided with lift¬
ing cords, wires, and needles, so arranged, that by pulling
the cords, the needle-heads are protruded. Answering to
the revolving bar, and in front of the needle-heads, is a
perforated iron plate, about two inches thick, provided
with a set of moveable punches, which are driven forward
by the protrusion of the needle-heads, and deposited in
another perforated plate temporarily placed to receive
them.
In order to move the proper cords, and so deposit the
proper punches destined to describe the pattern on the
card, the operation of drawing in is performed on a frame
provided with a number of vertical threads answering to
the warp of the goods to be woven. These threads are
taken up with a long needle by one man, another directing
as before ; and when completed, the proper threads are at¬
tached to the corresponding cords of the punching ma¬
chine, and the proper punches are deposited in the move-
able plate. This being done, the blank card is placed against
the face of the moveable plate, and against the cutting end of
the punches. Both are then removed together, and placed
upon another perforated plate, when the punches are driven
through, and the card is cut at the requisite spot. Each
card is numbered, so that there cannot be any mistake in
attaching them together ; and as every part of the punch¬
ing machine gauges with the corresponding part 0f tt w
Jacquard engine, the precision throughout is perfect, n 6 e
space wall not enable us to be more explicit, but we ^
prehend the ample explanations we have ?ivpn
...:u  • or the
Jacquard engine will render the operation of nuncbin^ .u
cards intelligible. f "“‘ngthe
We have already described the perfection which the
of automatic spinning has attained in this country; bun
must be obvious, that without the substitution of media
nical for manual power, these great inventions would have
been comparatively inoperative. The idea of anplvin!
mechanical power to weaving was promulgated by M. de
Gennes, and is mentioned in the Philosophical Traniac
tions as early as 1768. In 1787, a rude loom, moved by
mechanical power, was constructed by the Rev. Dr Can
wright, who took out a patent for it in August of that year"
The idea first obtained possession of his mind by convers¬
ing with some gentlemen of Manchester, when it was ob¬
served, that on the expiration of Arkwright’s patent, so
many spinning-mills would be created, that a sufficient num¬
ber of weavers would not be found to weave the yarn pro¬
duced.1 “ Then,” said Dr Cartwright, “ Arkwright must
set his wits to work to invent a weaving-mill.” This was pro¬
nounced impracticable ; but on his return home, Dr Cart¬
wright exerted his ingenuity, and produced his machine in
1787. He was not sufficiently acquainted with the prin¬
ciples of mechanics; and after spending about L.40,000
in a factory at Doncaster, he was compelled to abandon his
design.
In 1789, two years after the completion of Dr Cart¬
wright’s machine, Mr Austen entered a caveat at the pa¬
tent office for a patent, but he did not then prosecute it.
However, in 1798, one of his power-looms was erected by
Mr Monteith of Pollockshaws, near Glasgow; and it seems
to have been successful. It was not until 1813, after ten
years of laborious and expensive trial, that Horrocks of
Stockport constructed a power-loom, which is the basis of
Messrs Sharp and Roberts’s power-loom, the compact and
efficient machine now in use.
From the description of the ordinary loom which we have
already given, and from what w^e have said of the motions
to be produced and the method of producing them, the
reader wall have no difficulty in understanding the follow¬
ing diagram (fig. 15), exhibiting the front view of a power
cloth-loom, such as is now used in the principal factories
of Leeds.
The frame-work A A A A is of cast iron, and is made ol
great strength, so as to support the heavy work which the
cloth-loom has to undergo.
B is the breast-beam, against which the weaver stands,
and over which the woven cloth passes in its way to the
cloth-beam C, around which it is wound as the work pro¬
ceeds. The breast-beam is made smooth, the edges being
rounded, so that the cloth meets with no impediment in its
progress round the cloth-beam.
At the back of the loom is a corresponding arrangement
for the warp; that is, there is a warp-beam parallel wit
the breast-beam, and a roller parallel with the cloth-beam,
so that the plane of the warp is kept in a horizontal position-
Its tension is preserved by a weight slung round the warp
roller, and acting in a direction contrary to the winding <
cloth-beam. The manner in which this operates wi
seen by inspecting figure 16. ,
The mode of suspending the heddles is shewn by the e
1 This was afterwards the case, as indicated by the advance which took place in weavers’ wages. In the Report of the Assistan
Loom Commissioners, already quoted, we find a weaver, named John Milner, stating his earnings as follows : 1800, 10s. 1804, s-'
   ~ ' After this, the number of weavers increased rapidly. Men from the plough learned to weave cn^ ^
vvfiJii ATAiiiitri, aiauiig ma caiiuuga na ii/ixv/wo « auv/x/j • L'ldrPll tfefii
34s. fid.; 1815, 31s. fid. After this, the number of weavers increased rapidly. Men from the plough learned to weave; eni ^
taught in great numbers; and by 1830, the wages of John Milner had declined to 21s.; in 1831 they were 18s.; in 1835, J®^aDUpacturing
1838, 12s. fid. The high wages of 1814 were clearly the effect of the improvements in spinning; end it is well known in
districts, that the master-manufacturers had to seek weavers in all directions.
TWA
fariid
hi
fca
I"'tsi
eci
m
vet
'k«pi
ftili
i
■id at
fat
tetf;
ib
*
like
jiti
*
i«lii
m
^C(|
•ini
ttf
fJtJ"
fjrs < aa. In the smaller looms, used for cotton or worst-
wi ving, a single cord passing over a roller is found to be
nffic it; but in weaving broad cloths, which are set in the
)om velve quarters in width, to allow for shrinking infne
hllin and scouring, the length and weight of the gearing
equis double support.
T1 cranks, by which the lay or batten is put in motion,
9 shim in figure 18, are marked bbbb. The reader will
bseithat it is only their lower portion that can be seen,
ftihe uner part being concealed by the breast-beam.
Tkshuttle in the loom here represented is thrown by a
ingldvhip-lever in the centre of the loom, moving alter-
atel to the right and left, instead of by two levers, one
laceiat each end of the loom. The sudden jerk neces-
ary • the sharp motion of this picking lever, which, be
t ob: Ted, must imitate the sharp motion of the weaver’s
ight d, is produced by the rollers dd affixed to the
'baft |, which, at every half turn of the said shaft, strike
owr ie rollers e e alternately, and draw the whip-lever c to-
£ jard ihem by shortening the cords/1f. The picking cord
g b'bg thus alternately drawn to the right and the left,
move the shuttle along the shuttle-race h h, in a manner
iidth hich the reader must be familiar.
T1 mode of throwing the loom out of gear is that which
bust le familiar to every one who has seen machinery of
ny kid worked by a shaft and band. is a split drum,
bein connected with the shaft, and being unconnected
ben ith. It follows, that when the band is brought over
be t m l, the shaft is necessarily set in motion, whereas
ei tant it is cast off upon the loose drum m, the ma-
'binir is stopped. The band is cast off and the loom
lro' °ut of gear by means of the lever k, which, when
iush to the right, moves the forked lever which holds
i in a lateral direction sufficiently to effect the
' re 16 is an end view of the loom; X being the
oth earn, Y the roller, and Z the batten, the motion of
duci Is described by figure 18.
Air the description already given of the motions ne-
to the weaving of a piece of cloth, very little fur-
W planation is necessary to enable the reader to under-
|ie operations of the power-loom, and the manner in
^ jj [not‘on *s communicated, from its first source, to the
e b the shuttle, the batten, and the warp, all of which
orr£ nnd with unerring regularity; conducting the work
with a degree of precision which it would be wrong to say
the hand cannot attain, but which certainly can only be
achieved by the skilful few.
Fig. 16.
The motion of the heddles is produced by two eccen¬
tric wheels or tappets, acting upon two levers or treadles,
furnished with friction-
rollers. While the short Fig. 17.
radius of one tappet is
on one treadle, so as
to permit the elevation
of the corresponding
heddle, the long radius
of the other presses
down the other treadle.
Fig. 17 exhibits one of
the tappet-wheels, the
short radius pressing
upon its treadle, the dotted lines showing its position on its
832 WEB
Weber, half revolution, when the long radius is brought to operate
''"■“"V"—^ on the treadle.
The shuttle, as already stated, is thrown by means of the
whip-lever, shown in front of the plate. To this is at¬
tached the cord which moves the picker, similarly ar¬
ranged to the fly-shuttle of the hand-loom. Some looms
have two whip-levers instead of one, in which case they
are placed at the ends of the loom instead of in the centre.
In either case the rollers are so placed that they act upon
the whip-levers at the pre¬
cise moment that the hed- Fig. 18.
dies have sufficiently shed
the warp. If an inspection
of figure 15 fail to make the
reader comprehend this, a
consideration of the manner
in which the several motions
are connected, as presently
described, will remove the
difficulty.
The stroke of the batten or
lay is produced by a crank a
(fig. 18) in the main or driv¬
ing shaft, which elongates the
arm b, and moves the bat¬
ten cc forward against the
last shoot of the weft. The
dotted lines show its altera¬
tions of position. At the
first quarter turn of the
crank, it is brought to a
position horizontal with the
arm b; at the next quarter
turn, the crank is again perpendicular, and the batten is
WEB, a sort of tissue or texture formed of threads in¬
terwoven with each other ; some of which are extended in
length, and called the warp ; others are drawn across, and
called the weft or woof.
WEBER, Carl Maria Von, was born at Eutin, in
Holstein, on the 18th2 of December 1786. His father, a
lover of music and a skilful violinist, not only had him care¬
fully educated, but encouraged his musical pursuits, as well
as his fondness for painting, in which last art it appears that
he made considerable progress. The retired habits of his
family threw him early upon his own resources for amuse¬
ment, and his passion for music speedily became predomi¬
nant, and exclusive of all other occupations. As his father
often changed his place of residence, Weber’s music-
teachers were likewise often changed ; and with this disad¬
vantage, that as they did not agree in their methods and opi¬
nions, what one of them had taught, his successor untaught.
This forced Weber to reflect, and to become his own in¬
structor. In 1796-7 he received valuable lessons in piano¬
forte playing from Hauschkel of Hildburghausen. He was
next placed under the care of Michael Haydn at Salzburg
for composition, but made little progress under that mas¬
ter, who was then very old. In 1798 his first work of six
JFughetti was published at Salzburg, and was well received.
Weber then proceeded to Munich, where Valesi became
his master in singing, and Kalcher in composition. From
Kalcher he acquired much knowledge of the art of counter¬
point, which laid a solid foundation for his future studies.
While under Kalcher’s tuition, he composed his first opera,
Die Macht der Liebe and des Weins (the Power of Love
WEB
in its middle position ; at the third quarter turn the
is again horizontal with the arm, a portion of the arm h'
within the crank, and the batten being then at the ere i
distance from the last shoot of the weft, that is the ^
portion of the cloth. It is scarcely necessary to all"
that the mam, uppermost, or driving shaft E, is conn? 7
ed with the lower shaft D, to which the tappets and ie l
rollers are fixed, by means of cogged wheels. The iel
of the driving shaft being half the circumference of th
wheel of the lower shaft, the former makes two revolution!
to one of the latter, or, in other words, the driving wheel
communicates just half of its own velocity to the lower
wheel. Thus, in one revolution of the lower shaft, the
warp is shed, and the shuttle thrown twice, while, to com
plete two strokes of the batten, two revolution’s of the
driving shaft in the same time are necessary.
It must be obvious, that in consequence of the mathe¬
matical accuracy, so to speak, of which machinery is cap¬
able, the precision of these movements is very great; and
there seems no reason to doubt that the power-loom will
ultimately supersede the less perfect tool. It has been
thought that the power-loom is not adapted to the weav¬
ing of figured goods. To that branch of weaving it cer¬
tainly has not yet been extensively applied; but the in¬
genious Mr Roberts has obtained a patent for certain ma¬
chinery to be placed over the loom, and calculated to
produce effects similar to the Jacquard engine, and we
have no doubt that in time all the difficulties will be over-
f
^ft must likewise be obvious, that unless the improve¬
ments in weaving correspond precisely with those which
we have already described in the article Spinning, some
j -       —~ * 
portion of the ingenuity expended in the latter branch of
manufacture must be of no avail.1 (d. l.)
and Wine) ; besides a mass, sonatas, and variations for the
pianoforte, violin trios, songs, &c. ?11 of which he after¬
wards destroyed. His next opeia, Das Waldmadckn
(the Wood Girl), was performed in November 1800, and
met with more success at Vienna and St Petersburg than
he himself was pleased with afterwards, when his judgment
had become more matured. In 1801 he composed at
Salzburg his opera, Peter Schmoll und seine Nachhm
(Peter Schmoll and his Neighbours), which was performed
at Augsburg, but with indifferent success. In 1802 he
went on a musical tour with his father to Leipzig, Ham¬
burg, and Holstein, and during this time studied a number
of theoretical works, from which, it seems, he derived little
benefit. Dissatisfied with these, he endeavoured to form a
system of his own, and to apply it to an analysis of the
works of the old composers. In this he succeeded to his
own satisfaction. The next important step in his career
was his visit to Vienna, where he became acquainted with
several eminent musicians, among others Haydn and Vog-
ler, under the latter of whom he studied hard for about
two years, enriching his mind and developing his powers
by a close examination of various masterpieces of compo¬
sition. Meyerbeer, Gansbacher, and G. Weber, were at
this time his fellow-pupils under Vogler. During there
studies he only published some variations and a pianoforte
arrangement of Vogler’s opera of Samori. Being cal e
to Breslau as music-director, he availed himself of his new
position to obtain a knowledge of choral and orchestra
effects. At Breslau he composed the greater part of t e
opera of Rubezahl (Number Nip). In 1806 he was >n
i
ist
H
lie
fi
if
bt
If!
Ill
lie
fcr
jtto
lit
lei
»t
lit
iSf
1 Reports of the Assistant Hand-Loom Commissioners. Essays on the Art of Weaving, by Duncan, 1808. The Cotton Manufac u
Great Britain, by Dr Andrew Ure. The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures.
* According to Weber’s own account, he was born on the 18th ; according to another account, on the 16th of December.
lie,
'tli
%t{
'ft,
'i
WEB
gjte by Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg to his court at
raitruhe in Silesia, and there composed two symphonies,
gom concertos, and other pieces. War having driven him
fjoi this asylum, he resolved to abandon his public career
till lore favoured by circumstances; and he resided for
gon time in private tranquillity in the house of Duke
Loni of Wurtemberg. There he composed his opera of
Silina, on the basis of his Die Waldmddchen, and also
fftci! a piece named Der erste Ton (the First Tone), be¬
side! some overtures, choral pieces, and pianoforte works.
In dO he again set out on a professional tour through
Gciiany, and from this time devoted himself entirely to
hig ft. At Frankfort, Munich, Berlin, Vienna, &c. he and
his .orks were most favourably received. His opera of
Aln\Hassan was composed at Darmstadt in the same year.
Betfeen 1813 and 1816, he was opera-director at Prague ;
butdving UP ^lat Post 1816, he ceased from his musi¬
cal I'cupations for a timey contenting himself with visiting
yarns places, and quietly waiting till he should be called
to i w and greater exertions. At Prague he produced his
cehfrated cantata, Kampf und Sieg (Battle and Victory).
He ieclined various liberal offers that were made to him,
untihe was induced to accept an invitation to form a
Gcman opera at Dresden. There he composed his opera,
DeXFreyschutz, which was first performed at Berlin in
18y with extraordinary applause. At Dresden he pro-
duul in 1822 a drama called Preciosa, which was most
favorably received. His opera of Euryanthe was also
con osed at Dresden, but first brought out under his di-
rec « at Vienna in 1828, where, as he himself says, “ it
waneceived with indescribable enthusiasm.” At Berlin
his luryanthe was rather coldly received, and was there
nic amed by some musical critics EEnnuyante. It has
beusaid that the Libretto of this opera was so confused
anull-constructed, as to overpower the beauty of the
nun:. A three-act comic opera, Die drei Pinto (the
Th b Pintos), which Weber had begun at Dresden, re-
mailed unfinished, and was bequeathed by its author to
his lend Meyerbeer, with a request that he would com-
pk jit. In 1822 Weber suffered from pulmonary illness,
am till more severely in 1825. He appears, from some
ex] tssions in his letters, to have anticipated a premature
dea l; and, unhappily, his prognostics were too speedily
ver d. In 1824) he began his opera of Oberon for
Loilon, which he appears to have finished about the end
of 125 or the beginning of 1826. At the end of February
18t>'he set out for London, where he made his first ap-
peaince on the 8th of March at Covent Garden, as con-
duar of a selection from Der Freyschiitz, and was received
in t; most enthusiastic manner. At this time his counte-
nai i: betrayed the deep impress of mortal disease. On the
12t|of April 1826 his opera of Oberon, or the Elf-king s
Oo was performed at Covent Garden Theatre, and con-
dudd by Weber himself, who was again greeted with the
stn best testimonies of public favour. We now' approach
theliielancholy close of this eminent artist’s career. On
die fith May his benefit concert took place in the Argyll
Hoi is, but was very thinly attended. On this occasion,
b illness and mental vexation so affected him that he
larely able to go through his duties as conductor,
the performance he sunk upon a sofa in an alarming
of exhaustion. Ten days afterwards, at seven o’clock
i morning of the 5th of June, he was found dead in
xl at Sir George Smart’s house, where he had resided
hoi the time of his arrival in London. On opening the
hoi the same afternoon, the three physicians and the sur-
Rp" in attendance found the larynx and the lungs so
djsfel as sufficiently to indicate the cause of his deatn.
left a widow and two children. Unhappily he had
ative near him to close his eyes. His remains were
ed in the vaults of the Catholic chapel, Moorfields.
li xxi.
WEB 833
While writing this article, we observe that the Olden- Weber,
burg government has ordered a bronze statue of Weber to
be erected in Eutin ; and also, that his works shall be en¬
graved on copper, and the plates preserved in the ducal
library. Impressions are to be sent as presents only to the
different sovereigns of Europe. The artists of the King’s
Chapel at Dresden have, it is said, raised a subscription
for removing Weber’s body from London, to a tomb which
they propose to erect for it in the public cemetery of that
city.
Weber was an excellent pianist, but does not seem to
have pushed himself forward in that capacity. He expres¬
sed himself most vehemently against all those who com¬
posed music by the aid of any instrument. He is described
as a man of small stature, very thin, with an intelligent
countenance; sensible, well informed, and very unobtru¬
sive. His temper seems to have been amiable, and we do
not find any traces of its being seriously ruffled, except on
the occasion of Castil Blaze’s piracy of the Ereyschiitz for
the Odeon at Paris. Then indeed he wrote two very
sharp letters to Blaze, dated I5th December 1825, and
4th January 1826, but without obtaining answer or re¬
dress. A number of interesting particulars regarding him
is to be found in some his own letters and other papers,
published under the title of Hinterlassetie Schriften von
Carl Maria von Weber (Posthumous Writings of C. M.
von Weber), in 2 vols. 8vo, 1828. Among these are, his
Autobiography, and “ The Life of a Composer.”
We have already mentioned his principal works, and
their very favourable reception. It has been said that, in
his Freyschiitz and other operas, he borrowed largely
from old popular German airs, and that he has no great
claims to originality. If he adopted much from others, the
children of his adoption were at least splendidly clothed and
richly entertained. Still there is much of originality and
beauty in Weber’s works, though it may be granted that he
more frequently depends upon bold effects of harmony and
modulation than upon melodic invention and expression.
The example of Mozart, extended by Beethoven, Ilossini,
and Weber, led to that system of unlimited modulation
which has now become more familiarized to the musical
public, though not yet relished except by the initiated.
The whole history of music shows that the public ear is
only gradually trained to innovations in harmony and mo¬
dulation ; and even at this day, some of the most elabo¬
rate works of Sebastian Bach, and his son Emanuel, are
caviare to the multitude, from their extreme abstruse¬
ness.
Beethoven’s magnificent opera of Fidelio, produced in
1805, gave a new impulse and direction to the German
opera. The powerful influence of this great work is very
perceptible in the operas of Weber and other German
composers within the last thirty-five years. So is the influ¬
ence of Beethoven’s pianoforte music upon that of Weber
and others. Although Weber cannot be compared with
Beethoven for original and powerful genius, fertility and
sublimity of invention, still he must be considered as a great
master, possessed of much dramatic talent, great know¬
ledge of his art and of orchestral effect, and a high de¬
gree of brilliancy and gracefulness in composition. His
faults are, occasional dry and harsh construction, want
of unity in melody and of determinate rhythm, and the
occurrence of what are technically termed strangled mo¬
dulations. Indeed, violent contrasts in harmony and mo¬
dulation ; fragmentary snatches of melody, often hard and
dry, without leading and sustained subjects; the abuse
of chromatic passages; vague and disjointed rhythm ; are
the faulty characteristics of too many composers of the mo¬
dern German school when carrying license to extremes.
This style may be called the transcendental dithyrambic
of music; wild, disorderly, heterogeneous, anti-rhythmi-
5 N
834 WEB
Webster, cal. Weber however redeems his occasional faults by
" a profusion of beauties. His printed works are nume¬
rous. Besides the operas mentioned above, they consist
of concertos, concertinos, pots-pourris, for the pianoforte,
the clarinet, the oboe, the bassoon, and the violoncello ;
sonatas, variations, polonaises, &c.; symphonies and over¬
tures, among which last the overture Der Beherrscher der
Geister (the Ruler of the Spirits) is remarkably charac¬
teristic of Weber’s peculiar style. Many of his songs pub¬
lished in collections are trifling; but his four-part songs,
with pianoforte accompaniment, named Beyer und Schwerdt
(Lyre and Sword), words by Korner, are excellent. A
posthumous work of Weber’s, a Stabat Mater for two
soprano voices and one alto, was in 1826 intrusted by
his widow to the music-director Rungenhagen of Berlin
for publication. In his autobiography, he says that the
following words may with justice be inscribed upon his
tombstone : “ Here lies one who meant honestly, and wish¬
ed to act uprightly, both towards his art and towards his
fellow-men.” (g. f. g.)
WEBSTER, x^i.exander, D. D. was the son of James
Webster, minister of the Tolbooth Church in Edinburgh,
and was born in that city about the year 1707. He was
only thirteen years of age at the death of his father, and of
course could derive little from parental instruction or ex¬
ample. He studied, at the university of Edinburgh, the
several branches of learning with great approbation, parti¬
cularly those connected with the mathematics, for which he
discovered an early predilection. He afterwards attended
the lectures of the professor of divinity; and in the year
1733 he was ordained minister of the parish of Culross, and
in June 1737 he was admitted as one of the ministers of
the Tolbooth Church of Edinburgh. His eloquence was
noble and manly, his piety conspicuous, and the discharge
of his pastoral duties faithful and laborious. To these
qualities he added an enlightened zeal for the external in¬
terests of the church, a jealousy of corruption, a hatred of
false politics and tyrannical measures, which sometimes ex¬
posed him to calumny from the guilty, but secured him
the esteem of all who could value independence of soul and
integrity of heart.
The prosperity of fortune which placed Mr Webster in
the church of his father, and restored him to the polished
society of his native city, was not confined to these favours.
Eleven days after his settlement in Edinburgh, he obtained
the hand of Mary Erskine, a young lady of considerable
fortune, and nearly related to the noble family of Dun-
donald. The genius of Mr Webster now began to unfold
itself. Family connections extended his acquaintance with
the nobility. Edinburgh then possessed a number of men,
both in civil and ecclesiastical stations, who have saved or
adorned their country. With these he was soon to co¬
operate in defending the Protestant interests from the arms
and artifices of rebellion.
In the year 1733, five or six ministers seceded from the
church ; and being anxious to draw away as many as pos¬
sible from the communion which they had renounced, they
invited down to Scotland, in 1741, George Whitefield, a
young preacher of great piety and extraordinary pulpit
talents. On his way to Dunfermline, he was met and en¬
tertained at Edinburgh by Mr Webster and some of his
brethren. From them he learned the state of church-parties
in Scotland; and though he kept his promise of preaching
first in Fife, he declined connecting himself with any par¬
ticular sect. Disappointed of his influence and assistance,
the Seceders ascribed the effects of his preaching to sor¬
cery and the devil, while W~ebster, in a pamphlet which
he published on the occasion, attributed them to the in¬
fluence of the Holy Spirit, an opinion regarded by the Se¬
ceders as unspeakable wickedness.
In the year 1745, Webster remained in the city when
W E I
it was taken by the rebels, and employed his univers 1
popularity and vigorous eloquence in retaining the mind
of the people in the interests of the house of Hano ■ §
His exertions in this were not overlooked by most ofT'
spirited gentlemen who acted in quelling the rebellion
He became an intimate friend of Duncan Forbes of Cu]
loden, Lord Milton, and others. He preserved to the latest
period of his career that activity both of mind and bod
which distinguished him in the prime of life, obtaining at
last his frequent wish and prayer, an easy and peaceful
death, after a very short indisposition, on the 25th of Jinu
ary 1784.
Dr Webster’s character as a minister was popular in the
extreme. To the poor he was a father and a friend, a liberal
patron to poor students. In his person he was tall, and ofa
thin and meagre habit. His features were strongly marked
and the conformity of the whole indicated genius and in¬
dependence. To him the widows of the clergy are indebt¬
ed for the establishment of the celebrated scheme, secur¬
ing them in an annuity proportioned to certain rates of
payment; the plan of which he matured in his own mind
soon after he was appointed a minister of the Tolbooth
Church. The success of the scheme has been complete.
WEDGE, one of the mechanical powers. See Me¬
chanics.
Wedge Island, on the south coast of New Holland, at
the mouth of Spencer’s Gulf, the largest of the group call¬
ed by Captain Flinders Gambier’s Isles. Long. 136. 29.
E. Lat. 35. 11. S.
WEDMORE, a town and parish of the county of So¬
merset, in the hundred of Bempstone, 126 miles from Lon¬
don and five from Axbridge. It had formerly a market,
which has of late years ceased to be attended. The po¬
pulation of the parish amounted in 1821 to 3097, and in
1831 to 3557.
WEDNESBURY, a town of the county of Stafford, in
the hundred of Offlow, 124 miles from London and seven
from Birmingham. It is a place of black and gloomy ap¬
pearance, inhabited chiefly by persons employed in the ex¬
tensive and valuable coal-mines in its vicinity, or in some
branches of the iron manufacture. The parish church is a
fine ancient Gothic structure. A new church has been
built of late years, and there are many chapels for several
sects of dissenters. The town has a good market on Wed¬
nesday. The population amounted in 1821 to 6471, and
in 1831 to 8437.
WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, so called
from a Saxon idol named Woden, supposed to be Mars,
worshipped on this day.
Ash- Wednesday, the first day of Lent, so called from
the custom observed in the ancient Christian church, of
penitents expressing their humiliation at this time by ap¬
pearing in sackcloth and ashes.
WEEK, in chronology, a division of time comprising
seven days. See Chronology.
Passion- Week, or the Holy Week, is the last week m
fee,
i p!
p
1MK
fell
feri
ib
toil
uln
icl
b,
%
r;tli
(b;
t, ]
Lent.
WEERE, a small district of Hindustan, province of Cash¬
mere, extending along the south side of the Jhylum, here
about eighty yards across.
WEIGHING MACHINES. In this our concluding
article on weighing instruments, we intend to supply sue
particulars as have not already been treated of under tie
heads of Balance and Mechanics. In doing so, we pro¬
pose, in the first instance, to sketch shortly, and possibly m
some novelty, the early history of the invention, w m
claims attention from the high antiquity it holds among tae
mechanical arts ; and then to furnish descriptive n0tices^
several balances, some of them of recent date, and not e
scribed, it is believed, or at least collectively so, m an>
previous work.
fir
b
if|
»eo
'In
T
%
■
..
WEIGHING MACHINES.
'he most ancient instrument used for ascertaining weight,
;6 ar the one from which the others were derived, was proba-
■*- ^i,;he common or equal-armed balance. It may have been
in nted much about the same period as the yoke or swing-
trr employed to attach two beasts of burden to a common
]0;. Both inventions were nearly allied in construction ;
an their approximation in the nature of the object to be
elfcted by their instrumentality, leaves little doubt that
th one originated the idea of the other. In their first rude
fojiation, they seem to have been indiscriminately used,
hqt for weighing and equably dividing the labour of draft.
A!ordingly, the Greek words fyybg and lyyh, and their
Lin derivative jugum, were employed to signify either
th: balance or yoke. In the Hebrew, the word used in
th;oldest books of Scripture to denote the balance, is one
wlch is descriptive of the instrument itself, by having re-
feince, through related words, to weighing and the ascer-
ta.ment of weight; while the word for yoke, without hav-
hudescriptive reference to any instrument, signifies lite-
ra" upon; seemingly in allusion to an already known
Cctrivance being laid as a yoke, over or upon the necks
ofpe two draft cattle; a custom which still prevails in
t!u east, as it anciently did in all countries. From the
anogy furnished by the double application of the Greek
art Latin terms, it may be concluded, that the beam
ofihe balance was the instrument thus apparently refer-
rejto, and that it was therefore the earlier invention of
thltwo.1
hat the balance was the first of strictly mechanical con-
trunces, is not perhaps improbable. Its great antiquity is
atisted by its being the only machine commemorated among
tl:itwelve signs. The name bestowed by the Greeks and
Illnans on this girdle of constellations was zo-
dit, a word having reference exclusively to living crea-
tuts. The balance being an inanimate object, seems
tMefore to have been long rejected by them, and its
plje supplied by giving to Scorpio a double share of the
hikens; the twelve names being then completed by ap-
pl ng the word Chelce, to denote that half of the sign into
v. li the two claws of the animal extended. The intro-
di :ion of Libra, or the balance, does not seem to have
bi i fully sanctioned even in Virgil’s time; for although
el^iwhere named by him, he describes its place as offering
a vourable vacancy for the reception of Caesar among the
CGtellations; and poetically figures the scorpion’s claws
already contracting to make room for him.2 The an-
ci t claims of the balance were however revived, and the
nane of Chelae, disappeared from the number of the signs.
A long other nations, the balance held its place in the zo-
di; from the highest antiquity. Along with the other
si;is, it is sculptured on the most ancient monuments of
frjpt; but that this was not their birth-place, may be in-
fci.'d from the contrast between the figures of the signs
amthose native and strangely fantastical devices with which
Egyptian monuments are otherwise so profusely cover-
The Abbe Pluche, arguing from another circumstance,
835
viz. the non-accordance of the seasons in Egypt with those Weighing
which he considers the signs as marking, traces their in- Machines,
vention to the plains of Shinar, and refers it to the near ''-""'v—
descendants of Noah.3 The annexed
figure represents an ancient and well-
formed balance from Egyptian sculpture.
For the sake of distinctness, however, it
is here shown as off the equilibrium. A
line and plummet hang from the beam,
to mark when a tongue, which points
downward, reaches the vertical position.
Others, of a much ruder description, and without any con¬
trivance to indicate equilibrium, are given by Rosellini, from
ancient Egyptian paintings.
The steelyard has generally been regarded as of greater
antiquity than the common balance; but in point of con¬
ception it is less simple, and likely therefore to have been
of subsequent invention. The correctness of this infer¬
ence admits perhaps of being fully established. In Job
and the Pentateuch, by much the oldest records extant,
the Hebrew term employed to denote the balance is moz-
naim, a word of plural, or, as pointed by the Masorites,
dual import. The kind of balance intended by it can be no
other therefore than the common one; the dual word moz-
naim evidently bearing reference to the two scales.4 That
it cannot mean the steelyard, appears to be clear, because
in it only one scale was required, while in every respect it
is destitute of any double member from which a dual name
could have arisen. This view, which appears to be deci¬
sive, is confirmed by the definition given of the word by
Gesenius, who explains it to mean the balance, properly a
pair of scales.5
The common balance being therefore the one mention¬
ed in Job, is ascertained to have been in use 2130 years
b. c. or 218 years after the deluge.6 How much earlier
than this it may have been used, cannot safely be con¬
jectured. The knowledge of it probably came down,
through Noah’s family, from antediluvian times ; for with¬
out some means of ascertaining weight, the ordinary trans¬
actions of every-day traffic could not in any age have been
carried on.
From the preceding observations, it appears likely that
any allusion to the steelyard in the Bible should be made
by a noun possessing a strictly singular termination. The
earliest use of such a word having reference to the subject,
is in the time of Solomon, about 1014 years b. c. It oc¬
curs in Proverbs, xvi. 11, where the term pheles (explained
by Gesenius, p. 643, to be a balance, equipoise, properly a
steelyard) is followed by the word moznaim, already no¬
ticed. In the English version, this passage is translated
a just weight! and balance, tkc. A more correct rendering
would be, a just balance and scales ; first, because pheles
has been preserved in the Arabic to the present day as
meaning, not a weight, but a weighing instrument; and,
secondly, because the word occurs again in Scripture, viz.
Isaiah, xl. 12, where its sense is fixed by the immediate
Archdeacon Woodhouse (on the Apocalypse, 1805, p. 144), in explaining some peculiar views in regard to the translation of the Greek
Zvyi,, gives priority to the yoke, rather incidentally perhaps than otherwise, since the question of date does not affect argume .
?S?Hi,?Ldn Ciel, Paris, 1739, v. i. pp. 18-30. A short memoir of this author will be found in its proper place in a former vo-
tuline ^paafages trfour version of the Bible, moznaim i® term
r-    pcocojeca yn UUJ version o. loo moie, „.t^r.o..... IS translated HI uie B r. . O c i i:,
f employed for the plural rendering, and pair of scales for the singular, the qUotedT receives similar confirmation
Leo’s Gesenius, Cambridge, 1825, p. 386. The argument (in support of which Gesenius is nere quoted; rec
W the Greek in which the singulars and Zvyh* were generaby emp oye o dend ^ ^_y Townsend (Chronological Ar-
The chronology here followed is the common one, adopted and ,SP scri^turedChr0nology 1822, p. 33, dates the time of Job 2215 years
™ mem of the Old Testament, 1826, v. i. p. 28). Dr Andrew, in his Scripture c nronoioey, p.
B-l and Dr Hales, in his Analysis, vol. i. p. 185, 2337 b. c. f , t were names of particular weights, by which their money and
Among the Hebrews, as among the Greeks, the shekel man a" ’ ral weight las eben, literally a stone, and ebenim, in the
precious articles were weighed. The Hebrew word for commercial o o
PGl, stones; probably the origin of the term stoneweight.
836 WEIGHING MACHINES.
context. In this passage, as in the former instance, the in Asia; and, through the Romans, to hav
^ wor(t pheles precedes moznaim, both words being brought tensive use in Europe. The annexed fio-ure
together, and occurring in a parallelism. The passage re- is a representation of one made in the first
ferred to is rendered in our version, “ who hath weighed the century, and not long since recovered from
mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance. ’ The word the ruins of Pompeii, which town, with
here rendered scales in the plural, is the singular noun many of its inhabitants and their utensils,
pheles while that rendered balance, is the dual word jnoz- lay buried, for nearly eighteen centuries
naim. The English therefore would better accord with in the shower of volcanic matter thrown out
the original, were the terms in the translation reversed in by Vesuvius, a. d. 79. Like some of our
order, and read thus : “ who hath weighed the mountains in steelyards, this ancient one is provided
a balance, and the hills in scales.” with two different centres of suspension. It wants hnw
Whether pheles, however, means properly a steelyard, ever the knife-edged bearers now universally used 1,1(1"
as Gesenius defines it, may be doubted. The reason for progress of invention, the modifications of the steelvarH
supposing it does, seems apparently to rest on the circum- have become numerous in the form of compound m
stance that kapheles in the Arabic (most probably a cor- chines; but these are of comparatively modern date and
ruption of kapheles, the definite form of the Hebrew do not require successive detail. Descriptions of the most
word) is the name of the Arabian weighing instrument of useful varieties of the balance will be found here and
the present day ; and because it now is a steelyard, and under our previous articles on the subject; and as it is in
is known to have been in long and almost exclusive use in tended to embrace the present opportunity of classifvine
Arabia, and indeed in all Asia, that therefore the related their different kinds under distinct heads, references to those
or parent word pheles must denote the steelyard. But this already described will be introduced in their proper place
rests on the assumption that the common balance had never r r i •
been known to the Arabians. Job, however, who is shewn I. Balances acting as Levers round one or more Fulcra, and
to have been an Idumaean Arab, and to have resided in requiring experimental Adjustment when used to ascertain
the north of Arabia,1 does not use pheles, but moznaim,2 to the Weight of a Substance.
express the balance ; a word which, as already shewn, de¬
notes the common or equal-armed one, and at that period To this class belong the Common, the Roman, the Chi-
of course undoubtedly used in Arabia. nese or Indian, the Danish or Swedish, already described
Perhaps both words may therefore be regarded as synony- under Balance and Mechanics, pp. 358 and 370; and
mous terms for the common balance; the one descriptive of Magellan’s, Mr Bate’s, and Dr Black’s, under Mechanics,
it by reference to its beam or balance-rod, and the other by pp. 371 and 456.
reference to its pair of scales. This view receives further This is a compound steelyard, and is used for ascer-Tum;
confirmation from the circumstance that there is one He- taining the weight of loaded carts. The apparatus, ofn1*
brew word in the Bible which may be shewn to refer with which a ground-plan is here given, is arranged in a boxmacl11
some distinctness to the steelyard. Isaiah, in a passage ABCD, which is about twelve inches deep, and is suffi-
subsequent to that above quoted, when describing the con- ciently sunk in the ground to place A B
struction of idol images, says, “ they (the Babylonians) the highest part of the completed ma-
weigh silver in the balance,” &c. (chap. xlvi. 6); and here chine on a level with the line of road,
makes use of the Hebrew word haneh to denote the kind of A fixed wooden bridge, by which the
balance meant. Gesenius, p. 699, explains this word to be horse may pass across the machine, is
a cane, or measuring reed, or scale for measure ; a beam or laid over the middle part of the box.
lever of a balance, or balance itself The word has thus At each side of this bridge is a me-
evident reference to a graduated staff or beam,3 and pro- tal wheel-track. On these the cart is
bably therefore when used, as in the present instance, to rested by its two wheels and a prop-
express a weighing instrument, denotes rather the gra- staff. The tracks are fixed to and
duated steelyard, of which it is thus descriptive, than an borne up by a platform (or skeleton
ordinary balance or pair of scales. As it is not used to frame) placed below the wooden bridge, but above the
express a weighing instrument in any other passage of the works. The platform has four short feet, the lower ends
Bible, and as Isaiah is here giving a minutely graphic pic- of which are formed into small hemispherical cavities,
ture of the process observed by the Babylonians in the ma- These cavities rest at E, F, G, H, on pointed studs about
nufacture and correct adjustment of the weight of their an inch long. The two studs at E and F are fixed on the
gods, it is probable that the instrument named was an east- crooked lever AKB, with their points upward, and the
ern invention, constructed in all likelihood of the sugar or two at G and H are similarly fixed on the companion-lever
“ sweet cane,” a sense in which the word kaneh is also DIG. Sharpened studs, also about an inch long, project
used.4 These remarks appear to receive some illustration downward from the four extremities of the crooked levers,
from the fact, that in China and the East Indies a small The points of these studs rest in small hemispherical cavi-
steelyard (described in our article Balance, p. 306) is ties, formed at the upper ends of blocks which are fixed as
employed to weigh precious metals, gems, &c.; and to bearers for them in each corner of the box. The short
this day is made of wood or ivory, and not improbably also parts of the crooked levers parallel to OL, and near the
of cane, a substance which, from its combined lightness middle of the box, have their under edges sharpened, and
and strength, is well suited for the purpose. rest on the angle of a sustaining fulcrum IK, which passes
This is probably the first mention of the steelyard on re- through, and is fixed to the lever OM. This lever is also
cord, viz. in Isaiah’s time, or about 780 years b. c. ; at which crossed at L by the fulcrum which forms the common
period it thus appears to have been in use among the Baby- centre of movement for the whole machine. The angle of
lonians. It seems to have superseded the common balance the fulcrum points downward, and rests, as in the ordinary
Me
hi
in
I:,
1 Horne’s Critical Study of the Scriptures, 1825, v. iv. pp. 74, 75. 2 Job, vi. 2, and xM1',
3 In this sense it occurs in many passages. Thus, Ezekiel, xl. 3-5 : “ With a line of flax in his hand, and a measuring reed..-and *n tie
man’s hand a measuring reed of six cubits long ; so he measured the breadth of the building,” &c.
4 Thus, in Jeremiah, vi. 20 : “ To what purpose cometh there to me incense from Sheba, and the sweet cane from a far country, )°
burnt-offerings are not acceptable, nor your sacrifices sweet unto me.”
it
WEIGHING MACHINES.
837
\U
bai; ce, on concave arcs, situated one on each side of the
levr OM. These arcs are formed on the upper end of a
bloi, which rises from and is fixed to the bottom of the
box The lever is again crossed at M, by a fulcrum hav¬
ing }§ angle pointing upward ; and from this angle a re-
cei'iig scale for the weights is hung by a shears or double
rind In cases where it is wished that the machine when
unluded should preserve equilibrium, the lever OM is pro¬
long to the left, and loaded at that end, to the extent
rq^ite to balance the weight of the levers.
,i /;ide view of BK, one of the limbs of the crooked lever
AK| is here given, in the direction of the diagonal BD.
Tholever, as shewn in the figure, is kneed to an extent
sufHent to admit of the an-
gul;‘ points of the fulcra be¬
ing ilaced in the same hori-
zonil line. The other limb
Ahis of the same shape. The form of the entire lever
Ah! is thus easily understood. Its companion lever DIC
is (rthe same construction. The limbs of the levers are
thepore so shaped that the fourteen sharp bearing parts
of;" the fulcra are situated, during equilibrium, in one ho-
ricjtal plane. These bearing parts, and the parts they
beujagainst, are all formed of polished steel.
InowEA be supposed a tenth part of the length of EK,
theilOO pounds placed on the platform, or on the wheel-
traits, and pressing therefore on the studs E, F, G, H,
wiljie sustained by ten pounds of an upward pressure at
IK I And if, again, OL be a tenth part of LM, the ten
pouls of upward pressure will be given by one pound
plajd in the receiving scale at M. These proportions are
ass lied, for easy arithmetical illustration ; but in the prac-
tic;(construction of the machine, the distance between the
res|ig points at E, A, and at O, L, is made to bear a
grtjer ratio to the distance between the resting points at
E, L and at L, M, than has here been supposed. Instead
of ling a receiving scale, the lever OM may be prolonged
to le right, and graduated as a steelyard. And in ma-
chi 'S where an upward instead of a downward pressure is
gi\ i at M, the lever OM is prolonged to the left, and the
fill am L and its resting-block removed to N.
achines consisting of variously modified systems of
lev s have been used for a considerable period. The one
abile described is that generally employed. The arrange-
nm of the levers is well conceived, and exactly suited for
ihi Purpose to which the machine is now chiefly applied.
Itsirst contrivance and employment is said to have been
fbrreighing the riders of race-horses.
lie beam of this balance consists of two rods, at some
disiince apart, but united so as to move together. The
sc;5s are supported above this rectangular beam ; the ris-
i[H«md sinking of the frames in wdiich they rest, and by
wl h they bear on the knife-edges at each extremity of
tbi beam, being regulated by a parallel movement, the
le\ s of which are placed in the stand of the balance. It
is derstood to have been of French invention, and is a
co lenient form of machine ; but the bearings, which are
nuisrous, and liable to be somewhat displaced, give rise to
co iderable friction, and occasionally to slight derange-
iiu :s of the leverage. Some improvements on it in these
reacts were patented by Mr Poupard
of ondon. In his machine there are'
stii however three parallel knife-edge
he.f ngs, three circular ones, and other
soii;es of friction, which, from the con-
sb bon necessary for the proper ascent
an If descent of the scales, cannot be
avf led. The working parts of the machine are mostly
ca: I op to protect from dust. In the annexed figure,
8011' of these casings are omitted, that the representation
^ be properly intelligible.
II. Self-adjusting Balances, which derive their Power of pro- Weighing
gressive Resistance from Properties strictly mechanical. Machines.
Under this head we place Ludlam’s balance, introduced
about 1760, and an improved modification of it, named the
bent lever. Ludlam’s is described under Mechanics,
p. 371, and the bent lever under the article Balance.
This balance, by Mr Brady of London, is provided with Brady’s
different points of suspension for the scale, and is a mo- domestic
dification of the bent lever one. In the upper end of itsbalance-
lever are three cavities, at different
distances from the centre of move¬
ment, from any of which the scale
may be hung. For each cavity
there is a separately graduated arc.
The three arcs are placed one above
another, and move through an open¬
ing in the bar or shears which car¬
ries the receiving scale, the edge of
the bar serving the purpose of a
pointer. When the scale is hung
from the cavity next the upper end
of the lever, the beam becomes ho¬
rizontal, each ounce, as far as two
pounds, being indicated on the upmost arc. When hung
from the middle cavity, each alternate ounce, as far as
eleven pounds, is indicated on the middle arc; and when
hung from the remaining cavity, each quarter pound, as far
as thirty pounds, is indicated on the lowest arc. In point
of principle it differs from the bent lever thus far, that the
acting mass of the counterpoise is altered (for the most
part increased) by the accumulating weight of the gra¬
duated arcs and their strengthening stays as they pass the
vertical line from the centre.
The balance by Mr Dampier of Ware is in this respect Dampier’s
the reverse of Mr Brady’s. Here a circular disc or wheel patent geo-
is employed, which, as it turns on its centre, is balanced in inetrical
any position, and therefore neither adds to nor diminishes w anoe*
the acting mass of the counterpoise, which is hinged on a
round stud placed in the rim of the disc. The scale is simi¬
larly attached to the rim of the disc, a little more than a
quarter circumference intervening between the two studs.
The pointer is formed in the suspending frame or stand
which supports the axis, and the graduations are marked on
the upper part of the circle. This construction is a modi¬
fication both of the bent lever and Ludlam’s balance, and,
in cases where the weights to be examined are of small
amount, is preferable to the former.
The foregoing self-adjusting balances are placed to¬
gether, as being nearly allied, and having a similar extent
of movement, viz. something short of a quadrant.
In this balance (manufactured by Messrs Milne, Edin-Lothian’s
burgh), the opposing arms are formed of grooved eccentric, patent
or spiral curves. These are acted on by the cords or flat
chains which suspend the counterpoise
and receiving scale, and are thus caused
to move round on their common axis,
which is placed in the pole of the curves.
In the annexed figure the dial is sup¬
posed to be transparent, and being fixed
in front to the curved balance, moves
along with it. The pointer is station¬
ary, and is fastened to the shears or
fork which suspends the balance, and
indicates on the dial as it passes round.
By the changes of leverage which oc¬
cur in the course of revolution, the
counterpoise rises from a small power
to a greater; while the scale, in pro¬
portion as it becomes loaded, contracts
throughout from a greater leverage to a less. This general
838
WEIGHING MACHINES.
Weighing principle of combined changes of leverage alfords a favour-
f ac ‘in<^', able means of employing an unchanging weight to balance
' others, both greater and less than itself; and at the same
time admits of the parts necessary to produce powerful and
sustained resistance being practically formed within con¬
venient compass. The self-adjusting power thus generally
obtained is regulated in the rate of its increase by a defi¬
nite construction of the curves, which are formed to cause
equable as well as progressive resistance, by which means
the balance is moved through equal angles by equal weights.
The graduated scale extends to three quadrants, more or
less. The chief advantage of the balance is, that it com¬
bines this lengthened primary movement with equable gra¬
duation and unyielding mechanical construction. The
different sizes of which it is made have each an appropri-
ate form of curve. The least is fitted for the minute sub¬
division of small weights; the next indicates to four or
sixteen ounces; and larger sizes range to twenty, fifty,
100 pounds and upward. In the adjoining
figure, the spiral arms, which before are in
the same vertical plane, and merge into one
continuous curve, here occupy different
planes; but being united by an interme¬
diate rod, which passes through the upright
of the stand, they have simultaneous move¬
ment. The dial is fixed to the bearing-
frame, and the pointer is carried round by
the axis. The graduation, which in this
form may be prolonged to any desirable
extent, occupies a full circuit. In other re¬
spects, the description already given is alike
explanatory of both balances. There are
some minutiae which give refinement to their action; but
as these are u&ed only in particular machines, thev are not
represented, and need not be described in detail. * A deli¬
cately constructed modification of the instrument is also ar¬
ranged to shew, on inspection, and without the use of eke-
weights, the specific gravities and weights per cubic inch
of different fluids.
III. Self-adjusting Balances, which derive their resisting
Poioer from the Elasticity of Metals.
Under this head may be mentioned Coulomb’s torsion-
balance, formed of brass wire, the twisting and untwisting
of which is applied to the measurement of small forces.
It is described under Balance, p. 307, Hydrodyna¬
mics, p. 76, and Mechanics, p. 401. The dynanome-
ter for the measurement of larger forces, and applica¬
ble also to the ascertainment of weight, is explained at
the conclusion of the article Dynamics. That of Mr
Veitch is represented and described in the article Agri¬
culture, p. 355.
Spring The spring is supposed to have been applied to the pur-
orbalance. P1°SeS °f weighing ab°ut the year 1690 or 1700. About
this period the dynanometers of Graham and Desaguliers
were superseded, first by Monsieur Leroy’s of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences, who applied to the purpose the compres¬
sion of a spiral spring; and next by Monsieur Regnier’s,
in which the distention of an elliptical one w as adapted to
the same end, both springs being then also in use as ba¬
lances. The spring-balance is constructed in a variety of
modified forms; but in all of them the weights under ex¬
amination are caused either to bend a plain spring, or to
compress or extend an elliptical, semi-elliptical, or spiral
one ; or both to compress and extend the spring when form¬
ed to admit os this. The amount to which any of these
descriptions of spring yields to different stated weights, is
shewn on a graduated scale properly situated for the
purpose. The principle of extension is preferable to the
other, inasmuch as it is put in operation by simpler and less
IV. Self-adjusting Balances, whose progressive Indications
are regulated by the Properties of Fluids.
Under this head may be included several of the various
instruments for ascertaining specific gravities, which are
described under Hydrodynamics, p. 22-25. Although
most of these require eke-weights to complete their range
of indications, they are nevertheless of self-adjusting cha¬
racter ; their principle of adjustment depending on the dif¬
ferent depths to which fluids of varied density permit the
graduated stem of the instruments to sink. Here also
may be mentioned Mr Harris’s electrometer, described un¬
der Electricity, p. 658, a balance in which the resist¬
ance is obtained by the accumulating power which an
elongated counterpoise acquires when caused to emerge
from a fluid ; the same principle being further illustrat¬
ed under the article Gas-Light, p. 353-54, where its ap¬
plication to the progressive balancing of the gasometer is
explained.
complex means ; and when the weights to be examin^j w.«
large, the elliptical spring should be adopted; butwlTJ 1?
these are of a moderate amount, the spiral form is h * '
Tor many purposes the spring-balance is a convenient i!’
strument, but not a lasting one. The spring, when fr h
and unused, is equable in its successive yieldings bur
liable to variations, which cause it gradually to lose 18
respondence with the divisions. It is affected by temne"
rature, and weakened by use; and if overstrained or cor"
roded, its power and quality are materially changed.
some balances an extra spring is introduced to adjust the’e
irregularities; but this should be omitted, as its opera
tion increases the chance of error, without removing the
cause ; for though the pointer, when displaced, may be re¬
stored by it to zero, there are then two acting springs
changed in position, quality, and strain, while the line of
graduations remains as it was derived from the original else
ticity of the leading spring. S
In this balance, by Mr Marriott of London, the snrinnkv
formed into an arbitrary curve, and is
placed in a shallow brass box behind
the dial, which latter is here sup¬
posed to be transparent; one end of
the spring is fixed to the upper side
of the box, and the other end to the
head of the rod which carries the
hook. Near the same point of this
rod is also attached the head of the
rack-plate, which, as the hook be¬
comes loaded, is lowered by the spring
and turns the pinion, and with it the
pointer, which indicates the weight.
When in use, the portion of the spring to the left is extend¬
ed, and that to the right compressed ; and during descent,
the rack is kept in gear with the pinion by a screw-pin at
its right side.
This balance, by Mr Salter of London, is re- ^
presented in the annexed figure, the index-plate
in front being supposed transparent. It is formed
of a spiral spring, which is contained in the up¬
per part of a cylindrical case, behind the index-
plate. One extremity of the spring is fastened
at the head of the instrument, and the other ex¬
tremity is fixed to the rod which carries the poin¬
ter and the hook or scale. The spring extends
in proportion as the hook is loaded; the pointer
at the same time shewing the weight on the gra¬
duated front. Mr Salter subsequently made some
alterations, which he patented; most of them
however relate to minor details, and need not be
described.
WEIGHING MACHINES.
i 'ils balance, by Mr Hawkins of London, consists of a
•cyldrical vessel open at top, on the face of which is a
'veical glass tube also open above, and entering the cylin-
detiear its base. Within this outer case is another hollow
cyl drical drum, of rather smaller diameter, on the top of
whh is placed the receiving scale. The inner cylinder
floiii on the water which the outer one contains. In pro-
porpn as the scale is loaded, the water rises between the
cylders and in the glass tube, beside which is a gradu¬
ate scale, the weight being indicated by the height which
the fluid attains in the tube. The water carried off by
evaaration should be replaced, as much being poured in
fro time to time as is required to preserve its surface at
zer when the scale is empty. The continual effort of the
ini r cylinder to escape to the sides of the outer one is,
how ver, a source of considerable friction ; a slight displace-
me of the cylinder from the horizontal position, or the
loaing of the scale more on one side of its centre than an-
otlr, contributing to augment the evil.
» liis balance, by Mr Bursill of Islington, is formed in a
vai ty of different modifications ; some of them depending
on stem or piston being caused to sink in a fluid, and
otl is on its being caused to rise from one. It may how-
evi be generally described as consisting of two cylinders
of liferent diameter united by a connecting tube. From
thdop of the smaller cylinder rises a glass tube, at the
sidiof which is a moveable index-plate, on which the gra¬
de :ons are marked. Mercury is poured to some depth
int the cylinders, the smaller of which, together with the
lov r part of the glass tube, is then filled up with oil or
coined water, which rests on the surface of the mercury.
A iston or stem, guided by a parallel movement, rises and
falii in the larger mercurial holder. A counterpoise on
onmf the parallel rods balances the weight of the scale ;
amstvhen the latter is loaded, the displacement of mercury
in e larger cylinder causes the water to rise in the tube
by lore perceptible gradations, and indicate the weight,
XI balance is likewise arranged in various combinations
will the steelyard, and two contrivances (one of which
mi! be added to the machine) are provided with the view
of. mpensating the irregularities caused by change of tem-
pei ure. The cylinders for the mercury are formed of
pi] clay; and a stop-cock is placed at the head of the tube,
to opened during use to admit air, and closed afterwards
to Iclude dust and diminish evaporation,
i lis machine, by Captain Ericson of London, is repre-
sei d in the annexed figure. It consists of a shallow cir-
cu! box of cast iron, formed of two portions, an upper
anunder one ; the interior diameters of
wh i are somewhat different. The
low half of the box contains a piston,
thiJeck of which passes freely through
an kerture in the bottom, and is screw¬
ed the horizontal bar of the triangu¬
lar Spending frame. A circular piece
°f dia rubber cloth is laid over the face
°i 3 piston, and continued through be-
tWf 1 the joining rims of the iron box,
tlu lalves of which are then screwed
toglher upon it. From the upper half
of 3 box rises a hollow iron stem, suf-
nci tly laid open to expose to view a
gl&i tube, which it encloses in a bed of Paris plaster.
•Me ury is then introduced through the tube into the up-
PCtalt of the box ; and its escape being prevented by the
j-lo , and the distention of this resisted by the piston, the
ooftnd stem are set afloat, and are kept from capsizing by
osiull pin from the top of the triangular frame, which en-
er nto the bore of the upright stem. The hook is con-
d with the box, and, on being loaded, draws it down,
e by causing the ring of cloth exterior to the circumfe-
839
rence of the piston to descend below the piston’s surface ; Weighing
in effect thus contracting the space in the box, and Machines,
forcing the mercury up the tube till it indicates the weight '"■"'“v ' '
on the graduated scale. Two safety-screws in the lower
bar are adjusted to prevent the box from descending so far
as to eject the mercury from the tube ; and, as in Mr Bur-
sill’s, a stop-cock is placed at the mouth, to be opened dur¬
ing use to admit air, and shut after it to exclude dust and
diminish evaporation. In this machine, the primary move¬
ment must necessarily be extremely confined (about the
50th or 100th part of an inch), otherwise the cloth, by be¬
ing overstretched, would give way. Any deviation from
uniform action, however arising, and however trifling, is
thus apt to occasion a magnified irregularity in the indica¬
tion. The admission of dust and evaporation of mercury ;
the effort made by this fluid at all points to draw into
globular formations, and avoid the minuter recesses of the
holder; the change of temperature, and progressive dis¬
tention and wrinkling of the cloth, are among the more im¬
mediate and least controllable sources of variation.
V. Letter and Post-Packet Balances.
Under this general title are enumerated such of the pre¬
ceding as are applied to the purpose of weighing letters;
descriptions of the balances not yet noticed being sub¬
joined.
1. The Common, the Roman, and Danish balances; 2.
the Bent-lever, Brady’s, Dampier’s, and Lothian’s balances;
3. Salter’s and other Spring-balances ; 4. Bursill’s balance,
all as above described, are constructed also of sizes suited
for letter-weights.
In this balance, which was devised for letter-weighing Robison’s
by Sir John Robison, secretary to the Royal Society,mercurial
Edinburgh (and made by Mr Forbes there), the letter E letter-
placed on a circular ivory disc, which is supported by a111111111-6,
steel wire, that passes freely through a small orifice in the
ivory cap of a glass tube filled about a third of its depth
with mercury. To the lower end of the wire is screwed a
cylindrical ivory stem of larger diameter than the wire,
and marked with circular graduations. This sinks in the
fluid in proportion as the disc is loaded; and the vertical
movement is preserved by guide-pins, which diverge from
the low'er extremity of the stem. A loose ring of ivory
serves the purpose of a floating pointer, wdiile it prevents
the eye being deceived by the glance of the fluid, or the
images occasioned by its reflecting powers. Shortly after-Miller’s,
wards, letter-balances of similar description were made by^und’s,
Messrs Miller, Dundee; Lund, Fleet Street; Osier, Bir-
mingham ; and Bursill, Islington ; the three latter being re-balances,
gistered designs.
The remaining balances may properly be arranged by
themselves, as a class formed to indicate periodical amounts
of weight, but not their intermediate subdivisions.
In the balance by Mr Riddle of London, weights of an Riddle's
ounce each are rested on the successive steps of a pyra-and Gye’s
midal support. A ring attached to one arm of a balance registered
lifts the lowest, and proceeds to the others in their order s
the postage corresponding to the number of weights raised ,a ances-
being indicated by a pointer. In Mr Gye’s balance three
rings 'fixed at proper heights give support to as many
weights, which are attached by a small chain to the arm of
a balance, each weight being lifted in succession, and the
postage known by the number of weights raised. Mr
Riddle’s arrangement, however, provides for a more exact
movement.
This balance, by Professor Willis, Cambridge (made by Willis’s
Messrs Hotzapffel), is formed of two beams joined at some patent
distance apart, so as to form a rectangular frame, which thej®tter-
figure of Poupard’s balance above described will serve toDli fi"ce'
illustrate. Here also, as in that balance, the receiving scale
840
W E I
W E I
Weights
and
Measures.
Freeman’s
patent
letter-
balance.
is placed above the beam, and is similarly guided in its
descent by a parallel movement placed in the stand. The
two beams are angularly notched in
the manner shewn in the adjoining
figure, which represents a side plan
of the balance. Five cylindrical bars
of adjusted weight rest in the arms
of a rack, w'hich supports them hori¬
zontally across each pair of notches, and at increasing ele¬
vations from the stand. These bars successively take their
appropriate place on the double beam, and are each lifted
by, and become as it were a part of it, so soon as the load
placed on the scale exceeds the stated amount. Thus, when
a letter exceeds half an ounce, the beam rises to, but does
not lift, the first bar; when it exceeds an ounce, it lifts the
first, and rises to, but does not raise, the second; and so on
to the fifth. When it exceeds this, an eke-weight which
accompanies the machine is placed in the square-shaped
notches at the extremity of the beam, and five ounces or
their corresponding postage are added to the subsequent
indications of the balance, which anew traces the same
progression. The weights or postages are marked on an
upright which is fixed at one end of the stand, and are
pointed out by a wire extended between the two beams of
the balance.
In this balance, by Mr Freeman, Sutton-Common, there
are various fixed angular fulcra and a constant weight.
The beam, which is loaded at one end, rests on the angular
fulcrum nearest the weight. The fulcrum is supported at
each end by a frame which rises from the top of a pillar.
The upper surfaces of the two supporting frames are ob¬
tusely rounded, and notched at intervals suited to receive
each fulcrum in its turn. When a letter exceeds h
ounce, the beam turns on, but does not quit, the first fi
crum. When it exceeds an ounce, it turns on but H
not quit, the second, and so on; the resting extremitieTj
each successive fulcrum taking their appropriate place i °
new pair of notches, and a pointer below shewing the res'Y
This balance in general conception is a counterpart orv '
nearly so, to Mr Willis’s, but is one which perhaps scarcell
admits of being practically formed for very effective
ration.
I
. P
ft HI
The theory of balances depending on the properties of
the lever is given at large under the articles Mechanics
358, 370, and Balance ; that of the spring is illustrated
under Mechanics, p. 402 ; and the theory of those depend
ing on the properties of fluids is fully explained under
Hydrodynamics, pp. 13, 14, and 19-25. (0>I \
WEIGHT, in Physics, a quality in natural bodies, where-
by they tend downwards towards the centre of the earth
Or, weight may be defined, in a less limited manner, to be
a power inherent in all bodies, whereby they tend to some
common point, called the centre of gravity, or, to speak
more accurately, to one another ; and that with a greater
or less velocity, as they are more or less dense, or as the
medium they pass through is more or less rare.
WEIGHTON, or Market-Weighton, a market-town
of the east riding of the county of York, in the wapentake
of Harthill, 192 miles from London and eight from Bever¬
ley. It chiefly consists of one long street, with a few of
less appearance leading from it. It has a good corn mar¬
ket on Wednesday, and a canal communication with the
Humber through the Ouse. The population amounted in
1821 to 1724, and in 1831 to 1821.
I f;
|! P
r
I p;
i*
|i fct
1 ^
tS
f i*
t lofi
I ip,
i It a
't »in
ii |H
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
By weight, or, as some call it, the measure of weight, is meant
the apparent force or tendency which any body or commo¬
dity has to descend; and which, owing to the centrifugal
force of the earth’s rotation, and the buoyancy of the air
or other medium in which the operation of weighing is
performed, is somewhat less than its real force, the latter
being always proportional to the intensity of gravity multi¬
plied by the mass weighed. Accurate weighing is of great
importance, since in general it affords one of the best prac¬
tical means of ascertaining the quantity of matter in bodies,
and thence the values of the greater part of the necessaries
of life. But although, in most cases, the buoyancy of the
medium may have some effect, however small, it is evi¬
dent that any difference in the intensities of gravity, or of
centrifugal force in different latitudes, or even on different
planets, can, coeteris paribus, make no difference on the
weights of bodies as obtained by counterpoising; but the
weight, when indicated by the force or resistance of a
spring, will, cceterisparibus, be proportional to the intensity
of gravity. The term measure in the present article more
properly applies to the three following kinds of magnitudes,
sometimes called geometrical: 1st, linear extent, such as
the length or other linear dimensions of bodies; 2d, area,
surface, or superficial extent; 3d, the bulk of bodies, or
the solid space occupied by them, and which, when spoken
of the vessels which measure or contain them, is called
their contents or capacity. This article then is meant to
treat of the usual standards of weights and measures, by
comparison with which the amount of any article or com¬
modity is ascertained, whether in the ordinary affairs of
life, the more extensive transactions of commerce, or where
greater nicety is required in the arts and sciences. An¬
ciently standard weights or counterpoises were generally of
stone, though sometimes of metal. At present mostly all
the smaller standard weights are made of some metal pos¬
sessing such a composition and hardness as may be less
liable to be worn or corroded, counterfeited or altered;
and one of the best is a mixture consisting principally of
copper and tin. The larger weights are generally of iron,
though sometimes of stone. The more accurate standards
of length are likewise of metal, but the larger sort is very
generally of wood : chains, cords, and tapes are also used.
The nicer measures of capacity are formed of metal or
glass, but the larger and more common sort is mostly all
of wood. After what immediately follows on the equaliza¬
tion of the standards in the British empire, by the late Dr
Thomas Young, and his very compendious genera! table,
we have added a more particular though brief account of
the principal weights and measures at present used in dif¬
ferent parts of the world.
The preparation of the bill for ascertaining and esta¬
blishing Uniformity of Weights and Measures, which pass¬
ed the Imperial House of Commons in the session of 1823
(though without having been then carried through the
House of Lords), had given occasion for a laborious and
somewhat painful examination of the historical progress ot
the measures which have been taken respecting it, and es>
pecially of the laws of England respecting uniformity ot
practice in different parts of the country ; for such a uni¬
formity, though generally esteemed by all governments a
thing to be encouraged and enforced, had often seemed to
be no more subject to the control of legislative enactment
than the introduction of a uniformity of language an a
grammatical accuracy of speech would be found in even
part of an extensive empire.
Augustus is said to have endeavoured in vain to force3
new Latin word into the language of ancient Rome:
Irlii
<
<«
J')
t
firstnstance, from some part of the human person. A foot,
a p,je, a fathom, the orgyia or stretch of the arms, a
cub; a palm, and a finger ; these have probably all been
useoin the earlier states of society by each individual
froni he magnitude of his own person ; and afterwards a
stanurd measure has been established by authority from
the al or supposed magnitude of the person of some king
or l|o, in order for the attainment of more perfect uni-
ifiit
Me!
te tl
dsrfai
%
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
841
Freeh, on the other hand, after all their labours to re- gallons TW e u
conoend a uniform system of measures, have ended in rived from -m nhwie AUfi°n °f an on£inal standard de- Weights
suc.a complication, that, for the most simple purposes of human nprsnn J * °! (Jefinitue magnitude, exterior to the and
praicai mechanics and civil life, it is become uUl to ,t,e *he ^
cars in the pocket a little ruler, in the form of a trianeu- in an imnmv i f °u’ t. our^ 11 has since been adopted
lar jfism, one of the sides containing the old established U of the penduTum vibratin"11™'^110!'011 °f 3 f00t eqUal t0
linoand inches of the royal foot, a second the millimetres, of the customary foot of tfr fi 3 rePi;esentatlve
cenmetres, and decimetres of the revolutionary school, terirjo^^
andihe third the new ultra-royal combination of the Jaco- fhp HnvnI c • f G , 1 u'1, ^Str' C°11’ No' V-)
paru of a country to study their own convenience con- ho u . c • 5 ?e standarcl Wlth which
joii")' with that of their neighbours and to spare them- McerttdSed dkt
[g • i . • * /x committee or tne House of Commons wus annnintprf
ite'XcoX^oXin1 xm - ^
tbntoflegal existing measures of all kinds, and the ready standards then in use. '’They fotmTlLT theXstom^y
aiekan<? b“r s“"»" *e iU,. esLitSTst
Jmasures, either regular or irregular, by the multiplica- cubical inches, while the legal wine gallon of the Ex-
lr£“?erms ^ <fe,bWo" “•» ^7'- -mnuted at only 231. thoSgh the only exisl
cor o SUCH terms. . lng standard of the wine gallon in 1688, which was kept at
iteMtre. to,e apptOTDtly always been dertved, in the Guildhall, contained no more than 224 cubicaf inches!
I bey suggested the adoption of this smaller gallon for the
legal standard, perhaps as being more favourable to the re¬
venue, though the gallon of 231 inches had been previously
legalized by the act of the fifth of Queen Anne ; and they
employed the well-known Mr Bird to prepare two standards,
which were to be exact copies of that which was made by
Graham for the Royal Society in 1742, from a very care¬
ful comparison of the various yards and ells of Henry the
• w- wi i , . 1 — — vanuus yams anu ens or nenry me
ornry in practice; though it is said, that m some parts of Seventh and Elizabeth, which were kept in the Exchequer.
the ! st the Arabs still measure the cubits of their cloth
by t ; fore arm, with the addition of the breadth of the
othuhand, which serves to mark the end of the measure,
ast thumb which was formerly added at the end of the
yan iy the English clothiers. It ought not however to be
tbrgtten, that any one of these terms possesses an advan-
:tag( ir popular use, and for the convenience of future ages
and remote countries, which would be lost by the intro¬
duce n of any more arbitrary measurement. Thus a hand’s
One of the copies was marked “ Standard Yard, 1758,"
and was presented by the committee to the House with
the intention that it should be adopted as the legal stan¬
dard ; the other was made “ with cheeks” for common use,
and proposed to be kept in the Exchequer.
A subsequent Report of a committee appointed in
1759, consists principally of proposals for some legislative
regulations, tending to facilitate the equalization of weights
and measures by the establishment of proper methods of
- .  j    mcaouico uy me cButunaiuuem, ui proper mernous o
□resin, or a toot, is aiways sufficiently understood, without checking and authorizing the standards to be employed
any fchnition, to enable us to form tn rmrsnlv^s a in kiig *i.„ it  /-v
any -inition, to enable us to form to ourselves a tolerably
e Sipuite picture of the magnitude intended to be describ¬
ed ; ml there is scarcely an instance of the caprice of de-
tiinonnution having ever extended so far as to make the
'jy,re called a foot in any country so small as half a natural
In 1765, two bills were brought into the House of Com¬
mons by Lord Carysfort, in conformity with the Reports
of the committees; but, from some accidental circumstances,
they were not passed into laws.
Another committee was appointed in 1790; but no mi-
5 00Mr so great as two feet of an ordinary person, and cer- notes of their proceedings have been recorded. In 1814
Pi taSllfinnt nf ito  4.^ 4.1, ^ i’i i • .
ifauilinot of its amounting to three ordinary feet; while a
'iietD even to those who know that the word implies a
'nea !e> miglit as well have meant a mile, or an inch, or
1 'Ip H as a length somewhat greater than a yard.
I idea of accurately verifying the standard of a coun-
any other means than that of a comparison with
I'^jjjCtually existing original, can scarcely have occurred,
in a very advanced period in the progress of civi-
“y,;'1; It was indeed enacted in the time of our Henry
ie iird, that an ounce should be the weight of 640 dry
?4B! of wheat taken from the middle of the ear, that a
try
however a very important Report was presented to the
House by a new committee, who had called upon Dr W.
Hyde Wollaston and Professor Playfair for their opinions
on the subject; and it was principally in consequence of
these examinations that the committee stated that the
length of the pendulum vibrating seconds had been ascer¬
tained to be 39-13047 inches, and that the metre of platina
measured, at the temperature of 55°, 39-3828 English
inches, representing at 32° the ten millionth part of the
quadrant of the meridian. They remarked with great truth,
,H,U1
  ^ „11C ca.., » that although in theory the original standard of weight is
should be twelve ounces, a gallon of wine eight best derived from the measure of capacity, yet in common
i WMf’, and eight gallons of wine a bushel of London; but practice it will generally be found more convenient to re-
i ems rather a direction for making a single standard verse this order; and they recommended, upon the sug-
i 'ntended f°r the continual verification of the gestion of Dr Wollaston, that a gallon containing ten
*Wd incase of any minute uncertainty. Again, in a pounds of pure water should be adopted as a substitute for
■t tv auy llllIlutt; unceriainiy. jii a. puunua ui puic wcilci anuuiu uc ttuuptt*u as a suusuuue lor
'(‘j ' Henry the Seventh, a gallon of corn was men- the ale and corn gallons, which had become different rather
u i’as containing eiffht. nnnnds nfwhpnt r nnd this mav from accident than from any direct legislative authority,
as containing eight pounds of wheat: and this may        j,
s serve to explain the origin of the two different the one containing a little more than ten pounds, the other
Y V T A O A
XXI.
5 o
842
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Weights a little less, though the standards of the latter were ex-
an(l tremely discordant among themselves. It seems to have
Measures been intended to abolish the wine gallon, which is also that
'^ Yof the apothecaries ; though it was recommended to retain
the use of the Troy weight of the goldsmiths, employed
also by the apothecaries. It had before been observed,
that twelve wine gallons of distilled water weighed exactly
100 pounds avoirdupois; but Dr Wollaston’s proposal to
make an ale gallon exactly of ten pounds, afforded a greater
facility in the operation of adjusting the measure, since it
is not very easy to divide 100 pounds into twelve equal
parts, with the weights in common use.
Some very important experiments on weights and mea¬
sures had been made a little before the date of tins com¬
mittee, by Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, who had pub¬
lished an elaborate paper on the subject in the Philosophi¬
cal Transactions for 1798; and by the ingenious Mr
Whitehurst, who obtained the length of the pendulum by
measuring the difference of two lengths affording vibrations
of different frequency. There were still some minute dis¬
cordances between the various measurements which ap¬
peared to be of the highest authority ; and some particu¬
lars in the Report of the committee of 1814 are mani¬
festly erroneous. Thus the weight of a cubic foot of water
is stated, from a mistake in computation, to be 1000 ounces
at 56-|° of Fahrenheit, while, in fact, it is less than this
even at 39°, the maximum of density; and again, the cus¬
tomary length of the English foot, which has always been
adjusted at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere,
and rather at that of the summer than that of the winter,
as, for example, in the great trigonometrical operations of
General Roy and his successors, at 62° of Fahrenheit, was,
in the experiments, copied by the committee from Pictet,
compared with the French standard, which was intended
to be employed at the freezing point of water, without any
correction for this diversity ; though Dr Young had long
before pointed out the omission both in the Journals ot
the Royal Institution and elsewhere, and had computed
the true length of the metre according to these operations
of Professor Pictet, confirmed by some earlier ones of
Bird, Maskelyne, andLalande, tobe 39,3710 English inches,
instead of SO'SS^S.
In order, therefore, to remove any doubt which might
still be reasonably entertained on the subject, Mr Davies
Gilbert moved the House of Commons, in the year 1816,
to present an humble address to the prince regent, praying
that he would give direction that proper measures should
be taken for ascertaining the length of the pendulum vi¬
brating seconds, and for comparing the French and Eng¬
lish standards with each other. In consequence of this
address, the astronomer royal was in the first instance
directed to perform the necessary operations; and, upon
his asking for some further assistance, the president and
council of the Royal Society were requested to appoint
a committee to co-operate with him. This committee
consisted, besides the president and secretaries, of the late
Sir Charles Blagden, Mr Gilbert, Dr Wollaston, Dr Young,
Captain Kater, General Mudge, Mr Brown, Mr Rennie,
and Mr Troughton. They began by discussing the several
modes of making the requisite experiments which occurred
, to the different members ; and it was resolved, that as many
of these methods as were preferred by each of them,
should be separately carried into execution, in order to ob¬
tain collateral determinations of the required length. Mr
Pond pursued the method of the French astronomers, and
obtained some very satisfactory results, with an apparatus
such as they had employed; Dr Young proposed a method
derived from that of Whitehurst, and very perfect in theo¬
ry, but somewhat complicated, and which has never yet
been practically executed; Captain Kater invented, with
great ingenuity, and employed, with great mechanical skill,
an apparatus which does as much credit to his talents in W1
the arrangement as to his perseverance in the experiment
which he performed with it, and the accuracy of his deter5Ies®
minations has been fully appreciated by mathematicians and ^ f
practical astronomers throughout the world; and his oner
tions have been repeated by many observers in different
countries. Captain Kater’s apparatus has been described
in the article Pendulum. It owes no inconsiderable part
of its advantage to the property supposed to have been
subsequently demonstrated by Laplace, that, even if the
opposite knife edges were considerably blunted and round¬
ed off, supposing both to be equally affected, the distance
between them would still afford the true measure of the
length of the pendulum without any further correction for
the change of the axis of motion. [But that this celebrat¬
ed property, after all, is only true within certain limits
has been shewn in the article Pendulum, vol. xvii. p. 210.]
It has also been demonstrated in this country by means
of the experiments of Chladni on the elasticity of metals,
that the temporary change of form depending on the
compression of the steel edge, would be too inconsider¬
able to produce any sensible alteration of the length in
question.
The object of Dr Young’s apparatus was to obtain two
or more fine lines, traced at different parts of a scale, which
should exhibit between them a certain determinate portion
of the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds. He appre¬
hended that the accurate determination of the form and
direction of the knife edges, and the measurement of the
distance between any such edges, which was necessary in
the method proposed by Prony, as well as in that which
was subsequently invented by Captain Kater, would re¬
quire more skill and delicacy in the execution and the ob¬
servation than could be expected from any common work¬
man or experimenter ; and though Captain Kater, by his
extreme care in combating every source of error, has, in
point of fact, apparently obviated all these difficulties, yet
it cannot be expected that so rare a combination ot qualifi¬
cations should again be found, in case of a repetition of the
experiments, and Dr Young’s apparatus may still, at some
future time, be employed with advantage, at least for a col¬
lateral check upon the results.
The obstacle which prevented the completion of the
observations which were made for some time with this ap¬
paratus at Greenwich, was the difficulty of obtaining a
scapement so delicate as to count the number of vibrations,
without sensibly interfering with their frequency. A very
ingenious clockmaker was employed to furnish a scapement,
of which the intention was to strike the pendulum slightlyand
instantaneously at the lowest point of its vibration, and then
to recoil from it, so that even a considerable impulse might
have little or no effect in altering the rate ot the pendu¬
lum ; but it was in fact observed, upon comparison
the clocks of the observatory, that the vibrations in larger
arcs were more frequent than those which were performe
in smaller; so that the scapement must have exerte a
very considerable influence on the time of every vibration.
It was therefore found necessary to abandon this met io
of making the experiment; but there would be no >
culty in conducting it very satisfactorily by means o
journeyman clock, with a wooden or brass pendulum,
.
ble of having its length altered so as to become ^or^F^‘re[]t
with the vibrations of Dr Young’s pendulum in
states; and it might even be found sufficient to os ^
the pendulum, with the same scapement, so altere ^
to give any impulse whatever, but merely to iec u5
vibrations by means of the detent during the sp0!1 .
vibrations of the pendulum, which, on account of 1
weight, would be continued for a considerable > ^
consequence of the first impulse, taking care t a
tent should be struck exactly at the middle of e
r
r
P
I of
iaii
l
'^1011
k
1
<larc
I!!.
101
|sic
M’
%a
P
fteai0
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
813
ion,rid that it should rebound in some measure from the it could ever be expected to save in the operations of fo- Weights
tendium at the moment of contact. reign commerce and correspondence, which always are and an<1
BiS>re any attempt was made to introduce any legisla- always must be conducted by persons to whom the difficulty Measures*-
ive gulations upon the foundation of the various scien- of calculation is comparatively inconsiderable, and who are
fjfic ;periments which had been so accurately and satis- also remunerated for their trouble, either by the profits of
iictoiy conducted, it was thought advisable by his majesty’s their commercial concerns, or by the credit of their scienti-
niaiihrs that the subject at large should be submitted to fic acquirements.
he (liberate consideration of some competent persons, “III. The subdivisions of weights and measures at pre-
fvho flight discuss it more minutely than could be done sent employed in this country appear to be far more con-
Vithpnvenience before a committee of either house of venient for practical purposes than the decimal scale, which
larli lent; and that a commission should be appointed might perhaps be preferred by some persons for making
or tii purp086’by a wr^0^ ^ie Pr^vy sea^‘ The comm is- calculations with quantities already determined. But the
■ionoi thus nominated in 1818 were, Sir Joseph Banks, power of expressing a third, a fourth, and a sixth of a foot
’’sir 1 'orSe Mr Davies Gilbert, Dr VV. Hyde Wol- in inches without a fraction, is a peculiar advantage in the
' astOi Dr Thomas Young, and Captain Henry Kater duodecimal scale ; and, for the operation of weighing and
lomihirther operations for the comparison of the existing measuring capacities, the continual division by two renders
itamirds of length were undertaken by Captain Kater. it practicable to make up any given quantity with the
Sins this article was first published, Captain Kater has, smallest possible number of standard weights or measures,
n f Philosophical Transactions for 1826, given a de- and is far preferable in this respect to any decimal scale.
i£taile i account of these operations; and in the Philoso- We would therefore recommend that all the multiples and
hie'. Transactions for 1830 and 1831 he has pointed out subdivisions of the standard to be adopted should retain the
i vartv of nice adjustments and corrections to be made on same relative proportions to each other as are at present in
them which fortunately are too minute to affect any ordi- general use.
narypeights or measures. But Mr Sang has lately com- “IV. The most authentic standards of length which are
irmnuted to the Edinburgh Society of Arts a notice of now in existence being found, upon a minute examination,
,om«defects in these last corrections of Captain Kater.] to vary in a very slight degree from each other, although
Dr 1 ollaston examined some of the authorized measures either of them might be preferred, without any difference
i)f ciucity, and Dr Young offered his services as secretary that would become sensible in common cases; we beg leave
ho til committee, with the assistance of a clerk who had to recommend for the legal determination of the standard
tstud 1 the law, while Sir George Clerk and Mr Gilbert yard that which was employed by General Roy in the
weriemployed in preparations for carrying into effect, measurement of a base on Hounslow Heath, as a founda-
in tllr legislative capacity, such regulations as the com- tion for the trigonometrical operations that have been
missiners at large might agree to propose. The first oc- carried on by the Ordnance throughout the country, and a
cupJon of the clerk was to make copious extracts from duplicate of which will probably be laid down on a standard
the ktutes at large, by means of which Dr Young drew scale by the committee of the Royal Society appointed for
ip as abstract of the present state of the laws relating to assisting the astronomer royal in the determination of the
iveijjts and measures; and the next to select from the length of the pendulum; the tempeiatme being supposed
lagrifltural reports of the different counties such mate- to be 62 degrees of Fahrenheit when the scale is employed,
rialsis afforded a glossary of all the terms employed in “ V. We propose also, upon the authority of the experi-
any irt of Great Britain for denominating the irregular ments made by the committee of the Royal Society, that
oweiJfs or measures which have acquired a local currency it should be declared, for the purpose of identifying or
n tl agricultural or other commercial transactions. recovering the length of this standard, in case that it
A .r this sketch of the previous history of the subject, should ever be lost or impaired, that the length of a pen-
we iv now proceed to extract from the Reports of the dulum vibrating seconds of mean so.ai time m Lone on, on
Con lissioners, and from the bills founded on them, such the level of the sea, and in a vacuum, is nJ-Lw, inches
i®D|stat(#ents as may either serve in the place of canons for of this scale; and that the length of the metre employed in
I the gulation of we ghts and measures in general, or as Trance, as the 10,000,000th part of the quadrantal aic of
tllcijients respecting the actual value of the various the meridian, has been found equal to 39-3694 inches.
>stanIras possessing the highest degree of authenticity,
fUSi:
K'' weii
mndlis article cannot be more properly concluded than ously capable of being immediately deduced fiom their re
irative tables of the Stan- lations to measures of length ; but since the readiest prac-
“ VI. The definitions of measures of capacity are obvi-
by liiioinine: some further comparative       . „ . i r
measures and weights adopted by different conn- tical method of ascerta.mng the magnitude of any measure
tries,,d at different periods. of capacity is to we.gh the quantity of water whieh .t s
§LjW-“ l! Upon a deliberate consideration of capable of contammg, .t would, .n our opm.on, be advisab e
the, lole of the system at present existing, we are impress- in this instance to invert the more natural orde of proceed¬
ed v, h a sense of the great difficulty of effecting any radi- ing, and to define the measures of “Pac‘g r'“h^.f™ ,*
sal flanges, to so considerable an extent as might in some weight of the wa er icy aie C'1!1'1 . '
i-epts be desirable; and we therefore wish to proceed from them solid content m space It w.l^
. .!i,l . . . * .• i • i eVioll Tron vpnipnt to bCwin Wuth the definition ot the standard ot weignt,
JbmZ. m susse!tl0ns wl,lch we Sha by declaring that • nineteen cubic inches of distilled water,
- WA , ! u caC Hao clan at the temnerature of 50°,’ must weigh exactly ten ounces
. W,th respect to the actual magni ude of the_ stan- att ^ ^ that 7000 8|,ch grains make a
any .fficS reaL for XerTn^ose which are at present pound avoirdupois; ^sing however tlm jnches to
=,„y employed. There is no practical advan^e in re ate to e m—f ^ortmn of b.ass, adjusted by a
iiavl r a quantity commensurable to any original quantity stan
l,aT a quantity commensurable to any original quaimty accurate experiments of the late Sir George
*4ig or which may be imagined to exist in nature, ex- 80 ? ^ the weifhts and measures of Great Britain ;
71' attl°rding some little encouragement to its common Si uc g ^ ^ iod t0 repeat such of them
^0|fon by neighbouring nations. But it is scarcely pos- b 11 , . • rt.„nt
jfihat the departure from a standard, once universally as apP™ Th<; (]efinitions tfus established are not calcu-
m a great C0™try’. sh° •IXnWefXons hal, lated to introduce any variation from the existing standards
“'oni abour and inconvenience in its internal relations tnan a
844
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Weights of length and of weight, which may be considered as already
Measures su®cient^y we^ ascertained. But with respect to the mea-
f ca^ul|_S’. sure of capacity, it appears from the Report contained in the
Appendix(A), that the legal standards of the highest authori¬
ty are considerably at variance with each other; the standard
gallon, quart, and pint of Queen Elizabeth, which are kept
in the Exchequer, having been also apparently employed,
almost indiscriminately, for adjusting the measures both of
corn and of beer ; between which however a difference has
gradually, and, as it may be supposed, unintentionally, crept
into the practice of the excise ; the ale gallon being under¬
stood to contain about four and a half per cent, more than
the corn gallon, though we do not find any particular act
of parliament in which this excess is expressly recognised.
We think it right to propose that these measures should
again be reduced to their original equality ; and at the same
time, on account of the great convenience which would be
derived from the facility of determining a gallon and its parts,
by the operation of weighing a certain quantity of water,
amounting to an entire number of pounds and ounces with¬
out fractions, we venture strongly to recommend that the
standard ale and corn gallon should contain exactly ten
pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit,
being nearly equal to 277*2 cubic inches, and agreeing
with the standard pint in the Exchequer, which is found to
contain exactly twenty ounces of water.
“ VIII. We presume that very little inconvenience would
be felt by the public from the introduction of this gal¬
lon in the place of the customary ale gallon of 282 cubic
inches, and of the Winchester corn gallon, directed by a
statute of King William to contain 269, and by some later
statutes estimated at 272^ cubic inches; especially when it
is considered that the standards by which the quart and pint
beer measures used in London are habitually adjusted, do
not at present differ in a sensible degree from the standard
proposed to be rendered general. We apprehend also that
the slight excess of the new bushel above the common corn
measure would be of the less importance, as the customary
measures employed in different parts of Great Britain are
almost universally larger than the legal Winchester bushel.
“ Appendix (A). The standards kept at the Exchequer,
for the adjustment both of corn and beer measures, are a
bushel, a gallon, and a quart, dated 1601, and a pint, dated
1602, all marked with an E and a crown. They were exa¬
mined by Sir George Clerk and Dr Wollaston, and the
weight of Thames water which they held, at the tempera¬
ture of 52°, was found as in the subjoined table. Now,
since, according to Sir George Shuckburgh’s experiments,
a cubic inch of distilled water at 60° weighs 252^ grains, the
specific gravity of the water being to that of distilled water as
1*00060 to 1, and the apparent specific gravity of distilled
water, in a vessel of brass at 52°, being to that of water at
62° as T00046 to 1, it follows that the apparent specific
gravity of the water employed was 1*00106, and that an
ounce avoirdupois corresponded to T731 cubic inches.
Hence we obtain the contents of the measures in cubic
inches, which are compared in the table with the more di¬
rect measurement of Mr Bird and Mr Harris, reported to
the House of Commons in 1758.
Oz. Avoir. Cub. In. Gallon. Rep. 1758.
Pint 20*00 34>*6 (XS=) 276*9 34*8
Quart 4035 69*8 (x4=) 279*3 70*0
Gallon 156*25 270*4 ( - ) 270*4 271*0
Bushel 1229*85 2128*9 (X^=:) 266*1 2124*0
“ The Exchequer standard wine gallon is dated 1707,
and was found to contain 133*4 ounces, answering to
230*9 cubic inches. An experiment of Dr Wollaston
and Mr Carr, in 1814, gave 230*8, the mean being 230*85;
while the measurement of 1758 made it 231*2. A duplicate
of this measure, and of the same date, is kept at Guildhall.
“ Dr Wollaston and Mr Carr examined also the ti
other wine gallons at Guildhall. The oldest 0f thes
to be the same that was measured by Hallev and FlL 5661118
in 1688, and was said to contain 224 cubic indies
tual capacity is 224*4. The wine gallon of 1773 wl'/p'
in daily use for adjusting other measures, was probablvi8
the first instance a correct copy of the Exchequer eall 111
but has been reduced by a bruise and by the weir nf a1’
brim to 230*0 cubic inches, having lost f of a cubic in h
or of its whole capacity. The wine gallon of ITqm
contains 230*8 cubic inches.
“ The Excise wine gallon was found by a similar exneri
ment to contain 230*1 cubic inches, having partaken of th*
progressive deficiency of the Guildhall gallon, from which
it was derived.”
Second Report—“We have examined, since our last
Report, the relation of the best authenticated standardsof
length at present in existence, to the instruments employed
for measuring the base on Hounslow Heath, and in the
late trigonometrical operations; but we have very unex-
pectedly discovered that an error has been committed in
the construction of some of those instruments. We are
therefore obliged to recur to the originals which they were
intended to represent, and we have found reason to prefer
the parliamentary standard executed by Bird in 1760, which
we had not before received, both as being laid down in the
most accurate manner, and as the best agreeing with the
most extensive comparisons which have been hitherto
executed by various observers, and circulated throughout
Europe ; and, in particular, w ith the scale employed by the
late Sir George Shuckburgh.
“ We have therefore now to propose that this standard
be considered as the foundation of all legal weights and
measures, and that it be declared that the length of a pen¬
dulum vibrating seconds in a vacuum on the level of the
sea, in London, is 39*13929 inches, and that of the French
metre 39*37079 inches, the English standard being employ¬
ed at 62° of Fahrenheit.”
Third Report.—“ The measurements which we have
lately performed, upon the apparatus employed by the late
Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, have enabled us to deter¬
mine with sufficient precision the w*eight of a given bulk of
water, with a view to the fixing the magnitude of the stan¬
dard of weight, that of length being already determined by
the experiments related in our former Reports; and we have
found by the computations, wdiich will be detailed in the
Appendix, that the weight of a cubic inch of distilled water
at 62° of Fahrenheit is 252*724 grains of the parliamentary
standard pound of 1758, supposing it to be weighed in a
vacuum.”
Appendix.—The commissioners having been furnished,
by the kindness of the Honourable C, C. C. Jenkinson, with
the apparatus employed by the late Sir George Shuckburgh
Evelyn in the determination of the magnitude of the stan¬
dard weights, and there being some doubt of the pertect ac¬
curacy of his method of measuring the capacity of the bodies
employed, it was judged necessary to repeat that measure¬
ment with greater precautions; and the results of Captain
Kater’s experiments have afforded some slight corrections
of the capacities in question.
“ The sides of Sir George Shuckburgh’s cube were found
by Captain Kater equal to 4*98911, 4*98934, and 4*9893o
inches, the diameter of the cylinder 3*99713, and its lengt
5*99600 inches; and the diameter of the sphere 6*007o
inches. Flence the content of the cube appears to be
124*1969 inches; that of the cylinder 75*2398; and that ot
the sphere 113*5264 inches of Bird’s parliamentary standan
of 1760, recommended in the last Report of the commis¬
sioners, or of the standard made by Troughton tor Sr
George Shuckburgh. _ ^
“ The difference of the weight of the cube in the air at >
•t'-flt
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
witllhebarometer at 29-0, and in water at 60*2°, was 31381*79 between England and Scotland, that the
jmja!; and adding to this the weight ot an equal bulk of the * —
air
1 29
62°, which is —— . of that of the water, or
bo 4 ou
845
- - same weights and Weights
measures should be used throughout Great Britain as w'ere a,,d
then established in England, yet different weights and mea- Measuie9-
sures, some larger and some less, are still in use in various" '
jrntiih and subtracting from it—■ of this, or 4-26 grains, ami Ireland'amHhp'r Unitetl kinS^°™ 01 Great Britain
’ 8-5 ’ b > anu Ireland, and the true measure of the present standards
theiuoyancy of the brass weights, we obtain 31413*79 18 not Terily known, which is the cause of great confusion
grain for the weight of the cube of water in a vacuum at arit\0[ manifest frauds: Be it therefore enacted, That the
GO-S Now this cube is less than the supposed measure, str_a‘ght l'ne or distance between the centre of the two
at tft standard temperature of 62°, in the ratio of 1 to P°‘nts m t'16 g0^ studs in the straight brass rod now in the
P0U0567, on account of the contraction of the brass, and custoc^y the clerk of the House of Commons, whereon
the later is denser than at the standard temperature, ac- "or^9 and figures ‘ Standard Yard, 1760,’ are engraved,
conhg to Mr Gilpin’s experiments, in the ratio of '99998 ^e’ the same is hereby declared to be, the original
to 'i'OHl, or of T00017 to 1; the whole correction for an^ genuine standard of that measure of length or linear
the ffterence of 1*8° being '0001133, or 3'55 grains, mak- extension called a yard ; and that the same straight line or
ing|14*10'24 for the weight of the cube of water in a va- distance between the centres of the said two points in the
cum at 62°; which, divided by 124-1969, gives 252,907 g°^ 9tu(fo 'n the said brass rod, the brass being at the
for |e weight of a cubic inch, in Sir George Shuckburgh’s temperature of sixty-two degrees by Fahrenheit’s thermo-
grajS:. meter, shall be and is hereby denominated the ‘ Imperial
“n the same manner, we obtain for the cylinder, which Standard Y ard,’ and shall be, and is hereby declared to be,
wasreighed in air under the same circumstances, and in unit or only standard measure of extension wherefrom
wat, at 60'5°, the difference being 19006-83 grains, the or t hereby all other measures of extension whatsoever,
1 29 7-5 , whether the same be linear, superficial, or solid, shall be
834’30’IK) f°r 116 effeCt of buoyancy>amounting derived, computed, and ascertained; and that all measures
to ] 43 grains; and for the difference of temperature of 0f len?h 8ha’! be taben in Parts or multiples, or certain
i .i , 1 proportions of the said standard yard ; and that one third
part of the said standard yard shall be a foot, and the
twelfth part of such foot shall be an inch ; and that the
pole or perch shall contain five such yards and a half, the
furlong 220 such yards, and the mile 1760 such yards....
“ And whereas it is expedient that the said standard
yard, if lost, destroyed, defaced, or otherwise injured, should
be restored of the same length by reference to some inva¬
riable natural standard; and whereas it has been ascertain¬
ed, by the commissioners appointed by his majesty to in¬
quire into the subject of weights and measures, that the
said yard hereby declared to be the imperial standard yard,
when compared with a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean
time in the latitude of London, in a vacuum at the level
of the sea,...is in the proportion of thirty-six inches to
39T393; Be it therefore enacted and declared, That if at
... - - w any time hereafter the said imperial standard yard shall be
25^0/ for the cubic inch in a vacuum. lost, or shall be in any manner destroyed, defaced, or other-
‘ Ihe mean ol these three measures is 252-888, giving wise injured, it shall and may be restored by making, under
for ie three errors -}-'019,—-037, and -{-'019; and this the direction of the Lord High Treasurer...for the time
me:!, . reduced to the parliamentary standard, makes being, a new standard yard, bearing the same proportion
wi 22 grains for the cubic inch of distilled water at to such pendulum as aforesaid, as the said imperial standard
62clweighed in a vacuum, or 252'456 in air, under the yard bears to such pendulum.
cornon circumstances of the atmosphere, when weights of “ And whereas the commissioners appointed by his ma-
brai are employed. In a vacuum, at the maximum of jesty to inquire into the subject of weights and measures
derlty, that is, at 39°, the weight of a true cubic inch will have recommended that the standard brass weight of two
be >3 grains, and of a cubic decimetre ISjddO.1 The pro- pounds troy weight, made in the year 1758, and now in the
pos»[ imperial gallon of ten pounds, or 70,000 grains of custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, shall be
wal > will contain very nearly 277'3 cubic inches, under considered as authentic ; Be it enacted, That a brass weight
cotifion circumstances.” equal to one half of the said brass weight of two pounds,
1 conformity with these Reports, a bill was brought into gravitating in air (the barometer being at thirty inches,
the’Iouse of Commons in 1822 by Sir George Clerk, and and the thermometer being at 62° by Fahrenheit’s scale),
agus, with a few alterations, in 1823, which appears to have 1822 [1823, be it further enacted, That the standard brass
bed drawn up with great care and judgment, and which weight of one pound troy weight, made in the year 1758,
cortrehends a statement of the true ground of the propos- now in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons],
ed basures, and of the determinations which are intended shall be, and the same is hereby declared to be, the origi-
lor foh' bases.2 nal and genuine standard measure of weight; and that
‘Whereas notwithstanding it is provided by the Great such brass weight...shall be and is hereby denominated
Glilter, that there shall be but one measure and one the Imperial Standard Troy Pound, and shall be, and the
wejfit throughout the realm, and by the Treaty of Union same is hereby declared to be, the unit or only standard
I appears, however, from an official Report obligingly communicated to us by Dr Kelly, that the actual standard chiliogramme has been
w'l to contain only 15,433 English grains.
I his act, of which only partial quotations of the principal provisions are given here, is nearly the same with the 5th Geo. IV. cap. 74, which
Massed 17th June 1824, to come into operation 1st May 1825, but postponed by 6 Geo. IV. cap. 12, to 1st January 1826. Most of its
promons are still in force, and indeed were onlv rendered compulsory by 5 and 6 Will. IV. cap 63, from 1st January 1836 ; the principal parts.
teP* ej by the latter statute being the use of heaped measure, and of local and customary weights and measures.!
the later and brass conjointly, the densities being -999955
an(:()99810, the correction -000145 — '000047 = -000095,
or |i0 grains, leaving -f- 17-63 grains for the whole cor-
recim of the weight, as reduced to a vacuum at 62°, and
malhg it 19024'46, which, divided by 75-2398, the content
of p cylinder, affords us 252-851 for the cubic inch in a
vacnm at 62°.
‘ 'lie sphere was weighed in air at 67°, the barometer
starling at 29-74; the correction for the buoyancy is here
7-5 9-74 I
SA-hT’843’ °r’ ^0r grains, 29-72; while the
ten mature of 66° requires, for the difference between tne
ex|j^sion of brass and water, the addition of -00042—.
00126, or -000294 of the whole, that is, -f- 8-43 grains,
mafig the whole correction 38-15, and the weight in a va-
cm 28711-66; which, divided by 113*5264, gives us
846
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Measures.
Weights measure of weight, from which all other weights shall be
and derived, computed, and ascertained; and that y^th of the
, said troy pound shall be an ounce, and that ^th °f such
ounce shall be a pennyweight, and that ^yth of such penny¬
weight shall be a grain, so that 5760 such grains shall be
a troy pound ; and that 7000 such grains shall be, and are
hereby declared to be, a pound avoirdupois; and that y^th
of the said pound avoirdupois shall be an ounce avoirdupois;
and that y^th of such ounce shall be a dram.
“ And whereas it is expedient that the said standard troy
pound, if lost, destroyed, defaced, or otherwise injured,
should be restored of the same weight, by reference to
some invariable natural standard; and whereas it has been
ascertained by the commissioners appointed by his majesty
to inquire into the subject of weights and measures, that a
cubic inch of distilled water in a vacuum, weighed by brass
weights, also in a vacuum, at the temperature of 62° of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer, is equal to 252-72, 1822 [1823,
252-724] grains, of which, as aforesaid, the imperial stan¬
dard troy pound contains 5760; Be it therefore enacted,
That if at any time hereafter the said imperial standard
troy pound shall be lost...it shall and may be restored....
by making, under the directions of the Lord High Treasurer,
...a new standard,’’...determined according to this pro¬
portion.
“ And be it further enacted, That the standard measure
of capacity, as well for liquids as for dry goods, shall be the
gallon, containing ten pounds avoirdupois weight of distil¬
led water, weighed in air, at the temperature of 62° of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the barometer being at thirty
inches; and that a measure shall be forthwith made of brass,
of such contents as aforesaid,...and such brass measure
shall be, and is hereby declared to be, the imperial stan¬
dard gallon, and shall be, and is hereby declared to be, the
unit and only standard measure of capacity, from which all
other measures of capacity to be used, as well for wine, beer,
ale, spirits, and all sorts of liquids, as for dry goods, shall
be derived, computed, and ascertained; and that all niea- tv
sures shall be taken in parts or multiples, or certain pro" J
portions, of the said imperial standard gallon ; and that the^W
quart shall be the fourth part of such standard gallon, and
the pint shall be one eighth of such standard gallon; and
that two such gallons shall be a peck, and eight such gal-
Ions shall be a bushel, and eight such bushels a quarter of
corn or other dry goods.
“ And be it further enacted, That the standard measure
of capacity for coals, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, or fruit, and
all other goods and things commonly sold by heaped mea¬
sure, shall be the aforesaid bushel, containing eighty pounds
avoirdupois of water as aforesaid, the same being made round
with a plain and even bottom, and being 191 inches from
outside to outside of such standard measure as aforesaid.1
“ Provided always, and be it enacted, That in all cases
of dispute respecting the correctness of any measure of ca¬
pacity, arising in a place where recourse cannot convenient¬
ly be had to any of the aforesaid verified copies or models
of the standard measures of capacity, it shall and may be
lawful to and for any justice of the peace, or magistrate,
having jurisdiction in such place, to ascertain the content
of such measure of capacity by direct reference to the
weight of pure or rain water which such measure is capable
of containing; ten pounds avoirdupois weight of such wa¬
ter, at the temperature of 62° by Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter, being the standard gallon ascertained by this act, the
same being in bulk equal to 277-276, 1822 [1823, 277-274]
cubic inches, and so in proportion for all parts or multiples
of a gallon.”
The slight discordance between the numbers of the two
successive years depends merely on the adoption of a stan¬
dard troy pound, better authenticated than the two-pound
weight particularly employed by Sir George Shuckburgh,
which was finally preferred, both as representing a unit,
and as being more simple in its form than the two-pound
weight.
TABLES OF VARIOUS MEASURES, IN ENGLISH FEET AND DECIMALS.
From Folkes, Raper, Shuckburgh, Vega, Hutton’s Ozanum, Cavallo, and others. Young’s Nat. Phil ii. 152,150.
Ancient Measures.
Arabian foot, .
Babylonian foot, .
Drusian foot,
Egyptian “foot,” .
stadium,
Greek foot,
H.
English Feet.
1 095 H.
t 1-1441
11135 j
1-090 H.
1-421
730-8 H.
1-009 H.
1-000 1 Foikes.=1^5
1 -007 j of Homan ft.
1-007 C.
1-107 H.
1-212 H.
Homan foot,
English Feet.
after Titus,
Raper.
-9072 from rules,Sh.
) from build-
•965 |1
•9081
j ings, Sh.
9690^ fr°m astone
Sh.
... phyleterian f.
Hebrew foot, .
... common cubit, 1-817 H.
... sacred cubit, 2-002 H.
... great cubit =
6 common, H.
Macedonian foot, . 1-160 H.
Natural foot, . -814
Ptolemaic = Greek foot,
Roman foot,
Roman mile of Plin.4840-5 C.
 of Strabo, 4903- C.
Sicilian foot of Ar¬
chimedes, . . *730 H.
Modern Measures.
Bavarian foot,
Bergamo foot,
Berlin foot,
Bern foot, .
Besanqon foot,
Bologna foot,
English Feet.
•908 J BeigeI‘
See
Munich.
. 1-431 H.
■992 H.
. -962 Howard.
1-015 H.
f 1-244 H.
t 1-250 C.
Bourg en Bresse foot, 1-030 H.
Brabant ell, in Ger-12-968 Y.
many,
Altdorf foot,
Amsterdam foot,
H.
■970 Bernard
•907
•966 \
■967 j
.070 / before Titus,
a7U \ Raper.
} Picard and
Greaves, H.
■ Folkes.
Amsterdam ell,
Ancona foot, .
Antwerp foot,
Aquileia foot,
Arles foot, .
Augsburg foot,
Austria. See Vienna.
Avignon = Arles.
Barcelona foot,
Basel foot, .
•775 H.
•927 H.
•930 C.
) Howard on
/ Lazarettos.
2-233 C.
1-282 H.
•940 H.
1 128 H.
•888 H.
•972 H.
Bremen foot,
Brescia foot,
braccio,
Breslau foot,
Bruges foot,
Brussels foot,
. -955 H.
1-560 H.
. 2-092 C.
1-125 H.
• -749 H.
f -902 H.
(-954 V.
1- 278 V.
2- 245 V.
2-746 C.
1 107 H.
■992 H.
•944 H.
... greater ell,
... lesser ell, .
Castillian vara,
Chambery foot,
China mathematical) H.
foot, . . J
... imperial foot, jj.^oc.’
r j 606- C.
— 1 1600- Q- Rev. n
1 [Although the act 5 and 6 Will. IV., cap. 63, has abolished the use of heaped measure, it enacts that this form and size of b!is ,eD0
still be used for such goods sold by measure as are neither liquid nor admit of being stricken. But it is obvious, that when there is ^
heap, it is not the outside diameter, but the inside one, that ought to have been fixed for such goods; whereas the statutes have e
indeterminate, that it may vary an inch or mote according to the thickness of the materials.]
II..:
I'lien
Colo, e foot,
r
)!
li;
foray;
II
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
English Feet.
. -903 H.
vfu " ""7 ^ { 2-195 H.
Con*ntinople toot, j h.
S
Copfihagen foot
Craui foot, .
greater ell,
smaller ell,
Damig foot, .
|)au:iintl foot, •
Delllfoot, •
Demark old toot,
new foot,
Diji j foot, • <
Dorjecht foot, •
Dreren foot, .
ell = 2 feet,
1 049 H.
1-169 H. V.
2 024 V.
1-855 V.
•923 H.
1-119 H.
•547 H.
1 047 H.
1-036
1-030 H.
•771 H.
, } Wolfe, FI,
l Tr. 1769, v.
1-857 V.
Edifurgh. See Scotland.
pel,i a foot, . • 1-317 H.
1'loince foot, . • ‘995 H.
■l u | 1 900) p
braccio, .
barilo of wine weighs 140 FI.
pounds = 20 tiasehi.
cogno = 10 barili.
rubbio of wheat 640 Roman pounds.
Fri|:he Conitd foot, 1-172 H.
FrJcfort = Hamburg, H.
GeA palm, . • -812 H.
•800 \ p
•817 JC'
., cama, . • 7-900 C.
Ge jvafoot, . ♦ 1-919 H.
Geiian mile = T*j degree.
Gr ioble = Dauphind, H.
II; )j foot, . * '977 H.
Hajburg foot, . * "983 H.
Hfielberg loot, . "903 H.
In;.; uck toot, . . 1-101 H.
I mud, perch 7 yards.
acre, 7840 sq. y. E.
Itiij, old common
pie, . 5299-
Leunn foot, . -992 H.
Lt-dg foot, 1-034 H.
ell, . 1-833 H.
Lefen foot, 1-023 H.
Li i e foot, • -944 H.
Lilian foot, •925 H.
L( bardy mile = g17 degree.
Li a braccio, . 1-958 C.
L;,i = Dauphine.
M . rid toot, . -915 H.
•918 Howard,
vara, . 3-263 C.
i Laconda-
3-285 mine, from
( Juan.
•916 H.
•915 H.
1-521 H.
English Feet.
Naples carro = 2 botti.
... tumulo of wheat 3 cubic palms, or
40 rotoli.
Nuremberg town foot | ‘
... country foot, -907 H.
... artillery foot, -961 V.
ell, . 2-166 V.
Padua foot, . . 1 -406 H.
Palermo foot, ’747 H.
f 1-066 H.
Pans old foot, 11-06578 = V.
 point, -0148 E. inches.
 line, . -0888, or 5S5 E. inch.
... ell = 44 Fr. inches, or = 43-9 V.
... sonde 5 Fr. feet = | E. fathom.
... toise 6 Fr. feet = 76-736 E. inches.
... perche 18 Fr. feet.
... perche royale 22 Fr. feet.
... league 2282 toises = -gU degree.
... square foot or inch 1-13581 E.
... cubic foot or inch 1-21061 E.
arpent, 100 square perches, about § E.
acre; mesure royale about f.
pint, 48 cubic inches, Diet. Acad. =
58-11 English.
litron 74-375 cubic inches English,
boisseau 1190 = 16 litrons.
minot = 2 boisseaux, nearly a bushel
English, = 2380 cubic inches Eng.
mine = 2 minots = 4760 cub. in. Eng.
septier = 2 mines = 9520 cubic inches
English, = 1-56 hecatol. Annu-
aire: for oats double,
muids =12 septiers.
ton of shipping 42 cubic feet,
metre 3 07844 feet Er. = 3-281 feet
E. = 39-3708 inches E. Kater.
Hence, correcting the unclassical
orthography of the new school
English Feet.
1- 869 H.
2- 242 C.
1-540 H.
Parma foot,
.... braccio,
Pavia foot, .   
Piedmont old mile = 1| m. E.
Placentia = Parma. C.
Prague foot, |
... ell, . 1-948 V.
Provence = Marseilles.
847
Weights
and
Measures.
Mitricht foot,
Mta palm,
M itua brasso,  
M ituan braccio = Brescian, C.
M seilles foot,
Aij hlin foot,
WlltZ foot,
Mm decimal foot,
. aliprand foot,
. braccio,
IV. lena foot,
M laco foot,
Mitpellier pan,
M-avian foot,
... ell,
A scow foot,
Mnich foot,
Niles palm,
•814 H.
•753 H.
•988 H.
•855 H.
1- 426 H.
1 725 C.
2- 081 H.
•771 H.
•777 H.
•971 V.
2-594 V.
•928 H.
•947 H.
( -861 H.
t -859 C.
6-908 C.
mile = “ j'5 degree,’’ rather ^jj.
barilo of wine = 60 carafe,
carafa = § Parisian pint,
botto as 12 barili.
Ith inland foot,
Riga = Hamburg.
Rome palm,
... foot,
... oncia T'g f.
... deto, -rg f.
... palmo,
... palmo diar-)
chitettura, /
... canna di ar-1 - „
chitettura, f 7 1 •
... staiolo, 4-212 F.
... braccio dei f 2-7876 F. “4 palms,
mercanti, \ 2-856 C.
1-030 Y. Eytelwein.
•733 H.
-966 Folkes.
•0805 F.
•0604 F.
•2515 F.
•7325 F.
canna dei)
mercanti, |
braccio di i
tessitor >
di tela, )
braccio di4
architet- >
tura, )
mile 7*5 degree.
6-5365 F. “ 8 palms.”
2-0868 F.
2-561 C.
Rouen = Paris
Russian arschin, |
millimetre,
centimetre,
decimetre,
metre,
decametre,
hecatometre,
chiliometre,
•03937 E. inches.
•39371
3-93708
39 37079
393 70790
3937-07900
39370-79000
2-3333 P/i. M. xix.
2-3625 C.
... rerschock x’g ) .1458
arschen, J
... werst, 3508-
Savoy = Chambery. H.
Scotland, ell, 37 Sc. i. = 37-2 Eng. inches =
myriometre, 393707"90000
8 chiliometres are nearly five miles.
1 inch is -0254m; 1000 feet nearly
305m.
1 centimetre = -39371 E. inches.
2 ... -78742
3 ... 1-18113
4 ... 1 57483
5 ... L96854
6 ... 2-36225
7 ... 2-75596
8 ... 3-14966
9 ... 3-54337
10 ... 3-93708
1 square centimetre = 155006 square
inch.
are, or square decametre, 3-95 E.
perches.
hecatare 2 acres 1 r. 35-4 p.
millilitre, -06103 cubic inches E.
centilitre, -61028
decilitre, 6-10279
litre, or cu-J
bic deci- > 61 02791
metre, )
decalitre, 610-27900
hecatolitre.6102-79000
chiliolitre,61027-90000
inyrio- t 010279 OOOOO
litre, j .
a litre is nearly 2| wine pints; a chilio¬
litre 1 tun 12| wine gallons,
decistere of \ 3.5317 cubjc feet E.
fire-wood, \
stere, or cu-j353171
biemetre, J
fall, 6 ells,
furlong,
mile,
link, .
chain,
long rood,
acre,
1-27 acre E
223-2
8-93
892-8
1339-2
55353-6 sq.
3-100
18-600
744-
5952-
f. E.
gill,
mutchkin,
choppin,
pint,
quart,
gallon,
E.
6-462 c. i.
25-85
51-7
103-4
206-8
827-23
hogshead, 13235-7, 16 g.
gallon of
the Union, 799- = ^ E. barrel,
lippie, or
200-345
feed,
pint jug of
Stirling,
pint jug of
Aberdeen, 105-30
firlot of
Linlith¬
gow, for
bear,
firlot for
wheat,
103-72 c. i. E.
31 pints.
3205-5
( 2150-
 i 2197-3
firlot of Edinburgh 1| per cent,
greater.
Seville = Barcelona, H.
... vara, . . 2-760 C.
Sienna foot, . . 1 '239 H.
Spain league = 4 miles E.
Stettin foot, . . 1-224 H.
Stockholm foot, . 1-073 H.
... canne 106 c. i. Sw.
Strasburg town foot, -956 H.
... country foot, "969 H.
Toledo = Madrid, . • H.
Trent foot, . . 1'201 H.
848
Weights
and
Measures.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Trieste ell for wool¬
lens,
  silk,
Turin foot,
... ras, . . .
... trabuco, . .
Tuscany mile, .
See Florence.
Tyrol foot, .
... ell, .
Valadolid foot,
English leet.
| 2-220 H.
2-107 H.
f 1G76H.
11-681 C.
. 1-958 C.
. 10-085 C.
5329-
1 058 E. f. H.
Ulm foot, .
Urbino foot, . . .
Utrecht foot, . ,
Warsaw foot, . .
Wesel = Dordrecht,
Zurich foot, .
•826 H.
1162 H.
•741 H.
1169 H.
H.
j -979 H.
( -989 Ph. M. viii.
TABLE OF VARIOUS WEIGHTS.
Ancient Weights.
Attic obolus, . .
Attic drachma, .
... lesser mina,
English Grains.
I 8 2 Christiani.
( 9-1 Arbuthnot.
51-9 Chr.
54-6 Arb.
. 3892- 75 dr. Chr.
... greater mina, { ^r' ^ir*
(5464- Arb.
... medical mina, 6994- Arb.
... talent = 60 mina? = i cwt. E.
Old Greek drachm, ‘ ^'t6* E‘f • Arb;
L 62-5 = Itoman de¬
narius, Arb.
Old Greek mina, . 6425- Arb.
Egyptian mina, . . 8326-
Ptolemaic mina of 7 on.n
Cleopatra, \ 8958'
Alexandrian mina of l
Dioscorides, ] 9992'
Homan denarius, ^
} 62-5 Arb.
ounce, . . (_hr.
( 437’2 Arb.= av. oz.
... pound onoj4i50. Chr
pound of 12 J 4981- Chr.
oz. 15246- Arb.
i 51 -9 Chr. i oz.
ir- - -
}
7636-
1- 096 V.
2- 639 V.
•908 H.
(1137 H.
Venice foot, . < 1T40 Bernard,
U-167 C. [How. v.
... braccio of silk, 2-108 C.
... ell, . . 2-089 V.
... braccio of cloth,2-250 C.
... mile = or degree.
... moggio of wheat weighs 528 V.
pounds.
Verona foot, . . 1-117 H.
Vicenza foot, . 1-136 H.
Vienna foot, . . 1-036 H.
1-037 Howard, C. V.
... ell, . 2-557 V.
post mile, 24888- V.
... yoke of land, 1600 square fathoms,
metz, or bushel, 1-9471 c. f. of
Vienna.
... eimer = 40 kannen = 1792 c. f. V.
... fass = 10 eimer. Vega.
Vienne, Dauphine, '
foot,
English Grains,
Amsterdam com¬
mercial pound,
10280 ases = 494-048 grammes.
Coquebert, =493-93grm. Vega.
Troy pound, 7602' E. gr,
adjusted at Brussels, 1553, =
10240 ases, = 491-96 grm. Coq.
= 492 0044 grm. V.
stone 16 pounds,
ounce y'g pound,
drop Aj ounce.
Apothecaries’ pound 369 grm. V.
See Brabant.
Antwerp, . . 7048- E. gr. H.
Avignon, . . 6217-H.
Easel, . . . 7713- H.
Bayonne, . . 7461-H.
Bergamo, . . 4664- H.
11660-H.
Bergen, . . 7833- H.
Berlin, ._ . 7232-Eytelw.
A cubic foot French of water weigh¬
ing 65-9368 Berlin lbs.
Bern, . . 6722-
Bilboa = Bayonne, H.
Bois le Due, . 1705-H.
Bordeaux = Bayonne.
Bourg, . '. 7074- H.
Brabant pound of ) 7249- = 469-12 grm.
Amsterdam. j Coq.
Brescia, . . 4497- H.
Brussels heavy pound j
i=Troys, j
V.
Cadiz,
China, kin,
light pound, p01'”40'1'3!;™-
Modern Weights.
Irom Hutton, Cavallo, Vega, and others,
Pounds. English Grains.
Aleppo rotolo, . 30985- H.
Alexandria, . . 0159-H.
Alicant, . . . c«)09- H.
Amsterdam, . . 7461* H.
7038- H.
( 9223- H.
[5802- = 375-708
grm. Coq.
... leang = T>g kin,
... tsien = yL leang.
Cologne, . . 7220- H.
7218- Eytelwein,
A c. f. French of water weighing
66-0656 Cologne lbs.
7223'= 467"74 grm.
V.
grain, 3iT of the weight of a cubic
inch French of water at 57°.
Studcr in Gilb. xi.
Constantinople, 7578- H.
Copenhagen, . 6941-H.
Cracau, commercial) TT
pound, . . / 02j2‘
404-85 grm. V.
... mint mark, . 3071-198-82grm. V.
Damascus, . . 25613- H.
Dantzig, . 6574- H.
Dresden, . . 7210-468-83 grm. V.
Dublin, . . . 7774- H.
Florence, . . 5287- H.
ounce TV pound (440-6)
= 24 denari of 24 grains each.
France. See Paris.
Geneva, . . . 8407- H.
Genoa’- • {SS:
= 12 ounces,
rotolo = 18 ounces,
rubo = 25 pounds,
cantaro = 6 r.
peso = 5 cantari.
Germany,apothecaries, 5523- 357-66 grm .V.
Hamburg, . . 7315. h.
Ireland. See Dublin.
Kbnigsberg, . . 5968- H.
Leghorn, . . 5146- H.
Leyden, . . 7038- H.
Liege, . . 7089. H.
Lille, . . . C544- H.
Lisbon, . . yo05- H.
London, avoirdupois, 7000* 453-61 grm.V.
troy, . 5760-373-14 grm. V.
English Grains.
Lucca, . . 5273. H
Lyon, silk, . . 6946- H.
... town weight, 6432- H.
Madrid, . . 6544.
Marseilles, . . G04P h!
Melun, . . 4441-h!
Messina, . . 4844 fj
Montpellier, . 6218-h!
Namur, . . 7174. jj'
Nancy, . . . 7038- H
Naples, , . 4952. pp
= 12 oncie.
rotolo = 33g 0.
staro = 10^ r.
cantaro = 100 r.
oncia = 30 trapesi.
trapeso = 20 acini,
Nuremberg^ 7871- 509-78 grm v
Baris, . 7561- H. or 7660 _
P08 lb. av.
... marc £ a pound,
ounce | marc,
... gros | ounce,
... denier ^ gros,
... grain ^ denier, = .8203 gr. E.
... milligramme, -0154 gr. E.
... centigramme, -1543
... decigramme, 1-5433
... gramme, 15-4330,18-837gr.Fr
... decagramme, 154-3300 5-Codr.av
... hecato- ) , , .„ „„„
gramme, j1543'3000
... chilio- ) 15433-0000,2lb.3ij0z.av
gramme,/ 2-0429 lb. Fr!
myriogramme, 154330-0000; ac-
cording to Dr Kelly’s experi¬
ments on the actual weights in
use, but according to the Eng
lish experiments, the gramme
ought to weigh 15-4400grains E.
quintal = 10 myriogramnies.
... millier = 1000 chiliogrammes;
about a ton.
... sous = 5 grammes of copper.
... franc = 5 grammes of silver,
with y’g of copper.
Prague commercial / 7947' E. gr. 514-35
pound, / grm. V.
Bevel, . . 6574- H.
Biga, . . .6149- H.
Home, . . 5257‘ H.
= 12 oncie,
oncia = 8 dramme,
drarnma = 3 scrupoli,
scrupolo = 2 oboli,
obolo = 4 silique,
siliqua =12 grani.
Bouen, . . . 7772- H.
Saragossa, . . . 4707- H.
Scotland, Troy
pound, Dutch, / 7021 8
- TrrTP07d}952:-»
 ounce, . 476-3
Seville = Cadiz.
Smyrna, . . . 6544- H.
Stettin, . . . 6782- H.
Stockholm, . . 921P H.
Strasburg, . . 7277* H.
Toulouse, . . . 6323* H.
Troys. See Amsterdam, Scotland.
Turin, . . 4940- H.
Tunis, . . . 7140- H.
Tyrol, . . 8693-562-92 grm. V*
Venice . 14215* H*
vemce, . / 6827' H.
... libra sottile of 12 ounces, 302 03
grm. V.
... common pound of 12 ounces, 358 1
grm. V.
... pound of 12 ounces, peso grosso,
468-17 g1™- V.
... libra grossa, 477*49 grm. V.
Verona, . . 5374- V.
'a
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
English Grains.
J 4676- H.
flcm • • (6879-H.
Vieja, commercial | 8648.560.01 grm.v.
pound, • J
Apothecaries’142o.° j v>
Jlint mark, 280-64 grm.V.
, carat of the) -206085 grm.V.
jewellers, J s
849
Apothecaries Grains of different Countries.
From Vega.
Austria,
Bern,
France,
Genoa, .
1-125 =
•956
*981
•850
Germany,
( -95{
t '951
959 Gilb.
Hanover,
Holland,
Naples,
Piedmont,
Portugal,
Rome,
Spain, .
Sweden,
Venice,
•978
•989
•860
•824
•864
•909
•925
•955
•809
Weights
and
Measures.
(l. l.)
preceding part of this article was furnished by the as will be afterwards explained, those measures used for
latest Thomas Young, for the Supplement to the former such articles as were formerly heaped, and now are neither
edit ns, in such a form as not to supersede any thing pre-
viouy given on the same subject in the body of the work;
s0 t it, both for this reason, and on account of the changes
whi i have taken place since Dr Young wrote, some addi¬
tion are required. Indeed, excepting the comparative
tab! his supplementary article was almost entirely con¬
fine, to the then only proposed equalization of the very
weighed nor stricken ; and the comptroller-general, or other
duly authorized officer of the exchequer, may compare and
verify, and stamp as correct standards, any weights and
measures which respectively correspond in weight, length,
and capacity, with the standards, or parts, or multiples
thereof, deposited in the exchequer, under the 5th Geo.
IV. cap. 74, although, with the exception above noticed,
liflknt weights and measures employed in different parts such weights and measures may not be models or copies in
of 1 j British empire, but on which four successive legis-
lati j enactments have since taken place. These are, 5 Geo.
IV.,. 74, 6 Geo. IV. c. 12, 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 49, and
5 at 6 Will. IV. c. 63. The first two of these statutes
wen exceedingly inert, being little better than mere re-
connendations or abstract speculations, from the circum-
stai(2 that every one was still allowed to use whatever
weint or measure his fancy, habits, or interest led him to
prejr. The third has been repealed or superseded by the
fbun; and the latter, which was passed in 1835, besides
abo ihing heaped measures, declares all bargains or trans¬
act ns to be illegal, or null and void, which are made by
anvpther weights or measures than the imperial. But
altllugh this law, which came into operation 1st January
Igl has certainly placed the matter on a very different
foojig from what it was before, the equalization is so far
fro? being yet complete, that two, and in some respects
shape or form of the standards so deposited.
All copies of the imperial standard weights and measures
which have become defective, or have been mended, in
consequence of wear or accident, shall forthwith be sent to
the exchequer, for the purpose of being again compared
and verified, and shall be stamped as re-verified copies of
such standards, provided the officer appointed for such ve¬
rification deem them fit for the purposes of standards, and
every new comparison and verification shall be indorsed
upon the original indenture of verification ; and such
weights and measures shall be stamped upon fees of veri¬
fication only, unless they have been found incorrect; for in
that case an extra charge is to be made for adjusting them.
The Winchester bushel, the Scotish ell, and all local or
customary measures, are now abolished ; and every person
wdio shall sell by any other than one of the imperial mea¬
sures, or some multiple or aliquot part thereof, shall be
thru, different sorts *of weights are very needlessly allow- liable to a penalty not exceeding 40s. for every such sale ;
ed ,vhich tends to create confusion, and affords opportu- but nothing herein shall prevent the sale of any articles in
nit for fraudulent transactions. This, it seems, was done any vessel, where such vessel is not represented as contain-
pri ipally in compliance with the wish of the College of ing any amount of imperial measure, or of any fixed local
Phiicians, who had long been in the habit of using the or customary measure formerly in use.
tro weight in their prescriptions. It seems quite clear, Jhe use of heaped measure is now abolished, and all
tha f any class of the community was to be so indulged, bargains, sales, and contracts by heaped measure are null
it fould have been such as were ready to plead being so and void, under a penalty not exceeding 40s. for every such
sale.
Some articles formerly sold by heaped measure do not
admit of being stricken, and cannot conveniently be sold
by weight. It is enacted that all such articles may in fu¬
ture be sold by the imperial bushel, but as having its form
defined by the act 5 Geo. IV. cap. 74, for the sale of heap¬
ed measure, the diameter being nineteen and a half inches
outside, or any multiple or aliquot part thereof, also defined
by the same act, such being filled in all its parts asnearly even
with the brim as the size and shape of the articles will ad¬
mit (see foot-note, p. 846); but nothing herein shall pre¬
vent the sale by weight of any article formerly sold by
far ilehind the rest that they could not reduce the troy to
av< dupois. There is however no good reason why phy¬
sic ms’ prescriptions should in this respect always continue
animated, and lagging behind every thing else, any more
tha J there is that physicians should always continue to use
un issical Latin instead of their mother tongue.
| ie parliamentary commissioners on weights and mea-
sui ii think there is reason to believe that the word Iroy
hauo reference to any town in France, but rather to the
mcirnh name of Tro?/ Novant given to London, as founded
on ie legend of Brute. Troy weight would thus mean
Loilon weight. But some would derive Troy or Troyes,
fro trois (three), alleging it has reference to the three
pri ipal divisions of penny, shilling, and pound, or penny,
ou e, and pound, used in money weight. T he commis-
suppose the avoirdupois
heaped measure. All coals, slack, culm, and cannel of
every description, shall be sold by weight and not by mea¬
sure, under a penalty of 40s. for every sale.
siO Ts, with great probability, suppose the avoirdupois All articles sold by weight shall be sold b> avoirdupois
we ht, by which heavy and bulky goods have very gene- weight, except gold, silver, platina, diamonds, or ot e P e*
ml. been weighed fo/a long time past throughout this cious stones, which may be sold by troy weight; and rugs,
CO try, to be derived from avoirs (averia), the ancient which, when sold by retail, may be sold by apot lecanes
me for goods aTchat ds and W, weight. weight. The weight denominated a stone sha 1 in all cases
TheK several im- consist of fourteen standard pounds avoirdupms;^
• • i i ^ f i • i ciinll pn dredwcight of eight such stones, or 11~. lbs., and the ton
po int provisions, the substance of which we shall now en- dredwe g fundredweights ; but nothing herein shall
det our tostatP hripflv Wpitrhts and measures verified ol twenty sucn nunuieuweig , 6
four to state briefly. Weights and measures verified being "made by any
f ,StanTed at the exchequer as copies of the imperial p e ^ ofthe nound weight.
11 laired .be number of pounds conned in then, s^ped or cast
>L. XXI.
ii
850
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Weights on the top or side, in legible figures or letters ; and all mea-
Measures. sures caPacity shall have their contents stamped or mark-
ec* on ^le outside in legible figures and letters.
The stamping of weights entirely composed of lead or
pewter, or of any mixture thereof, is prohibited; but no-
thing herein shall prevent the use of lead or pewter, or any
mixture thereof, in the manufacture of weights, if these are
wholly and substantially cased with brass, copper, or iron,
and legibly stamped or marked “ casedor shall prevent
the insertion of such a plug of lead or pewter into the
weights as shall be bona jide necessary for adjusting them,
and receiving the impression of the stamp. Nothing here¬
in shall require any single weight above fifty-six lbs. to be
inspected or stamped, nor any wooden or wicker measure
used in the sale of lime, or other articles of the like nature ;
or any glass or earthenware jug or drinking cup, though re¬
presented as containing the amount of any imperial mea¬
sure, or of any multiple thereof; but any person buying by
any vessel represented as containing the amount of any im¬
perial measure, or of any multiple thereof, is authorized to
require the contents of such vessel to be ascertained by
comparison with a stamped measure, to be provided by the
person using such wooden or wicker measure, glass jug, or
drinking cup, and if such comparison be refused, or the
measure be found deficient, the person using the same shall
be liable to the penalties imposed on those using unjust
weights or measures.
The following is a tabular view of the weights and measures,
according to the present state of the law, throughout the British
empire. In some of the colonies, however, and particularly in
India, a variety of other weights and measures besides is still in
use, as will be noticed in the sequel. It is only necessary to ob¬
serve, that all the quantities in the same horizontal line of the
same table are equal to each other.
Troy Weight. Apothecaries' Weight.
Measures of Length.
Inches.
7-92
12
36
198
792
7920
63360
Links.
1
1-515
4-545
25
100
1000
8000
1
3
16-5
66
660
5280
1
5'5
22
220
1760
Pole or
Perch.
1
4
40
320
Chains,
Fur.
longs,
Mile,
Three inches make a palm, 4 inches a hand, 5 feet a pace
and 6 feet a fathom. In cloth measure, 2j inches =: 1 nail 4 najil
= 1 quarter, and 4 quarters = 1 yard.
«!it«
nil
ares,'
Measures of Surface.
In the superficial measurement of stone, brick, or slate work, 36
square yards are termed a rood, and 100 square feet of flooring a
square. There are 1728 cubic inches in the cubic foot, and 2)
cubic feet in the cubic yard ; 40 cubic feet of rough, or 50 ofhewn
timber, make a load or ton. A cubic yard of earth is called a
load.
Imperial Liquid and Dry Measure, deduced from the Standard Gallon
containing 10 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water at the temperature of
62° Fahrenheit, and barometer 30 inches.
r ’
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES,
1 851
n Scotish troyes, or Dutch weight (which, under the name of The Scotish ell • • , ■ ,
I nch troys, was, by the acts of the Scotish parliament of lfil7 = 3oofaiis _ ~ 37,0j^8 imperial inches; and 1920 ells Weights
.a H»18, declared to be the only legal weight for Scotland, and Scotish chain for bnTSL- 1 “r? ^J1'123024 imperial mile. The and
. t standard of which was committed to the keeping of the borough links and thmurh tv “re’ 1’ke tlle imperial, consisted of 100 Measures,
o Lanark), 4096 drops = 256 ounces = lo’ lbs. = 1 stone 2 feet,’ was iTrf co "ctlv -°"I U Jr611 jUSt 74 '   '
1191885 lbs. avoird., according to the verdict of the Edinburgh square ells - 1G0 fall’ ' “4 el,s = 74-1196 feet; and 5760
jv (4th February 1826), from weighing the original Lanark stone, = 1-261183 imperial acre= S ot^™ +T 4 reoods = 1 acre
{),! in the custody of the Dean of Guild of Edinburgh. But in to imperial, bv multiplying them bv 1-26 1 sf
p.nice the Dutch stone was more generally reckoned, and pro- Scotish acres made nl * oo • i 1 “G1183- rwenty-three
b ly was adjusted to, 17-5 lbs. avoirdupois; or 4 Dutch stones tish = 169 imperial " lpeua1’ or’ more nearly, 134 Sco-
we = 5 imperial stones of 14 lbs. each. In this wav althmmh In the old Scotch liquid measure, 128 gills = 32 mutchkins
= Jn,Ch<,plnS = 8 !>,lnt? = 1 gallon = 3-00651'imperial gallons.
Although several of the old Scotish drv measures were very
different m ddferenc districts, most of them were similarly sub¬
divided, having 64 lippies or forpets = 16 pecks = 4 firlots =1 boll
In some of them, however, the bolls, especially where they were
large, had very different sorts of subdivisions. But for an account
of these, we must, for brevity’s sake, refer to Mr Buchanan’s
very complete treatise on the subject. The proportion of an en¬
tire boll of each to the imperial measures, as determined by the
   - ;  r-.~, — verdicts of the juries in the different counties, in terms of tlie act
»1al^t0 be met W1 h 111 “an-v Ijlacves fb,oth 111 En§land aund ?cot- 5 Geo. IV., cap. 74, will be seen from the fo lowino- table, which
b Nay m some places this went by the name of Dutch weight, may often be of use in interpreting contracts or leases b^sed on
ule the Dutch, again, was called Edinburgh weight. the old measures.
iW« shexoing how many Imperial Bushels, Pecks, Gallons, and Decimals, ai% contained in one Boll of each of the Old Scotish Local
Measures for Barley, Oats, Wheat, $£C.
iv e = 5 imperial stones of 14 lbs. each. In this way although
{flitch stones were said to form the standard Scotish meal boll,
it as commonly reckoned to be just ten imperial stones, or 140
HI avoirdupois.
'he tron weight, although condemned to be utterly abolished
b he statutes above cited, continued in use, and varied through-
0j Scotland from 21 to 28 ounces avoirdupois to the pound, which
iridinburgh contained 22 of these ounces. It was generally
u'l for butter, cheese, and in many places for butcher-meat,
h , &c. Its multiples and subdivisions were similar to those of
tl Dutch. A stone of 16 lbs. avoirdupois, called customary weight,
Aberdeen 
Argyll, Inverary..
Achnabreck 
Cantire 
Avr. 
lianff 
; Berwick 
Bute 
Caithness 
Clackmannan 
Dunbarton 
Klgin and Moray.,
Fife 
Forfar,
Dundee 
Other places 
Inverness...., 
Barley,Oats, &c.
B. Pk.
6 1
6 1
6 2
7 3
6 0
6 1
6 0
5 3
5 3
6 0
6 0
Gall.
1-544
0-411
0-426
1-014
0 045
0-256
0-667
0-759
0-566
1-418
1019
1-006
0-957
1-353
0-104
0-917
Wheat, &c.
B. Pk. Gall.
4 3 1-416
3 3 1 022
4 1 0-551
3 3 1-111
3 3 1-379
3 3 1-943
4 0 1-691
4 0 0-188
4 0 0-320
4 0 1-072
4 0 0-484
Kincardine, north part  
Kincardine, south part 
Kinross 
Kirkcudbright,
Between the rivers Orr & Fleet
West of Fleet 
East of Orr 
Linlithgow 
vr . I Barley 
Nairn I oats.: 
Renfrew 
lioss and Cromarty 
Roxburgh 
Teviotdale 
Selkirk 
Stirling 
Sutherland 
Barley, Oats, &c.
B. Pk.
6 1
6 0
5 3
10 2
11 2
9 2
5 3
6 0
7 2
6 0
Gall.
1-544
0-104
0-565
1-311
1-067
1-556
0-601
1-0971
1-371 I
0-445
1 -735
0-442
0-552
1-274
1-181
0-102
Wheat, &c.
B. Pk. Gall.
3 3 1-944
4 0 1 072
3 3 1919
3 3 1 944
4 2 0-823
3 1-944
3 1-699
0 0-442
0 1-508
3 0-765
3 3 1-919
3 3 1 944
■
he old Linlithgow corn measures (which by acts of the Sco-
11 parliament of 1617 and 1618 were declared to be the only le-
p measures for Scotland, the wheat firlot heaped having till then
li n used for barley and oats, when an equivalent separate firlot for
G6 wa9 first introduced) were also, previously to the imperial
>■ isures, used in the counties of Dumfries, Edinburgh, Hadding.
t, Lanark, Peebles, Perth, and Wigton. They differed little
||n the one of the two bolls used in several other counties, es-
p lally that for wheat, as will be seen from the table. The term
f is still retained, six imperial bushels being generally reckoned
t -he boll of barley or oats, and four such bushels to the boll of
i -'at, &c.
n the old Irish measures, 11 miles were equal to 14 imperial
ties, and 121 acres made 196 imperial acres. Twenty imperial
• nes were reckoned a barrel of wheat, peas, beans, or rye; 16 a
lirelof barley, here, or rapeseed; 14 a barrel of oats; and 12
•parrel of malt. To the Winchester quarter were reckoned 41
•'! nes of wheat or rye, 24 of barley, 22 of oats, and 20 of malt.
1 the old Irish gallons, 200 made 157 imperial gallons.
, e troy grain is equal to -064792 French gramme, the troy lb.
3 ‘•173202 kilogramme; the avoirdupois lb. = -453544 kilogramme,
e British yard = -914379 metre; the mile = 1 609305 kilo-
* tie; the acre = -404667 hectare ; the gallon = 4-543389 litres ;
bushel =-363471 hectolitre; and the quarter = 2-907769
'tohtres. Phe reduction of French to British is subsequently
v 11 tke following general comparison of the principal foreign
ghts and measures with the British, instead of the term m-
( a/, which alone must be nearly unintelligible to foreigners, and
1 ed has become next to superfluous after every other standard
^ ceased to be legal in this country, we shall use the term Bri-
a t0 denote such of the standards as are uniform, and troy and
f p, ** exPress tho two different kinds of weights respec-
Igiers—Since the French conquest, the metrical system and
systeme usucl of France are generally used by European merchants.
The metalli of oil = 37"375 lbs. avoirdupois ; and 100 rotoli =
119 lbs. avoirdupois. The metical = 73 troy grains. The Turk¬
ish pic used for cloth = 24-5 British inches; but the Moorish pic
is only three fourths as long; and 16 tarries = 1 cafiise = 8-75
British bushels.
Argentine Republic—Same as in Spain.
Arabia—The weights and measures of Egypt are much used
where the sway of Mehemet Ali has extended. Besides these,
200 rattles = 100 maunds = 10 frazils = 1 bahar = 222-5 lbs.
avoird.
Austria—Of the weights, 32 loths = 16 oz. = 4 quarters = 1
commercial lb.; and 100 lbs. = 1 centner = 123-56 lbs. avoird.
Also 20 lbs. = 1 stone. The Vienna mark of 4333 grains troy
is used for gold and silver. Five such marks make nearly 6
marks of Cologne. Of Vienna measures, 6 feet make one klafter
or fathom = 6-23 Brit, feet; 1 ell = 30-6 Brit, inches; 4000
klaftern = 1 posting mile = 4-71 Brit, miles; and the joch
= 6889 Brit. sq. yds. Also 70 kopfen = 40 maasses = 4 viertels
= 112-46 Brit. gall. Of wine, 32 eimers = 1 fuder; and 30
eimers = 1 dreyling. Eight achtels of corn = 4 viertels = 1
metzen = 1-69 Brit, bushel, and 30 metzen make 1 muth. At
Trieste, the woollen ell = 26-6 Brit, inches; the silk ell = 25-22
Brit, inches ; the eimer or orna of wine = 12-45 Brit, gallons;
the barile = 144-5 Brit. gall. The orna of oil = 14-17 Brit,
gall.; and the stajo of corn = 2-272 Brit, bushels. But some¬
times the weights and measures of Venice, about to be described,
are used here.
In public and official matters, the decimal system of France
was in effect adopted, though under a different nomenclature, in
the Austrian states of Italy in 1804. Thus 10,000 grani = 1000
denari = 100 gross! = 10 oncie = 1 libra nouva = 1 kilogramme
= 2-2086 lbs. avoird. ; 1000 atomi = 100 diti = 10 palmi = 1
metre = 39-3708 Brit, inches ; and 1000 copi = 100 liti = 10 mine
= 1 soma = 1 hectolitre = 2-7512 Brit, bushels. The decimal
852
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Weights system is principally used in public affairs, the old weights and
and measures being in more general use for ordinary trade. In Milan,
Measures, the mark = 3627 grains troy; the lb. peso grosso = 2-3343 lbs.
-'V—sottile == 1-6818 lb. avoird.; and the oil rubio = 47-5 same lbs.
The wine brenta = 15-72 Brit. gall. ; the corn stajo = 2-008
Brit, pecks. In Venice, the lb. peso grosso = 1-0519 lb. avoird.;
the lb. sottile = -6643 lb. avoird. ; and the mark = 368T5 grs.
troy. The woollen braccio = 26-6 Brit, inches; the silk braccio
= 24-8 same inches; the wine seccho = 2-376 Brit. gall.; the oil
miro = 3-554 Brit. gall.; and the corn stajo = 2-20 Brit, bushels.
Australia—Same as in Britain.
Baden.—One hundred lbs. = 10 stones = 1 centner = 50 kilo¬
grammes = 110-2429 lbs. avoird. There are 2 feet in the new
aune = 6 decimetres = 23-62 Brit, inches. The morgen ofland
= 36 French ares = -8896 Brit. acre. Also 150 litres = 1 ohm
= 33-015 Brit, gallons; and 20 malters of corn = 1 last = 30 hec¬
tolitres = 10-32 Brit, quarters.
Bavaria—The centner or quintal = 100 lbs. = 5 stones = 56
kilogrammes = 123-5 lbs. avoird. Gold and silver are weighed
by the Cologne mark of 3608 troy grains. The ell = 32‘8 British
inches; the eimer of wine = 60 maas = 8-12 Brit, gallons; and
12 viertels = 6 metzen = 1 scheffel=: 9-98 Brit, bushels. In the
old system of Augsburg, 100 lbs. heavy weight = 108-3 lbs. avoird. ;
and 100 lbs. light weight = 104-23 lbs. avoird. The mark = 3643
troy grains, and is divided into 16 loths = 64 quinlins.
Belgium—In 1820, this country and Holland being under one
government, the French metrical system was introduced into both,
but with the old Dutch nomenclature, as follows. Ten korrels
= 1 wigtje = 1 gramme = 15-434 troy grains; and 1000 wigtjes
= 100 loods = 10 ons = 1 pond = 1 kilogramme = 2-20486 lbs.
avoird. The apothecaries’ new pound is divided into 12 oz. = 96
drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains = 5787 grains troy. Ten
palms = 1 elle = 1 metre = 39-3708 Brit, inches; also 1 mijle
= 1 kilometre = 1093-633 Brit, yds.; and 100 square elles = 10
sq. roedes = 1 sq. bunder = 1 are= 119-6033 Brit. sq. yds. The
cubic elle = 1 stere = 1-30802 Brit, cubic yd.; and 100 vinger-
hoeds = 10 maatjes = 1 kan = 1 litre; and 100 leans = 1 vat
liquid measure = 1 hectolitre = 22-009 Brit, gallons. Also 100
kops = 10 schepels = 1 mudde or zak dry measure = 1 hecto¬
litre = -3439 British quarter.
Of the old systems still partially in use in many places, the Bra¬
bant lb. = 1-0335 lb. avoird. ; the ell = 27-58 Brit, inches; and
the league = 6076 Brit. yds. The aam of 50 stoops = 32-4 Brit,
gallons; the velte =4-1 Brit. gall.; and 37-5 viertels = 1 last
= 82 Brit, bushels. The Antwerp silk ell = 27"32 Brit, inches,
and the woollen ell = 26-97 of same inches.
Brazil—In general the same as in Portugal. But in trade
the following are also in use. The lb., of which 99 = 100 lbs.
avoird. Five varas = 6 British yds.; and 4 covados = 3 Brit,
yds. The medida of Rio Janeiro, of which 100 = 61J Brit,
galls.; and 12 alqueires = 12-86 Brit, bushels. The Canada of
Bahia = T667 Brit. gall.; and 7 alqueires = 5-817 Brit, bushels.
The alqueire of Maranham = Til Brit, bushel.
Bremen—The lb. consists of 16 ounces, and the lispond of 14
such lbs., of which 116 = 1 centner = 127"44 lbs. avoird. Hence
10 lbs. of Bremen make nearly 11 avoird. The Cologne mark is
used for gold and silver. The ell of 2 feet = 22-76 Brit, inches,
and 180 quarts = 45 stubchens = 20 viertels = 1 ahm = 3T5
Brit, gallons. Six ahms = 1 fuder of Rhenish wine, and 44 stub¬
chens = 1 ahm of French w-ine. In corn measure, 640 spinets = 160
viertels = 40 scheffels = 4 quarts = 1 last = 9-77 British quarters.
Brunswick—The centner consists of 114 lbs., and 100 lbs. = 103
bs. avoird. Two feet = 1 ell = 22-46 Brit, inches. Forty stub-
gens = 1 wine ahm = 32-28 Brit. gall. Forty himtens of corn
= 4 scheffels = 1 wispel = 34-2 Brit, bushels.
Buenos Ayres—The same as in Spain.
Burman Empire—Most commodities are bought and sold by
weight. Of rice, 64 sales = 16 vis = 4 sails = 1 ten or basket
= 57-36 lbs. avoird., but generally reckoned at half a cwt. Other
grain, pulse, fruit, salt, and also lime, are measured. One hun¬
dred kaits = 1 vis or paiktha = 3-59 lbs. avoird.; and 150 vis = 1
candy = 500 lbs. avoird.
Canada—The same as in Britain, except that the old English
measures of capacity are still partially used, as also the old French
minot = T0556 Brit, bushel; or 45 minots = 49 Winchester
bushels, though commonly reckoned at 50.
Canary Isles—The same as in Spain ; but in the corn trade, 4-5
fanegas of wheat or barley, and 3-167 of maize or Indian corn, are
reckoned to the Winchester quarter.
Candia—The oke = 2-75 lbs. avoird., and the quintal = 126
of same lbs. The ell or pik = 25-11 Brit, inches ; the dennum
measure of surface = 40 sq. yds. The mistach is a variable mea¬
sure of wine from 3 to 5 Brit. gall.; that of oil is more nearly
3 gall. Corn is measured by the carga = 4-19 Brit, bushels.
Cape of Good Hope—The Dutch standards, which were form i
used here, have now in a great measure been sunerserWl k !iy V
British. One hundred Dutch lbs. = 108-923 lbs. avoird tk6
muid of wheat weighs about 110 lbs. Dutch, or fully llO-Co’ • j 6
and 100 Dutch ells = 75-47 Brit, yds.; also 100 momen'-Si ^
Brit, acres. In corn measure, 4 schepels = 1 nniddf. av~ !
= 3-06 Brit, bushels ; and 4 ahms = 1 leaguer = 126-(i3
gallons. ” ntls“
Ceylon—For foreign commodities, the British weThts are
nerally employed. The candy or bahar = 500 lbs. avoird ifs
the garce = 82 cwts. 2 qrs. 16-5 lbs. The baleof cinnamon =4;
lbs. avoird. Of the native measures, 192 seers = 8 parrahs - j
amomam = 5-57 Brit, bushels ; the last of corn = 6-51 R^t
quarters ; and 300 canadas = 75 welts = 1 leaguer in the retail
of arrack = 125 Brit. gall. ; but in wholesale, the leaguer of arraj
= 80 welts. Besides the British standards of length and surface
40 coornies in the land measure of Kandi = 4 peylas = l amr’
mam = 2-7344 Brit, acres.
Chili.—In general the same as in Spain. But 24 lbs. of Chi'
= 25 of Spain = 25-36 lbs. avoird., and 27 varas - 25 British
yards.
China—Liquids and grain are bought and sold by weight
of which 1000 cash = 100 candereens = 10 mace = 1 tael-
583-33 grains troy; and 1600 taels = 100 catties = 1 pecul =
133-33 lbs- avoird.; so that 3 peculs = 400 lbs., 84 catties = l
cwt., and 12 taels = 1 lb. But in money weight, the tael is about
3-5 grains less. Of the measures, 10 punts = 1 covid = 14-625
Brit, inches ; or 32 covids = 13 Brit. yds. The li = 180 fathoms
= 632 Brit, yds,, and 200 lis = 1 degree of the meridian.
Cornea. —In general the same as in France. At Bastia, the
stajo of corn = 4-125 Brit, bushels, and the barile of wine = 30-8
Brit, gallons.
Cul>a.—Generally the same as in Spain. The following are also
used in trade: 100 lbs. = 4 arrobas — 1 quintal = 101-75 lbs.
avoird. The vara = 33-333 Brit, inches; the fanega — 2-9 Brit,
bushels ; the arroba for wine or spirits = 3-42 Brit, gallons.
Denmark—Of the weights, 320 lbs. = 20 lisponds = 1 shippond
= 3-143 British cwts. ; and 100 lbs. = 1 centner = 110-25 lbs.
avoird. Gold and silver are weighed by the Copenhagen mark of
8 ounces = 3633 grains troy. Two Rhinland feet = 1 ell = 24-75
Brit, inches; and 2400 ruthes = 1 mile = 4-684 Brit, miles.
Eight pots = 4 kans = 1 viertel = T7 Brit, gall-; 30 viertels = 1
hogshead = 51 Brit. gall. ; 4 ankers = l ahm = 33-25 Brit,
gall. ; and 144 pots = 8 skieps = 1 barrel or toende = 3-83 Brit,
bushels. Also 12 barrels = 1 last of corn = 5-739 Brit, quarters.
Egypt.—Of the weights, 144 dirhems = 12 oockeeyehs = 1 lb.
or rutl = 15-75 oz. avoird.; and 400 dirhems = 1 oke or oock-
ckah = 2-78 rutls = 2-75 lbs. avoird. Also 100 rutls = 1 can-
tar or ckuntar, from 98 to 99 lbs. avoird. The common cubit
= 22-667 Brit, inches; the cubit used for Indian goods = 25Brit,
inches; the cubit of Constantinople used for European cloth = 26-5
Brit, inches. Of corn measure, 24 roobas = 6 weybehs = 1
ardeb = 4-847 Brit, bushels. But various other weights and mea¬
sures are to be found in some parts of Egypt.
France.—The metrical system, whose multiples and subdivisions
all proceed decimally, was instituted in 1795, and is founded upon 1
the dimensions of the earth : the ten millionth part of the meri¬
dian arc between the pole and equator, being denominated a me'w,
forms the unit of length. The other units, all derived from it,
are, 1st, that of surface, the are ; 2d, of solidity, the stere; 3d, ot
capacity, the litre ; and, 4th, of weight, the gramme. The Latin
derivatives deci to denote the tenth part, centi the hundredth, and
milli the thousandth part, being prefixed to any of these units, serve
to denominate its decimal subdivisions; while the sort of Greek
derivatives deca to denote ten times, hecto an hundred, kilo a
thousand, and myria ten thousand times, being prefixed, express
its decimal multiples. Thus, a decimetre means the tenth oi a
metre, and a decametre is 10 metres. So far as it goes, a tolerably
correct summary of this system is given in the preceding part ot
this article. But being exceedingly brief, and involving severa
terms very different from those actually used by the French, we
have here endeavoured to state the matter so as to be more intelli¬
gible to the general reader.
The metre is then equal to 10 decimetres = 100 centimetres =
1000 millimetres = T093633 Brit, yard, or 39-37079 HriL i,el!
and 32 metres = 35 Brit, yards nearly. Also 1000 metres =
decametres = 10 hectometres = 1 kilometre or metrical mile =
3280-899 Brit, feet = 1093-633 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs. ^
The are or metrical perch, consisting of 100 square metres, =
deciares = 100 centiares = 119-6033 Brit. sq. yards. Also
ares = 10 decares = 1 hectare = 2-471143 Brit, acres; an
hectares are nearly equal to 42 Brit, acres.
The stere or cubic metre = 10 decisteres = 1 "308022 Bnt. c
yard; and 10 steres = 1 decastere
hti .
ires.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
853
ie litre or cubic decimetre = 10 decilitres = 100 centilitres
* 027052 Brit, cubic inches; and 50 litres are nearly 11 Brit.
"""ns. Also 100 litres = 10 decalitres = 1 hectolitre = 2-751207
S’ f) bushels; and 32 hectolitres are nearly equal to 11 Brit.
^ ters, and 100 hectolitres = 10 kilolitres or cubic metres = 1
n, alitre = 34-390086 Brit, quarters.
' ie gramme is a weight equal that of 1 cubic centimetre of
wj‘irat its maximum density. It contains 10 decigrammes = 100
ce;grarames = 15-434 troy grains; and 1000 grammes = 100
(le rrammes = 10 hectogrammes = 1 kilogramme = 2-679514 lbs.
tn = 2-204857 lbs. avoird. Also 100 kilogrammes = 10 myria-
rrr imes = 1 metrical quintal = 220-486 lbs. avoird.; and 10
tals = weight of a cubic metre of water = 1 millier or marine
to = 19 Brit. cwt. 2 qrs. 20 lbs. 13-75 oz.
ae Systeme Usuel, or Binary System, of the French, was intro-
dojd in 1812, for the accommodation of retail trade, to make a
soiof compromise with the common people, who shewed an irre-
co ileable aversion to the innovations of the metrical or decimal
svijm. It has the metrical standards for its basis; but their
dfsions, &c. instead of being decimal, are chiefly binary, that is,
th proceed principally by continually halving or doubling some
dfsiese standards, though partly according to other divisions of
tbold system ; and instead of the metrical vocabulary, the names
oincient weights and measures are employed, annexing the term
,M to each. Thus, the toise usuelle = 2 metres = 78-74158
]J . inches. The pied usuel is one sixth of the toise, and is sub-
di led into twelfths or inches, &c. The aune usuelle = 12 deci-
ni res = 12 metre = 47'2449 Brit, inches. The litron usuel =
1 re = 1-7608 Brit. pint. The Boisseau usuel is one eighth of
tl hectolitre, and = 2-7512 Brit, gallons. The livre usuelle is
k the kilogramme, and = 1-10243 lb. avoird. The halves, quar-
t(, eighths, &c. of the most of the above are also in use. A
si mary of the ancient French system will he found in the pre-
cr ng part of this article.
'runkfort on the Maine.—Of the weights, 128 drachmes =32
1< s = 2 marks = 1 heavy lb. = 1-1143 lb. avoird. The light lb.
is;milarly divided, but only = 1-0318 lb. avoird., so that 108 of
t light lbs. make only 100 of the heavy or centner weight. The
(ogne mark, here reckoned = 3611 grains troy, is used for gold
ai silver. The Frankfort foot contains 11-42 Brit, inches, and
t ell 21-54. The Brabant ell is generally used for Dutch goods,
a the Paris aune for French. Eighty old or 90 new mass (each
a schoppen) are equal to 20 viertels = l ohm = 31-57 Brit. gall.;
a 16 sechters = 8 metzen = 4 simmers = 1 maker or achtel =
^ i Brit, bushels.
icnoa.—There are two sorts of pounds, the peso sottile lb., and
t peso grossolb. The latter is a tenth part heavier than the for-
i r, so that the cantaroof 100 lbs. peso sottile = 69-89 lbs. avoird.,
a. the cantaro of 100 lbs. peso grosso = 76-88. The latter is
u d for bulky commodities, and the former for gold, silver, and
Particles of small bulk. The palmo = 9-725 Brit, inches, and
‘.;33 palmi= 1 braccio. The canna is of three sorts : the canna
] Cola used by tradesmen = 9 palmi, the canna grossa of the mer-
c nts = 12 palmi, and the custom-house canna = 10 jialmi. Of
( n measure, 96 gombette= 8 quarti = 1 mina = 3-31 Brit, bush-
( Also 100 pints = 2 barili = 1 mezzarola ot wine = 32-67
- it. gall.; and 64 quateroni = 4 quarti = 1 oil barile = 14-23
. it. gall.
Germany Considerable diversity of weights and measures is
i be found in the various states into which this extensive coun-
; is divided, and the most important of them will be found
t iced separately. But not a few of their standards, though dif-
ting in amount, are similar in their multiples and subdivisions.
1 the weights, 1024 hellers =312 pfennings = 128 quentins =
1 loths = 16 ounces = 2 marks = 1 commercial lb.; and 5760
i ins = 288 scruples = 96 drams = 12 oz. = 1 apothecaries’ lb.;
> o 4352 eschen = 512 hellers = 256 pfennings = 64 quentins =
loths = 8 oz. = l Cologne mark = 3608 grains troy. By this
) d and silver are weighed ; and the fineness of gold is expressed
24th parts or carats as in Britain, but the fineness of silver by
th parts. For jewellery there is a carat of 3-171 g1"8-troy- ^
“ measures, 144 inches = 12 feet = 6 ells = 2 clatters = 4 rutlie.
*e Rhinland foot used by surveyors = 12-36 Brit, inches; the
'g mile = 10,126 Brit, yds., the short mile = 6859, and the
'graphical mile = 8101 Brit. yds. The lihinland morgen ot
,(1 =* 10,185 Brit. sq. yds.
Gibraltar—Besides the British standards, the following Spanish
! also used: The arroba= 26 lbs. avoird.; the quintal = 100
= 101-75 lbs. avoird.; the corn fanega = 1'55 Brit, bushel,
? pipe of 117 gallons = 105 Brit. gall. ; the liquid arroba =
7 Brit. gall. ; and the wine gallon = 1-094 Brit. gall.
Goa—The same as in Portugal, except that the candy of 20
muds = 495 lbs. avoird. This, in the measurement of grain, is
dconed to be nearly 14 Winchester bushels.
Greece—The same as in France. Weights
Guiana (British)—In general the same as in Britain ; but the and
following, originally introduced by the Dutch, are also used: Measures,
the lb. = 1-09 lbs. avoird.; and the ell of 26 inches = 27 British —y—-■
inches.
Guiana (Dutch)—In general the same as in Holland, but chief¬
ly upon the old system.
Hamburg.—Of the weights, 128 drachmes = 32 loths = 16 oz.
= 2 marks = 1 lb. = 1-0682 lb. avoird.; 112 lbs. = 8 lisponds = 1
centner = 119-64 lbs. avoird.; and 5 centners = 2 shipfunds. Ten
lbs. = 1 stone of wool or feathers = half a stone of flax. Of but¬
ter, 280 lbs. form the great, and 224 the small tonne. A pipe of
oil is reckoned at 820 lbs. Gold and silver are weighed by the
Cologne mark, and their fineness valued as explained under the
head Germany. Of measures, 6 palms = 2 feet = 1 ell = 22-578
Brit, inches. The Rhinland foot of engineers and surveyors =
12-36 Brit, inches. The Brabant ell, commonly used for piece
goods, = 27'585 Brit, inches. Also 160 quarters = 40 stubgens =
20 viertels = 5 eimers = 4 ankers = 1 ahm = 31-87 Brit. gall.;
and 24 ankers or 6 ahms = 1 fuder. Of wine, 6 tierces = 4 ox-
hofts or hogsheads = 1 faas; but these are of various sizes. Of
corn, 160 spints = 40 himtens = 20 faas = 10 scheffels = 1 wisp or
wispel = 29 Brit, bushels; two wisps = 1 last of barley or oats =
7"25 Brit, quarters; and 3 wisps = 1 last of wheat or rye = 1 stock
of barley or oats = 10-87 Brit, quarters.
Hanover The lb. = 1-073 lb. avoird. ; 112 lbs. = 1 centner;
and 20 lbs. = 1 stone of flax or 2 stones of wool. Also 600 lbs.
= 51 stubgens = 2 tonnes of honey ; and 3360 lbs. = 240 lisponds
= 12 shipfunds = 1 last. The Cologne mark is used for gold, sil¬
ver, and silk. Two feet = 1 ell = 22-91 Brit, inches; the mile =
6-5676 Brit, miles. The morgen land measure = 2-5625 Brit,
roods. Also 80 kannen = 40 stubgens = 4 ankers = 2-5 eimers =
1 ahm = 34-24 Brit, gallons; and 6 ahms = 4 oxhofts = 1 fuder
of wine. Of corn, 96 himtens = 16 makers = 2 wisps or wispels
= 1 last = 82 Brit, bushels.
Hayti Port-au-Prince Principally the old system of France,
together with the old English wine gallon.
'Hesse-Cassel.—The lb. = 17‘08 oz. avoird. The ell = 22-59
Brit, inches ; the acre = -5894 Brit, acre; the liquid ohm = 34-94
Brit. gall.; and 16 corn metzen = 4 himtens = 1 viertel = 4-42
Brit, bushels.
Hesse-Darmstadt Two lbs. = 1 French kilogramme = 2-20486
lbs. avoird. Ten feet = 1 klafter = 2-5 metres = 8-2023 Brit, feet;
five ells = 3 metres = 3-2809 Brit. yds.; four morgens = 1 hec¬
tare = 2-47114 Brit, acres. The liquid ohm = 160 litres = 35-22
Brit, gallons; the corn maker = 1-28 hectolitre = 3-522 Brit,
bushels.
Holland In 1820, the decimal system of France was introdu¬
ced, but with the old Dutch nomenclature, as explained under the
head Belgium. Of the old weights still used in many places,
10,240 aas = 320 engels = 16 oz. = 2 marks = 1 Dutch lb. troy
= 1-0851 lb. avoird. There are also 16 oz. in the commercial
lb. = 1-0893 lb. avoird., and 100 commercial lbs. = 1 centner.
The old Amsterdam foot = 11-15, and the ell = 27-08 Brit, inches;
the Rhinland foot = 12-36, and the Flemish or Brabant ell = 27-58
Brit, inches. Nineteen Dutch leagues make one degree ot the
meridian.
japan The weights are almost the same as in China. Ihe
inc = 6-25 Brit, feet; but the measures of capacity have not been
C°!/awn—In this and the other Dutch colonies in India, the weights
of China are ordinarily employed; but the pecul, instead of being
exactly 133-33 lbs. avoird. is = 135-625 lbs. Of rice, the coyang
_ 3581 lbs. avoird. and the timbang = 10 sacks = 5 peculs =
678-125 lbs. The Dutch troy mark of 9 reals, =3798 Brit, troy
grains, is used for gold and silver. The foot = 12-36, and the ell
= 27-75 Bi-it. inches. The kanne, liquid measure, =-3282 Brit,
gall., and 396 rands = 1 leaguer of arrack = 133-33 Brit. gall.; but
360 rands = 1 leaguer of wine. , .
India Grain is generally sold by weight, as also liquids, except
wines and spirits, which at all the three presidencies are sold by
British measures. Of the Bengal weights, 940 chit.tacks = 40
seers = 1 factory maund =74-67 lbs. avoird. or two thirds of a
British cwt. The bazaar maund is one tenth greater than the fac-
torv, and similarly divided. Gold and silver are weighed by the
new tola or sicca of 180 grains troy. Two cubits = 1 guz = 1
Brit. yd. The coss or mile of Bengal = 2000 yards, and 1600 sq.
yds = 20 cottahs = 1 biggah. At Bombay 40 seers = 1 maund =
one quarter of a British cwt., and 20 maunds = 1 candy = 5 cwts.,
which in corn is counted at 24-5 Brit, bushels. At Madras, 320
nollams = 8 vis = 1 maund = 25 lbs. avoird., and 20 maunds = 1
candy. The covid = 18-6 inches, but the British yard is used for
cloth ; and in land measure, 24 maunies = 1 cawney = 6400 Brit,
sq. vds. Also 320 measures = 400 marcals = 80 parahs = 1 garse
854
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
and
Measures
Weights or gursay. _ The raarcal = 750 Brit, cubic inches. When grain is
Q"'* soid by weight, 9256 5 lbs. avoird. are reckoned to the garse.
Commercial Weights, fyc. of India, and of several adjacent States, with
their equivalents in British, Bengal Factory, Madras, and Bombay
Weights.
Commercial Weights, &c.
Acheen bahar of 200)
catties (
Acheen guncha of 107
nelly J
Anjengo candy of 20)
maunds /
Batavia pecul of 100)
catties /
Bencoolen bahar 
Bengal factory maund....
Bengal bazaar maund....
Bombay candy of 20)
maunds j
Bussorah maund of 767
vakias J
Bussorah maund of 24 )
vakias /
Calicut maund of 100)
pools (
China pecul of 100 cat- )
ties /
Cochin candy of 20)
maunds  j
Gombroon bazaar candy.
Goa candy of 20 maunds.
Jonkceylon bahar of 8 l
capins f
Madras candy of 20)
maunds |
Malacca bahar of 3)
peculs   f
Mocha bahar of 15 fra- )
zils )
Muscat custom-house\
maund /
Mysore candy of 7 mo- )
rahs   /
Pegu candy of 150 vis....
Penang pecul of 100f
catties )
Surat maund of 40 seers.
Surat pucca maund 
Tillycherry candy of)
20 maunds f
Avoirdupois
Lbs. Oz. Dr.
423 6 13
220 0
560 0
135 10
560 0 0
74 10 10‘7
82 2 2 1
560 0
90 4
28 8
30 0
133 5
543 8
7 8
495 0
485 5
500 0
405 0
450 0
8 12
560 0
500 0
133 5
37 5
5-3
74 10 10-7
600 0 0
Bengal
Factory.
Mds. S. Ch
5 26 13
2 37 137
7 20 0
1 32 10
7 20 0
1 0 0
1 4
0 16
1 31
7 11
4
25
20
28 0
16 15
0
0 4
7 20
6 28
1 31
0 20
1 0
Madras.
Bombay.
Mds. Vis. Pol. Mds. S. Pice
15 4 27
16 7 19
8 6 16
22 3 8
5 3 16
22 3 8
2 7 35-7
3 2 11-3
22 3 8
3 4 35-2
1 1 48
1 1 24
5 2 26
21 5 368
0 2 16
19 6 16
19 3 12
20 0 0
16 1 24
18 0 0
0 2 32
22 3 8
20 0 0
5 2 26
1 3 37-9
2 7 357
24 0 0
7 34 8 6
20 0 0
4 33 22-4
20 0 0
2 26 20
2 37 10
20 0 0
3 8 27-9
1 0 21-4
1 2 257
4 30 14-3
19 16 12'9
0 10 21-4
17 27 4-3
17 13 10
17 34 8-6
14 18 17T
16 2 25’7
0 12 15
20 0 0
17 34 8-6
4 30 14-3
1 13 10
2 26 20
wine barile contains 9-17, and the oil caffiso 4-375 Brit m
cafnsos make a barile. The salma corn measure ~Sn- J"'0
bushels. c / 075 i$r;t
Morocco—The rottolo or commercial lb. — l-io ik
10(! SZ^S = 1Jqui£tah . The market lb. is one half El’,
.amh
heavier, or
1-785 lb. avoird. By it iron, bees’ wax, and provTL*
The canna for cloth = 21 Brit, inches, but the measuresrf ^
city are very variable. es capa-
Mauritius—In government affairs the British system ,
but in ordinary business something near the old system nf p d’
reckoning the quintal of 100 lbs. poids de marc =108 lh= , “l6'
20 quintals = 1 French ton ; 100 lbs. French to the bag 0Sff
loO to the bag of rice, and 250 to the bale of cotton! A n
French feet are reckoned = 10 Brit. feet. 7 aunes -q iw ,
1 arpent = 1-04375 acre, one velt = 2 old English wine frail 'S ’
and 30 velts = 1 cask. 0 Salons,
Mecklenburg—The weights are chiefly those of Lubeck and Ti
burg, but 100 Rostock lbs. = 1 Brit. cwt. There are 2 feet S'
Rostock ell = 22-67 Brit, inches, and 1 scheffel of corn J i n?
Brit, bushel. The liquid measures are those of Lubeck
Mexico.—In general the same as in Spain ; but the British vd
and trench aune are also in use for European goods. '
Alinorca—The weights and dry measures are the same as in
Majorca ; and, except thegerra orj'ar of two quarters, =2-fi5Brit
gall., the other measures are the same as in Spain.
Mocha—Of the weights, 150 maunds = 15 frazils = l bahar-
450 lbs. avoird.; 48 carats = 3 coffola = 2 miscals = 146-74 mab
troy ; 10 coffolas = 1 vakia, and 87 vakias = the weight of 100
Spanish dollars. The covid = 19, the guz = 25 BriUnches • 8
noosfias = 1 gudda = 1-8 Brit, gallon ; and 40 kellas dry measure
= 1 tomand, which, of rice, is reckoned to weigh 168 lbs. avoird
Modena—The Modena libhra or lb. = 0-7045 lb.; the Recmh
lb. = 0-7274 lb. avoird., and 100 lbs. = 1 quintal. The Modena
braccio = 24-31; and the braccio of Reggio = 20-85 Brit, inches
In land measure, 72 tavole= 1 biolca = 2-8030 Brit, roods. Corn
is sold by the stajo, = 1-94 Brit, bushel.
Moldavia—in general the same as in Turkey; but in common
trade 25 okes of Galatz are reckoned = 2 Russian-poods; 2400 okes
= 7 centners = 700 lbs. of Vienna.
Montevideo—Same as in Spain.
Mozambique—One frazil = 12 lbs. avoird., and 20 frazils = 1
bahar.
Ionian Isles—The present British system was introduced in Muscat—Twenty-four cuchas = 1 maund = 8| lbs avoird.
1828, when the hbbra sottile was made equal to 1 lb. troy, the Naples—One hundred rottoli or lbs. = 1 can taro grosso =
libbra grossa to 1 lb. avoird., the talanto to 100 lbs. avoird., the 196 45 lbs. avoird.; 1800 oz. = 150 lbs. = 1 cantaro piccola =
stadio of 40 carnaco to 1 Brit, furlong, the barrel to 16 Brit, gal- 106-07 lbs. avoird.; and 7200 acini = 360 trapesi = 12 oz.lthelb.
Ions, and the kilo of corn to 1 Brit, bushel. Of the old weights, of 4950 grains troy, by which gold and silver are weighed. Of the
44 okes =1 quintal = 123-15 lbs. avoird., or 40 okes = 1 cwt. measures, 96 inches = 8 palmi = 1 canna or ell = 83-05 Brit, inches;
near.y. Of the old measures, the Zante braccio for cloth = 27-18 15 palmi make 2 passi, and 7000 palmi = 1 mile = 2018 Brit. yds.
Brit, inches, the silk braccio = 25-37 Brit, inches; the Zante barile There are 900 sq. passi in the moggia of land - -8315 Brit. acre.
= 14-68, and the Corfu barile = 15 Brit, gallons. Also 8 misure Sixty caraffi = 1 baril of wine or brandy = 9-6 imp. gall.; 24 barili
= 1 corn moggio of Zante = 4-63 Brit, bushels. In land mea- = 2 botte—1 carro; 14 barili = 1 pipe; and 256 quart! = 16staja =
sure, 24 zappade = 8 misure = 1 moggio = 2-4 Brit, acres. 1 salma of oil = 34-91 Brit, gall., and is reckoned to weigh 324 lbs.
Lubeck—The Cologne mark of 3608 troy grains is used for gold avoird. Four quart! of corn =2 mezzetti = 1 tomolo = 1-519 Brit,
and silver, and 112 ibs. = 8 lisponds = 119-67 lbs. avoird. Two bushels. At Gallipoli, 320 pignatti=10 staja= 1 salma ofoil =
feet = 1 ell = 22’7 Brit, inches; and 80 kannes = 40 stubgen = 20 34-11 Brit. gall. The salma at Bari = 36-42 such gallons,
vieitels = 1 ahm = 31-87 Brit. gall. Also 96 scheff'els = 24 bar- Nassau.—The standards are founded on the metrical system of
uu T ^ t romts = 1 *ast °‘ wheat or rye = 11-04 Brit, quarters. France. Ten inches =1 foot = half a metre = 19-685 Brit, inches;
lire last of oats = 12-95 quarters, and is similarly subdivided. 10 feet—1 perch, and 100 square perches = 1 moreen =25 ares =
Lucca.— ihe common lb. = 0-7448 lb. avoird., but the lb. peso "6178 Brit. acre.
grosso= 8-234 lbs. avoird. or 11 Leghorn lbs. The braccio for New Brunswick Same as in Britain.
woollens =23-8 Brit, inches, but that for silk is an inch less. Newfoundland Same as in Britain.
There are 4 braccio in the canna. The coppo for oil = 21-97 New Granada Same as in Spain.
Brit. gall. Wine is sold by the Leghorn barile of 20 fiasci, and No/way—The same as in Denmark,
cern by the staja= two thirds of a Brit, bushel. Nova Scotia.—The same as in Britain.
Madeira.—In general the same as in Portugal; but in corn mea- Oldenburg The weights are those of Hamburg. Twelve inches
sine 23 alquieres are = 24 of Lisbon, and in wine measure 12 =1 foot = 11-65 Brit, inches; and the ell contains 22-76 of same
almudos are = 13 of Lisbon. inches. Also 104 kannes=4 ankers=l ohm; 3 ohnis = 2 oxhofts;
Majorca—One hundred rottolos or lbs. = 1 cantaro Berberesco and 144 scheffels = 18 tonnes = 12 makers = 1 last =80'69Brit.
= 88-2 lbs. avoird.; 104 rottolos = 4 arrobas = 1 quintal = 91-73 lbs. bushels.
avoiid.; and 512 rottolos = 3 quintals = 1 carga. Also 108 rotto- Burma.—Of the weights, 300 ounces = 25 lbs. - 1 rabbin =
^()s — 12 quartins or cortans = 1 odor of oil. The canna = 67'5 18-08 lbs. avoird. The braccio for measuring cloth = 25-35 Brit.
Brit, inches. Of wine, 6-5 corters = 1 quartin = 5-97 Brit. gall.; inches, which exceeds that used for silk by 1'95 inch. There are
and 0 barcellas of corn = 1 quartern = T94 Brit, bushel. 12 inches in the braccio di ligno used by surveyors, = 21-34 Brit.
Malacca—One hundred catties = 1 pecul = 135 lbs. avoird. ; 3 inches; and 6 bracci = 1 perch. Also 288 sq. perches = 72 tavo*e
peculs make 1 bahar; and 500 gantons = 50 measures = 1 last = =: 6 tari = 1 biolca = nearly *75 Brit, acre ; and 16 quarterole =
29 Brit. cwts. nearly. Also 40 peculs = 1 coyau of salt or rice. 1 stajo of corn = 1-413 Brit, bushel.
A kip of tin = 41 lbs. avoird. The buncal, = 832 grains troy, is Persia The weight chiefly used in commerce is the batman,
used for gold and silver. The covid = 18-125 Brit, inches. which not only is of different amount in different districts, but
Malta—-One hundred rottoli or lbs. =1 cantar= 174-5 lbs. depends also on the kind of article to be weighed. At Tabriz, 60
avoird. Gold and silver are weighed by the lb. of 12 oz. = 4886 miscals = 300 derhams = 6 rattles = 1 batman = 6-34 lbs. avoird.,
grains troy. Eight palmi = 1 canna = 82 Brit, inches ; and 16 which is only half the batman of Cherray. There is a derham 0
square tumoli = 1 salma land measure = 4-44 Brit, acres. The nearly 150 grains troy, by which gold and silver are weighed, an
11» •
sares,'
rv
b
P
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
, , exceeds the derham of Busliire by nearly ^ grains. Pearls
W leighed by the abas of 2-25 troy grs. The measures are not
*re ,arja5[e than the weights. The guz or common cubit = 25
n • inches, and the royal guz is one half longer. The archin of
n = 44 Brit, inches. There are 20 leagues or parasangs in
’ (l 'ree of the equator ; but it is by the fursoch or augage, that
f e Spa(;e of about four or five Brit, miles walked over by a
j oi in an hour, that moderate distances are usually reckoned,
f r ter distances are estimated by the day’s march of a caravan,
h i may be about 30 miles. In corn measure, 200 sextarios
chenicas = 25 capichas = 1 artaba = T939 Brit, bushels.
""/ra.—The same as in Spain.
j ilippine Isles.—The same as in Spain, except that the Chinese
oeo is sometimes used.
v jancl Of the weights, 128 drachms = 32 loths = 16 oz. = 1
lb 0-89414 lb. avoird.; 32 lbs. of Poland = 1 stone, and 160
jucibs. = 1 centner. The Cologne mark is used for coined gold
anoilver, but the Warsaw mark = 3113 grains troy for the un-
coiid. Two feet = 1 ell or lokci = 22-68 Brit, inches. The
Biiids the twentieth part of a degree of the meridian. There are
aoinerches in the acre or morgen, = 1-384 Brit, acre: and 30
Diuiens make 1 wloka. Also 16 liquid kwaterkas = 4 kwartas = 1
jf.ec _ 4 French litres = 0-88039 Brit. gall.; and 25 garniecs
1 pecsksa. Of corn, 128 kwartas = 32 garniecs = 4 cwiercs = 1
li(,](c = 3-5214 Brit, bushels.
Ipedom or Papal States Of the commercial weights, 6912
gni =288 denari =12 once=l Roman lb. =-7477 lb. avoird.
Tl isame lb. is also used by apothecaries and for gold and silver ;
inToo such lbs. = 10 decine = 1 quintal. The foot = 11-72 Brit,
inds; 8 palmi = 1 mercantile canna = 6-52917 Brit. feet. The
Rdin mile = 1628 Brit. yds. Also 128 fogliette = 32 boccali
-.barile of wine =12-84 Brit, gall.; 80 boccali = 1 soma of
oili30-14 Brit, gall; and 88 quartucci = 22 scorzi = 4 quarte =
1 t,jn rubbio = 8-1 Brit, bushel. In Ancona, 100 lbs. = 73'75 lbs.
avid.; the braccio = 25-33 Brit, inches; and 24 boccali = 2
ba =1 wine soma = 18-9 Brit. gall. Also 8 coppe = 1 corn
ruiio = 7-87 Brit, bushels. In Bologna, the lb. = ‘798 lb. avoird.,
an ,lie foot = 15 Brit, inches.
rtugal Of the commercial weights, 32 marks = 16 oz. = 1
jnjel or lb. = 1-0119 lb. avoird.; and 32 arratels = 1 arroba.
Ti e are 4 arrobas in the quintal, and 54 in the tonelada. The
appecaries’ lb. is only three fourths of the commercial. There
anil inches in the palmo craveiro, = 8-622 Brit, inches ; the pe
orijot = P5 palmo ; 5 palmos = 1 varo ; and though three palmos
armsually said to form the varo, it is more nearly 26'67 Brit,
imi's. Ten palmos = 1 bra<;o ; the mile = 2253 Brit. yds.; and
3 es = 1 league. Of land, 4840 square varos = 1 geira ; and 7
geis make nearly 10 Brit, acres. Of liquids, 48 quartiihos = 12
ca.das = 2 pots = 1 almude of Lisbon = 3-64 Brit. gall. ; there
an8 almudes in the baril, 26 in the pipe, and 52 in the tonelada.
In ry measure, 240 quartos = 60 alquieres of Lisbon = 15 fane-
ga,= 1 moyo = 22-39 Brit, bushels. The almude of Oporto =
5-!illrit. gall., and the alquiere of Oporto = -465 Brit, bushel.
1 •ussia.—Of the commercial weights, 128 quintins = 32 loths
djCologne marks = 1 lb. = l-03li lb. avoird. ; and 110 lbs. = 1
Winer or quintal = 113-42 lbs-avoird. There are 4000 lbs. in
tliiihip last; and the apothecaries’ lb. is only two thirds of the
comercial. The Cologne mark is used for gold and silverT he
liiiland foot = 12-356 Brit, inches; the ell = 26-26 of such
inks; and 2000 perches = 1 mile = 8237 Brit. yds. There are
If|q. perches in the morgen or acre, = 3054 Brit. sq. yds.; and
Sfiorgen = 1 hufe. Also 120 quarts = 4 ankers == 2 eimers = 1
li« (1 ohm = 30-23 Brit. gall. ; 3 eimers = 1 oxhoft; 100 quarts
Mi tun of beer; and 48 quarts = 16 metzen = 1 corn scheffel
fei-512 Brit, bushel. Various old measures are still partially
in| se.
"usso-German commercial league or Zoll-Verein is composed
of nhalt Bernbourg, Anhalt Cothen, Anhalt Dessau, Baden, Ba.
Ti! i, Birkenfeld (part of Oldenburg), F1 rank fort, Hesse Cassel,
I' se Darmstadt, Hesse Homburg, Hohenzollern HichengeiR
H enzollern Sigmaringen, Nassau, Prussia, principalities of
h ss, Saxony, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Saxe-
^imingen, Saxe-Weimar, Schwarzburg Itudolstadt, Schwarz-
H’ Sondershausen, Waldeck (exclusive of Pyrmont), Wiir-
tttberg. The basis of their tariff is the centner of Baden —
S1 reach kilogrammes, and divided into 100 pounds or livres
lies of France. Hence the zoll centner of 100 lbs. =
2429 lbs. avoird. The following relative values are given in
tariff;—
935-422 zoll lbs. = 1000 Prussian lbs.
1120-   = 1000 Bavarian lbs.
2000-   = 1000 kilogrammes.
935-458   = 1000 Wiirtemberg lbs.
933-673   = 1000 Saxon (Dresden) lbs.
Or 14 zoll lbs. = 15 Prussian lbs. nearly.
28   = 25 Bavarian lbs.
2   = 1 kilogramme.
14   =15 Wiirtemberg nearly.
14   = 15 Saxon (Dresden) lbs. nearly.
Russia—Of the weights, 96 zolotnieks = 32 loths = 1 lb =
•90264 lb. avoird. With this lb., which is used for most purposes,
gold and silver are also weighed, it being divided into 6528 grains.
The Nuremberg lb. of 5527 grains troy is used by the apothe¬
caries. The British and Dutch feet and inches are employed.
The Russian foot = 13-75 Brit, inches; 16 verchoks= 1 archine
for cloth = 28 Brit, inches ; and 1500 archines = 500 sagenes = 1
verste or mile =1167 Brit. yds. Also 2400 sq. sagenes = 1 de-
ciatine = 2'7 Brit, acres ; and 100 tcharkeys = 2-705 Brit- gall.
Of corn, 64 garnietz = 32 tchetverkas = 8 tchetveriks = 4 payaks
= 2 osmines = 1 chetwerk = 5-77 Brit, bushels. Various old
standards are partially in use in different parts of the empire.
Sardinia.—In Turin, 12 oz. = P5 mark = 1 lb. = -8133 lb.
avoird. ; 25 lbs. = 1 rubbio; and the mark of 3795 grs. troy is
used for gold and silver. The raso or ell = 23-6 Brit, inches; the
mile = 2697 Brit, yds ; the giornate = -938 Brit, acre; the wine
rubbio = 2-07 Brit. gall.; and the corn sacco = 3-17 Brit, bushels.
In Nice, 150 lbs. = 1 quintal = 103-14 lbs. avoird.; the ell =
3-8975 Brit, feet; 12 rubbi= 1 charge = 20-75 Brit, gall.; but
the charge of corn =4-4 Brit. bush. In Cagliari, 12 oz. = 1 lb.
= -875 lb. avoird.; the raso = 21-63 Brit, inches, and the restiere
= 4 04 Brit, bushels.
Saxony.—In Dresden, the lb. = 1 0293 lb. avoird.; 110 lbs. =
1 centner; the mark =3602 grs. troy; two feet= 1 ell =22-3
Brit, inches; 3200 feet= 1 mile = 9914 Brit. yds.; the morgen
or acre= 1-261 Brit, acre; the liquid eimer = 14 84 Brit. gall.;
the scheffel = 2-859 Brit, bushels. In Leipzig, 32 loths = l lb.
= 1-0301 lb- avoird.; the centner = 110 lbs. = 113-32 lbs. avoird.
Two feet =1 ell = 22-24 Brit, inches ; 60 ells = 1 schock ; the
liquid eimer = 16-69 Brit. gall.; the old scheffel for corn = 3-812
Brit, bushels. The Dresden scheffel, which is one third greater,
is now the general standard.
Siam The common weight is the catty = 2-67 lbs. avoird.,
which is double the Chinese catty; but the pecul, containing only
50 catties, is just equal the Chinese pecul. Also 8 spans = 4 cubits
= 1 fathom = 6-5 Brit, feet; 20 fathoms = 1 sen ; but a square
area of 20 fathoms to the side is likewise named a sen.
Sicily Thecantarro grosso = 192-53 lbs. avoird.; thecantarro
sottile = 175-03 lbs. avoird. The lb. = -7014 lb. avoird.^ Gold and
silver are weighed and valued as at Naples ; 94 cubic French feet
of the old standard = 5 salmes = 1 ship ton. Oil is sold in Mes¬
sina by the caffiso, = 2-58 Brit. gall. The canna = 81-35 Brit,
inches ; the wine tonna = 31-24 Brit, gall.; the corn salma =
7-61 Brit, bush., and the salma grossa of Leghorn = 9 47 Brit,
bushels. ....
Sincapore The Chinese pecul of 133-33 lbs. avoird. is the usual
weight. The covid for cloth = 18 Brit, inches ; the gantang, by
which corn, fruit, and liquids are occasionally sold, = 1-04 Brit,
gall. European commodities are often sold by British weights
and measures. . , , ,
Spain —Two marks = 1 lb. = 1 01443 lb. avoird.; the arroba
consists of 25, and the quintal of 4 lbs. The mark used for gold
and silver is = 3550 grains troy. Twelve pulgados =1 Burgos
foot =11-128 Brit, inches ; 4 palmos = 1 vara or ell = lint,
inches. The estadale = 12 feet; 8000 varas = 1 league = 7418
Brit. yds. A degree is divided into twenty marine leagues ;
sq. varas = 1 aracada of vine land ; and 6000 sq. varas = 1 fane-
gada of corn land. The greater or wine arroba = 3 54 Brit, gall.,
the less or oil arroba = 2 77 ; the pipe = 27 of the greater arrobas
or 34-5 of the less: the corn fanega = l-5n Brit, bushels; and
12 fanegas = 1 cahiz. But a variety of local standards is also
1USweden The lb., victual weight, = 6563 grains troy; the lispund
contains 20, the sten 32, the centner 120’ the !;aa|’ ^h^
skeppund 400 such lbs. Two feet =1 ell= ti.:
8 ells - 1 ruthe; 2250 ruthes = 1 mile = 11,689 Brit. yds. , the
tunnaland = 1 -22 Brit. acre. The liquid kann = -5756 BnU gafi^;
the fuder contains 300, the pipe 180, the oxhufvud .10, and the
ahm 60 kanns. The corn tunna = 4-029 Brit, bushels. But va¬
rious other measures and local standards are m
Switzerland—In 1837 the 12 cantons, Berne, Zumh, Lucerne,
Friburn- Zug, Soleure, Basel, Aargau, 1 hurgau, Schaff hausen, -Ha¬
ms and St Galen, adopted the following standards, founded on the
decimal system of France: 32 loths = 1 lb. = half a kilogramme =
1024 lb avoird. ; 2 feet = 1 ell = 6 decimetres ; and 1 stund =
4800*" metres = 5249 Brit. yds. The liquid mass _ l-o lltr^—
o-64 Brit pints ; ten mass of corn = 1 viertel = 15 litres — l-Oo
B t peck P In Geneva, besides the French system, 100 lbs gros
poids = 121-43 lbs. avoird. ; 100 lbs. peUt poids = 10l l9 lbs.
855
Weights
and
Measures.
856
W E I
W E
L
Weimar, avoird. The winechar = 120-71 Brit. gall.; the coup of corn =
•—-y—^ 2-13 Brit, bushels.
Tripoli—One hundred rottoli = 1 cantar = 109-71 lbs. avoird.;
the caraffa of oil weighs 3-125 rottoli. The great pik = 26-42,
and the small = 19-03 Brit, inches ; the wine barile — 14-25 Brit,
gall. ; and 4 temen = ] corn hueba = 2-95 Brit, bushels.
Tunis—One hundred rottoli = 1 cantaro = 111-75 lbs. avoird.;
for cotton the pik or ell = 19-23, for silk and linen =25, and for
woollen = 26-5 Brit, inches. The wine millerole = 14-15, and the
oil mettar — 4-27 Brit. gall. The corn caffiz = 1-918 Brit, quarter.
Turkey.—The oke = 2-8286 lbs. avoird.; 1 oil almude should
weigh 8 okes; 100 rottoli = 44 okes — l quintal = 124-46 lbs.
avoird. The great pik = 27 9, the small = 27-06 Brit, inches;
the berri or mile = 1826 Brit. yds. ; the liquid almude = 1-143
Brit. gall.; the corn fortin = 3-84 Brit, bushels.
Tuscany—The quintal or cantaro = 100 lbs. = 74-86 lbs. avoird.;
20 soldi = 1 braccio = 22-979 Brit, inches; the mile — 1808 Brit,
yds. ; the sacato of land = 5928 Brit. sq. vds. ; the baril for wine
= 10-03, and for oil = 7-36 Brit. gall. The corn stajo = 2-676
Brit, pecks; and 24 staja = 1 moggio.
United States of America—Chiefly the same as in England prior
to the imperial system. But instead of the cwt. they generally
use simply 100 lbs. which are sometimes called a quintal. The
barrel of flour weighs 196 lbs.; the hhd. of Indian meal 800 lbs. ;
and the barrel of salt meat 200 lbs.
Wallachia —The weights are those of Moldavia TU i -i.
Brailow, of about 400 ocche = 1-5 killow of Galatz =1 su-?,* of
of Constantinople = 9 sacchi of Leghorn. In other re T
same as in Turkey. Cspects the
West Indies (British)—In general the same as in Britain v '
Spanish measures are partly used in Trinidad and tU „i , ’ but
of France in St Lucia. ’ d the old s^em
West Indies (French)—Same as in France.
West Indies (Dutch)—Chiefly the old system of Am** j
In Curafoa the Spanish varo is also employed Amsterdam.
West Indies (Danish)—Same as in Denmark. The Bril' v,
and French aune are sometimes employed. * llslDard
West Indies (Swedish)—Chiefly the same as in Sweden
Wurtemberg—The lb.= 1-0314 lb. avoird.; the font 1 no-
Brit, inches. The toise = 6 feet; the ell = 24-18 Urit ■ u
The mile is the fifteenth of a degree. The moriren nr 'n™e3'
31-518 French ares; and 1-5 morgen = 1 jucharf T.Tf
of wine = 388-16 Brit. gall. The scheffel of corn - dZ V*
bushels. 06 JJrit-
For further particulars, we beg to refer to Kelly’s Metro!
and his Universal Cambist; the Parliamentary Reports partF’
larly those relating to the Board of Trade ; Buchanan onWeiohn
and .Measures; M’Culloch’s Commercial Dictionary; and Water
ston’s Manual of Commerce, which contains much valuable matter
within a very small compass. (Ei E E v
WEIMAR, a city, the capital of the grand duchy of that
name, in Germany. It stands on the river lira, and is sur¬
rounded with hills, some of which are covered with woods.
The buildings are not remarkable, but are on the whole in a
better style and condition than is to be seen in most of the
towns in Germany of the same extent. The grand duke
has a palace in an unfinished state, but with a valuable li¬
brary, open to all the inhabitants; and some of the state-
apartments are elegantly furnished. The liberal feelings
of the reigning family have, by their patronage of the most
accomplished men of Germany, given a celebrity to their
capital to which it could not have attained on any other
account. They brought there men like Schiller, Wieland,
Herder, Goethe, and several others, who formed points of
attraction, which drew towards them the minds of all lite¬
rary Germans, and thus diffused a spirit and tone of the
most elevating nature. The chief trade is that of compos¬
ing and printing useful works, in a large establishment, in
which are employed several hundred workmen, as authors,
engravers, letter-founders, lithographers, and printers. The
maps issued from it are generally very correct, and sold at
low prices, to suit the finances of the great class of the
people. The periodical works on surgery and medicine,
and the geographical Ephemeriden, are of high reputation,
and issued at similar low rates. One of the most attrac¬
tive objects is the theatre. Here the plays of Schiller and
of Goethe were first performed; and this theatre was during
many years under the direction of the latter. Though but
a small house, nothing can be more appropriate than the
building, the decorations, and the stage accuracy in the
common representations.
Weimar contains two Lutheran churches, a chapel for
the Catholics, and for the Greeks, with a Jews’ synagogue.
It is w-ell furnished with schools for the several degrees of
instruction, and prepares the pupils for the university of
Jena, within the dominions of the same prince. There are
many charitable institutions, such as an orphan-house, and
several hospitals and poor-houses. At Belvedere, the prince
has some very fine gardens, with green and hot-houses, and
a fine collection of exotic plants. This forms one of the
pleasant promenades by which the inhabitants of Weimar
are gratified. The city being on the high road from Frank¬
fort to Leipzig, is a great thoroughfare, and furnishes good
accommodation for strangers at the hotels. In 1838 the
inhabitants amounted to about 12,000. Long. 12. 45. 5. E.
Lat. 50. 59. 12. N.
WEISK, a circle of the province ofWologda, in Russia,
is bounded on the north-east by Archangel, on the east
by Ustjug and Totma, on the south hy Kadnikow, on the
west by Novogorod, and on the north-west by Olonetz. It
extends over 11,060 square miles, comprehends one city,
two market-towns, 390 villages, and 68,750 inhabitants.
The soil is generally poor, but near the rivers there is some
good pasture-land. There are in it some manufactures of
hardware, ihe capital is the small city of the same name
on the river Waga. It scarcely contains more than 1200
inhabitants. It is 956 miles from St Petersburg. Long.
41. 45. E. Lat. 60. 40. N.
WEISSENSTEIN, a circle in the Russian province of
Esthonia, formerly called Jerwin. It extends in north la¬
titude from 58° 35' to 59° 12', and in east longitude from
25° 4' to 26° 22', and comprehends 924 square miles, hav¬
ing one town, eight villages, and ninety-one hamlets, with
27,240 inhabitants. The soil is good, and especially near
the rivers, where there is excellent pasture, for horned cat¬
tle. The capital is the town of the same name on the
river Weissenstein. Long. 25. 27. E. Lat. 58. 51. 30. N.
WELDON, a market-town of the county of Northamp¬
ton, in the hundred of Corby, seventy-three miles from
London. It consists of two portions, distinguished as Great
and Little Weldon, but the latter is the more populous.
The river Nen has its source near the town. It contains a
good market-house, occupied on Wednesday. The inha¬
bitants amounted in 1821 to 819, and in 1831 to 778.
WELIKIJO-LUKI, a circle of the Russian government
of Pf kow, extending in north latitude from 55° 54' to 56°
50', and in east longitude from 29° 23' to 30° 45'. It is
watered by the river Lowat, and many of its tributary
streams ; is generally level, in part undulating, and abound¬
ing in woods and morasses. The capital is the city oi the
same name, on the river Lowat, at the point where the Ko-
lomenka falls into that stream. It has four stone and three
wooden churches, 400 houses, and 3860 inhabitants, who
are employed in tanning the peculiar leather of Russia, and
trade in flax and hemp extensively. It is 308 miles from
St Petersburg. Long. 30. 20. E. Lat. 56. 22. N.
WELISH, a circle of the Russian governmentof Witebsk.
It extends in north latitude from 55° 25' to 56° 2', and in
east longitude from 30° 13' to 31° 6'. It contains one city
and 1013 villages, with 56,400 inhabitants. The principal
river is the Duna, which receives the waters of the Mescha
and the Welish, as well as the overflowing of the lakes Is*
r:i
■«,
a
:
'■
Si
jj
0:
•I
la
.
il
H'
W E L
L and Tschiplia. The capital is a city of the same name
on ie Duna, at the spot where the Welishka falls into that
6tr m- ^'s an ancient and ill-built town, with a Greek
'an i Catholic church, and a synagogue. It contains 4800
inhiitants, a fourth part of whom are Jews. It is 430 miles
fro1 St Petersburg. Long. 31. 48. E. Lat. 55. 36. N.
ELL, a hole under ground, usually of a cylindrical n-
ge and walled with stone and mortar. Its use is to col-
fgcjihe water of the strata around it.
ell, an apartment formed in the middle of a ship’s
liol, to enclose the pumps, from the bottom to the lower
deis. It is used as a barrier to preserve those machines
fro- being damaged by the friction or compression of the
majrials contained in the hold, and particularly to prevent
thcjntrance of ballast, &c., by which the tubes would pre¬
set,y be choked, and the pumps rendered incapable of ser-
vio By means of this enclosure, the artificers may like-
wi: more readily descend into the hold in order to examine
tin tateof the pumps, and repair them as occasion requires.
ELLESLEY’S Islands, a group of islands so called
byjaptain Flinders, at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Mhe north coast of New Holland. Their names are
M<hington isle, Pisonia, Bentinck, Sweer’s island, and se-
vetil other small and rocky islets.
ELLINGBOROUGH, a market-town of the county
of larthampton, in the hundred of Hamfordshoe, sixty-eight
min from London, and seven from Northampton, on the
riv Nen. It is a well-built town, in which the making of
bos and shoes and bobbin lace is still carried on, though
tbi latter trade has declined. Near to it are some medi-
cii springs, not now in request. From these the place
ile^ed its name. There is a good market on Wednesday.
T1 population amounted in 1821 to 4454, and in 1831 to
la
TLLINGTON, a market-town in the county of So-
mnetand hundred of West Kingsbury, on the river Tone,
la miles from London and seven from Taunton. It is in
a h district, is well built, has an ancient noble church,
an a new one recently erected at the sole expense of the
cli ;ynian. The town formerly had a considerable trade in
mi mg serges and other woollen goods, but that branch of
in stry has greatly declined of late years. Some pottery
wi: is made. There is a well-frequented market on Thurs-
da The population amounted in 1821 to 4170, and in
m to 4762.
Ellington, a market-town of the county of Salop,
in he hundred of South Bradford, near the Wrekin, 150
m s Irom London. It is a well-built place, has a hand-
loo church of modern erection, supported by cast-iron
pi rs. Ihere is a good market on Thursday, and very
cn iderable occupation afforded by the mines of iron and
01 )ai *n the vicinity, and bv some large iron furnaces. The
P< ilation amounted in 1821 to 8390, and in 1831 to 9671.
ELLS, a city of the county of Somerset, in the hun-
~f of Wellsforum, 120 miles from London and eighteen
"’f1 It is situated in a rich valley at the foot of
t'Mendip Hills, which supply abundance of coal. It is
t° ably well built, though many of the houses are of an
81 pie fashion, whilst others of more modern erection
ar very handsome. The streets are well paved, and re-
ni <ably clean. In conjunction with Bath, it is the seat of
a mop, whose palace in the city is one of the best episco-
fVesidences in the kingdom. The cathedral is a spacious
’ hie structure in the form of a cross, 380 feet long and
. j *eet wide. The most remarkable part of the building
1S| e west front, which is most elaborately ornamented with
*4ies of most excellent carved work in stone. One of
J, windows contains some beautiful paintings on glass.
chapter-house is remarkable for its structure in the
a i ot a rotunda, having its roof mpported by a single
P1 r in the centre. The deaner’y ia a handsome residence,
ol. xxi.
WEN
and the houses of the vicars within the close are very com¬
modious. besides those belonging to the church, there are
several other charitabJe establishments. Near the city is
, Anc}rews Well, whose water is conveyed by pipes to an
elegant conduit near the market-cross, and from thence runs
through a part of the city. The civil government is vested
in the corporation, consisting of a mayor, four aldermen, and
eleven councillors ; and the city returns two members to the
House of Commons. Besides the cathedral, is the parish
church of St Cuthbert, with a lofty square tower, and a fine
set of six bells ; and various places of worship for dissenters.
There are good markets on Wednesday and Saturday, and
four annual fairs. There are horse-races yearly near the
city. The population amounted in 1821 to 5888, and in
1831 to 6649.
857
Wells
r II
W enden.
Wells, a market-town of the county of Norfolk, in the
hundied of North Greenhoe, 118 miles from London. It
stands on the shore of the German Ocean, has a small port
and custom-house, but the trade is inconsiderable. The po¬
pulation, including that of the parish, which extends far be¬
yond the town, amounted in 1821 to 2950, and in 1831 to
3624.
WELSHPOOL, a borough-town and parish of the coun¬
ty of Montgomery, in North Wales, in the hundred of Pool,
177 miles from London. It is pleasantly situated and
well built, with a convenient county-hall, in which the as¬
sizes are held. It is near the river Severn, and is connect¬
ed with it by a canal, and by another with Ellesmere. It
is the chief place where the Welsh flannels are collected
from the neighbouring peasantry. The corporation consists
of four aldermen and twelve councillors, and the borough
returns one member to the House of Commons. The po¬
pulation amounted in 1821 to 3535, and in 1831 to 3500.
WEM, a market-town and large parish of the county of
Salop, in the hundred of North Bradford, 172 miles from
London, It chiefly consists of one large street, with a few
smaller. It has a very handsome church, a free school, and
two dissenting chapels. There is a good market on Thurs¬
day, and three annual fairs. The population amounted in
1821 to 3621, and in 1831 to 3967; but this includes ten
small townships, as Wem itself in 1831 contained only 1932
inhabitants.
WEMYSS, Easter, a village, situated on the shores of
the Firth of Forth, in the county of Fife. Its inhabitants,
amounting in 1831 to 858, are principally weavers.
Wemyss, Wester, a seaport town about a mile distant
from the above. It consists almost entirely of one street,
which is in good order, as is also the small harbour. The
principal business is connected with the exportation of coals
from the extensive coal-mines belonging to the family of
Wemyss, which have been worked for many centuries, and
now extend to a considerable distance under the sea. Weav¬
ing is also carried on by a few of the inhabitants. The popu¬
lation amounted in 1831 to 858.
WENDEN, a circle of the Russian government of Li¬
vonia, extending in north latitude from 56° 35' to 57° 54',
and in east longitude from 25° 3' to 27° 22'. It is bounded by
Pernau on the north, by Dorpat on the east, on the south¬
east by Witebsk, and on the south-west and west by Riga.
It comprehends 4158 square miles, with two cities, twenty-
eight parishes, 229 hamlets and villages, and 136,400 inha¬
bitants. It is generally a level district, with a few undula¬
tions, watered by rrfany small streams, all of which end in
the Duna. It produces some corn, chiefly rye or oats. The
chief object of cultivation next to grain is flax, which, as
well as the seed of that plant, is mostly exported from Riga.
Some tallow and wood also furnish articles for foreign trade.
The capital is the town of the same name on the river Aa.
It was once the assembling place of the knights of the Teu¬
tonic order, and many of their monuments still exist in the
church. Long. 25. 10. E. Lat. 57. 15. N.
858 W E R
Wendover WENDO VER, a borough and market town of the county
II . of Buckingham, in the hundred of Aylesbury, thirty-five
v ercj3. mfles from London. It is a poor place, with little or no
trade except what is connected with lace-making. It re¬
turned two members to the House of Commons till 1832,
when it was disfranchised. A small market is held on
Thursday. The population amounted in 1821 to 1602,
and in 1831 to 1927.
WENEW, a circle of the Russian province of Tula, ex¬
tending in north latitude from 54° 20' to 55° 50', and in
east longitude from 37° 39' to 38° 34'. It contains one city,
147 villages, besides the establishments of some nobles, and
25,500 inhabitants. It is watered by the rivers Oker and
Wenewka. The land is moderately fertile, and but in a
small part covered with woods. The capital is a city of the
same name on the Wenewka, containing 790 houses, with
3400 inhabitants. It is 625 miles from St Petersburg.
Long. 38. 1. E. Lat. 54. 20. N.
WENLOCK (called either Much or Great Wenlock),
a borough and market town of the county of Salop, in the
division called the Franchise of Wenlock, 151 miles from
London. It is a very ancient town, but very ill built. It
is said to have been the first town that sent members to
parliament in 1478, but it was not incorporated till the reign
of Charles the First. It has now six aldermen and eigh¬
teen councillors, and sends two members to the House of
Commons. It is a place of but little trade, and that only
on the market of Friday. The population amounted in
1821 to 3165, and in 1831 to 3481.
WEOBLY, a market-town of the county of Hereford, in
the hundred of Stretford, 146 miles from London and
twenty-one from the city of Hereford. It is a place of con¬
siderable antiquity, and consists of one principal street with
well-built houses. It has a market on Thursday. There
are two good charity schools. The population amounted
in 1821 to 739, and in 1831 to 819.
WERAD, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta terri¬
tories, in the province of Bejapoor, sixty-three miles south-
south-west from Poonah. Long. 73.48. E. Lat. 17. 30. N.
WERCHNE-DNIAPROWSK, a circle of the Russian
government of Jekaterinoslaw. It extends in north latitude
from 51° 8' to 52° 7', and in east longitude from 33° 45' to
34° 57'. The land is very fertile, and repays with good in¬
terest whatever Industry is expended on it. It breeds many
valuable herds of horned cattle, as well as sheep. The
Dnieper touches the circle on the north-east, and there re¬
ceives the waters of many small streams. The population
is thin, but is not precisely known, as a portion consists of
Kossacs, whose residence is not permanent, and some of
them are colonists from Poland and Germany, recently esta¬
blished. The capital is the city of the same name on the
right bank of the Dnieper, lately founded, and said to contain
yet not more than 1500 inhabitants. It is 1066 miles from
St Petersburg. Long. 34. 41. E. Lat. 51. 8. N.
WEREJA, a circle of the Russian government of Moscow,
extending in north latitude from 53° 27' to 54° 19', and
in east longitude from 37° 30' to 37° 47'. It is bounded on
the north by Mohaisk, on the north-east by Swenigorod, on
the east by Podol, on the south by Kaluga, and on the west
by Smolensko. It comprehends 654 square miles, with
one city, 234 large villages, and 66,450 inhabitants. The
surface is undulating, the soil rather sandy, with some
marshes, and is well watered with several small streams. A
great part of the circle is covered with fir woods. The
capital is the city of the same name on the river Protwa,
which divides it into two parts, and is navigable for small
craft. It is fortified, but not strongly ; has two wooden and
two stone churches, 820 houses, and 7300 inhabitants, who
carry on trade largely in the productions of the circle. It is
480 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 35. 55. E. Lat. 55.
29. N.
WES
WERNIGERODE, a principality in Prussia, now me- IV
diatised, and forming a portion of the circle of Osterwick" !
in the province of Saxony. The family of Stolberg-Wer'
nigerode were formerly the sovereigns, and are now the ^
proprietors, and in a secondary sense the governors hav-^*
ing the patronage of all clerical, civil, and judicial offices
and the power of pardoning smaller offences, as well as of
granting dispensations respecting marriages and the game-
laws. The principality, which includes a part of the Hartz
Forest, with the Brocken, is about 101 square miles in extent
comprehending one city, one market-town, eleven villages'
and many hamlets and detached farms, with 1530 houses and
14,640 inhabitants. The capital, of the same name, is situat¬
ed at the foot of the Hartz Mountains, on a small stream cal¬
led the Zillerbach, but is 820 feet above the level of the sea.
It includes the residence of the court, in a fine situation
with a library of more than 30,000 volumes. The town is
irregularly and ill built, but is surrounded with walls. It con¬
tains four churches, an orphan-house, a poor-house, a gym¬
nasium, and 870 dwellings, with 5340 inhabitants, who cam-
on some trade in linens, in paper, in copper, and in distilla¬
tion, but depend much on the residence of the court, and
on the numerous summer visitants to the Hartz. It is in
longitude 10. 47. 35. E. and latitude 51. 50. 34. N.
WERREAR, a district of Hindustan, on the north-west
frontier of the province of Gujerat, extending along the
banks of the Banass river. This country is famed for its
excellent grass, to which it is indebted for its name, Wud-
dyar or Wandyar signifying in the Gujerattee language a
herdsman ; and is resorted to by immense herds of cattle
sent to pasture on the banks of the Runn. Sheep are cheap
and abundant, and it produces also horses of a smaller
breed than those of Cottiwar; but few are exported, those
of a good quality being in great demand. The district is
much infested by plundering Coolees, the principal haunts
of these robbers being at Warye, fourteen miles south-west
from Rahdunpoor, Barbere, twenty-four miles north, and
Therwara, thirty miles north-west from Rahdunpoor, the
latter possessed by the Balooches.
WERTURIAN or Uralian Mountains. See Oural
Mountains.
WESEL BAY, on the south coast of the island of Java.
Long. 113. 42. E. Lat. 8. 21. S.
WESENBERG, a circle in the Russian province of
Esthonia, formerly called Wierland. It extends in north
latitude from 58° 45' to 59° 40', and in east longitude from
25° 40' to 28° 3', and comprehends 1910 square miles, with
two towns, seven parishes, and 157 hamlets, in which are
seventeen Lutheran and one Greek church, with 49,850
inhabitants. It stands on the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
and is well watered by several streams. It contains many
morasses, and much woodland. The capital is a town of the
same name on the river Soli. It has little trade, and the
chief occupation is in the river and sea fishery. Long. »6.
18. E. Lat. 59. 28. N.
WESLEY, John, founder of the sect of Methodists, was
the son of Samuel Wesley, rector of Epworth, in the isle o
Axholme in Lincolnshire, and was born in that village m
the year 1703. His very infancy was distinguished by an
extraordinary incident; for when he was only six years o ,
the parsonage-house at Epworth was burnt to the gr®un^’
and the flames had spread with such rapidity that few things
of value could be saved. His mother, in a letter to her son,
Samuel Wesley, then on the foundation at Westminster
school, thanks God that no lives were lost, although for so®®
time they gave up Poor Jacky, as she expresses hersel , o
his father had twice attempted to rescue the child, yut'v
beaten back by the flames. Finding all his efforts me e
tual, he resigned him to divine providence. But Paren
tenderness prevailed over human fears, and Mr Wesley o
more attempted to save his child. By some means equa y
WES
1 h u: xpected and unaccountable, the boy got round to a win-
^ ' in the front of the house, and was taken out by one
nyi’s leaping on the shoulders of another, and thus getting
tfliin his reach. Immediately on his rescue from this very
lous situation, the roof fell in. This extraordinary escape
p lains a certain device, in a print of John Wesley, en-
(nVed by Vertue in the year 1745, from a painting by
yiiams. It represents a house in flames, with this motto
fr i the prophet, “ Is he not a brand plucked out of the
bining?” Many have supposed this device to be merely
erilematicalof his spiritual deliverance ; but from this cir-
diistance it is apparent that it has a primary as well as a
stiindary meaning; it is real as well as allusive.
n the year 1713 he was entered a scholar at the Char-
tejhouse in London, where he continued seven years under
th tuition of Dr Walker, and of the Rev. Andrew Tooke,
auior of the Pantheon. In his seventeenth year he was
sc to Christ Church at Oxford. In 1726 he was elected
a jllow of Lincoln College, and took the degree of A. M.
inj7$7. He was afterwards appointed a tutor of his college.
Hdiscovered very early an elegant turn for poetry. Some
o/iis gayer poetical effusions are proofs of a lively fancy
ai a fine classical taste; and some translations from the
Lin poets, while at college, are allowed to have great
irrit. He had early a strong impression, like Count
Z:zendorf, of his designation to some extraordinary work.
T s impression received additional force from some do-
n ;tic incidents, all which his active fancy turned to his
o account. His wonderful preservation, already noticed,
n irally tended to cherish the idea of his being designed
b Providence to accomplish some purpose or other that
v out of the ordinary course of human events.
'he reading of the writings of Mr William Law, the ce-
lerated author of Christian Perfection, and of a Serious
Alress to the Christian World, contributed to lead John
V sley and his brother Charles, with a few of their young
fnw-students, into a more than common strictness of reli-
g;is life. They received the sacrament of the Lord’s
S per every week, observed all the fasts of the church,
vi ied the prisons, rose at four in the morning, and refrained
ti n all amusements. From the exact method in which
tllfv disposed of every hour, they acquired the appellation
o Methodists; by which their followers have been ever since
diinguished.
rom Dr Potter, bishop of Oxford, he received deacon’s
o rs in 1725, and priest’s in 1728. For some time he
o»:iated as his father’s curate. But the boundaries of this
ismd were soon deemed by Wesley too confined for a zeal
" ch displayed the piety of an apostle, and of an intrepi-
W to which few missionaries had been superior. In 1735
kembarked for Georgia, one of our colonies, which was at
lit th time in a state of political infancy ; and the great object
o his voyage was to preach the gospel to the Indian na-
tii s in the vicinity of that province. He i*eturned to Lng-
1; 1 in 1737. Of his spiritual labours, both in this country
a in America, he himself has given a very copious ac-
c; nt, in a series of Journals printed at different periods.
1 :se journals drew upon our laborious preacher and his
Ci c Jjutors some severe animadversions from two prelates,
fl f Lavington, bishop of Exeter, and Dr Warburton, bishop
u Gloucester. The former published, in three parts, the
Lhusiasm of the Methodists and Papists compared ; the
tl d part of this performance containing a personal charge
<> immoral conduct. Mr Wesley, in his vindication, pub-
ed a letter to his lordship, which produced a reply from
fi latter. Bishop Warburton’s attack is contained in his
o hrated treatise, entitled “ The Doctrine of Grace : or,
I(b9 dice and Operations of the Holy Spirit vindicated
b n the Insults of Infidelity, and the Abuses of Fanati-
Cl u: concluding with some thoughts, humbly offered to
li consideration of the Established Clergy, with regard to
w E S 859
the right Method of defending Religion against the At- Wessel’s
tacks of either party.” Lond. 1762, 2 vols. 8vo. There is Isla“d
much acute reasoning, and much poignant and sprightly -,t-^
wit, in his Doctrine of Grace; but there is too much levity .V
in it for a grave bishop, and too much abuse for a candid
Christian. On this occasion Wesley published a letter to
the bishop, in which, with great temper and moderation, as
well as with great ingenuity and address, he endeavoured
to shelter himself from his lordship’s attacks, not only under
the authority of the holy Scriptures, but of the church itself
as by law established.
On his return from Georgia, Mr Wesley paid a visit to
Count Zinzendorf, the celebrated founder of the sect of
Moravians or Hernhutters, at Hernhut in Upper Lusatia.
In the following year he appeared again in England, and
with his brother Charles, at the head of the Methodists. He
preached his first field sermon at Bristol, on the 2d of April
1738, from which time his disciples have continued to in¬
crease. In 1741 a serious altercation took place between
him and Whitefield. In 1744, attempting to preach at an
inn at Taunton, he was regularly silenced by the magistrates.
Although he chiefly resided for the remainder of his life in
the metropolis, he occasionally travelled through every part
of Great Britain and Ireland, establishing congregations in
each kingdom. In 1750 he married a lady, from whom he
was afterwards separated. By this lady, who died in 1781,
he had no children. He had been gradually declining for
three years before his death ; yet he still rose at four in the
morning, and preached, and travelled, and wrote as usual.
He preached at Leatherhead in Surrey, on the Wednesday
before that event. On the Friday following, appeared the
first symptoms of his approaching dissolution. The four
succeeding days he spent in praising God; and he left this
scene, at a quarter before ten in the morning of the 2d of
March 1791, in the 88th year of his age. His remains,
after lying in a kind of state at his chapel in the City Road,
dressed in the sacerdotal robes which he usually wore, and
on his head the old clerical cap, a Bible in one hand, and a
white handkerchief in the other, were, agreeably to his own
directions, and after the manner of the interment of Mr
Whitefield, deposited in the cemetery behind his chapel, on
the morning of the 9th March, amid an innumerable con¬
course of his friends and admirers, many of whom appeared
in deep mourning on the occasion.
Wesley was a very various and voluminous writer. Di¬
vinity, both devotional and controversial, biography, history,
philosophy, politics, and poetry, were all, at different times,
the subjects of his pen ; and whatever opinion may be en¬
tertained of his theological sentiments, it is impossible to
deny him the merit of having done very extensive good
among the lower classes of people. He certainly possessed
great abilities, and a fluency which was well accommodated
to his hearers, and highly acceptable to them.
WESSEL’S Islands, a chain of islands which extends
north-eastward from the north coast of New Holland, thir¬
teen leagues, at the entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria, on
the west side. The inhabitants are barbarous in the ex¬
treme, and go about naked. The northern extremity is in
lat. 11. 18. S.
WEST, one of the cardinal points of the horizon, diame¬
trically opposite to the east; and strictly defined the inter¬
section of the prime vertical with the horizon on that side
the sun sets in.
West, Gilbert, was the son of Dr West, prebendary
of Winchester, who published an edition of Pindar in 1697.
He studied at Winchester and Eton, and from thence was
placed in Christ Church, Oxford. His studious and serious
turn inclined him to take orders; but Lord Cobham, his
maternal uncle, diverted him from that^ pursuit, and gave
him a cornetcy in his own regiment. This profession he
soon quitted on account of an opening of another nature,
860 WES
West which presented him with a flattering prospect of advance-
sittm ment in life. A number of young gentlemen were to be
Westbury. se^ecte(^ fr°m the universities, and, at the expense of govern-
y. y ment, were to be taught foreign languages, and then sent
to the secretary’s office, to be initiated into business, and
trained there for the public service, as envoys, ambassadors,
&c. West was one of the few pitched upon ; and on his first
introduction into that office, Lord Townshend, secretary of
state, treated him with singular marks of regard, and the
strongest inclinations to serve him were testified from all
quarters. But Lord Cobham’s strong opposition to the
measures of the government rendered these advantages en¬
tirely fruitless; and the ministers honestly told Mr West
that he must not expect them to distinguish his merit, as any
favours conferred upon him would be imputed as done to his
uncle. He now left that office, and all his views of making
his fortune; and entering into the married state, retired to
Wickham in Kent, where he lived in great domestic com¬
fort and tranquil happiness. He was there visited by his
valuable friends, who held the most delightful converse of
wit, humour, and learning, supported upon the principles of
virtue, sound reasoning, and solid friendship, which rendered
the whole cheerful, animating, and instructive. In 1752 he
was appointed one of the clerks of the privy council; and
Pitt, on becoming paymaster, nominated him treasurer of
Chelsea Hospital. Towards the end of his life, he wholly
applied himself to the study of the Scriptures, being ex¬
tremely anxious to try his utmost endeavours to reconcile
the seeming inconsistencies which gave the enemies of
revealed religion a handle to doubt and discredit their au¬
thenticity. The result of his inquiries was partly commu¬
nicated to the public in his “ Observations on the Resur¬
rection.” Lond. 1747, Bvo. This work procured him from
the university of Oxford the degree of LL. D. conferred by
diploma. On the evidences of the truth of the New Tes¬
tament he meditated another work, but did not live to ex¬
ecute his design. He lost his only son in 1755; and on
the 26th of March in the following year, a stroke of palsy
terminated his own career. He left behind him the charac¬
ter of an amiable and pious man. His Observations, which,
it has been said, were written to confirm the wavering faith
of his great friends Pitt and Lyttelton, bear ample testi¬
mony to his reasoning powers and the sincerity of his religion,
while his translations from Pindar shew him to have been a
respectable Greek scholar, and very considerable poet. His
“ Dissertation on the Olympick Games” is likewise a credit¬
able specimen of his learning.
West Island, one of the smaller Philippine islands, near
the south coast of Mindoro. Long. 121.12. E. Lat. 12.15.N.
West Island, a small island at the east entrance of
the Straits of Sunda. Long. 196. 20. E. Lat. 5. 27. S.
West Island, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
the south coast of Cumbava. Long. 119.2. E. Lat. 8. 49. S.
Another island on the north coast of New Holland, near
the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria, about ten miles long
and five broad. It is one of the three called by Captain
Flinders Sir Edward Pellew’s group.
WES f-BROMWICH, a parish of the county of Staf¬
ford, in the hundred of Offlow, 122 miles from London. It
is a very scattered place, and affords considerable occupa¬
tion in various branches of the iron manufacture. Besides
the old parish church, two others have been recently erected.
The population amounted in 1821 to 9505, and in 1831 to
15,327.
WESTBURY, a borough of the county of Wilts, in the
hundred of its own name, ninety-seven miles from Lon¬
don. There is a church of Gothic architecture, and a town-
hall, and it has a market on Thursday. The chief trade
consists in making fine woollen cloths and cassimeres. It
returns one member to the House of Commons. The po¬
pulation amounted in 1821 to 6846, and in 1831 to 7324.
WES
WESTERAS, an internal province of
Sweden, formed out of a small portion of
vince of Upland, and the eastern part o
It is now bounded on the north-west by Kopparberg 0n I”
the north-east by Gefleborg, on the east by Upsala on tl ^
south by Malaren and Nyhoping, and on the west
Orebro. It extends over 2772 square miles, and comm/
hendsfour cities and 2818 villages and hamlets, with 87 600
inhabitants. It is a well-watered district, and, for the cf
mate, very fruitful, but chiefly consisting of pasture-land
and consequently rendered profitable more by its dairie’
and by fattening cattle than by its ploughed fields It
generally, however, grows corn sufficient for its consump
tion, and in very favourable years has a surplus. The
fisheries are productive; but the chief demand for labour is
in the mines and in their products. The silver-mine of
Sala is still worked, being the only one now in Sweden •
and the iron-mines of Norberg yield the best quality of !
metal. The exports are wood, cattle, silver, iron, and cut¬
lery goods, and in some years corn. The province, for the
purposes of government and law, is divided into seven baili-
wicks. The capital is the city of the same name, at the
mouth of the river Swartelf. It is the seat of a bishop, and
is finely situated, but irregularly built. In the cathedral are
monuments of twm of their kings, Gustavus III. and Erick
XIV. There is a gymnasium, with nine professors, and an
hospital. It contains 570 houses, chiefly built of wood, and
3120 inhabitants. It has some trade by the Malaren Lake,
chiefly with Stockholm. Long. 16. 22. 28. E. Lat. 59.35
31. N.
WESTERHAM, a market-town of the county of Kent,
in the lathe of Sutton, and the hundred of the same name,
twrenty-two miles from London. It is on the borders of
Surrey, is pleasantly situated and neatly built, with some
very good houses. The market-house, though small, is an
elegant building. The church contains a monument to
General Wolfe, who was a native of this place. There is
a market on Wednesday for corn. The population amounted
in 1821 to 1742, and in 1831 to 1926.
WESTMEATH, an inland county in the province of
Leinster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by Longford
and Meath, on the east by Meath and Kildare, on the
south by the King’s county, and on the west by Roscom¬
mon. It lies between 53° 20' and 53° 47' N. lat., and 7°
and 7° 55' W. long., extending forty miles in its great¬
est length from north to south, and forty-five in its
greatest breadth from west to east, and comprehending
an area of 708 square miles, or 453,468 acres, of which
431,041 are land, and the remaining 22,427 are cover¬
ed with water. It ranks as the twenty-sixth county in
superficial extent, and the twenty-fourth in that of its cul¬
tivated land.
The county originally formed part of the central king¬
dom of Meath, when it was distinguished by the name of
Eircamhoin, or the western division. Nor was it till the
reign of Henry VIII. that it was formed into a separate
county, including within it the district of Longford, which
continued to form part of it till the reign of Elizabeth. Be¬
fore the English invasion, the M‘Geoghegans, chieftains of
Moycashel, the Malones, and the Magardleys, were the
principal families. When the palatinate of Meath was
granted to Hugh de Lacy by Henry II., the former proprie¬
tors were supplanted by English settlers, the principal of
whom were the families of Petit, Tuite, Hussey, Dalton,
Delamaine, Nugent, Geneville, Nangle, Ledwich, and Con¬
stantine. The confiscations consequent on the wars o
1641 and 1688, in both of which the landed gentry took
an active part, made very great alterations in the state ot
property. The landing of a French force in the west o
Ireland in 1798 occasioned a partial insurrection in this
county, in the course of which the armed peasantry seize
the kingdom 0nve
the ancient pro-
* Westmanland. 1"
WESTMEATH.
an Wilson s Hospital, but were quickly dispossess- vers a large portion of the western baronies. Many parts
. e<:rf by a detachment of the royal forces. are well timbered ; and traces of the old forests show them-
s 'his district forms the most elevated portion of the great selves by the spontaneous grow th of indigenous trees of va-
c(iral plain of Ireland, wdtich is here 274 feet above the rious kinds in places where the young shoots are protected
JjleVel; but no part of it is mountainous. The highest from the depredations of cattle.'
Rations are Knocklayde in the north, 795 feet high, and The progress of the population, and its actual state, ac-
mb Hill of Ben, 710. All the hills are suited, even to their cording to the latest census, appear in the following table.
IHM ^ v>nCf„ra(Te. and some for tillage : manv are richlv
Year. Authority. No.
1760 De Burgo  50,340
861
o
gl. mit, for pasturage, and some for tillage ; many are richly
t] hed with timber. Lakes are numerous : the largest lie
• direction nearly north and south along the middle of
tl county. Lough Shillin, the most northern, is a border
]a,' on the side of Cavan, and near it is the smaller border
lajj: of Lough Kinnail or Kinully. Lough Dereveragh is
a tinding expanse of water, eleven miles long and three
bird, bordered in some parts by steep hills richly clothed
1 av,i trees. Farther south is Lough Owed or Hoyle, studded
n i islands, and Lough Tron or Hiern, of smaller dimen-
-jjig. The most southern, and also the largest lake of the
c»in, is Lough Ennell, equally admirable for its scenic
1) uties and for its extent of surface. A number of smaller
s are scattered throughout the county. Loughs Lene,
_ n, Clyde, and Fore, are in the northern part; the small
F romantic lake of Loughsewdy in the western. Lough
lin is remarkable only for its great depth; it covers but an
afS 0f land. Lough Ree or Reagh, which is in reality a
p tion of the Shannon, forms part of the western boundary
o he county, separating it from that of Roscommon. It is
t’ nty miles in length, and contains several islands, two of
v ch were the sites of religious foundations.
['hough no large rivers traverse this portion of the island,
jlmay be considered to be the source of several. The
Jj.y, which rises in Lough Ramor in Cavan, and enters
Yistmeath through Lough Shillin, through the most part
o ts course forms the boundary line on the side of Longford,
hi in one part traverses the county, and after dividing two
cjits baronies, ultimately joins the Shannon. Two small
riirs, the Golden and Silver Arms, which issued from the
r: them and southern extremities of Lough Owell, have
1 'n closed up, so as to increase the quantity of water in
t: parent lake, which is the main feeder of the Royal Canal.
' e Brosna flows from Lough Ennell into the Shannon,
vich forms part of the western boundary ol the county.
l|ugh Lene also gives rise to two streams of some noto-
rty. The northern, after sinking into the ground near
t: village of Fore, and re-appearing, empties itself, under
t name of the Glore, into the Inny, and the united streams
I « through the Shannon into the Atlantic. I he southern
iims the Deel, which joins the Boyne, and falls into the
1 sh Sea. Hence this little lake, with its two perennial
1 inches, may be said to divide Ireland into two islands,
fhe county forms part of the great limestone field that tra-
1 ’ses the island across its centre. rIhis substratum is in-
i rupted in two places only, the one at Moat-a-Grenogue,
a 1 the other near Ballymahon, at each of which places the
i ulstone rises from under the limestone bed, and forms
affiliated protuberances of some elevation. In some places
itlil’ i) limestone is wrought up for architectural and domestic
I [ rposes, but in others its quality is such as to rendei it
i irly unfit for the farmer’s use, in consequence of the
M antity of fuel required for its calcination. 1 races of lead
«d copper have been discovered, but not in quantities suf-
ient to hold out a fair prospect of pecuniary remuneration
exploring them farther. Coal is also said to have been
sed in small quantities. A chalybeate spring rises at
| 'angemore, near Kinnegad, bursting forth with force, and
! -ming a copious stream ; but in consequence ol the diffi-
Ity of access to it, few take advantage of its medicina
tues. The soil is in general a deep rich loam resting on
'e limestone, but in the flat lands in the west it is light.
ie centre is intersected with numerous eskers formed o
Icareous gravel. There is much bog: that of Allen co-
B
1792 Beaufort  69,000
1812 Parliamentary census... 112,000
1821 Ditto 128,819
1831 Ditto 148,161
The last of these returns gives a population of one in¬
habitant to every 3‘06 acres. The return of the Commis¬
sioners of Public Instruction in 1834, taken according to
dioceses, gives a population to the county of about 138,560
souls, of whom 10,175 are of the established church, 251
Protestant dissenters, and 128,133 Roman Catholics. The
number of children receiving instruction in the public
schools, at the periods stated beneath, is as follows, ac¬
cording to returns made to parliament.
Boys. Girls.
1821 4952 2374.
1824-6 5740 3820.
1836- 7 1717 1656.
1837- 8 1881 1664.
1838- 9 2126 1925.
Sex not
ascertained.
359
Total.
.7326
.9919
.3373
.3545
.4051
West¬
meath.
According to the return of 1824-6, the number of Ca¬
tholic children educated in the public schools was 8249, of
Protestants 1533, and of dissenters six ; that of those
whose religious persuasion could not be ascertained amount¬
ing to 131. The total number of schools was 216, out of
which number twenty-six, containing 1532 pupils, were
maintained wholly by grants of public money; twenty-five,
with 1542 pupils, by voluntary subscriptions; all the re¬
maining schools, in number 165, and educating 6845 chil¬
dren, being supported wholly by the fees of the pupils. An
establishment for the maintenance and education of 160
boys, the sons of Protestant parents, natives of YY^estmeath,
who are afterwards apprenticed to Protestant artificers, with
a fee of L.L0 each, was founded under the will of Andrew
YVilson of Piercefield, Esq. and still exists. The estate be¬
queathed for this purpose amounts to L.4000 per annum.
Under the incorporated society for erecting charter schools,
there is a school situate at Leney, six miles from Mul¬
lingar, intended for the maintenance and education of sixty
children. .
The county is divided into the twelve baronies of Braw-
ney, called also the territory of Brawney, Clonlonan, Cork-
aree, Delvin, Demifore, Farbill, Fartullagh, Kilkenny-west,
Movashel and Magheradernon, Moycashel, Moygoish, and
Rathconrath. These are subdivided into sixty-two parishes,
of which fifty-nine are in the diocese of Meath, and three
in that of Ardagh, It was represented in the Irish parlia¬
ment by ten members, two for the county, and two for each
of the boroughs of Athlone, Fore, Kilbeggan, and Mullin¬
gar. By the arrangements under the union act, all the
boroughs were disfranchised, except the first, which belongs
only partially to this county, one half of it being in Ros¬
common; it now returns one member. Ihe constituency
for the county was as follows in the under-named years.
Date.
1829.
1830.
1831.
1882.
No.
.2601
. 641
. 921
.1395
Date.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
No.
.1395
.1395
.1395
.1526
Date.
1837.
1838.
1839.
No.
.1525
.1525
.1300
S62
WESTMEATH.
The number of electors in the last of these returns gives
an average of one elector to every 106 individuals, or of
one to every eighteen heads of families of six individuals
each.
The county is in the home circuit. The assizes are held
at Mullingar. General sessions of the peace are held alter¬
nately in that town and in Moate. The local government
consists of a lieutenant, fifteen deputy-lieutenants, sixty-
nine unpaid magistrates, and a stipendiary, under whom
there is a constabulary force, consisting of a county inspec¬
tor, six sub-inspectors, seven head constables, and 272 con¬
stables and sub-constables. The county infirmary is in
Mullingar, a fever hospital at Castlepollard, and fifteen
dispensaries in various places. Lunatics are sent to the
district asylum at Maryborough, where forty patients from
the county are received. Mullingar and Athlone have been
fixed on as sites for the workhouses of poor-law unions.
All kinds of grain thrive well in this productive soil.
The English system of tillage is adopted by all except
the poorer farmers and cottagers. Wheat forms a part of
every succession of crops, and green crops are very fre¬
quent. Limestone gravel, which is to be had in abun¬
dance in most parts, is the usual manure. The fences are
bad, except in the demesnes of the gentry. The low lands
and valleys produce abundance of rich grass; from which
cause, and as the management of cattle has been found
more profitable and less laborious than tillage, most of the
land in the county is assigned to the former department of
rural economy. Great attention is paid to the breeds of
cattle, which, both great and small, are purchased chiefly
at the fairs of Ballinasloe. The long- horned cows are pre¬
ferred, as being large, and good milkers. The breed of
horses is excellent. Many are brought young from Con¬
naught, and reared here till fit for the market. Dairies
are frequent, and butter is made in large quantities. The
method of haymaking is bad, the hay being allowed to stand
in small stacks in the field till late in the season, in conse¬
quence of which it is much injured both by the heat and
the rains. Like most other parts of the island, timber wTas
abundant, until destroyed by a lavish and improvident use
of it, which made no provision for a fresh supply. The de¬
ficiency is severely felt; but here? as elsewhere, great exer¬
tions are making to remedy it by young plantations, which
are now rising in many parts.
The manufactures are not, nor were they ever, of any
magnitude ; the making of woollen and linen cloths being
almost wholly confined to the domestic demand, and the
operations carried on in the farmers’ houses. Fish is abun¬
dant in the lakes and rivers. Bream, trout, pike, and eels,
are taken in the Inny ; salmon in the same river and in the
Brosna. The goaske, a fish about the size of the herring,
is found in Lough Dereveragh; a thin-shelled mussel in
some of the begs.1 The Royal Canal passes through the cen¬
tral part of the county from east to west; a branch of the
Grand Canal proceeds from near Philipstown in King’s county
to Kilbeggan. There are three banking establishments,
one a branch of the Provincial, the other two of the Na¬
tional Bank of Ireland. There are nine loan societies, in
which the total amount of the loans in the hands of borrow¬
ers at the close of 1839 was L. 10,675, and the total num¬
ber of borrowers during the year 9071. Under the direc¬
tion of the late Commissioners for Railroads in Ireland, a
survey has been made of a line from Dublin, to enter the
county near Killucan, and to proceed to Mullingar, whence
it is to diverge in two branches, the one north-west through
Longford to Sligo, the other westward through Athlone to
Galway ; but no steps have yet been taken to carry the plan
into execution.
A considerable number of the landed proprietors reside
on their own property; hence the county contains many
elegant mansions and villas, surrounded by well-planted
demesnes, which add very much to the natural beam;., f
the landscape. In the demesne of Mount d’Ab™ • °f
obelisk fifty feet high, erected in honour of the Pm'* ^
Maria Theresa, the Emnernr TncorA>   i r— pPres$
W
me)
Maria Theresa, the Emperor Joseph, and Kin^fT?*
TIT— v a Into momKov of fl-»o TV A 1*i p-- - § (jeorge
III., by a late member of the D’Alton family, a retireT r
ficer in the Austrian service. An obelisk of similar dimP°n
sions stands on the estate of Lowville, near Kilkenny 7 i
The character of the middling and lower classes is sunertr
to that of those in the adjoining* county of Meath T)
peasantry are described as being lively, intelligent and
quick-witted; hasty in their tempers, and prone to lL
turn ; unwilling to deviate from the habits and customs of
their forefathers ; lax in their ideas of morality toward
their superiors, but rigidly observant of the engagement'
voluntarily entered into with one another, and of the reli'
gious observances imposed on them by their clergy. They
are also much addicted to superstitious practices. The
horses are bathed in one of the lakes on the second Sunday
m August, called Garlic Sunday, from a belief that they
will thus be secured from injury during the rest of the
year. Fish taken out of the stream that sinks into the
ground near Fore will not be eaten, in consequence of the
religious respect with which the water of it is honoured.
A disinclination to improvement in their farms, and to do¬
mestic neatness, is also observable. The cottages are ill
constructed and badly furnished, the roofs being made of
boughs of trees with the leaves on, covered with sods of
turf or peat called scraws, and thatched with straw. Many
are without chimneys, the place of which is supplied by a
hole in the roof. The furniture consists of a deal table, a
few stools, an iron pot, and a dresser, with a few plates and
dairy utensils. Yet their clothing is comfortable, usually
of home-made gray or drab frieze. The use of linen has
of late been almost universally superseded by cotton. The
favourite garment of the men is a large loose coat, wrapped
up in which they go to the fairs and markets even during
the heat of summer, followed by their wives, who transact
most of the business there. The women spin the wool and
flax for their clothing, perform the household work, and
take a large share in the labours of the field. When mar¬
ried, tbey still retain their maiden names. English and
Irish are spoken, but the use of the latter is more general
in their intercourse with one another.
Many remains of antiquity still exist. The parish of
Rathconrath takes its name from a rath or moat of large
dimensions and peculiar construction; besides which, nine
of smaller size have been discovered within its boundaries.
A still more remarkable pile of the same kind exists at Bal-
lymore. It had originally been a Danish fort, and its posi¬
tion was so well chosen for military purposes, that it was
strongly fortified by the Irish in the wars of 164il and 1688;
and after its capture by the English in the latter period, it
was made the head-quarters of General Ginckell when pre¬
paring to besiege Athlone. A third, called the Fort of
Turgesius, as being the reputed place of residence of that
monarch during his reign in Ireland, is to be seen near
Lough Lene. Those of inferior note are too numerous to
be particularized. The ruins of ancient castles are also visi¬
ble in many places. The origin of several of them can be
traced back to Hugh de Lacy, the first lord palatine of the
county. His chief place of residence was at Kilbixy, where
he had a large and well-fortified castle, and where also
stood a town of such importance as to be governed by a
mayor or sovereign, and burgesses, with their usual append¬
ages of inferior officers. The site of the former is now
merely matter of conjecture ; and the privileges, and conse¬
quently the importance, of the latter have been transferred
to Mullingar. Another of this nobleman’s castles was at
Ardnurcher, better known by the name of Horseleap, from
the romantic tradition of an extraordinary bound made by
a horse across a cleft between two steep hills, in effecting
A
;;
win
Ik
t)t((
If
rat
Si
h
WES
fl,ich the animal is said to have left the marks of its hoofs
odherock whence it started, and their traces are supposed
^tnbe visible to the present day ; or from a leap over the
(1 vvbridge, made by a knight in effecting his escape from
tl castle. The castle is also noted in history as being the
p ;e where the same De Lacy was treacherously killed by
pi of his ovrn menials. The castles of Sonnagh, Rath-
W|3 anc[ Killare, were built by the same nobleman. In
tl'barony of Moycashel are the remains of several castles
fc'nerly possessed by the M'Geoghegans, the ancient pro-
pi-tors of the soil. Some of the old monastic buildings
h. e been converted into parochial places of worship, both
1’ltestant and Roman Catholic. The ruins of a few are
|ti in existence, but the locality of many others is now a
inject tending rather to excite than to satisfy curiosity.
T; ruins of Tristernagh Abbey, called also the Priory of
Kbixy, and founded by one of Hugh de Lacy’s imme-
dje successors, were visible till the year 1783, when they
we totally destroyed. Near them are the remains of the
cjpel of Templecross, which, though of inferior note as a
sticture of monastic celebrity, is memorable from being
tf place where the corp-naomh, or blessed body, a relic of
eiraordinary sanctity, was found. The relic consists of a
widen box about the size of a small Bible, clasped with
bids of brass, studded with valuable stones, and marked
wi a crucifix. Its contents, if any, are unknown, for no
I hid has yet been found of nerve sufficient to venture to
fdse it open. It is used as a test of evidence. An oath
oithe corp-naomh is considered as an act of peculiar so-
klnity ; a pledge which, if given in support of a falsehood,
isiapposed to bring down on the guilty person some visi-
fcbn of dreadful consequence. Such is the respect paid
e n to its name, that if any one asserts what he wishes to
Wreceived with implicit credit, he avers its truth “ by the
clo-naomh that arose at Templecross.” The site of the
Abey of Multifernan can still be traced by its ruins. It
It! about four miles north of Tristernagh, and is singularly
nterkable as being in possession of the Franciscan friars
til the commencement of the year 1641, notwithstanding
tl total suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII.
u!,ards of a century before. For some years previous to
til breaking out of the civil wars at the above-mentioned
priod, it had been much frequented by visitors of every
d cription, who went thither, as was said, to arrange the
p; is of the ensuing insurrection. The unusual assemblage
oi trangers is also said to have excited such apprehensions
iii.he mind of the then bishop of Ardagh, that he removed
wb all his property to England, and thus escaped the cala-
n ies with which so many who continued to reside in the
ci ntry were visited. There were three religious houses
as Mullingar, belonging respectively to the Dominicans,
Ilnciscans, and Augustinians. At Kilkenny-west are the
riques of a preceptory of the Knights of St John. It is
an remarkable for a noted holy well.
The population of Westmeath is so exclusively rural,
tit Mullingar, where the assizes are held, is the only town
c taining more than 2000 inhabitants. It is situate nearly
i' the centre of the county and of Ireland, at the junction
o the barony of Fertullagh with that of Moyashel and
Wgheradernon, on the stream of the Golden Arm, about
t lway between Loughs Owell and Ennell. It was one of
t ancient palatinate towns of the county, and suffered
tich by the ravages committed during the petty wars with
t Irish. In the war of 1688, it was fortified by General
Jhckell, and was for some time the head-quarters of the
I glish army. Though it obtained a charter, it enjoyed
tne of the usual corporate rights, except that of returning
f|-> members to parliament, a privilege of which its proprie-
* or patron availed himself till the union. Four general
scions of the peace are held-here. It is the site of the
c mty court-house, prison, and infirmary, and has a large
WES 863
church, and a Roman Catholic chapel capable of holding West-
6000 persons, which is considered to be the cathedral of minster,
the diocese; the parish, with two others and a part of a v ^
third, being the mensal of the bishop, who resides in the
town. The vicinity of the Royal Canal, which passes close
to the northern side of the town, and on which steamers ply
regularly to Shannon harbour, has made the place the cen¬
tre of an increasing inland trade, which is also aided by the
mail-road to Sligo passing through it. It holds a weekly
market, and four fairs during the year. Large quantities of
butter are brought to the former, and the latter are great
marts for wool, horned cattle, and pigs ; the November
fair is for horses. One half of the town of Athlone is in
this county, and is connected with the other half, lying on
the Roscommon side, by a long bridge over the Shannon,
so narrow that two carriages can with difficulty pass each
other ; but this check upon the communication between
the two provinces of Leinster and Connaught is about to
be obviated by the erection of a new bridge. The town is
governed by a sovereign, two bailifs, and a recorder. It
returned two members to the Irish parliament, and since the
union one to the imperial parliament. The number of
electors in 1832 was 243 ; in 1834, 274 ; and in 1839, 275.
It is a place of great antiquity, being knowm as such before
the settlement of the English ; and after their arrival a castle
was erected here by King John, to secure the main pass of
the Shannon, which was deemed of such importance, that
in a grant of the whole of Ireland by Henry III. to his son
Edward, Athlone was specially excepted. It afterwards
was the seat of government for the lord president of Con¬
naught. In the war of 1642 it was taken by the Irish after
a stubborn and protracted resistance, but subsequently re¬
taken by the parliamentary army. In the war of 1688 it
was invested by King William’s forces under General
Douglas, who was forced to raise the siege by means of the
gallant defence of Colonel Grace; but it was soon after
taken by storm by General Ginckell, in the face of the Irish
army commanded by St Ruth. In 1697, the magazine was
struck by lightning, and the castle and town nearly de¬
stroyed. It is still considered of such importance in a mi¬
litary point of view, that large works have been thrown up
on its western side, in which a garrison is maintained. The
population of Mullingar amounted in 1831 to 4295, that
of the eastern portion of Athlone to 5655. The popula¬
tion of the other towns whose number of inhabitants ex¬
ceed 1000 each is, Kilbeggan, 1985; Moate, 1785;
Castlepollard, 1618. (c. p.)
WESTMINSTER, a city which forms the west part of
the capital of Britain, but has a government distinct from
the rest. This city had its name from the situation of its
abbey, anciently called a minster, in respect of that of St
Paul. That part properly called the city of Westminster,
comprehending the parishes of St John and St Margaret,
was once an island formed by the I hames, called 1 homey
Island, from the thorns with which it was overrun ; and the
abbey that stood in it, Thorney Abbey. The liberties ot
Westminster contain the several parishes of St Martin in
the Fields, St James’s, St Anne, St Paul, Covent Garden,
St Mary le Strand, St Clement Danes, St George, Hanover
Square, and the precinct of the Savoy. The government,
both of the city and liberties, is under the jurisdiction of
the dean and chapter of Westminster, in civil as well as
ecclesiastical affairs; and their authority extends to the pre¬
cinct of St Martin le Grand, by Newgate Street, and to
some towns of Essex, which are exempted from the juris¬
diction of the bishop of London and the archbishop of Can¬
terbury ; but the management of the civil part has, ever
since the Reformation, been in the hands of laymen, elected
from time to time, and confirmed by the dean and chapter.
The chief of these laymen are the high steward, the deputy-
steward, and the high bailif, who hold their offices for ’■r--
v
864
WES
W E
T
There are also sixteen burgesses and their assistants, out
more an 0f which are elected two head burgesses, one for the city,
Y ^ and the other for the liberties. Another officer is the high
constable, who has all the other constables under his direc¬
tion. See London.
WESTMORELAND, one of the most northern English
counties. It is separated from the sea-shore by a narrow
strip of the county of Lancaster, which bounds it on the
south and south-west, as do Cumberland on the north and
north-west, and Yorkshire on the east. It is of very irre¬
gular shape. Its greatest length is forty, and its greatest
breadth thirty-five miles. According to the best estimate,
it contains 762 square miles, or 489,680 British statute
acres. It is divided into four wards, distinguished by the
prefixes of East, Kendal, Lonsdale, and West, which are
again divided into thirty parishes.
The population of the several wards in 1831 was found
to be, of the West Ward, 7884; of the East Ward, 14,455 ;
of Kendal Ward and Kendal Town, 27,252; and of Lonsdale
Ward, 5448.
The population of the whole county amounted in 1801 to
41,617, in 1811 to 45,922, in 1821 to 51,350, and in 1831 to
55,041. At the last-mentioned period the males were 27,576,
and the females 27,465. The dwelling-houses were 10,353,
inhabited by 10,984 families.. Of the families, 4454 were
chiefly employed in agriculture; 4116 were chiefly employed
in trade, manufactures, and handicraft; and the remaining
2414 were comprised in neither of the preceding classes. By
the census of the same year, the number of males twenty
years of age was 14,020 ; the occupiers of land employing
labourers, 1435; the occupiers of land not employing la¬
bourers, 1685 ; the labourers employed in agriculture, 3474;
persons employed in manufactures or making manufacturing
machinery were 1074; in retail trade or handicraft as mas¬
ters or workmen, 3621 ; the capitalists, bankers, professional,
and other educated men were 602 ; the labourers in labour
not agricultural were 1195; the other males twenty years
of age (except servants), 746; male servants twenty years
of age 188, and under twenty years 66 ; and the female
servants 2576. This county is the least densely peopled of
any in England.
The greater part of the county consists of bleak and bar¬
ren moors, and groups of lofty and naked mountains. The
valleys between these mountains, through which the rivers
wind, are of moderate fertility, and when well cultivated yield
good crops of oats, and in some few instances of wheat and
barley. The better parts of these valleys are appropriated
to feed cattle or produce hay. The acreable value of the
land, in the whole of this county, is much lower than that
in any other part of England. According to the returns
under the income-tax, the average annual rent and tithes
together did not exceed 8s. 7d. per acre, being about half
the average value of the rest of the kingdom. The roman¬
tic prospects, however, which are afforded by the contrast
between the mountains and the lakes, more than repay the
traveller for rambling at his leisure through the fine scenery.
The lakes of Winandermere and Ulleswater are partly in this
county, and those of Grasmere and Hause Water, with seve¬
ral smaller lakes, provincially called Tarns, wholly so. Be¬
sides the char (a fish almost peculiar to these lakes), trouts,
pikes, perch, and eels, are taken abundantly in these waters.
The cattle of Westmoreland are of the long-horned kind,
and attain a large size when well fed. The butter they afford
is highly valued, and supplies to some extent the markets
of the metropolis. Large flocks of sheep are fed on the
mountains, which yield a coarse wool; but by crossing the
breed the wool of late years has been much improved.
Numbers of geese are fed on the moors, and these, with
hams, form a part of the exports of the county. West¬
moreland is nearly destitute of coals, and the metallic ores
lie so deep, or are in so remote situations, that there is no
of them worked. Slates of the finest quality are abundaT
and large quantities of them are exported. Limestone'’
also very plentiful.
The principal manufactures of the county are chief!
carried on at Kendal, a place early celebrated for die
woollen cloth which bore its name. This manufacture, and
that of linsey-woolsey, as well as of coarse worsted stock¬
ings, are still continued ; and considerable progress has re',
cently been made in introducing the making of cotton go0(]s'
It appears by the parliamentary returns, that in 1831 the
town of Kendal was in a state of such activity as to employ
between 500 and 600 males, upwards of twenty years of a J
in making cotton checks, kerseys, linseys, blanketing, and
other goods. Woollen goods are made at Kirkland and
some other places, and gunpowder at Sedgwick and Lono'-
dales, while the cotton trade of Kendal and its vicinity has
been remarkably extended.
The principal rivers are the Eden, the Lime, the Ken or
Kent, and the Lowther, which are more remarkable for the
beauties displayed on their borders, and for the abundance
of fish they contain, than for any facilities they afford to
intercourse. None of them is navigable, nor are there
any artificial canals.
The county gives the title of earl to the family of the
Fanes, and that of Lonsdale to the Lowthers, and recently
the title of Baron Brougham to the head of the family of
that name, and of Langdale to the Master of the Rolls. Two
members of the House of Commons are returned for the
county. The town of Kendal with its townships, and those
of Kirkland and Nether Graveship, have been created a
borough by the reform law, and elect one member; and by
the same law the ancient borough of Appleby has been dis¬
franchised.
The most remarkable seats of noblemen and gentlemen
are the following: LowTther Castle, earl of Lonsdale; Apple¬
by Castle, earl of Thanet; Abbot Hall, Christopher Wilson,
Esq.; Mint House, J. H. Long, Esq.; Netherdale Hall,
John Mounsey, Esq.; Brougham Hall, Lord Brougham;
Carlton Hall, Lord Wallace.
The town of Kendal contains 10,015 inhabitants, and
Kirby Lonsdale 1686. No other town in the county has a
population of 1500.1
W ESTERN Port, on the south coast of New Holland,
a capacious bay, with a considerable island at the entrance,
which lies in lat. 38. 33. S.
WESTPORT, a seaport town in the county of Mayo,
distant from Dublin, by way of Tuam, 134^ miles. The
town is beautifully situated in a small valley, which is
watered by a stream running through the centre of the two
principal streets. There are various minor streets which
diverge on both sides of the valley, and, from the acclivity
of the ground, are very steep. Great inconvenience arises
from the port and the town being separated by the seat of
the marquis of Sligo, and by the steepness of the road be¬
tween the two places. The town is increasing in prosperity,
arisingfrom the agricultural produce of the neighbouring dis¬
trict being shipped here, from the quantity of linen which
is still made, and the business which a large distillery and
brewery have called forth. The amount of custom-duty
collected at the port in 1838 was L.5044; in 1839, L.9121;
and in 1840, L.7555. In addition to the parish church,
which is situated in the demesne of the marquis of Sligo>
there are places of worship in the town for the Presbyterians
and Methodists, and a large chapel for the Roman Cathohcs.
The population in 1821 amounted to 4326, and in 1831 to
4448.
WESTRAY, one of the largest of the Orkney Islands,
containing, in 1831, 2025 inhabitants. See Orkney.
WETLUGA, a circle of the Russian government ot
W,,
P
1 See Britton’s Beauties of England. England Delineated. Parliamentary Population Returns.
W E X
K troma. It extends in north latitude from 57° 8' to 58°
" SSand in east longitude from 45° 6' to 47° 48'. The soil
j j. )or, and the climate raw and cold, better adapted for
IWurage than for agriculture; and the population, much
{Versed, does not exceed 30,000 persons. The capital is
th city of the same name, 437 miles from St Petersburg.
45. 35. E. Lat. 57. 40. N.
,rETSTEIN, John James, a learned biblical critic, was
E bo i at Basel in 1693. On his admission to the ministry,
he Maintained a thesis “ De variis Novi Testament! Lec-
ti( ibusin which he showed that the great variety of
rc ings of the New Testament affords no argument against
th authenticity of the text. He had made these various
re.ings the object of his attention, and travelled into fo-
i:^| rein countries to examine all the manuscripts he could
fii;, In 1730, he published “ Prolegomena ad Novi Tes-
ta:enti Graeci Editionem accuratissimam,” &c. Some di-
virs, dreading his unsettling the present text, procured a
d(/ee of the senate of Basel against his undertaking, and
eui got him prohibited from officiating in the ministry;
oi vhich he went to Amsterdam, where the Remonstrants
n; led him to succeed the famous Le Clerc, then superan-
nuted, as professor of philosophy and history. His edi-
tiij of the New Testament he published in 1752, in 2 vols.
for). He left the text as he found it, placing the various
rt lings, with a critical commentary, underneath ; subjoin-
irj two epistles of Clemens Romanus, till then unknown to
Wlearned, but discovered by him in a Syriac manuscript
olihe New Testament. He died at Amsterdam in 1754.
VETTER Isle, in the Eastern Seas, situated off the
n ;h coast of the island of Timor. It is about sixty-five
t:.e n is in length and twenty in average breadth. Long. 126.
4 E. Lat. 7. 24. S.
VETTEREN, a large market-town of the Netherlands,
it,he province of East Flanders and circle of Dendermond.
1 ;tands on the river Scheldt, and contains 7750 inhabi-
tt ;s, chiefly employed in making linen and fine thread.
Tere is a handsome bridge over the river.
VEXFORD, a maritime county in the province of
Foster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by Wicklow,
o the east by St George’s Channel, on the south by the
/ antic, and on the west by Waterford, Kilkenny, and
C low. It lies between 52° 4' and 52° 48' north latitude,
a. 6° 5' and 7° P west longitude ; extending fifty-five
n es in its greatest length from north to south, and thirty-
fail fur in its greatest breadth from west to east, and compre-
li ding an area of 882 square miles, or 564,479 acres, of
v ch 545,979 are cultivated, and 18,500 uncultivated
r nntain or bog. It ranks as the fourteenth county in su-
F ficial extent, and the ninth in that of cultivated land.
fhe county was first known as the settlement of the
1 gantes and of the Menapii, whose chief town, Menapia,
i supposed to have been either Ferns or Wexford ; the
1 er holding the northern parts, with part of Wicklow,
tl former the southern and western, with a portion of
1i iterford. It was afterwards known by the name of
Hghion or South Leinster. It suffered severely by the
l datory incursions of the Danes, who, after ravaging the
S country, and burning Ferns, then the capital, made a
pmanent settlement, of which the town of Weisford or
1 -xford was the principal position. They retained pos-
‘ sion of the district until the arrival of the English, who,
1 1169, landed at Bagenbon, near Bannow, under the
< nmand of Robert Fitzstephen, Maurice Fitzgerald, and
i swey de Montmorency, and took the town of Wexford,
1 ich M'Murrough, king of Leinster, to whose aid these
Venturers had come into the country, granted to Fitz-
j phen, together with the adjoining district of Forth, at
|; same time bestowing on Montmorency the neighbour-
); district of Bargie. The latter grant was confirmed by
nry II. on his arrival; but that conferred on Fitzstephen
VOL. xxi.
W E X
865
was taken from him and made part of the palatinate of Wexford.
Leinster, which the same king granted to Strongbow, the
first undertaker of the adventure, and chief leader of the
forces. The district descended, through the female line,
to William earl Marshal, on whose demise, without male
issue, it was portioned out among his five daughters, the
second of whom, wife of Warren de Mountchency, obtain¬
ed Wexford. In consequence of the frequent changes
of seigniory, the district fell into a state of great distrac¬
tion, and was partly seized on by the Kavenaghs, the de¬
scendants of M‘Murrough, who assumed the title of kings
of Leinster. It was reduced to shire-ground by King John
in 1210, and the lordship having ultimately descended to
the earl of Shrewsbury, the county was separated into two
parts, the Liberty and the Cross; the former being governed
by authorities appointed by the earl, the latter by officers
of the crown. Each sent two members to the Irish par¬
liament, until the property of the earl became vested in
the crown, under the statute of absentees, passed in 1537.
During the civil wars of 1641, it was held for the royal
party, until reduced by Cromwell, whose operations were
signalized by much cruelty. Since that event, the county
remained in a tranquil state until the year 1798, when it
became the principal seat of the insurrection in the south¬
ern counties; the town of Wexford forming the head-quar¬
ters of the insurgents, and several severe conflicts taking
place at Enniscorthy, New-Ross, and other positions, with
the royal forces.
The surface consists chiefly of a collection of very low hills,
except on the northern and western sides, on the former of
which it rises into an elevated ridge, forming the southern
termination of the great Wicklow group. Its loftiest points
are, Slieveboy, 1384 feet high ; Kilkevan, 1063; Connar
Flill, 1491 ; and Croghan-Kinshela, 1985. On the latter
or western side it is bounded by the rugged chain of Mount
Leinster, 2604 feet high, and Blackstairs, 2411, ranging
from north to south. The county boundary on this side is
continued southwards by the Barrow and the estuary of
Waterford harbour. Within the county are the Camerous
Hills and Carrickburne, respectively 598 and 766 feet;
Lackan, near New-Ross, 628 ; Tarah Hill, a striking land¬
mark on the eastern coast, 825; and Forth Mountain, 774
feet. The south-eastern extremity, containing the baronies
of Forth and Bargie, forms a peninsula of low land, nearly
shut out from the rest of the county by the last-mentioned
range of mountains and by Wexford harbour. The prin¬
cipal river is the Slaney, which enters the county at its
north-western extremity, from Wicklow, and traverses it in
a south-eastern direction, till it falls into Wexford harbour
at Carrigg, noted for the remains of an ancient Norman
fortress, erected by Fitzstephen immediately after his land¬
ing. The whole course of this river is marked by a suc¬
cession of picturesque scenery ; and it receives in its pro¬
gress a number of tributary streams, of which the Bann is
the most remarkable. The Slaney is navigable for small
barges to Enniscorthy. The Bannow, which discharges it¬
self into a bay of the same name, claims notice solely from
its historic reminiscences. The Barrow forms the western
boundary, from the foot of Blackstairs Mountain, to its con¬
fluence with the Suir, in Waterford harbour. Lough Ta,
near Carnsore Point, is the only lake in the county. It is
supplied by the ingress of several small streams, and hav¬
ing no natural outiet, it increases rapidly in extent, cover¬
ing the surrounding low land, until, in every second or
third year, its accumulated waters are drawn off by an ar¬
tificial cut, which discharges them into the sea. The coast
on the eastern side, from Arklow southwards to Wexford,
is very dangerous, having no [dace of refuge in case of foul
weather, except in the small artificial harbour of Courtown,
fit only for small craft. The dangers of navigation are in¬
creased by a succession of sand-banks from that of Arklow,
5 R
^Wexford, the south point of which is marked by a floating light.
Ihese are called Kilgorman, the Rusk and Ram, and Black-
water Bank. Wexford harbour forms a large and safe land¬
locked basin; but the entrance to it is obstructed by a bar,
on which at times there is not more than seven feet water;
and in the passage up to the quay there are several shifting
banks, that render the navigation hazardous even to those
acquainted with it. Within the harbour are the two small
islands of Beg-Eri and Great Island, on each of which are
the remains of monastic buildings. The Tusker Rock,
about five miles from shore, between Greensore and Carn-
sore Point, has on it a revolving light, with two faces
bright and one deep red. Bells are also rung in foggy
weather. South of the coast, and west of Carnsore Point,
are the two Saltee islands. South of them is a floating
light; and between them and the mainland is a narrow
ridge, called St Patrick’s Bridge, with but from seven to
ten feet of water on it at ebb tide. Farther west are the
fishing harbours of Crosfarnogue and Fethard. The latter
is a creek, dry at low water. Still farther, the projecting
point of Hookhead, forming the eastern side of Waterford
harbour, and having on it a light-house 100 feet high,
forms the w’estern extremity of the coast, which thence
tends northwards to the mouth of the Barrow, having on it
Duncannon Fort, that commands the entrance to that river
and to the port of Waterford.
The basis of nearly the whole county is a stratum of
clay-slate, graywacke, and graywacke-slate, interrupted by
several small patches of quartz rock near Gorey, one of
larger size south of Wexford, and another south of Ennis-
corthy. A small protrusion of greenstone trap, with whin-
dykes, appears to the north of Gorey. The carboniferous
or mountain limestone shews itself to the south of Wex¬
ford, along the shore of the harbour. It forms also the ex¬
tremity of Hookhead Point. Mount Leinster and Black-
stairs are a continuation of the great granite formation of
Wicklow, constituting its southern termination, which is
here broken through by the valley of the Barrow or New-
Ross river. On its eastern verge it is bordered by clay-
slate, passing into greenstone-slate. Granite also shews it¬
self in two patches south of Carnsore Point. The Saltees
are of clay-slate, supporting beds of sandstone. Slates are
raised in several places. A lead-mine at Cairn, after hav¬
ing been worked for some time, and abandoned, has been
re-opened. Silver was formerly raised at Clonmines, wdiere
it is said that the Danes established a mint for its coinage.
Copper ore has been discovered near Wexford, and remains
of ancient mines are visible in several places. A perfect
skeleton of the great moose-deer of Ireland, found in a bog,
is now in a private collection in the county. The soil in
the south-eastern parts is a rich alluvial mould, mixed with
coralline sand and limestone. The peninsula of Hookhead,
which rests on a limestone bed, is peculiarly fertile, both
throwing up a rich herbage, and yielding heavy crops of
grain. The quality of the soil deteriorates on proceeding
westward; but the farmer finds a valuable equivalent in
these districts, in the large tracts of turf or peat-moss with
which its surface is overspread.
The progress of the population, according to the calcu¬
lations most deserving of credit, has been as follows:
Year. Authority. Total Inhabitants.
1760 De Burgo 66,804i
1792 Beaufort 115,000
1812 Parliamentary census 160,000
1821 Ditto 170,806
1831 Ditto 182,991
The latest of these returns shows a population of one in¬
habitant to every three acres of land of all kinds, or of 1 to
every 2-95 of cultivated land. The return of the Com¬
missioners of Public Instruction, made in 1834, but which,
being collected in dioceses instead of counties cannot t
deemed strictly accurate, gives a total of 187,497 so,l \
which 21,602 were members of the established church ‘ti°7
Protestant dissenters, and 165,578 Roman Catholics Th
number of children receiving instruction in public school
as stated in returns made to parliament at various perio?
We
is as follows
Year.
Boys.
Girls.
1821 7,924 3930,
1824-6 10,951 7233.
1836- 7 2,174 1637.
1837- 8 2,280 1789,
1838- 9 2,825 1748,
Sex not
ascertained.
.585.
Total.
.11,854
.18,769
...3,811
...4,069
..4,573
According to the return of 1824-6, in which alone notice
is taken of the religious persuasion of the pupils, the numbers
of each were as follows: Members of the established church
2298; Protestant dissenters, 30; Roman Catholics, 15,641 •
those whose religious persuasion could not be ascertained*
100. The number of schools, as stated in the same return’
was 380, of which 34, having 2278 pupils, were maintained
by grants of public money; 24, with 1943 pupils, by volun¬
tary subscriptions ; the remaining 322, with 14,548 pupils,
wholly by the fees paid for instruction. There is an endow¬
ed school at Ferns, on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, in
which the master receives an annual salary of L.30, in addi¬
tion to the pupils’ fees. At New-Ross there is a school,
founded by Sir John Ivory, with an additional endowment
from the corporation.
The county is divided into the eight baronies of Bal-
laghkeen, Bantry, Bargie, Forth, Gorey, Scarewalsh, Shel¬
burne, and Shelmalier. These are subdivided into 143
parishes, all, except two in the diocese of Dublin, being
within that of Ferns, which is nearly conterminous with
the county. The diocese wras united with thatofLeighlin
until after the passing of the act for reducing the number
of sees in Ireland; under the provisions of which the united
dioceses were in 1835 joined to that of Ossory, and the
three are now held by one bishop, who is a suffragan to the
archbishop of Dublin. Previously to the union, the coun¬
ty was represented in the Irish parliament by eighteen
members, two for the county, and two for each of the
boroughs of Bannow, Clonmines, Enniscorthy, Fethard,
Newborough, New'-Ross, Taghmon, and Wexford. By
the act of union the number was reduced to four; two for
the county, and one each for New-Ross and Wexford,
which arrangement has been continued under the reform
act. The number of electors for the county, immediately
previous to the passing of that act, and at several subse¬
quent periods, was as follows:—
iTear.
1831.
1832.
1833.
No.
.1686
.3007
.2907
Year.
No.
Year.
No.
1834  3006 1837 3567
1835  3006 1838 3567
1836  35 67 1 839 3567
The number of electors is to that of the total population
as 1 to 51, and to that of the heads of families as 1 to 8|.
The county is in the Leinster circuit. The assizes are held
in Wexford, and general sessions of the peace at the same
place, and in Enniscorthy, Gorey, and New-Ross, twice in
the year: in each of these last-named towns there are bride¬
wells. The local government is vested in a lieutenant, six¬
teen deputy-lieutenants, seventy-four unsalaried magistrates,
and a stipendiary. Under these there is a constabulary
force, consisting of a county inspector, seven sub-inspectors,
eight head constables,and 240 constables and sub-constables.
The county infirmary, house of industry, and fever hospital,
are in Wexford. There are also fever hospitals in seven other
towns, and numerous dispensaries throughout the county.
Wexford, Enniscorthy, Gorey, and New-Ross, have been
fixed on as sites for the workhouses of poor-law unions.
i ii
&
:
■i
WEXFORD.
'he Forth mountain divides the county into two districts,
■(hiring as widely from each other in character as if they
wf:; in separate islands. The country to the south of this
ni< ntain, containing the baronies of Forth and Bargie, is
nenled by the descendants of the English colony which
* . t ^ rr nnu^: 
867
understand what was written in a book. They were fully Wexford,
competent to interpret what was read, and gave explana-vv- '
tions of phrases and passages which to him were abstruse,
in a manner more satisfactory than the commentators whose
notes were annexed to the printed text. Their usual mode
^located here in the time of Henry II. Their manners, of saluting each other is simple and pleasing. On meetin
Cu >ms, mode of dress, and even in a great degree their one asks, “ Is it long since ?” meaning to inquire whether
lanuage, still retain traces of the peculiarity of their origin, the interval of absence has appeared long. The replv is
If Tl] appearance of these baronies, when viewed by a spec- couched in similar terms of artless courtesy—“ Tea iov ”
I tatf placed on the summit of their boundary ridge, is not The young people are passionately addicted to festive
s unite the south of Devonshire. . The entire district is well amusements, such as dancing and hurling? At their mar-
pe,led. The farm-houses, as in Devonshire, are built of riages, which in other respects are celebrated accordino- to
cH and thatched, with neat offices, and generally a vege- the forms usual elsewhere, an apple is cut into small pieces
tab garden attached to them. The unwearied and well- and thrown among the crowd, a custom derived from
dieted industry of the farmers insures a large return from England, but the origin of which is unknown. The dress
th land. The whole is under tillage, and the vicinity of of the peasantry until lately was, for the men a jacket or
th sea enables the farmer to obtain a plentiful supply of short coat, waistcoat, and trunk breeches, with a round
sejveed and calcareous sand for manure, besides which narrow-brimmed hat; for the women a short jacket and
m;. is found in abundance. Fuel is scarce ; but the want petticoat, bordered at bottom with several rows of coloured
ofprf is supplied by the use of furze, which thrives here ribbon or tape ; the head-dress was a kerchief. The people
lu xiantly, and with which the mounds of earth that form live comfortably, are industrious, cleanly, and well-con-
tbgeneral fence of the farm are thickly topped; thus in- ducted. The poorest farmer eats meat twice in the week,
sirpg at the same time the most perfect security against and the table of the wealthier is covered with butcher-
tr pass, shelter for the cattle in severe weather, and a sup- meat and fowl. The usual beverage is home-brewed ale or
plj sufficient though not profuse, of fuel from the primings beer of excellent flavour and colour. The women do all
ofne furze. The fences are sometimes further fortified manner of field-work, except ploughing, and receive equal
by|i hedge of quicksets along the centre of the top of the wages with the men. The manners and customs of the
mind. It is said that there was a turbary along the shore,
weh the encroachments of the sea have long ago covered
will sand, and with water during flood-tides. The princi-
p;;irops are barley and beans : these are to be seen, in the
Mmsula of Carne, growing luxuriantly on land so over-
spad with stone as to induce the opinion that the ground
w.i wholly unproductive. Poultry of every kind is reared
inll the farm-houses, chiefly for exportation to Dublin
an Liverpool. Many farmers pay much attention to the
ruing of bees, and efforts are frequently made to preserve
tlistock while taking the honey. The sandy reaches near
tl: coast form burrows for immense numbers of rabbits,
t! flesh of which is deemed to be of a peculiarly good
inhabitants of the other baronies resemble those of the
Irish peasantry throughout the surrounding counties: there
is less attention to external appearance and to domestic
comfort and cleanliness. The soil also is poorer, and the
farming less precise. There is, however, no disinclination
to exertion, no want of the application of personal labour:
the defect lies in its misdirection. In the western baronies,
where there is neither sea-weed, marl, nor limestone, the
petty farmer will take long journeys to draw home a load
of lime, forty load of which are required to manure an acre.
Beans are everywhere a favourite, though an uncertain
crop. Wheat is sown in quantities sufficient to render it
an important article of export. In most respects the system
fl tour. The shores are frequented by numerous flocks of of tillage or the description of crops differs little from those
v 1 and sea fowl, among which the barnacle is most highly
pi led. Round fish is taken in large quantities on the eas-
. Jl extremity of Nymph Bank, which is off the coast; and
inti ali at the station of the floating light off the Saltees. The
ii ore fishing employs many hands, their open boats being
moled to run for shelter during rough weather into the
niiierous creeks and inlets w'hich indent the coast. Shell-
iiis I is plenty. The Wexford oyster is carried to Dublin,
" ire it finds a ready market, more on account of size than
fl pur. Wexford town is the chief market for the produce
o he farms; and many of the inhabitants have never tra-
v ed farther, looking on all beyond the mountain as a
country. An elderly woman, the wife of a respect-
of similar soils elsewhere. But it is observed, that even in
those districts of the northern baronies in which the soil is
good, abounding with marl alternating with a clayey loam,
and adequate, by proper management, to give an abundant
return to well-directed industry, little is perceptible of the
activity, comfort, or happiness of the southern baronies.
This difference is most striking on the estates in which the
practice of letting lands to middle-men is most prevalent.
The manufactures carried on in the county are those of
woollen cloth, checks, and coarse linens, all for the home-
consumption of the district, and wrought in the farm-houses.
A cotton factory near Enniscorthy failed. Iron was also
  ^ manufactured in the same neighbourhood. At present the
■ larmer, in answer to a question as to the extent of her raising of grain and rearing of cattle is almost exclusively
ti| eiling through the country', replied, “that she had the occupation of the inhabitants, and the expoit of the
n'er been out of Forth. On one unlucky day, indeed, agricultural produce the sole article of commerce. Theprin-
sl had been prevailed upon to go to the topi of the moun- cipal markets for grain and flour are V\ exford, Enniscorthy,
; but the sight of the wide world that there opened and New-Ross. Much butter is sent to Dublin through
0,,ier overcame her: her head grew giddy, her stomach Gorey; and much also is exported to Liverpool, together
with swine and poultry. The exports of the county through
Wexford have been estimated at 30,000 tons, value
L.330,000; and the imports through the same channel at
40,000 tons, value L.600,000. The communication with
the counties in the interior is carried on chiefly by the
Barrow, which is navigable for barges to Athy, where it
meets the Grand Canal. A line of railroad from Wexford
to Carlow has been surveyed by the Commissioners of
Railways, but no steps have as yet been taken towards its
formation. There are five banking establishments; one
81 ened,and she hastened home, determined never again to
e ose herself to such a hazard.” The dialect of the pea-
8£ ry, of which some vestiges are still preserved in corn¬
el conversation, was Saxon-English of the time of the
Firiesand Edwards. The rector of a parish there, when
rilling Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales while overseeing his
rj >ers in a field, was struck with the similarity between
% words in his book and the expressions he heard from
h ie around him. On reading some passages of it to them,
fi*was peculiarly struck with the surprise and pleasure
e! 'essed by them when they found themselves able to a branch of the Bank of Ireland, one of the Provincial
868
W E X
^Wexford. Bank, and two National Banks. Eight loan-societies have
v-'— been formed under the loan-fund act, in all of which the
amount of loans in the hands of borrowers at the close of
1839 was L.6728, and the number of borrowers during the
year 7356.
Every part of the county, but more particularly the
southern baronies, abound with reliques of Danish, Saxon,
and Norman antiquities. Raths are very numerous. There
are two of considerable magnitude near Dunbrody, and
two others near Enniscorthy and New-Ross. A heap of
stones, near Wicklow Gap, at the northern extremity of
the county, marks the spot where the bodies of those who
fell in a sanguinary conflict there, between the king’s troops
and the insurgents in 1798, were interred together. The
pile is constantly on the increase, as, according to the
custom of the country, every passenger, as he travels on¬
wards, adds a stone to the heap, and offers up a prayer for
the repose of the souls of the deceased. The abbey of
Dunbrody, situate near the confluence of the Suir and
Barrow or Ross river, still exhibits the remains of one of
the finest monastic buildings in Ireland. Tintern Abbey,
called also “ De Voto,” was built by William Marshal, near
the Bannow, on the spot where he landed after a storm, in
performance of a vow made by him while in peril. On the
head of Bagenbon, at the mouth of the same river, are the
vestiges of a strong earthen intrenchment called Strong-
bow’s Camp ; but it was more probably that of Fitzstephen
and his followers on their first landing. Ferns Castle, built
by Strongbow, continued to be looked upon as a place of
great military importance to the time of Cromwell’s cam¬
paigns, and as such was also occupied during the insurrec¬
tion of 1798. Enniscorthy Castle, built by Raymond le
Gros at the same period with the former, was also a place
of strength in the time of Cromwell, and in 1798 was used
as a prison by the insurgents while in possession of the
town. Buttermilk Castle, or Cuislan-na-Blahie, consists of
two small dark towers at the foot of a steep hill near Dun-
brody; it was used as a toll-house for the adjoining pass
across the river, and as a place to receive and cure the
fish due to the monks. Duncannon Fort was erected during
the alarm of the threatened invasion of the Spanish
Armada in the reign of Elizabeth. It is still kept up as a
military position, having a bomb-proof magazine, and
arrangements for mounting forty-two guns, with suitable
accommodations for a garrison.
Wexford, the county-town, is situate on the southern
side of the mouth of the Slaney, where it falls into Wex¬
ford haven. It was founded by the Danes, and after having
been taken by the English on their first landing in Ireland,
became a place of some importance. It obtained a charter
in 1318, which was confirmed and enlarged by James I. in
1608. A parliament was held in it by the earl of Desmond
in 1463. At the breaking out of the war of 1641, it took
part with the Irish, and continued in their possession till
taken in 1649 by Cromwell, either by force or treachery,
when the inhabitants, like those of Drogheda, were subject¬
ed to military execution. In the war of 1688 it declared
for King William, and in the insurrection of 1798 was
seized and occupied by the insurgents until their main
body was utterly defeated at Vinegar Hill near Enniscorthy.
The town still retains many vestiges of antiquity. The
streets are narrow and winding. It is connected with the
northern part of the county by a wooden bridge, 1570 feet
long, thrown across the Slaney, on which a toll is payable
for maintaining it, under the superintendence of a board of
commissioners. A broad quay proceeds from the bridge
along the border of the haven for upwards of half a mile,
which, with the haven itself, is under the management of
a board called the quay commissioners. The corporate
jurisdiction of the town under the charter of James is vested
in a mayor, burgesses, and commons. The mayor holds a
W H A
court of record for pleas to any amount, and there U i-
court of conscience for debts under 40s. The ^
county ’
court-house, prison, house of correction, infirmLl*
fever-hospital are in the town. There is also ’ ^
lunatic asylum, subsidiary to the district asylum
county, which is at Carlow. The borough exerrk j ®
prescriptive right of returning two members to the I f
parliament, which number was reduced to one at the nn'
and still continues so. The number of electors in l!X
was 350. By the municipal corporation act for Irpb
the corporation has been dissolved, and power is grante lt
form a new corporate body, according to conditions exonT
sed in the act, under the name of “ the mayor, bailifs f
buigesses, and commonalty of the town or boromr}) 1'
Wexford.” By the same act the corporations of Gorev
and New-Ross have also been dissolved, and provision mad
tor their reconstruction, as in the case of Wexford - th
former to be styled “ the sovereign, bailifs, and free com!
monalty of the borough and town of Newboroughthe
latter “ the sovereign and burgesses of New--RossJ Eight
fairs are held during the year. The town is the principal
place of export for the county. Together with the suburbs
it forms an ecclesiastical union, consisting of eleven parishes
in which there are two churches. There are also several
Roman Catholic chapels, some of which belong to monastic
institutions. The population was, in 1821, 8326; in 1831
10,673; and in 1834, 14,670. Of the last-named number
the members of the established church were 2031, the
Protestant dissenters 28, and the Roman Catholics l^eR;
the Protestants being to the Roman Catholics as l’to 6*.
1 he population of the other towns in the county whose
numbers exceed 1000 each was, in 1831, Enniscorthy,
5955; New-Ross, 5011; Gorey, 3044; Newtown Barry,
1430; and Taghmon, 1109. ' (c-P-)
WEYRE, a town of Hindustan, province of Agra, be-
longing to the rajah of Bhurtpore. It is well fortified, and
is situated on the high road from Agra to Jeypore. Long.
77. 2. E. Lat. 27. 2. N.
WHAMPOA, a seaport of China, situated on an island
in the river Canton, about two miles below Canton city.
Here is a safe anchorage for large ships, which carry on
their communication with Canton by boats. The island on
which Whampoa is situated is called Bankshall island, from
being the place where storehouses are constructed of bam¬
boos and mats, to contain the ships’ stores, &c. Immediately
on the arrival of any vessel, two custom-house boats are
placed alongside, to prevent smuggling ; and without their
permission no goods can be shipped or landed. All Euro¬
pean ships are allowed to wear a flag in their boats, which
prevents their being stoptatthe custom-house. Lat.23.6.N.
WHARTON, Philip, Duke of, a nobleman of the
most brilliant parts, but of the most whimsical, extravagant,
and inconsistent turn of mind, was the son of Philip mar¬
quis of Wharton. He was educated at home; and his fa¬
ther’s great aim was to render him a complete orator. At
a very early age he married a young lady, the daughter
of Major-general Holmes, which disappointed his father’s
views of disposing of him in such a marriage as would have
been a considerable addition to the fortune and grandeur
of his illustrious family; yet that amiable lady deserved
infinitely more felicity than she met with by this alliance.
This precipitate marriage is thought to have hastened the
death of his father; after which the son, being free from
paternal restraints, and possessing a fortune of L.16,000 a
year, plunged into those excesses which rendered him, as
Pope expresses it,
A tyrant to the wife his heart approv’d,
A rebel to the very king he lov’d.
In the beginning of the year 1716 he began his travels,
and as he wTas designed to be educated in the strictest
W hig principles, Geneva was thought a proper place tor
jail
litk
I#
HtJ
W H A
W H E
869
Residence. He first passed through Holland, and visit- sion to the government of England, that he did not give Wheel
^ ed iveral courts of Germany ; and being arrived at Geneva, himself the least trouble about his estate, or any other con- II
co'-eived such a disgust against his governor, that he left cern there, though, on his arrival at Rouen, he had only Whee,er*
{jjjj and set out post for Lyon, where he wrote a letter to about L.600 in his possession, and a bill of indictment was ' v "
th.Chevalier de St George, who then resided at Avignon, preferred against him in England for high treason. Soon
^presented him with a very fine stout horse; which the after, the chevalier sent him L.2000, which he squandered
chfalier no sooner received than he sent a man of quality away in a course of extravagance, when, to save the charges
to m, who took him privately to his court, where he was of travelling by land, he went from Orleans to Nantz by wa-
emrtained with the greatest marks of esteem, and had the ter, and staid there till he got a remittance from Paris, which
tit of duke of Northumberland conferred upon him. He was squandered almost as soon as received. At Nantz he
hciever remained there but one day, and then returned to was joined by his ragged servants, and from hence took ship-
L-.n, whence he set out for Paris. He likewise paid a ping with them for Bilboa, when the queen of Spain took
vi to the dowager of James II. then residing at St Ger- the duchess to attend her person. About the beginning
mis. During his stay at Paris, his winning address and of the year 1731, the duke, who commanded a regiment,
abkties gained him the esteem and admiration of all the was at Lerida, but declined so fast that he could not move
B ish subjects of rank of both parties. without assistance, yet when free from pain did not lose his
bout the latter end of December 1716, he arrived in gaiety. He however received benefit from some mineral
E:;land, whence he soon after set out for Ireland, where, waters in Catalonia; but soon after relapsed at a small vil-
thtigh still under age, he was allowed the honour to take lage, where he was utterly destitute of all the necessaries of
hi seat in the House of Peers, as earl of Rathfarnham and life, till some charitable fathers of a Bernardine convent re¬
moved him to their house, and gave him all the relief in
their power. Under their hospitable roof he languished a
week, and died on the 31st of May, without one friend or
acquaintance to close his eyes; and his funeral was per¬
formed in the same manner in which the fathers inter the
members of their own fraternity. He died without issue,
and his titles became extinct. The duchess survived till
February 1777.
Two octavo volumes, published under the title of his Life
and Writings, include seventy-four papers of the True Brb
ton, and his speech in defence of Atterbury. Other two duo¬
decimo volumes likewise bear his name ; and the same life
occurs in a publication called “ The Poetical Works of
Philip late Duke of Wharton, and others of the Wharton
Family, and of the duke’s intimate acquaintance,” &c.
Lond. 1731, 2 vols. 8vo. On such a collection as this no
liable dignity, he went abroad, and appeared to great ad- reliance can be placed. Ritson intended to publish an edi-
v-itage at the imperial court. From thence he made a tion of the duke’s genuine poems, accompanied with an ac-
   ' ' count of his life.
WHEAT. See Agriculture.
WHEEL, in Mechanics, a simple machine, consisting of
a round piece of wood, metal, or other matter, which re-
1Lj 11C     volves on its axis. See Mechanics.
ti t of Great Britain, for exercising an act of power, as he Wheel is also the name of a kind of punishment to
ols it, within the jurisdiction of his Catholic majesty. He which great criminals are put in divers countries. In some,
ti n acted openly in the service of the Pretender, and was assassins, parricides, and robbers on the highway, are SRid
r eived at his court with the greatest marks of favour. to be condemned to the wheel, when they are to have their
While his grace was thus employed, his neglected duchess bones first broken with an iron bar on a scaffold, and t icn
( d in England on the 14th of April 1726, without issue, to be exposed, and left to expire on the circumference of
11 soon afterwards fell violently in love with Miss Obyrne, a wheel. In Germany they break their bones on t ic
o; of the maids of honour to the queen of Spain, the wheel itself. Of this cruel punishment it is not certain
' ■ " who was the inventor : it was first used in Uermany, ana
was indeed but rarely practised anywhere else, till the time
of Francis I. of France, who, by an edict of the year 1534,
appointed it to be inflicted on robbers on the highway.
WuEEL-Carriages. See Mechanics for an account of
the general principles.
^.ere he accepted of a blue garter, assumed the title of WHEELER, Sir George, a learned traveller and di-
fike of fjoiulnimhtu-land .ml for a while enioved the con- vine, was the son of Colonel Wheelei of Charing in Kent,
nrquis of Catherlough. Notwithstanding his former con-
dvt, he immediately distinguished himself as a violent parti-
88) for the ministry ; and in consequence of his zeal the king
ci ited him a duke. He no sooner came of age than he
wi introduced to the House of Lords in England with the
su e blaze of reputation. In a little time he opposed the
cort, and appeared one of the most vigorous in defence
o the bishop of Rochester ; and soon afterwards he printed
h lucubrations twice a week, in a paper called “ The
Tie Briton,” several thousand copies of which were cir-
cated.
• The duke’s boundless profusion had by this time so bur-
di ed his estate, that by a decree of Chancery it was vest-
eiin the hands of trustees for the payment of his debts,
ai wing him a provision of L.1200 per annum for his sub-
This being insufficient to support his title with
t r to Spain. The English minister was alarmed at his
auval, fearing that his grace was received in the charac-
t of an ambassador. The duke received a summons
i iler the privy seal to return home ; but instead of obey-
i it, he endeavoured to inflame the Spanish court against
Ut of Great Britain, for exercising an act of power, as he
e ls it, within the jurisdiction of his Catholic majesty. He
t ighter of an Irish colonel, whose fortune chiefly con-
u ed in her personal accomplishments. All his friends,
pi particularly the queen of Spain, opposed the match ;
li t he falling into a lingering fever, occasioned by his dis-
ibointment, the queen gave her consent, and they were
ion after married. He then spent some time at Rome,
’’ ere he accepted of a blue garter, assumed the title of
11 ke of Northumberland, and for a while enjoyed the con-
1 once of the exiled prince. But not always keeping and was born in 1650 at Breda where his P^s as royal-
'fhin the bounds of Italian gravity, it became necessary ists, were then in exile. In 166/ he became a commoner
i’' him to remove from hence; when, going by sea to of Lincoln Co ege, xoit, u *cn , .J’ p' •
,1 rcelona, he wrote a letter to the king of Spain, acquaint- travelled through various parts of ^ece and the East, m
ig him that he would assist at the siege of Gibraltar as a company with Dr Spon of
fnteer. Soon after he wrote to fhe Chevalier de St return, was mstalled a prebend^
1 •kecxpre.inga desire to visit his court; but the che- ^^fp^ed an'account of his Journey into
lier advised him to draw near to England. » 16gP ^ ^ and in 1689 an Account of the
I The duke seemed resolved to follow his advice, and set- Gre^ ^ ^ Assemb]y of the primitive Chris-
^ig out with Ins duchess, arrived in ans in i y ~ > m t{ie Churches of Tyre, Jerusalem, and Constan-
Mence he soon after proceeded to Rouen, where he took t , 1 ™ibedb Eusebius. He is likewise author of a
his residence; and was so far from making any conces- tinopi ,
870
Whidaw
11
Whiston.
W H I
work entitled “ The Protestant Monastery, or Christian
Oeconomics.” In 1702 he was created D. D. by diploma.
_ He died in 1724.
W HID AH, a kingdom of Africa, on the coast of Guinea,
and to the west of the Gold Coast; extending about ten
miles along the sea. It is a populous country, well fur¬
nished with large villages; and there are so many small
ones, that they are not above a musket-shot from each
other. Whidah was conquered by the king of Dahomy.
Its trade consists of slaves, elephants’ teeth, wax, and honey.
WHIDBEY’S Isles, seven small islands on the south
coast of New Holland, about seven or eight miles from
Whidbey Point, which is a rocky promontory in long. 135.
6. W. and lat. 34. 36. S.
WHIRLPOOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulf, where the
water is continually turning round. Those in rivers are
very common, from various accidents, and are usually very
trivial, and of little consequence. In the sea they are
more rare, but more dangerous.
WHIRLWIND, a wind which moves in a spiral direc¬
tion, as well as horizontally, which is exceedingly rapid and
impetuous, but only of short duration. Of some kinds of
whirlwinds the motion is slow7, and they are only injurious
by their vortex; while others seem to do mischief as well
by their progressive as their whirling motion. Of this kind
are those called typhons, which, by their frequently fol¬
lowing the course of rivers, seem thus also to discover their
electrical origin.
WHISKEY, a term signifying vjaler, and applied in Scot¬
land and in Ireland to a distilled liquor drawn from barley.
WHIST, a well-known game at cards, which requires
great attention and silence ; hence the name.
WHISTON, William, an English divine of a singular
character, was born the 9th of December 1667, at Norton,
near Twycrosse, in the county of Leicester, where his fa¬
ther was rector. He was admitted of Clare Hall, Cam¬
bridge. In 1693 he took the degree of A.M., and became a
fellow. He afterwards began to take pupils; but his ill health
at length forced him to decline this occupation. Having en¬
tered into orders, he became chaplain to Dr More, bishop
of Norwich, in 1694; and in this station he published his
first work, entitled “ A New Theory of the Earth,” in
which he undertook to prove the Mosaic doctrine of the
earth perfectly agreeable to reason and philosophy. This
work brought no small reputation to the author. In the
beginning of the eighteenth century he was made Sir Isaac
Newton’s deputy, and afterwards his successor, in the Lu¬
casian professorship of mathematics ; when he resigned a
living he had in Suffolk, and went to reside at Cambridge.
About this time he published several scientific works, ex¬
planatory of the Newtonian philosophy; and he had the
honour to be one of the first, if not the very first, who
rendered these principles popular and intelligible to the
generality of readers. About the year 1710, he was known
to have adopted Arian principles, and was forming pro¬
jects to support and propagate them. He had translat¬
ed into English the Apostolic Constitutions, which favoured
the Arian doctrine, and which he asserted to be genuine.
The consequence was, that in 1710 he was deprived of
his professorship, and expelled from the university. He
nevertheless pursued his scheme, by publishing the next
year his Primitive Christianity revived, 4 vols. 8vo, for
which he incurred the censure of the convocation. On
his expulsion from Cambridge, Mr Whiston settled in
London, where, without suffering his zeal to be intimi-
aated, he continued to write and propagate his primitive
Christianity, with as much ardour as if he had been in the
W H I
most flourishing circumstances. In 1721 a subscription vvj,m
commenced for the .support of his family, and it amounted^-
to L.470. Though he drew profits from reading astrono
mical and philosophical lectures, and also from his pubii
tions, which were very numerous, yet these of thernseir*
would have been very insufficient; nor, when augmented
by the benevolence and charity of those who loved anl
esteemed him for his learning, integrity, and piety, did thev
prevent his being frequently in great distress. He lon^
continued a member of the church of England, and reo-i*5
larly frequented its service, though he disapproved of many
things in it; but at last he went over to the Baptists
and attended Dr Foster’s meeting at Pinner’s Hall, Broad'
Street. Among other performances not specified above
he wrote Memoirs of his own Life and Writings, which
contain some curious particulars.
He was remarkable for speaking the plainest truths on
every occasion, and to persons of every degree. During the
year 1725, when Whiston, with Dr Clarke, Dr Berkeley, and
others, had the honour to attend Queen Caroline on a certain
day of every week, to discuss the progress of science, her
majesty one evening took occasion to pay him a just com¬
pliment on his truth and integrity, requesting that he would
with his usual plainness, point out to her any fault that he
might have observed in her conduct. At first he begged
to be excused, adding, that few persons could bear to have
their faults plainly told to them, and least of all royal per¬
sonages, who, from their elevation, are necessarily sur¬
rounded by flatterers, to whose lips truth is a stranger.
Her majesty replied, that he was to consider her not as a
queen, but as a philosopher; and that philosophy is of
very little use, if it cannot enable its professors to bear
without offence truths necessary to their own improvement.
Upon this he told her, that the greatest fault which he had
observed in her conduct, was her indecent behaviour in the
house of God, which, he assured her, had made very unfa¬
vourable impressions on the minds of many persons, who,
coming to town from distant parts of the country, had
gone to the chapel to obtain a sight of her majesty, the
king, and the royal family. The queen made no reply;
but in about six weeks afterwards renewed her request,
that Mr Whiston would point out the most glaring impro¬
prieties in her conduct. To this he answered, that he had
laid down a maxim, from which he could not deviate, never
to point out to any person more than one fault at a time,
and never to give a second reproof till he had observed
some good consequence to have arisen from the first.1
Much to the queen’s honour, she was pleased with this
plain dealing, and continued to think favourably of Mr
Whiston. This honest, but whimsical and credulous man,
died on the 22d of August 1752, in the eighty-fifth year of
his age.
WHITAKER, John, was bom at Manchester on the
27th of April 1735. His father, James Whitaker, does
not appear to have been in affluent circumstances. At
the age of ten, the son was sent to the free-school, and in
1752 was removed to Oxford upon an exhibition of ten
pounds a year. He was entered of Brasen-nose College,
but on the 2d of March 1753 was elected scholar of Corpus
Christi. He proceeded A. M. in 1759, and in the follow¬
ing year was ordained deacon and priest. On the 21st of
January 1763 he was elected fellow of his college, and on
the 1st of July 1767 took the degree of B. D. At Oxford,
we are informed, “ his uncommon vigour of intellect at once
displayed itself among his acquaintance; but whilst his ani¬
mated conversation drew many around him, a few were re¬
pelled from the circle by his impatience of contradiction (a
Bishop Berkeley was present at these conversations, and Ironi his son we received the account which we have given of them. They
likewise mentioned, but not so accurately, by Bishop Newton in his own Life.
WHITAKER.
I
■ Mjgjjg which alinost ever accompanies powers like his), and
* > 1- b the consciousness, it should seem, of their own inferio-
r ” That his conversation must have displayed sufficient
v icity, and his temper sufficient warmth, may very easily
b conceived; but through these lines of panegyric, it is
jr lossible not to discern a strong ray of truth; namely,
> ti t from the earliest period of his literary career, he was
it| (binguished by a bold and dogmatical spirit, which could
jl >ndure dissent or opposition. This may indeed be con-
siared as his first and last characteristic ; and although the
z'j 0f a friend has, with some degree of dexterity, endea-
v ired to convert it into a topic of praise, by representing
it s the ordinary mark of a superior mind, we are not very
n ch inclined to regard it in the same light. The doctrine
si ms indeed to be of a somewhat dangerous tendency ;
t,oe calculated for misleading young candidates for lite-
r; v honours, who may thus be induced to supply, by arro-
o ice and dogmatism, what is wanting in sound learning
al solid judgment. It may be asserted, without much
h ard of confutation, that this overweening and dogmatical
sj-it is at least as frequently the characteristic of those
\w
5:
:*
l Mi*' '    1 J
ro possess but a very moderate stock of real merit; who
T'e perhaps made no uncommon progress in any branch
Jjcience or literature, and yet consider themselves as en-
tied to decide all controversies, and to adjust all claims to
i ellectual distinction.
For many years he served the curacy of Bray in Berk-
s re for Dr Berkeley, a son of the famous bishop of Cloyne ;
Id was subsequently curate of Newton in Lancashire.
1: gave the first conspicuous proof of his abilities by the
{plication of “ The History of Manchester.” Lond. 1771,
Si. The second volume followed in the year 1775; but
though four books were originally promised, only two are
tus completed; they embrace the Roman, British, and
! xon periods of the history. This work, which is perhaps
etj (; most remarkable of his publications, was immediately
U i jarded as the production of no ordinary writer, but as
i ire conspicuous for bold and ingenious speculation, than,
i cool and judicious discussion. Like the other works ol
1 ‘ same author, it is written in a lively and rambling man-
ir. His impatience and vivacity rendered him incapable
< selecting his topics, and condensing his thoughts; and
1 adhering to his usual method of writing, a large book
ny be produced on almost any subject. Before he had
1 >ught this work to a close, he published “ Ihe genuine
story of the Britons asserted.” Lond. 1772, bvo. Ihis
’ lume is chiefly directed against the historical work of Mr
iicpherson, better known as the foster-father of Ossian ;
i d both publications have been considered by compe-
! it judges as adding very little to the real stock of infm -
ution.
II In the course of the following year we find him residing
IE' the metropolis, and officiating as the morning preacher
' Berkeley chapel. For this appointment he was indebted
a Mr Hughes; but their connexion was of a vei y shoi t
j ration, for he was removed from his situation in less than
o months. He thought proper to communicate his
ievances to the public, in “ The State of the Case be-
1 een Mr Whitaker and Mr Hughes, relative to the Moin-
r\ Preachership of Berkeley Chapel.” Lond. 1/74, to.
i is resentment was so strong, and his discretion so wea ',
it he thus subjected himself to the vexation of a lawsuit,
871
and the Court of King’s Bench held his printed Case to be Whitaker,
a libel. y—^
On the 23d of August 1777, he succeeded to the rectory
Ruan-Lanyhorne, one of the most valuable livings in the
gift of his college. He now withdrew into Cornwall, and
took possession of his benefice ; and he afterwards married
Jane Tregenna, a lady of an ancient Cornish family. Her
great-grandfather, grandfather, and father, were successive¬
ly rectors of Mawgan in Pydar. For a long time his retire¬
ment was not attended with peace and studious ease. His
restless and domineering disposition soon involved him in a
long train of contentions with his parishioners: he proposed
a tithe-composition, which his friends represent as by no
means unreasonable, but of which his parishioners appear to
have entertained a different opinion; they refused to ac¬
cede to his proposal, and he demanded the tithes in kind.
“ Disputes,” we are informed, “ arose upon disputes; ani¬
mosities were kindled; and litigations took place. That
Mr Whitaker was finally victorious, afforded pleasure to the
friends of the rector, and to the friends of justice and truth;
yet it was long before harmony was restored to Ruan-
Lanyhorne.” Let us here remark in passing, that this
mode of confounding the cause of religion with the cause
of tithes is a pretty ancient device. It is not certainly to
be considered as wonderful, if, after all these contentions
and litigations, Mr Whitaker was subjected to the mortifi¬
cation of observing that his parishioners manifested an
aversion to his preaching, an indifference to his admoni¬
tions, and a repugnance to his authority. This is indeed
the natural consequence of the measures to which he re¬
sorted ; they have an obvious tendency to excite or con¬
tinue animosities, and to circumscribe the utility of a clergy¬
man, by rendering him obnoxious to almost every man in
his parish who has property enough to bring him within
the circle of such litigations. It may perhaps be regarded
as extremely doubtfuf whether any clergyman, possessing a
portion of the primitive spirit of Christianity, would be
tempted to engage, more especially with his own flock, in
quarrels, disputes, and lawsuits, which there might be any
decent means of avoiding. M’e are informed, that aftei
the lapse of a few years, Mr Whitaker had the satisfaction
of perceiving a visible alteration in the behaviour of his
principal parishioners, and that a good understanding was
at length established between the pastor and his flock. His
manner was hearty and familiar; and notwithstanding the
rabid spirit that sometimes animates his writings, he was
possessed of many virtues, though meekness and humility
were certainly not of their number.1
His next publication was of a professional kind, namely,
“ Sermons upon Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell.”
Lond. 1783, 12mo. He afterwards engaged in the famous
controversy respecting the character of Queen Mary, and
produced an immense work under the title of Mary Queen
of Scots vindicated.” Lond. 1787, 3 vols. 8vo. He pub¬
lished an enlarged edition in the year 1/90; and he seems
to have been not a little mortified that neither Lord Hailes
nor Dr Robertson could be induced to print a single page
against him. This production, which is by no means emi¬
nent for coolness of reasoning, or sobriety of manner, has
probably convinced very few competent judges of historical
evidence, who have submitted to the labour of a patient
investigation. If Mary’s innocence is so apparent as some
'tone word is uttered against his integrity ; nor has t is wri er un ^ o^^eive years. ^ ull3     . .
maintain against his own parishioners a series of litigation. . , • , (iurin0' the suits, he not only made up this loss beyond the original
lounted to about a thousand pounds ; but, by taking the ti ies i the5 conscientious minister looked with a deeper concern to t e
oduce of the tithes, but was several hundred pounds in P0f *e • nreaching, their indifference to his instruction, their repugnance
iritual welfare of his flock. He saw', with sorrow, their aversion ..L defence is sometimes more injurious than a wanton attac...
his authority and certainly no result could be more natural. An injurious
872
W H I T A K E R.
Whitaker. 0f her advocates aver, is it not remarkable that so many
' bulky volumes should be required to display that innocence ?
Besides, if we suppose her to be innocent, we must, at the
same time, suppose all the most distinguished of those who
opposed her after the murder of her husband, to be covered
with an enormous load of infamy. And we will only ven¬
ture to add, that the uncontroverted history of her proceed¬
ings, from a short period preceding the murder, till her
indecent nuptials with Bothwell, furnishes a degree of mo¬
ral evidence which seems to be ineffectually opposed by all
the persevering sophistry of her defenders.
Having again recurred to his theological studies, Mr
Whitaker published a large volume, entitled “ The Origin
of Arianism disclosed.” Bond. 1791, 8v0. Whatever might
be the opinion of others,1 it is clear that the author himself
entertained a favourable enough opinion of this production ;
which he represents as “ a train of historical argumenta¬
tion, at once novel in its direction, comprehensive in its
scope, and decisive in its efficacy.” If he could not discuss
a point of history without heat and violence, it is easy to
conceive how he would be disposed to discuss a point of
heresy. As a proof of his zeal for orthodoxy, an anonymous
friend presents us with the following anecdote. “ That the
feeble Deist should have shrunk from his indignant eye,
may well be conceived, when we see his Christian principle
and his manly spirit uniting in the rejection of a living of
considerable value, which was at this time offered him by
an Unitarian patron. He spurned at the temptation, and
pitied the seducer.” But in order to render this anecdote
altogether intelligible, some further information seems to
be required. Were his principles so pure and rigid that he
could only accept of preferment from a patron of confirmed
and approved orthodoxy ? Or did this nameless patron
offer him the living under the condition, express or implied,
that he should become a convert to the Unitarian creed ?
With respect to the first question, it is quite evident that
many pious divines have accepted of preferment from pa-
tions who, to all human appearance, had no religion what¬
soever; and with respect to the second, it is equally evi¬
dent, that no patron, if he possessed common sense, could
expect a beneficed clergyman to make an open avowal of opi¬
nions which the church has formally condemned as heretical.
Whitaker had contributed to the English Review a series
of aitides on Gibbons history, which were now reprinted
in a separate form, under the title of “ Gibbon’s History of
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in vols. iv. v.
and vi. quarto, reviewed.” Bond. 1791, 8vo. This work,'
which extends to a considerable volume, is written in his
usual vein, with sufficient acuteness and animation, but
with little suavity of manner or elegance of style. He
certainly detects errors and exposes inconsistencies ; but it
may readily be supposed that a writer of his cast of mind
was not very likely to form an impartial estimate of Gib¬
bon’s real merits, which, after all the fair and necessary de¬
ductions are made, must still be allowed to be very great.
Whitaker is always an intrepid writer; he is never afraid
to delivei. a decided opinion; and whether the subject is
very familiar or quite new to him, his tone of decision is
commonly the same. Thus, for example, in his animad¬
versions on Gibbon’s admirable chapter relating to the Ro¬
man jurisprudence, he is pleased to declare, that “ nothing
can subdue the native barrenness of such a field as this.”
His censure refers to a subject of which he may be con¬
sidered as in a state of almost total ignorance c- he seems to
have been alike^ unacquainted with this science, and inca¬
pable of appreciating the masterly manner in which it is
here discussed. It may indeed be affirmed that there is
no portion of Gibbon’s work more remarkable than tv
chapter: although I,is early studies had not prepS^t
for such a task, he has yet exhibited a rapid -
sketch of the Roman jurisprudence, to Jwch U £?
difficult to find a parallel in the writings of the nrnfi bi
civilians And it has accordingly been stamped wi h*
approbation of some of the most distinguished civil , ;
the present age. It has been illustrated by Hiwn
Warnkonig, the former having published it in German 2
the latter in French man> and
After an interval of three years, Whitaker produced a
copious work on a subject which is certainly curious L
interestmg. This work he entitles, in his usual fej
Ihe Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertain^’>
Bond. 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. Bike some of his former publics
tions, it attracted a considerable degree of attention and'
like them, was found to contain many hasty and erroneous
opinions. On this ground he was encountered by the late
Bord Woodhouselee, who published, but without his name
“ A Critical Examination of Mr Whitaker’s Course of Han’
mbal over^the Alps ascertained.” Lond. 1795, 8vo. In
the year 1795, he endeavoured to enlighten the public bv
an octavo tract on “ The real Origin of Government9
which we have never had the pleasure of seeing, but which
his friend, formerly quoted, describes as a very singular
pamphlet. This information may, without scruple, be re¬
ceived as authentic ; for it is not difficult to conjecture how
the subject of civil government would be treated by such
a writer at such a period.
The last work which Whitaker lived to communicate to
the public is “ The Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall histo¬
rically surveyed.” Lond. 1804, 2 vols. 4to. His vigour
was still undiminished, and he had formed the plan of many
other works, particularly a history of Oxford, and a history
of London : the former he intended to comprise in an oc¬
tavo volume, the latter he contemplated as “ quite new and
original, and fit to make a quarto.” While he was prose¬
cuting his ardent researches into the antiquities of the me¬
tropolis, his friends remarked the first indications of declin¬
ing healthy He had originally possessed a robust constitu¬
tion, but his mind was restless, and his temper ardent; and
during his last visit to London, his great exertions in pro¬
curing materials for his work, and his great efforts in sup¬
porting his usual tone of conversation in the literary circles,
left him in a state of debility which was not at first consi¬
dered as alarming. It was however followed by a stroke of
palsy, from which his recovery was never so complete as to
allow him to resume his occupations with his former vigour.
During the last year of his life, he lingered in a state of
gradual decay; and he is said to have contemplated his
approaching dissolution with the cheerful resignation of a
Christian. On Sunday the 30th of October 1808, he sank
as into a quiet slumber, without any indication of suffering,
and with a smile on his countenance. He died at Ruan-
Lanyhorne, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Of his
three daughters, two survived him. One of these, named
Anne, was married in 1821 to Dr Taunton, a physician of
Truro. Whitaker’s widow, who is described as the last of
her ancient family, died at Truro in 1828, at the age of
eighty-five.
He had recently sent to the press an antiquarian volume,
which, after his death, was published under the title of
“ The Life of Saint Neot, the oldest of all the Brothers of
King Alfred.” Lond. 1809, 8vo. He had likewise made
some progress in preparing a life of Queen Mary; and his
materials were consigned by his widow to Mr George
Chalmers, who adopted them as the foundation of his own
V4.1 C.°R^jSS ,tllIS .b?ok bas satls*’ed me how Ihde erudition will gain a man now a-days the reputation of vast learning, iPit be only accom¬
panied with dash and insolence. It seems to me impossible that Whitaker could have written well on the subject of Mary Queen of Scots,
his powers of judgment being apparently so abject.” (Coleridge’s Literary Remains, vol. iv. p. 306 )
'
w
H I
extordinary performance. All his principal works have
novoeen enumerated, but a few supplementary notices are
stil necessary. He wrote an introduction to Flindell’s
giti, and a supplement to Polwhele’s Antiquities of Corn-
waliand was a contributor to “ The Cornwall and Devon
His connection with the English Review has al-
rea been mentioned; but he likewise appears to have lent
his dtothe British Critic and the Antijacobin Review;
andnis eulogist informs us, in a very solemn style, that
“ til strength of his principles is nowhere more apparent
tha in those articles where he comes forward, armed with
thc/anoply of truth, in defence of our civil and ecclesias¬
tics constitution. It was there he struck his adversaries
will consternation, and we beheld the host of Jacobins
shaking away from before his face, and creeping into
the caverns of darkness.” The same tasteful and judi-
cjo { writer avers, that at Whitaker’s lucubrations “ a
Gilson trembled but this panegyric is somewhat abated
jiy nother piece of information, namely, that Gibbon was
aHeble Deist.” With what torrents of fiery indignation
thi worthy divine must, in his fugitive and anonymous
wrhgS) have overwhelmed Jacobins and heretics, may very
easi/ be imagined by those who have inspected his more
ela rate works, bearing his name and addition, and in-
tei :;d for the benefit of posterity. Some persons of cooler
terers, and of more habitual candour, when they are
fain enveloped in the cover of a review, may now and
thebe tempted to speak in a very high and arrogant tone
to on greatly elevated above their own standard, and of
sul cts of which they only possess a very casual and super-
lie: knowledge.
■ |is anonymous writer, whom we strongly suspect to be
Mil’olwhele, has, in the following passage, discussed the
ch heter of Whitaker with more sobriety and discrimina-
tio “ It is true, to the same warmth of temper, together
wi a sense of good intentions, we must attribute an irri-
talityat times destructive of social comfort, an impetuous-
ne that brooked not opposition, and bore down all before
it. This precipitation was in part also to be traced to his
igi ranee of the world ; to his simplicity in believing others
!ikhimself—precisely what they seemed to be; and, on
tin letection of his error, his anger at dissimulation or
by crisy. But his general good humour, his hospitality,
an his convivial pleasantry, were surely enough to atone
lot lose sudden bursts of passion, those flashes which be¬
ta d his ‘ human frailty,’ but still argued genius. And
tin who knew how ‘fearfully and wonderfully he was made,’
co 1 bear from a Whitaker what they could not so well
ha tolerated in another. In his family, Mr Whitaker was
un1 irmly regular ; nor did he suffer at any time his literary
ca i to trench on his domestic duties. The loss of such a
m; must be deemed, as it were, a chasm both in public
an private life. But, for the latter, we may truly say, that
if er wife had cause to lament the kind and faithful hus-
'oa , or children the affectionate parent, or servants the
indgent master, the family at Ruan-Lanyhorne must feel
th loss irreparable.”1 (x0
’HITBURN, a parish and village situated on the high
ro from Edinburgh to Glasgow, in the county of Linlith-
gc The inhabitants of the village are mostly weavers.
It ntains two places of worship belonging to the dissenters.
In 831 the population of the parish amounted to 800.
TUT BY, a seaport town in the north riding of the
- ity of York, in a locality distinguished as the Liberties
ot Vhitby Strand, 242 miles from London. It stands at
th mouth of the river Eske, which divides it into two
; and it consists of several streets, which are steep ant
W H I
873
&
narrow. The mouth of the river forms the harbour, which Whitby,
is protected from the fury of the ocean by two outer andv—'
inner piers. Adjoining the inner harbour are spacious
dock-yards and dry docks. The trade of the town is ex¬
tensive, many ships being employed in the coal and free¬
stone trade; and near it are some extensive alum-works,
which add to its cotnmerce. The business of ship-building
is cairied on, and, with the subsidiary branches connected
with it, creates occupation for a large class of the inhabi¬
tants. Whitby is a place of great antiquity, as there are re¬
cords of a convent having been built there by Oswy, king
of Northumberland, in the seventh century; which was
afterwards destroyed by the Danes, and was restored to its
former splendour after the Norman conquest. The town
has, by the act of 1832, received the right of returning
one member to the House of Commons. It has no cor¬
porate body. There are places of worship for the vari¬
ous bodies of dissenters, and also a number of benevolent
institutions for the relief of the destitute. The market
is on Saturday, and is well supplied with all provisions.
The population amounted in 1821 to 8697, and 1831 to
7765.
Whitby, Dame/, a learned divine, was born at Rushden
in Northamptonshire in the year 1638. In 1653 he was
admitted of Trinity College, Oxford, and was elected a
scholar in 1655. He took the degree of A. B. in 1657,
and of A. M. in 1660. In 1664 he was elected a fellow of
his college, and about the same time began to distinguish
himself by the publication of some controversial works
against the papists. The credit which he thus obtained
recommended him to Dr Ward, bishop of Salisbury, who
appointed him his chaplain, and in 1668 collated him to
two different prebends in that cathedral. In 1672 he was
admitted precentor of the same church, and about the same
time took the degree of D. D. He was likewise preferred to
the rectory of St Edmund’s at Salisbury ; but his next pub¬
lication had no tendency to advance him in the church. It
appeared anonymously, under the title of “ The Prostestant
Reconciler; humbly pleading for Condescension to Dis¬
senting Brethren in things indifferent and unnecessary, for
the sake of peace, and shewing how unreasonable it is to
make such things necessary Conditions of Communion.”
Lond. 1683, 8vo. The churchmen of that period were un¬
prepared for the reception of such doctrines ; and the author
was immediately exposed to a storm of controversial abuse.
The bishop obliged him to make a formal retractation ; and
in a second part of the Protestant Reconciler, he endea¬
voured in some measure to recover the good opinion of his
more bigoted brethren. He now sent to the press a treatise
on a less hazardous subject; “ Ethices Compendium, in
usum academicse juventutis.” Oxon. 1684, 8vo. His most
important work, the principal labour of fifteen years, was
his Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament,
published in 1700, in two volumes folio. He afterwards
published additional annotations, and an “ Examen va-
riantium Lectionum Johannis Millii in Novum Testamen-
tum.” Among the other works which he produced, we
must not overlook “ The Necessity and Usefulness of the
Christian Revelation, by reason of the Corruptions of the
Principles of Natural Religion among Jews and Heathens.”
Lond. 1705, 8vo. In 1710 he published two works against
Calvinism. One of these, a Discourse with a long title, is
commonly described as Whitby on the five Points. In
1711 he published a Latin treatise on original sin. Ac¬
cording to Bishop Tomline, he confuted Calvinism almost
to a demonstration; but the bishop was himself a veiy
slender and superficial theologian. One of Dr Whitby’s
n 0 Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, vol. iii. p. 105, and
gentleman’s Magazine, vol. Ixxviii. p. 1037. See likewise Nicho 7
ks’s History of the County of Lancaster, vol. ii. p. 385. 5 §
01.. XXI.
874
Whit.
church
II
White-
held.
W H I
works might be advantageously reprinted in the pre¬
sent state of controversial discussion : “ Dissertatio de
Scripturarum Interpretatione secundum Patrum Commen-
tarios.” Lond. 1714, 8vo. The scope of this dissertation is
, to evince, by copious examples, that the fathers are for the
most part very incompetent and unsafe guides in matters
of theological controversy. Dr Whitby had now become
a decided Arian ; and to these opinions, apparently derived
from Dr Clarke, he adhered till the time of his death.
Having preached at St Edmund’s church on the preceding
day, he died on the 24th of March 1728, at the age of eighty-
eight. Of the changes in his creed he left an account
in “ The last Thoughts of Dr Whitby, containing his Cor¬
rection of several Passages in his Commentary on the New
Testament. To which are added five Discourses.” Lond.
1727, 8vo. This posthumous publication was accompanied
with an account of his life by Dr Sykes.
WHITCHURCH, a market-town of the county of
Hants, in the hundred of Evingar, and division of Kings-
clere, fifty-seven miles from London. It is an ancient bo¬
rough, and returns one member to parliament. It is now
a place of little trade, with a small market on Friday.
The river that runs by it produces the finest trout, and is
much visited by anglers. The population amounted in
1821 to 1434, and in 1831 to 1673.
Whitchurch, a market-town of the county of Salop,
in the hundred of North Bradford, 160 miles from London.
It is a well-built place, whose greatest ornament is the
parish church, erected in 1722. It is a fine building of the
Tuscan order, standing on the site of an ancient Gothic
structure, having a stately square tower with eight bells, and
elaborately finished in the interior. There is also an excel¬
lent endowed grammar-school, with houses for the several
masters. There is a well-attended market on Friday. The
population, which is principally employed in the malt and
hop trade, and in making shoes, amounted in 1821 to 5376,
and in 1831 to 5736.
WHITE, one of the colours of natural bodies.
WHITE Friars, a name common to several orders of
monks, from being clothed in a white habit.
WHITE Sea is a bay of the Frozen Ocean, so called
in the north part of Muscovy, lying between Russian Lap-
land and Samoieda; at the bottom of which stands the city
of Archangel. This was the chief port possessed by the
Russians before their conquest of Livonia.
WHITE Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, near the
east coast of New Zealand, north of Cape Runaway. Long.
186. 36. W. Lat. 26. N.
WHITEFIELD, George, was born at the Bell Inn, in
the city of Gloucester, on the 16th of December 1714. He
received his education at the grammar-school of that city,
where he made some progress in classical learning; and his
talents for elocution enabled him to appear to advantage in
the speeches which he delivered before the corporation on
their annual visitation. He was taken from school before
he was fifteen, and, as his mother’s circumstances were by
this time much on the decline, he began to assist her in the
business of the tavern. At the age of eighteen he was en¬
tered as a servitor at Pembroke College, Oxford, where he
formed an acquaintance with Charles and John Wesley,
and several other young men under religious impressions,
who “ lived by rule and method,” and were therefore called
Methodists. Whitefield soon adopted their opinions and
manners ; and so far did his enthusiastic disposition carry
their ascetic practices, that his health became seriously
injured. After a severe illness, which brought him to the
brink of the grave, he found it necessary to retire to Glou¬
cester for the benefit of his native air. His general cha¬
racter there, his demeanour at church, his visiting the
poor, and praying with the prisoners, attracted the notice
of Dr Benson, bishop of Gloucester, who informed him,
W H I
that although he had resolved to ordain none under
and twenty (and Whitefield was only twentv-onel i n
think it his duty to ordain him whenever he annliSf
holy orders. This offer Whitefield accepted, and was
deacon in 1736. The week following he returned to 0
ford, took his degree, and diligently employed himself f
the instruction of the poor and the prisoners. Durinv th
two succeeding years, by his preaching in London Bath
BristoJ, and other places, the fame of his eloquence was
widely diffused, and immense multitudes everywhere attend
ed upon him. In the year 1736 he went to officiate as minis'
ter at Dummeer in Hampshire; but being invited to join the
Wesleys and other friends, who had gone out as mission
aries to a new colony in Georgia, he went to London to
wait on the trustees for Georgia. During his residence
in the metropolis, he preached with remarkable success to
crowded assemblies; and so great was the fame of his elo¬
quence, that on Sunday mornings, long before day, the
streets were filled with people going to hear him, with lanterns
in their hands. In the latter end of December 1737 he left
London and embarked for Georgia, which he reached in May
1738. After a residence of three months there, he found
it necessary to return to England, in order that he might
receive priest’s orders, and that lie might raise contributions
for founding and supporting an orphan-house in the colony.
The separation of the Methodists, and their organization
as a distinct sect, was daily becoming more inevitable; for
after his return the clergy received him with great coldness,
and excluded him from most of the parochial pulpits. He
was therefore compelled to adopt some new method to pre¬
serve his usefulness. He accordingly went and preached
in the open air to the colliers in the vicinity of Bristol; a
numerous and lawless race, who had been totally neglected
by the parochial clergy, and were as ignorant and savage as
heathens. The second and third time of his preaching out
of doors, his audience greatly increased, till it amounted to
20,000 persons. “ The first discovery of their being af¬
fected,” says Whitefield, “ was by seeing the white gutters
made by their tears, which plentifully fell down their
black cheeks.”
In August 1739 he embarked a second time for America,
where he remained nearly two years. During his absence,
however, his popularity had sensibly declined at home.
The Moravians had made inroads upon the society, and
John Wesley had not only preached, but printed, a sermon
in favour of sinless perfection and universal redemption,
and had exerted himself still more earnestly against the
Calvinistic doctrines, to which Whitefield was strongly at¬
tached. The latter earnestly desired to avoid all disputes,
and exhorted Wesley to brotherly kindness and forbear¬
ance ; but the conduct of injudicious partisans on both sides
soon rendered a separation inevitable. Shortly after his
separation from Wesley, Whitefield’s friends built a large
shed for him near the Foundery (Wesley’s Church). As it
was merely a temporary structure, to screen the audience
from cold and rain, he called it the Tabernacle. A fresh
excitement immediately began, immense congregations
were formed, and new scenes of usefulness opened upon
him daily. Having been earnestly invited to visit Scot¬
land by Ebenezer and Ralph Erskine, the founders of
the Secession Church, he accepted the invitation in the
year 1741, and commenced his labours in the Secession
meeting-house in Dunfermline. Whitefield however was
too liberal in his principles to limit the benefit of his ser¬
vices to any sect. “ In every building,” he said, “there
were outside and inside workmen, and the latter was his
province.” And having differed from his new associates
on this ground, he made a tour through the country, an
with the greatest success preached in all the large towns
to immense crowds. A large sum of money was contri¬
buted for the support of his orphan-school, and he was pre-
fcan
Ifel
Iffla
h-l
W H I
«|r,d with the freedom of the towns of Edinburgh, Glas-
^ Aberdeen, Stirling, Paisley, and Irvine.
U '\om Scotland he went at the end of October into
; where he married Mrs James, a widow. Elis mar-
“<h like Wesley’s, was not a happy one, and the death of
Sj'il'e >s sa’1^ by one °f bis friends to have “ set his mind
Xp at liberty.” Whitefield was irritable, and impatient
of 'mtradiction; and even if his temper had been more
l4'|ily constituted, his habits of life rendered him unfit
fbnie duties of a husband and a father.
Itn his return to London, his enthusiasm led him to en-
in a singular contest with the showmen and others
wlfithen exhibited in Moorfields during the Whitsun holi-
jjiM when, he said, Satan’s children kept up their annual
rerpzvous. “ This,” says Mr Southey, “ was a sort of
pit|ed battle with Satan, and Whitefield displayed some
<re: alship upon the occasion.” Attended by a large con-
fTdition of “ praying people,” he began at six o’clock in
tkporning. Thousands who were waiting there for the
usn sports all flocked around him. “ Glad was I to
f)n„’ says he, “that I had for once as it were got the start
of le devil. Being thus encouraged. I ventured out again
at ion, when the fields seemed all white, ready, not for the
ltd -emer’s, but Beelzebub’s harvest.” Thinking that, like
St jaul, be should now, in a metaphorical sense, be called
to Hit with wild beasts, he took for his text, “ Great is
Dilaof the Ephesians.” “ I could scarce help smiling,”
saube, “ to see thousands, when one of the choicest ser-
va'j) of Satan was trumpeting to them, upon observing me
in |y black robes and my pulpit, all to a man deserting
hitj and flocking to hear the gospel. But this, together
wi i a complaint that they had taken many pounds less that
da than usual, so enraged the owners of the booths, that
wl 11 came to preach a thfid time in the evening, in the
mi t of the sermon a Merry-Andrew got upon a man’s
sh< Iders, and advancing near the pulpit, attempted to slash
im nth a long heavy whip several times. Soon afterwards
th<fgot a recruiting sergeant with his drums and fifes to pass
thiiigh the congregation ; but I desired the people to make
wslfbr the king’s officer, which was quietly done.” When
thimproar became, as it sometimes did, so great as to
ovpower his single voice, he called the voices of all his
pejle to his aid and began singing; and thus, what with
siring, praying, and preaching, he continued upon the
gr nd till the darkness made it time to break up. So
gr:; was the impression produced in this extraordinary
scije, that he received 1000 notes from persons under con-
vi(bn, and soon after about 350 persons vrere received
inlltbe society in one day.
August 1744 he embarked a third time for America,
wire he continued his usual course of itinerant preaching
tbijipwards of three years. On returning to England,
■fid an absence of nearly four years, with a constitution
slijered by his incessant labours and the unfavourable
cli ite, he found his congregation at the Tabernacle near¬
ly fspersed ; and such was the depression of his own cir-
cu .tances, that he was obliged to sell his household rur-
nilfre to pay his orphan-house debts. But he now obtained
‘in important accession to his cause, and a zealous propagator
°f s sentiments, from a quarter whence it was least ex-
pefid, in the person of the countess of Huntingdon. That
no ;; lady, who was, in will at least, as munificent a patron
to He followers of Whitefield as the Countess Matilda was
t0 le papacy, invited him to her house at Chelsea as soon
as ' landed ; and after he had twice officiated there, she
We to him inviting him again, that some of the nobility
mlht hear him. A large circle attended, among whom
'v<' Lords Chesterfield and Bolingbroke. The former
co plimented the preacher with his usual courtliness ; the
is said to have been much moved at the discourse.
Tl countess appointed Whitefield one of her chaplains,
W H I 875
and gave most efficient support to the Calvinistic Metho- White-
dists, by building and endowing chapels in various parts of field,
the country, and by erecting a college for training up“v'-—'
young men for the ministry. The remaining years of
Wnitefield’s life were spent in the same incessant labours.
He made several voyages to America; he visited Scotland
tui ice; Le mace a laborious excursion through the west
ami, north of England, preaching, as usual, to immense
multitudes, he visited Ireland twice, and on the second
expedition narrowly escaped with his life from the fury of
a Koman Catuolic mob. It is stated by one who knew
him well, that, “ in the compass of a single week, and that
for years, he spoke in general xorty hours, and in very many
sixty, and that to thousands.” These unremitting labours
at length exhausted his vigour. On his return from Ame¬
rica to England for the last time, Wesley was struck with
the change in his appearance. “ He seemed,” says he in
his Journal, “ to be an old man, being fairly worn out in
his Master’s service, though he had hardly seen fifty years.”
In 1769 he returned to America for the seventh and last
time. His career was now drawing rapidly to a close.
An asthmatic complaint had for some time been making
inroads upon his constitution. When it first seized him,
one of his friends expressed a wish that he would not
preach so often, and his reply was, “ I had rather wear out
than rust out.” His death was at last somewhat sudden and
unexpected. He arrived, at Newbury in New England on
the evening of 29th September 1770, with the intention of
preaching there the next morning. On retiring to rest, how¬
ever, he was much disturbed, and complained heavily of an
oppression on his lungs. The symptom was fatal, for he ex¬
pired on the following morning, in the fifty-sixth year of his
age. According to his own desire, he was buried before the
pulpit, in the presbyterian church of the town where he died.
The character of this zealous and enthusiastic divine,
like most others possessing warm friends and bitter ene¬
mies, has been represented in very different lights. That
he had much enthusiasm and some fanaticism in his dispo¬
sition, is obvious both from his journals and letters. Like
Wesley, he magnified the most trifling incidents into mira¬
culous interpositions in his favour, and lent a ready faith
to whatever marvels had a tendency to designate him as
the favourite of God, or the peculiar object of Satan’s fury.
But in spite of these defects, it cannot be denied that his
unwearied diligence in doing good, his zeal for the truth,
his piety, his self-denial, his benevolence and boundless
charity, justly entitle him to a place among the most dis¬
tinguished men of his age. Whitefield had neither the in¬
clination nor the abilities to render himself, like Wesley,
the head and absolute ruler of a party; but he was as supe¬
rior to his distinguished coadjutor in openness and simpli¬
city of character, and in the absence of vanity and personal
ambition, as he was inferior to him in intellect and learning.
Franklin has justly observed, that it would have been for¬
tunate for his reputation if he had left no written works, for
his writings of every kind are below mediocrity ; they afford
the measure of his knowledge and of his intellect, but not
of his genius as a preacher. Wlfitefield’s great talent, in
fact, was popular oratory ; and though occasionally alloyed
with some improprieties, both of language and manner,
yet there was in all his discourses a force and vehemence
and passion, a fervent and melting charity, and an ear¬
nestness of persuasion, which produced the most extraor¬
dinary effect upon all ranks and descriptions of people.
Hume pronounced him the most ingenious preacher he
had ever heard, and said it was worth while to go twenty
miles to hear him. But perhaps the greatest proof of his
persuasive powers was when he drew from Benjamin
Franklin’s pocket the money which that clear, cool reasoner
had determined not to give: it was for the orphan-house
at Savannah. “ I did not,” says the American philosopher,
876 W H I
\Y bite- “ disapprove of the design ; but as Georgia was then desti-
^ haven, 0p materials and workmen, and it was proposed to
v ' send them from Philadelphia at a great expense, I thought
it would have been better to have built the house at Phila¬
delphia, and brought the children to it. This I advised,
but he was resolute in his first project, rejected my coun¬
sel, and I therefore refused to contribute. I happened
soon after to attend one of his sermons, in the course of
which I perceived he intended to finish with a collection,
and I silently resolved he should get nothing from me. I
had in my pocket a handful of copper- money, three or four
silver dollars, and five pistoles of gold. As he proceeded I
began to soften, and concluded to give the copper ; another
stroke of his oratory made me ashamed of that, and deter¬
mined me to give the silver; and he finished so admirably
that I emptied my pocket wholly into the collector’s dish,
gold and all.” (b. q.)
WHITEPIAVEN, a large seaport and market town in
the parish of St Bees and ward of Allerdale, on the west
coast of the county of Cumberland. It is situated at the
upper end of a small creek of the Irish Sea, and comprises
a number of handsome straight wide streets, which intersect
each other at right angles, and are well paved, and lighted
with gas. The town has advanced to its present state of
prosperity from being, in 1566, a small place, containing
six fishermen’s huts. For this progress it is indebted to
the family of Killigrew, and more particularly to their suc¬
cessors the Lowthers, who, having large estates around the
town, and valuable possessions of coal underneath it, have
liberally come forward, when opportunities occurred, to pro¬
mote its prosperity. There are three churches, and various
places of worship belonging to dissenters. The institu¬
tions for educational purposes are numerous, and educate
more than 1700 children. There are also an infirmary,
a fever hospital, a dispensary, and a house of industry.
The public buildings, including a theatre and news-room,
are well adapted for the instruction and amusement of
the inhabitants, as well as for the business of the port.
Its harbour is spacious and commodious, having seven
piers extending into the sea in different directions, and
affording ample security to the shipping. There is at¬
tached to the harbour a patent slip, erected at the expense
of Lord Lonsdale. There are two light-houses at the en¬
trance of the harbour, and a third is situated on the pro¬
montory of St Bees’ Head, three miles to the south-west.
The commerce of this port is very extensive; the principal
export articles being coal, iron and lead ore, grain, and
lime. The chief manufactures are coarse linens, and articles
connected with the fitting out of vessels. The town con¬
tains iron and brass founderies, and breweries. The coal-
works are, next to those of Newcastle and Sunderland,
the most important in the kingdom, and are the principal
source of wealth to the town. There are five principal shaf ts
or entrances to the mines, called Bearmouths, three on the
north and two on the south side of the town. They are 320
yards in depth, and extend to a considerable distance under
the sea; and such vast quantities have been excavated that
the mines have the appearance of a subterranean city. In
1837 the quantity of coals shipped from this port amounted
to 405,593 tons, and in 1838 to 389,188 tons, exclusive of
the cinders and culm. The net amount of customs-duties,
after deducting all expenses, paid into the treasury, was, in
1837, L.95,895, and in 1838, L.97,300. There are upwards
of 450 vessels belonging this port, engaged in the American,
West Indian, Baltic, and coasting trade. Steam-vessels
sail regularly to Liverpool, Carlisle, Dublin, the Isle of Man,
Annan, Dumfries, Wigton, and Kirkcudbright. The town
and port are governed by trustees appointed by the trading
community and Lord Lonsdale. Whitehaven returns a
member to parliament. The population in 1821 amounted
to 12,438, and in 1831 to 11,393..
W H I
WHITHAM, a market-town and parish of the count
of Essex, which gives its name to the hundred in whi I •
is situated. It stands on a branch of the river Blaekw^ 11
thirty-eight miles from London and seven from Cheh
ford. It is a well-built town, and pleasantly situated- anH
being on the great road to Harwich and Ipswich, has murl
travelling through it. Whitham is said to have been orii
naliy built by King Alfred. It afterwards belonged to £
Knights Templars, who had a preceptory at Cressino- thrP
miles distant. The church is a neat Gothic structure coin
taining some ancient monuments. There is a good market
on Tuesday. The population amounted in 1821 tn
and in 1831 to 2735.
WHITHORN, a royal borough of Wigtonshire, situated
eleven miles south of Wigton, and two and a half miles
west of Wigton Bay. It consists chiefly of one street lyin"
north and south, and nearly half a mile in length,
houses are not inelegant, though somewhat irregularly built.
The only public buildings are the town-house and jail, the
parish church, and three dissenting chapels. The town is
devoid of manufactures, but maintains two branch banks.
Ihe population in 1831 amounted to 1305. The Isle of
Whithorn, a village containing 413 inhabitants, about three
miles to the south-east, is the port of the borough. The mu¬
nicipal government is vested in a provost, two bailies, and
fifteen councillors; and Whithorn unites with Stranraer,
Wigton, and New Galloway in sending a representative to
the House of Commons. Registered voters in 1840-1, 50,
Municipal revenue about L.100.
Whithorn is celebrated for its antiquity, and is conspicuous
in the annals of the church. Its original name was Can¬
dida Casa,, White Cottage, from the circumstance that,
in the beginning of the fifth century, a church was erect¬
ed there, of white stone, supposed to be the first in Scot¬
land built of such solid materials. The founder of it was
St Ninian, a native of the place, who died and was buried
there in 432. His memory was held in such veneration
that many places both in England and Scotland were
called after his name, and pilgrimages were made to his
shrine for centuries previously to the Reformation, when
such superstitious practices were prohibited by act of par¬
liament. The kings of Scotland not only visited this spot
themselves, but encouraged others to do so, and granted pro¬
tection to all strangers coming from England, Ireland, and
the Isle of Man on pilgrimage to Whithorn. James IV.
performed the pilgrimage several times; once on foot, in
consequence of the dangerous illness of his queen on the
birth of their eldest son; and on her recovery, which was
attributed to the miraculous influence of the saint, her hus¬
band and she, in testimony of their gratitude, performed the
same journey in circumstances of great pomp and magnifi¬
cence. James V. was the last royal personage that paid a
visit to St Ninian’s shrine. Candida Casa continued till
1689 the seat of the bishop of Gallow ay, who, previously to
the erection of Edinburgh into a bishopric in 1633, ranked
above all the other Scotish bishops, and immediately after
the archbishops of St Andrews and Glasgow. About the
middle of the twelfth century, a monastery was founded at
Whithorn by Fergus, Lord of Galloway, for monks of the
Premonstratensian order. The most eminent persons con¬
nected with this monastery were James Beaton, afterwards
archbishop of St Andrews and lord chancellor of Scotland,
and Gavin Dunbar, afterwards successively tutor to James
V., archbishop of Glasgow, and chancellor of the kingdom-
Of the cathedral and monastic buildings scarcely any re¬
mains can be traced, except a few arches, particularly a very
beautiful one of the Saxon order, and several vaults, (c-1-)
AV HITSTABLE, a town of the county of Kent, in nie
hundred of the same name, and in the lathe of St Augus¬
tine, sixty miles from London. It is the chief port from
whence the trade of Canterbury is conducted, being seven
lie
W H Y
^Iji from that city. The chief articles conveyed by it to
Lojlon are corn and hops, and the produce of an oyster-
fisl ;y near to it. It has a large parish church. The po-
Kgion amounted in 1801 to 1205, in 1811 to 1249, in
]£■ to 1611, and 1831 to 1926.
i HITSUN Farthings, otherwise called Smoke-far-
thf is, or Qwdrantes Pentecostales, a composition for of-
fligg which were anciently made in Whitsun-week, by
eV(y man in England who occupied a house with a chim-
ne to the cathedral church of the diocese in which he
lb';.
hitsun Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, disco-
veil by Captain Wallis in 1767, about four miles long
an:three wide. Long. 137. 56. W. Lat. 19. 26. S.
'HITSUNDAY, a solemn festival of the Christian
cl, ch, observed on the fiftieth day after Easter, in me¬
nu,/ of the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles
in e visible appearance of fiery cloven tongues, and of
t)j(|3 miraculous powers which were then conferred upon
thci. It is called Whitsunday, or White Sunday, because
th being one of the stated times for baptism in the ancient
chvch, those who were baptized put on white garments, as
ty is of that spiritual purity which they received in baptism.
AfJhe descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles happened
upi the day which the Jews called Pentecost, this festival
re ned the name of Pentecost among the Christians.
] /hitsunday Cape, on the south side of the island of
jJialr, in the North Pacific Ocean. Long. 208. 4. E.
Li, 58. 14. N.
i /hitsunday Island, or Pentecost, one of the New He-
br es, in the South Pacific Ocean, about thirty miles long
bright broad. Long. 168. 20. E. Lat. 15. 44. S.
I /hitsunday’s Passage, a strait so called by Captain
Oik, from the day on which he sailed through it in 1770,
biveen Cumberland Island and the coast of New Holland.
/HITSUNTIDE Bay, the passage which separates
tlriislands of Kodiak and St Hermogenes, which lie about
sky miles from the entrance of Cook’s Inlet, in the North
P tfic Ocean. It was so called by Cook, who was not aware
tf die land was here divided into two islands, and what he
si josed to be a bay was the strait by which they were
st * rated.
WHITTLESEY, a town of the county of Cambridge,
in he isle of Ely. It stands on the great Bedford Level,
si pnty-six miles from London and twenty-six from Cam-
bulge. It contains two parishes, St Andrew’s and St
■Jy's, each with a church. It stands on a rich but insalu-
b us district; and near to it is the Mere, or lake ot its
ni ie, formed by a branch of the river Nen, and numerous
ti ns from the fens in Huntingdonshire. It is between
li and six miles in length, and from two to three in
b idth, and abounds in excellent fish. The population
a Hinted in 1821 to 5276, and in 1831 to 6019.
VHYE, a town of Hindustan, province of Bejapoor, si-
ti cd near the source of the river Krishna, and one of the
pipes of Hindu pilgrimage. It now belongs^to the Bri-
tiJ- Long. 74. 5. E. Lat. 18. 0. N.
VHYMEA Bay, on the north coast of the island of
Yahoo. It was here that Mr Hergest, commander, Mr
ppch, astronomer, and a seaman of the Daedalus, going
o with stores for Captain Vancouver, was seized by some
o the inhabitants and killed in 1792. Long. 202. 51. E.
■Ml. 38.N.
Vhymea Road, on the south west-coast of the island of
Vi owai.
J VHYTATAKEE, an island in the South Pacific Ocean,
Hovered by Captain Bligh of the Bounty. Long. 159. 1
y W. Lat. 18. 52. S.
YHYTT, Robert, an eminent physician, born at Edin-
bigh on the 6th September 1714, was the son of Robert
^ ivtt, Esq. of Bennochy, advocate. This gentleman
WHY
died six months before the birth of this son, who had also
the misfortune to be deprived of his mother before he had ^
attained the seventh year of his age. After receiving the
first rudiments of school-education, he was sent to the uni¬
versity of St Andrews; and after the usual course of in¬
struction there, in classical, philosophical, and mathematical
learning, he came to Edinburgh, where he entered upon the
study of medicine under those eminent medical teachers
Monro, Rutherford, St Clair, Plummer, Altson, and Innes.
After learning what was to be acquired at this university,
in the prosecution of his studies he visited foreign coun¬
tries ; and after attending the most eminent teachers at
London, Paris, and Leyden, he took the degree of doctor
of physic at Reims in 1736, being then in the twenty-se¬
cond year of his age. Upon his return to his native coun¬
try, he had the same degree conferred upon him by the uni¬
versity of St Andrews, where he had before taken, with ap¬
plause, the degree of master of arts.
Not long afterwards, in the year 1737, he was admitted a
licentiate by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh ;
and the year following he was raised to the rank of a fel¬
low. From the time of his admission as a licentiate, he
entered upon the practice of physic at Edinburgh ; and
the reputation which he acquired for medical learning,
pointed him out as a fit successor in the first vacant chair
in the university- Accordingly, when Dr St Clair resigned
his academical appointments, Dr Whytt was elected his suc¬
cessor on the 20th of June 1746, and began his first course
of the institutions of medicine at the commencement of the
next winter session. In 1752, he was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society of London ; in 1761, he was appointed
first physician to the king in Scotland; and in 1764, he was
chosen president of the Royal College of Physicians at Edin¬
burgh.
But the fame which Dr Whytt acquired as a practitioner
and teacher of medicine, was not a little increased by the
information which he communicated to the medical world
in different publications. His celebrity as an author was
still more extensive than his reputation as a professor. His
first publication, “ An Essay on the Vital and other In¬
voluntary Motions of Animals,” although it had been begun
soon after he had finished his course of medical educa¬
tion, did not come from the press till 1751, an interval of
fifteen years from the time when he had finished his aca¬
demical course, and taken his doctor s degree ; but the
delay of this publication was fully compensated by the mat¬
ter which it contained, and the improved form under which
it appeared. The next subject which employed the pen
of Dr Whytt was one of a nature more immediately prac¬
tical. His “ Essay on the Virtues of Lime-Water and
Soap in the Cure of the Stone” first made its appearance in
a separate volume in i752. His third work, entitled
siological Essays,’’ was first published in the yeai 1/55.
This treatise consisted of two parts : 1st, “ An Inquiry into
the Causes which promote the Circulation ol the hluids in
the very small Vessels of Animals;” and 2dly, “ Observa¬
tions on the Sensibility and Irritability of the Parts of Men
and other Animals, occasioned by Dr Haller’s treatise on
that subject.” The former of these may be considered as
an extension and farther illustration of the sentiments
which he had already delivered in his Essay on the Vital
Motions, while the latter was on a subject ot a contro¬
versial nature. In both he displayed that acuteness of
intellect and strength of judgment which appeared in his
former writings. , . , _ ,
From the time when his Physiological Essays were pub¬
lished, several years were probably employed by the au¬
thor in preparing for the press a larger and peihaps a
more important work than any yet mentioned, his “ Obser¬
vations on the Nature, Causes, and Cure of those Disorders
which are commonly called nervous, hypochondriac, and
877
Whytt.
878
W I C
W I c
Wick.
'VYia«ma hysteric'.' The elaborate and useful work was published
in the year IVod*. The last of Dr Whytt’s writings is en-
titled “ Observations on the Dropsy in the Brain.” This
treatise did not appear till two years after his death, when
all his other works were collected and published in one
quarto volume, under the direction of his son and of his in¬
timate friend the late Sir John Pringle. Besides these five
works, he wrote many papers, which appeared in differ¬
ent publications; particularly in the Philosophical Trans¬
actions, the Medical Essays, the Medical Observations, and
the Physical and Literary Essays.
At an early period of life, soon after he had settled as a
medical practitioner in Edinburgh, he entered into the
married state. His first wife was Miss Robertson, sister to
General Robertson, governor of New York. By her he
had two children, both of whom died in early infancy, and
their mother did not long survive them. A few years after
the death of his first wife, he married Miss Balfour, sister
to James Balfour, Esq. of Pilrig. By her he had fourteen
children, six of whom only survived him, three sons and three
daughters. But his course of happiness was terminated by
the death of his wife, which happened in the year 1764i; and
it is not improbable that this event had some share in hasten¬
ing his own death, for in the beginning of the year 1765
his health was so far impaired that he became incapable of
his former exertions. A tedious complication of chronical
ailments at length terminated his life, on the 15th of April
1766, in the fifty-second year of his age.
WIASMA, a circle of the Russian government of Smo-
lensko, extending in north latitude from 54° 55' to 55° 30',
and in east longitude from 33° 15' to 34° 25'. It is a poor
district, in which are the sources of the river Dnieper. The
capital is the city of the same name, on the river Wiasma.
Like most old Russian cities, it is surrounded with weak
walls. It was burnt by the French in 1812, but has been
rebuilt, and is now stated to contain 2000 houses, mostly
of wood, with 12,000 inhabitants, who carry on an extensive
trade by the river with St Petersburg, chiefly in corn. It
is 489 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 33. 5. E. Lat. 55.
6. N.
WIBURG, a circle of the Russian province of Finland,
extending in north latitude from 60° 10' to 61° 1', and in
east longitude from 28° 1' to 30° 17', and containing 3740
square miles, with 31,840 inhabitants. It is bounded on
the north-west by Wilmanstrand, on the north by Kekholm,
on the north-east by Ladoga, on the east by St Petersburg,
on the south by the Bay of Finland, and on the west by
Fredrisham. It is an undulatory district, with many mo¬
rasses, extensive woods, and sandy wastes, which with much
labour scarcely yield sufficient food for its scanty popu¬
lation. The principal river is the Sestra, which is the boun¬
dary towards St Petersburg. The chief town, of the same
name, ninety-eight miles from St Petersburg, is in a bay in
the Gulf of Finland. It contains 800 houses, with 3640 in¬
habitants. It has a small harbour, from whence is exported
pitch, tar, tallow, flax, hemp, iron, and some deals, and
where salt, coffee, and wine, are imported. Long. 28. 40.
E. Lat. 60. 42. N.
WICK, a royal borough, situate on the bay of the same
name, in the county of Caithness. It is distant from Inver¬
ness by Beauly and Tain ]37-| miles. Wick is a town of
considerable antiquity, and was erected into a royal borough
in 1589. It stands in a low situation, and its streets are
irregularly built and crowded together. Fever of a typhoid
type is seldom absent, arising from the filthy state of the
streets, shores, and houses, the putrescent effluvia which
steam from the fish offals, and the over-crowded state of
the houses, more particularly during the fishing season.
The river Wick, which passes through the town, and divides .
it from Pulteneytown, tends in some degree to keep it clean.
Contiguous to Wick are Louisburgh and Pulteneytown,
which are both included in the parliamentary borough Tt
latter was commenced under the auspices of the f Wi
Fishery Society ; and being built on higher ground, andSW
planned, is a regular and handsome addition to the ori '
town. It is indeed three times larger, and in it are all ?
dwelling-houses of the better class of inhabitants Th
public buildings are in good order, and well adapted f
the purposes for which they were erected. The reve ^
of the borough is about L.75 a year, and its expenses arp
nearly the same. It is governed by a provost, two bailies
a treasurer, a dean of guild, and seven councillors With
Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch, Tain, and Kirkwall it re
turns a member to parliament. The trade of Wick consist-
in the herrings, which are here cured and exported. The
live-stock and grain trade are also carried on to a consider-
able extent; and, from the number of people assembled here
from various quarters during the fishing season, an increas¬
ed trade is then maintained for supplying their wants. The
average number of boats employed in this fishery for the last
ten years is about 900, and the average annual quantity of
fish taken for the last twenty years is 88,500 barrels; but
within a recent period the number of both has decreased.
In 1829 the number of boats employed was 955; persons
employed in all the branches, 11,780. In 1840 the number
of boats employed was 765; persons 7882; barrels cur¬
ed, 63,495, of which were exported 55,711. For a further
account of the fisheries, see the article under that head in
this work. In 1810 a harbour was completed for LI4,000;
but, from the increase of the trade and herring fishery, it
was found inadequate, and another having been commenced,
was completed in 1831, at an expense of L.40,000; but un¬
fortunately it is exposed to the swell of the sea. Besides the
parish church, there are places of worship for the Seceders,
Independents, Roman Catholics, and other five dissenting
bodies. There are several rope-works, a distillery, a brew-
ery, an iron-foundery, a gas-work, a ship-building yard, and
various boat-building yards, in Wick and Pulteneytown.
In the year 1840 the number of vessels belonging to the
port was twenty-one, with a registered tonnage of 1154.
The custom-duty collected in 1837 amounted toL.696,and
in 1838 to L.1034. In 1831 the stationary population of
the parish amounted to 9850; but during the fishing season
it is increased by an influx of about 10,000 strangers.
WICKET, a small door in the gate of a fortified place,
&c. or a hole in a door through which to view what passes
without.
WICKLIFFE, John. See Wycliffe.
WICKLOW, a maritime county in the province of
Leinster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by Dublin
county, on the east by St George’s Channel, on the south
by Wexford, and on the west by Carlow, a detached por¬
tion of Dublin, and Kildare. It lies between 52° 40', and
53° 14' north latitude, and 5° 57'and 6° 46' west longitude,
extending forty miles in its greatest length from north to
south, and thirty-three in its greatest breadth tfom east to
west, and comprehending an area of 781 square miles, or
500,178 acres, of which 405,039 are cultivated land, 94,100
uncultivated mountain or bog, and 1039 covered with wa¬
it ranks as the eighteenth county in superficial extent,
ter.
O  J r -
and the seventeenth in that of cultivated land.
According to Ptolemy the geographer, the northern part
of the county was the residence of the tribe of the Cauci,
and the southern that of the Menapii. It was afterwards
occupied by the Irish septs of the Byrnes and O’Tooles,
who, though the district was claimed by the English after
their settlement, as part of the county of Dublin, maintain-
tiiLii cctLiciiitijci» pctrt or iiic couniy or uuuiii*) uiaii
ed their independence, and carried on an almost continual
- - ’ ^ ot
w-ar against the new settlers, until the end of the reign
Elizabeth, after whose death the district was made shire-
ground by her successor James I. in 1605, and placed
under the jurisdiction of English magistrates.
The inba-
it St
In St
W I C K* L O W.
^ts adhered to the royal cause during the war of 1641,
guf) the arrival of Cromwell, to whose superior force they
Iltiatted without opposition. No other occurrences of
hisfiod importance took place until the year 1798, when
sev al bands of insurgents sought refuge in the mountainous
fastnesses here, after the dispersion of their main body in
WV.ford, and continued to harass the neighbouring coun-
tie:;until tranquillity was restored, partly by making terms
wititheir leaders, and partly by cutting roads and establish-
ingnilitary posts through the interior of the country, which
till len had been nearly impassable.
Kbe county forms one of the four great mountain groups
of eland. The land rises from the valley of the LifFey
an; Dublin Bay on the north, by successive ridges, in¬
casing in height, and occasionally intersected by deep
jrl( to the middle of the county, whence it again subsides
to lie borders of Wexford and Carlow. The direction of
thi /ange is from north-east at Bray, to south-west, the
ceiral part of the line being usually the most elevated,
an’.the surface declining to the sea on the east, and the
le\ country of Kildare and Carlow on the west. Lugna-
quU, to the east of Baltinglas, is the most elevated point
of ie range: its summit is 3039 feet above the sea-level.
To'he north, on the verge of Dublin county, are the But-
teiiVlountain, 1459, Kippure, 2473, and the Three-rock
Mintain, 1763 feet high; more southerly, Djouce, 2384
fee and Sugar-loaf 1126. In the centre are Thonalagee,
2C »; Comaderry, 2296; Lugduff, 2148; Knockreagh,
15); and Croghan, 2175. The glens form very striking
an picturesque features of this romantic district, being
dc i, narrow, and several of then) densely covered with
wnl. The most celebrated are the Dargle, near the
co ity of Dublin ; Glencullen, Glencree, the Glen of the
D ims, the Devil’s Glen, Glenmalur, the Glen of Imail,
anithe Vale of Ovoca. The rivers are few and small, all
ha.ng their sources in the central group. The Liffey,
wl :h rises in Djouce Mountain, and after a circuitous
corse through Kildare, discharging itself into Dublin Bay,
is nown chiefly as having the metropolitan city on its
baits. The Slaney, which rises near Glendalough, is not
nr.gable until it has traversed the greater part of Wex-
fo i county. The Ovoca is formed by the junction of
th Awenmore and Awenbeg at the meeting of the waters
in he romantic Vale of Ovoca. It is afterwards joined by
thiDaragh or Aghrim from the west, and empties itself
in ii St George’s Channel at Arklow. The Vartrey, a small
st Jim, falls into the sea north of Wicklow Head. Numerous
la.s lie in the valleys between the central mountain-ridges.
Tly are small, but generally surrounded by very pic-
ti: sque scenery. The most remarkable are Lough Bray,
in lencree, near the borders of Dublin; Lough Dan, Lough
Tl, Luggelagh, and the lakes of Glendalough. The last
pli an object of peculiar interest, from their romantic si¬
ft lion, the remains of ancient ecclesiastical structures in
d r neighbourhood, and the popular legends connected
w i them. The coast presents a succession of fine pros-
P' but is much dreaded by mariners, in consequence of
tl and-banks that skirt it. These are, the Kish Bank, each
e: emity of which is marked by a floating light; Bray
B'k, the Codling, South Ridge, Wicklow, and Arklow
"■As. The southern extremity of the last named is also
o ked by a floating light. The only harbours in this line
0| oast are those of Wicklow and Arklow, both fit only for
stdl vessels. The projecting point of Wicklow Head is
•kked by two fixed lights. A few creeks afford shelter
w fishing-craft. Herrings and round fish are taken off
jff'klow Bank, where also oysters and lobsters are caught;
pf the business is carried on with so little spirit, owing, it
aid, to the want of capital, that fish is brought from
Bolin for sale. The state of the fisheries in 1836 was
^ allows:
-No. Tonnage.
Decked vessels 39 1174..
Half-decked ditto 153 1425..
Open sail-boats 57   
Row-boats 14   
879
Wicklow.
Total of fishermen 1298
The western side of the county presents one of the great
granite formations of Ireland, extending from Kingstown
Harborir to the south-western extremity of the county.
Each side is bordered by a range of clay-slate rock, passing
into greenstone or a greenstone-slate. The rest of the
county consists of clay-slate, gray wacke, and gray wacke-slate,
interspersed in various places with small patches of granite,
quartz-rock, and greenstone-trap protrusions, with whin-
dykes. The eastern side of the granitic range abounds
with metalliferous veins, while the western is totally desti¬
tute of them. Lead has been raised near Lough Dan, at
Luganure in Comaderry Mountain, at Glendalough, and at
Rallyfinshogue; copper at Ballymurtagh and elsewhere.
The annual produce of the lead-mines now in operation is
estimated at 2500 tons, valued at L.38,000; and of copper
and lead in other mines at 12,500 tons, value L.35,000.
The granite supplies inexhaustible quantities of stone for
building and flagging. Slates for roofing are procured at
Dunganstown and Carnew. The climate, though moist, is
healthy ; the lower lands near the sea produce the arbutus,
myrtle, and laurestinus, which flourish in the open air, sel¬
dom requiring artificial protection during winter. The
character of the soil is very various; near the sea, and
along the banks of the larger rivers, it is rich, abounding
with limestone, limestone-gravel, and marl. The moun¬
tainous tracts have generally a deep thick covering of heath
and turf, based upon disintegrated granite. This part con¬
tains large tracts of bog. Along the‘verge of Dublin
boundary, a substratum, lying within a few inches of the
surface, forms a crust impenetrable to water, thus render¬
ing the upper soil wholly unprofitable until this layer be
broken up with the axe, for it resists the action of the spade
or plough; after which, when blended with the subjacent
clays, it forms a productive soil. Much of the natural tim¬
ber with which the county was at a former period nearly
covered, is still preserved, forming an important feature in
the landscape; and young plantations are yearly rising
around the mansions and villas with which this district, the
chosen pleasure-ground of Ireland, is thickly studded.
The progress of the population, as far as it can be ascer¬
tained from authorities worthy of notice, is as follows:
Year. Authority. No. of Inhabitants.
1760 De Burgo 43,872
1792 Beaufort 58,000
1812 Parliamentary census 83,109
1821 ..Ditto 110,767
1831 Ditto 121,557
The latest of these returns gives an average of one in¬
habitant to every four acres. The return of the Commis¬
sioners of Public Instruction in .1834, which, being arran¬
ged according to dioceses instead of counties, cannot be
deemed strictly accurate, gives a gross population of
118,661, of whom 25,005 were members of the established
church, 322 Protestant dissenters, and 93,334 Roman Ca¬
tholics. The number of children receiving instruction, in
the public schools at the under-named periods was,
Males.
Females.
Sex not
ascertained.
Total.
1821 5597.
1824-6 6377.
1836- 7 1151.
1837- 8 1232.
.3108.
.4671.
.1012.
.1042.
1838-9 1549 1351.
—  .8,705
285  11,333
—  2,163
—  2,274
—  2,900
880
W I C K L O W.
Wicklow. The^number of the children of each religious denomina-
tion, as stated in the return of 1824-6, being the only one in
which this point is noticed, was, members of the establish¬
ed church, 3666 ; dissenters, 31 ; Roman Catholics, 7270;
besides 366 whose religion could not be ascertained. The
number of schools, according to the same return, was 258,
of which forty-four, having 3526 pupils, were supported by
grants of public money; thirty-eight, with 1619 pupils, by
voluntary subscriptions; and 176, with 6188 pupils, wholly
by the fees paid by the pupils.
The county is divided into the seven baronies of Arklow,
Ballinacor, Newcastle,• Rathdrum, Shillelagh, Upper and
Lower Talbotstown. These are subdivided into fifty-eight
parishes, of which forty-nine are in the diocese of Dublin,
two in Ferns, and seven in Leighlin. The diocese of Glen-
dalough, which anciently comprehended the greater part of
the county, having been united to that of Dublin in 1497,
has been so intimately amalgamated with it that their re¬
spective boundaries cannot now be ascertained. The
county returned ten members to the Irish parliament, two
for the county at large, and two each for the boroughs of
Baltinglas, Blessington, Carysfort, and Wicklow. All the
boroughs were disfranchised at the time of the Union, and
those of Wicklow and Baltinglas are the only two to which
corporate privileges are to be granted under the municipal
corporation act. The number of electors was, in
Year. No.
1831  1013
1832   695
1833  1566
Year. No.
1834  1670
1835  1670
1836  1679
Year. No.
1837  1679
1838  1679
1839  1380
The number of electors is to that of the inhabitants as
one to eighty-eight, and to that of the heads of families
as one to fifteen. The county is in the Leinster circuit.
The assizes are held in the town of Wicklow, where the
county court-house, prison, and infirmary, are built. Ge¬
neral sessions of the peace are also held there and at Bal¬
tinglas. The local magistracy consists of a lieutenant,
sixteen deputy-lieutenants, fifty-nine other unsalaried ma¬
gistrates, and a stipendiary. Under these is a constabulary
force, consisting of a county inspector, five sub-inspectors,
six head constables, and 199 constables and sub-constables.
There is a second infirmary at Baltinglas, and four fever-
hospitals, with a number of dispensaries in different parts.
Lunatics are sent to the district asylum in Dublin, into
which twenty-two cases from this county are admissible;
but several patients are still kept in the county prison.
Baltinglas, Rathdrum, and Shillelagh, have been fixed on
as sites for workhouses for unions under the poor-law act.
The rich low lands near the sea, and along the banks of
the Slaney and Ovoca, are under tillage, all the operations
of which are carried on according to the most approved
systems. Much of the mountain district is adapted for
pasturage, particularly for feeding a small breed of sheep,
whose meat is much prized in the Dublin market. The
mountain of Lugnaquilla has a fine sheep-walk on its summit.
Lime and marl are the chief manures: the former is brought
by sea from Howth to the districts near the coast; it is
also drawn in large quantities from Carlow to the inland
parts. Butter is made in large quantities in the dairies,
which are generally attached to the farm-houses. The
fences in the most highly improved districts are of white
thorn; in other parts earthen mounds, and in the rocky
mountainous heights dry stone-walls
The manufacture of flannels was here carried on exten¬
sively, and a market-house for their sale was erected at
Rathdrum; but it has declined greatly, and the woollen
manufacture is now nearly confined to the fabrication of
friezes and coarse cloths for home-consumption. Some
coarse linen is also wrought for the same purpose. But
the county owes its wealth wholly to its agriculture. Most
of the produce is sent to Dublin; but some is exported V
from Wicklow and Arklow, and the quantities are annuall wj
increasing. The annual average of the exports and import! !
through these places is estimated as follows:
Exports. Imports.
Tons. L. Tons. p,.
Wicklow.. ...16,000 85,000 8,000 15qoo
Arklow 900 8,500 4,000 6500
Total 16,900 93,500 12,000 21,500
This is the only county in Ireland in which there is no
banking establishment, either private or joint-stock; yet it i
is the most thriving in proportion to its population and ex¬
tent of productive land. There are loan-societies in eight
places: the sums in the hands of borrowers at the close of
1839 amounted to L.9315, the number of borrowers dur¬
ing the same year to 9100.
Though the high state of prosperity this county displays
is mainly attributable to the well-directed efforts of agri¬
cultural industry, yet some portion of it must be allowed to
arise from the number of men of landed property whom the
extraordinary beauty of the country has induced to make
it their chosen place of residence, thus heightening its na¬
tural advantages of scenery by the adventitious ornaments
of splendid mansions and villas, surrounded by demesnes
laid out in the most refined style. Two mainlines of road
conduct the stranger through it. The one on the eastern t
side, and mostly near the sea-coast, presents an almost un- i
interrupted succession of splendid prospects, through a
highly cultivated country. Proceeding from the city of :
Dublin, through the Scalp, the lands of Powerscourt, the l
Dargle, the Glen of the Downs, Delgany, the Devil’s Glen,
Luggelagh, Glendalough, and the Yale of Ovoca, to Arklow,
the eye finds nothing to rest upon but scenes of rural
beauty. The other main road, along the western side,
chiefly through the rich valley of the Slaney, presents a si- j,
milar succession of scenery of a less romantic character.
Even the intermediate space, though wholly composed of i
mountain tracts little capable of high cultivation, presents
several wild landscapes of combined cliff and glen, to which 1
an easy access is found through the military road already I
noticed.
The peasantry, notwithstanding the proximity of the me¬
tropolis, resembles that of the more remote agricultural
districts in habits, dwellings, and mode of life; the chief l
article of food being the potato, and the fuel turf, though «
coal imported from England is in general use among the 1
wealthier classes, especially near the sea.
There are several cromlechs still existing, and many raths.
Ruins of monastic buildings are to be seen at Baltinglas, i
Wicklow, Rathdrum, and Glendalough or “the Glen of the
Two Lakes,” where there is a pillar-tower, and the remains j
of several places of religious worship, one of them being I
the cathedral of the ancient diocese, from which it has !
acquired the name of “ the Seven Churches.’’ It had been
the site of a city, the metropolis of the sept of the O’looles,
and is now a place of great resort for visitors, from its pic- »
turesque scenery. Several castles were built in this county
by the English, the sites of most of which can still be as¬
certained by what is left of their structures.
Wicklow, the assize-town, is built on an elevated spot
projecting into the sea near the mouth of the Vartrey. ;
was originally the site of a castle erected by Maurice Ltz-
gerald, and was long maintained as a post of importance,
under the superintendence of a constable. The town is
small and irregularly built, owing most of its support to
the assizes and sessions. It was a borough by prescnp- ^
tion, but its corporate rights were confirmed by a chai 1
of James I., granted in 1613, to be enjoyed under a pod
reeve, burgesses, and freemen, who had a right or ex*
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W I E
W I G
881
ewrion from harbour-dues, and of pasturage on the com-
md: The corporate landed property is about 300 acres.
Th portreeve held a weekly court for the recovery of debts
t0 amount of five marks. By the municipal corporation
actpe old corporation has been dissolved, and, under cer-
taim-'onditions, power is to be given to create a new one,
S(.y] [ »< the portreeve, free burgesses, and commonalty of
theiiwn °f Wicklow.” There is a Saturday market, and
foui airs annually. Races are held every year at the Mur-
i-ao'l- a border of dry sandy land, extending for several
mii(|along the sea-shore to the north of the town, forming.
a pi,insula, which encloses a long narrow basin, in which
vesiis drawing less than eight feet of water can enter at
Sprj^r tides. The population in 1821 amounted to 2146,
andn 1831 to 2472. The population of the other towns
liav.g each upwards of 1000 inhabitants was, in 1831, as
folios: Bray,3656; Arklow, 4^83 ; Baltinglas, 1699; and
Ratldrum, 1054. (c. p.)
VfCKWAR, a small market town of the county of Glou-
cegtk seventeen miles from Bristol and 111 from London.
It i m the hundred of Grumbald’s Ash, and was formerly a
plan of more importance than it is at present. There is a
spapus church with a lofty tower, and a grammar-school
enclved by a native of the name of Hosea. It has a market
on i’ednesday. The population amounted in 1821 to 919,
anujn 1831 to 972.
TIDDIN, a city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of the
promce of the same name. It stands on the river Danube,
antis one of the strongest fortifications of the empire. In
theiver opposite to it is an island, also covered with strong
miliiry works. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, has nume-
rommosques, and, it is said, 25,000 inhabitants, who carry
on isheries on the Danube, and considerable trade with
thei neighbours in the Austrian territories.
' IELICZKA, a city of the Austrian kingdom of Gallicia,
in D circle of Bochnia. It is distant from the independent
cit bf Kracow about seven miles. It contains 360 houses,
will 3700 inhabitants, who are chiefly employed or Con¬
ner-d with the celebrated rock-salt mines which exist at
tin ilace, and which have been extensively worked for many
agi( The mine is in a vast mountain, and the extent of
thf ialt is not ascertained. On the top of the mountain is
a s ft, and at the bottom an arched passage, both of which
leaithrough numerous arched galleries, formed by removing
blc jcs of salt. In the mine is an excavated lofty chapel, in
wl jh mass is celebrated, and an extensive saloon, with other
apiments, all cut out of the solid mass of salt. The mine
is Ite dry, but within it is a clear subterranean lake, with
a 1 it upon it. Though, ever since the year 1276, the salt
haDeen drawn forth in copious quantities, there is abun-
daie to be taken away without any additional labour. It
be tigs to the government, which derives a revenue from
it. The expense of hewing it with the pick-axe, and ot
drjfing it out of the mine, is calculated to be from 12s. to
Hiper ton, and the price at which it is sold is about 20s.,
tbi i leaving a profit to the government. The demand is
renamed on the side of Prussia, because the English salt
cobs in competition with it. It is however extensively
sol in the crude state in the Russian and Polish provinces,
"1 e it is dissolved, and refined for domestic use. I hat
usui in the Austrian states is refined at Wieliczka. I his
roi -salt is mostly of a gray colour, but some of it is ot a
gT'Uish hue: both kinds are very hard and very dry.
TESBADEN, one of the provinces into which the
dujlty of Nassau in Germany is divided. It is on the
Ifl ie, and is bounded by other provinces of the duchy on
ev y part except the south-east, where it touches Hesse-
Dl> nstadt. It comprehends one city, two market-towns,
tw ve villages, 2272 houses, and 18,922 inhabitants. A
Pal is hilly, but much of it a rich level country. I he
of the hills are covered with highly productive vine-
OL. XXI.
"Wight,
Isle of.
yards, and their summits with rich forests. The corn grown VViesbaden
is much more than sufficient for its own population.
Wiesbaden, a city of the duchy of Nassau, and now its
capital, where the states assemble, and in which the chiefs
courts of justice are held. It is an open place, having only
the ruins of walls at the ancient parts of it. The new town
is an elegant mass of buildings, both for private residences
and public purposes. The old city is ill built. Both toge¬
ther contain 8970 inhabitants, who are regular residents;
but in the summer months the number of temporary visitors
is greater than the permanent population. They are chiefly
attracted by the reputation of the warm baths, but many also
by the pleasures and accommodations attainable in a more
favourable degree than at any of the other German u'atering-
places. The assembly-rooms and the hotels are striking
objects. There is a Catholic, a Lutheran, and a Calvinist
church, and a ducal palace. The adjacent country is often
picturesque, and, from the good state of the roads, the excur¬
sions are agreeable. The town contains a variety of manu¬
factures of wdiat may be called fancy articles and luxuries,
and, on the whole, has many attractions.
WIGAN, a large town of the county of Lancaster, in
the hundred of West Derby, 200 miles from London. It
stands on the small river Douglas; is a corporation under
a mayor, ten aldermen, and thirty councillors; and returns
two members to the House of Commons. Being an ancient
town, some parts of it are ill built; but of late years, from
the extension of its trade, great improvements as well as
additions have been made. The church is a stately edifice,
with a tower containing eight bells; and there are chapels
of ease and several dissenting places of worship. The living
of the parish is one of the most valuable in the kingdom, and
the incumbent is lord of the manor. Wigan has been long
celebrated for its manufactures, which formerly consisted
of checks and other linens, but of late the cotton trade has
been extended to it, and is flourishing. There is a well-
attended market on Friday. The population amounted in
1821 to 17,716, and in 1831 to 20,774 within the town;
but the whole parish, which comprehends thirteen town¬
ships and chapelries, in 1831 contained 44,780 inhabitants.
WIGHT, Isle of. This island, on the southern coast
of England, in the British channel, is for most purposes a
portion of the county of Southampton, or Hampshire, it is
separated from it by a channel varying in breadth from two
to six miles. In this channel, though it contains no har¬
bour of importance, there are many places of perfect security,
where ships may ride at anchor. 1 he best ot these is Spit-
head, the great rendezvous of the British fleet in time of
war; but in most other parts the ground is good, and the
vessels are well sheltered from storms. I he entrance to
this arm of the sea from the west is by the Needles, some
lofty rocks, five in number; but two ot them are nearly cover¬
ed at high water. These obtained their name from one which
rose to the height of 120 feet, resembling that implement of
industry. It was undermined by the waves, and at length,
in 1764, fell down with a concussion that was felt at the
distance of many miles. The group has now an impressive
appearance, especially when the agitated sea breaks on then-
sides. The passage between them is generally free from
The island is divided into two hundreds, indicated by the
principal river, and called East and West Medina. East
Medina comprehends fourteen parishes, and West Medina
sixteen. The whole land is calculated to be 105,000 acres,
of which 75,000 are under the plough, 20,000 are devoted
to pasture, and the remainder is either waste or woods, or
the sites of towns or villages, or occupied by roads and rivers.
It is said to have been formerly covered with woods, but to
have been in a great measure denuded by its vicinity to
Portsmouth, and the great demand of that naval arsenal for
timber.
5t
882
W I G
W I G
Wight, The face of the country may be rather described as undu-
Islc ot. ^ lating than as hilly, though there is a range of hills, or rather
downs, running from east to west through the island, with
a few points of considerable elevation. There is a great
variety of rural scenery, adorned with a great diversity of
foliage; and though there are few or no woods, yet, as the
fields are enclosed within hedge-rows, among which fine
trees, and especially stately elms, grow most luxuriantly,
these, added to the beauty of the verdant fields, present to
the eye of the traveller a succession of most pleasing pros¬
pects. The two sides of the island present each a peculiar
character. The northern side is marked by every thing that
is rich, lovely, and picturesque; the southern, or the part
called the Hack of the Island, abounds in bold wild rocks,
precipitous projections, ravines, fearful chasms, and other
features of the imposing, and a few even of the sublime.
In some parts these opposite characters are greatly mingled.
There is a peculiar scenery on the south side of the island,
which is so striking to all strangers as to require a special
notice. It is a continued sinking of a tract of land, about
seven miles in length, and from a half to a quarter of a
mile in breadth. This singular district consists of a series
of terraces, formed by fragments of rocks, chalk, and sand¬
stone, which have been detached from the cliffs and hills
above, and deposited upon a substratum of white marl.
This whole undercliff, for such is its common name, is com¬
pletely sheltered from the north, north-west, and west winds,
by the range of lofty downs or hills of chalk or sandstone
which rise boldly from the upper termination of these ter¬
races, on elevations varying from four to six and seven hun¬
dred feet in height. The two extremities of the range are
indeed higher, as St Boniface Down is 800 feet above the
level of the sea, and St Catherine’s Hill on the west nearly
900 feet. The protection afforded by this mountain barrier
is greatly increased by the very singular and striking abrupt¬
ness with which it terminates on its southern aspect. This
in many places consists of the bare perpendicular rock of
sandstone; in others of chalk, assuming its characteristic
rounded form, covered with a fine turf and underwood.
The chief industry of the island is applied to its agricul¬
ture. The soil is for the most part clay, with a mixture of
loam, and in some parts of a very cold and tenacious kind;
it is however generally fertile, and the meadows produce
very great crops of hay. The grain sown, whether wheat,
barley, or oats, yields good crops, and affords more corn than
is needed for home consumption; and hence much flour is
exported. As the harvest is ready to be gathered earlier
by a few weeks on the island than in the neighbouring
counties of Dorset and Hants, the labourers from them
flock to reap the corn, and return sufficiently early to reach
their own homes, and there also to assist in the harvest-
work. The manures of the island, besides what the farm¬
yards and stables supply, consist of sea-weed, marl, and
lime, the latter of which is copiously supplied from the
chain of calcareous elevations which has been already no¬
ticed. There is little foreign trade, though a great number
of ships of all nations have intercourse with the towns of
Cowes and Ryde. Vessels from America, bound in search
of a market, especially during war, commonly touch at the
former place to ascertain the state of the different markets,
and to communicate with London for intelligence to direct
their destination. Between the Isle of Wight and Ports¬
mouth is the great rendezvous of outward-bound ships from
London; and in war large fleets of East and West India
ships are there collected to wait for convoy. The demand
for fresh sea-stores is consequently very great, and the sup¬
ply of it very advantageous. Fowls, live sheep, milch goats,
milch cows, pigs, and potatoes, are cheaper than in the
Thames ; and most outward-bound vessels trust to obtain¬
ing such provisions at the anchorage of the Motherbank
or Spithead. During the long hostilities, by this descrip¬
tion of trade the wealth of the island increased verv
pidly; and though, since the return of peace, these soiW
of prosperity have been much curtailed, yet others h *
opened or been extended. Ryde, as well as Cowes
several other spots, have become places of great resort f
sea-bathing, and have _ gradually acquired all the accont
modations to be found in the more ancient bathing p]ac
on the shore. Of late, too, it has become the point of union
for the vessels and members of the lioyal Yacht Club wh
have built a house at Cowes, and made that place the resort
of some of the most distinguished persons who take pleasure
in maritime adventures and expeditions. The population
of the island at the enumeration of 1831 was found to con
sist of 17,205 males, and 18,226 females. The chief town*
Newport, at that period, contained 4081 inhabitants. Tlw
other towns are, Brading, with.2277 persons; Cowes', in the
parish of Northwood, the population of which parish was
4491; and Ryde, in the parish of Newchurch, whose inha¬
bitants were 4928.
The town of Newport returns two members to the House
of Commons, as before the reform act, by which the boroughs
of Newton and Yarmouth were disfranchised. The free¬
holders of the island used to vote for the members of the
county of Hampshire, but they now elect one member for
the island.
WIGTON, a county situated at the south-west corner
of Scotland, is bounded on the west by the Irish Chan¬
nel, on the north by Ayrshire, on the east by Wigton Bay
and the river Cree, and on the south by the Irish Sea. It
is consequently bounded by water on all sides except the
north. No part of the county is above thirteen miles from
the sea. Its length from east to west is thirty-four miles;
its mean breadth is twenty-four. It is divided into three
districts, the Machers (flat country), lying between Wig¬
ton and Luce Bays ; the Rhinns (peninsula), which com¬
prehends the portion lying west of a line drawn between
Luce Bay and Lochryan; and the Moors, which include the
remainder, being more than a third of the whole county.
The following table shews the population of the county
at different dates.
1755. 1801. 1831.
Males. Females. Total.
16,466 22,918 17,078 19,180 36,258
The increase in the number of the inhabitants between
1755 and 1831 has been 19,792; in other words, the popu¬
lation has been considerably more than doubled. The
number of square miles in the county being 459, there are
seventy-nine inhabitants to each square mile ; the average
of the whole of Scotland being about eighty. The number
of families in 1831 was 7514; of inhabited houses, 6404;
the number of persons to each family being 4’825; to each
house, S-OSl.
Wigton being a remote county, and having little inter¬
course with any other portion of the kingdom, the greater
part of the present inhabitants can trace their descent
through many generations; the only exception being in re¬
gard to Irish settlers, who are somewhat numerous, par¬
ticularly in the towns and villages, and who, including their
families, form about a fifth of the entire population of the
county. The Gallovidians are of Celtic origin; and so late
as the time of Q,ueen Mary, Gaelic was their vernacular
language. The surnames, which prevailed in the county
four and five centuries ago, and even at a more remote,
period, still predominate, such as Macdowall, Mackerlie,
Maculloch, Mackie, Macklellan, Macguffie, Mackinnel,
Macgowan, Macgeoch, Macgill, Macracken, Macnish, Adair,
Dunbar, Agnew, Stewart, Gordon, Hannay, Broadfoot,
Donnan, Milroy, Milwain. While old names and old fam>-
lies thus obtain, very few new ones, except so far as emi¬
gration from Ireland prevails, have been introduced. Bu
not a few of the oldest and best families were originally o
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W I G
Jri descent. From these circumstances it may be pre-
/ su jed, what is really the case, that the feudal feeling exists
jpi j strongly and generally in Wigtonshire than in any
ot -r county in the south of Scotland. Superstitious ob-
sesances and traditionary legends abound. Belief in
wihes, in ghosts, in lucky and unlucky days, and other si-
nii,r hereditary notions, are common throughout the county,
paicularly in the more remote and thinly inhabited pa-
risrs. .
3 wr-rates are unknown in this county, with the excep-
fioiof one parish. Out of the whole population, there are
on; about 700 receiving parochial aid; that is, only one
pepn in fifty-two is a pauper, being less than a third of the
aviage of England. The aggregate annual amount distri-
butd among these 700 persons is about L.1375, being ra-
thi) less than L.2 for each pauper, or at the extraordinary
lo'imte of 6d. per head of population. The lowness of
thIrate will be better appreciated when we state, that, pre-
vitisly to the new poor-law amendment act in 1834, the
avage burden in England was thirty-three times greater.
jhe climate, though characterized by considerable varia-
ticL and though, on the whole, subject to moisture, is re-
ga|!ed as salubrious. The instances of persons being able
topllow their usual occupations, even at the age of eighty,
ancommon. Alexander Credie, a native of the Machers,
di l in 1824, at the venerable age of 108.
he physical appearance of Wigtonshire is not varied.
E in the district called the Moors is not distinguished by
an considerable hills or eminences; and it has been re-
mlked that there is no county in Scotland that rises so
liti; above the level of the sea. Nor are there any im-
pcitant rivers; at least none of them is navigable except
th Cree and the Biadenoch, both of which flow into Wig-
tciBay; the former being navigable for six miles, the lat-
tefor two. But, though not possessed of large and na¬
vi nble rivers, this county abounds with spacious bays and
hdiours, namely, Lochryan on the north-west, which
st itches about nine miles inland till it reaches Stranraer,
w lire it terminates, its breadth varying from two to four
mi's; Luce Bay on the south, stretching inward about
fiijen miles, its breadth regularly graduating from twenty
ims at its mouth; and Wigton Bay, varying from eight
ims in width, till it reaches the Cree, a distance of about
Ui miles. These two latter bays form two remarkable
ppnontories, the Borough Head on the south-east, and
tl Mull of Galloway on the south-west, the two most
soberly points in Scotland ; the latter being about one mile
an a half south of the former. The most important har-
b< rs are Carty on the Cree, Wigton on the Biadenoch,
Gdieston on Wigton Bay, Isle of Whithorn near the Bo-
njfh Head, Glenluce and Sandhead on Luce Bay, Port
Lian and Portpatrick on the Irish Channel, and Stran-
rs‘ and Cairnryan on Lochryan. The fresh-wTater lochs,
tl ligh numerous, only occupy an aggregate of seven and a
M'square miles.
i he county abounds with towns and villages along the
c< it, but none of them is of great importance. Of Wig-
h Whithorn, and Stranraer, a separate account has been
g in. Portpatrick, with a population of 1010, is situated
01 the Irish Channel, nearly opposite to Donaghadee, be-
t'en which places two government mail steamers ply
Ply. The harbour is undergoing great repairs, and two
P's are erecting by act of parliament; the estimated ex-
P se is L.150,000. Glenluce, population 821, is situ-
al-1 within 500 yards of the river Luce, and at the head
0 the bay of that name. Newton-Stewart, population
1, lies on the banks of the Cree, eight miles north of Wig-
bf Garlieston, population 587, and the Isle of Vv Itithorn,
P ulation 697, are both situated on the west coast of W igton
i the latter being the port of Whithorn. Port-W illiam,
P'hlation 510, on Luce Bay, possesses a good harbour.
W I G 883
The soil of the three districts into wdiich Wigtonshire is wigton.
divided, the Rhinns, the Machers, and the Moors, is very k Y ^
diffei ent. T.he soil of the first two is for the most part a
hazelly loam, dry, and wTell adapted for turnip husbandry;
but in the barony of Baldoon, which is regarded as the
Carse of Gowrie of the south of Scotland, and in the low-
lying lands between Wigton and Newton-Stewart, there is
a great extent (above 25,000 acres) of rich alluvial soil;
while the remaining district (the Moors) is bleak and barren,
chiefly devoted to pasture, with few spots fit for tillage, great
portions of it being mossy land, partially covered with water,
such as the flow of Glenluce. The most approved system
of agriculture has been everywhere introduced, particularly
in the Rhinns and Machers. Of the relative proportions of
land in crop and in pasture, a correct idea may be ’formed
from the fact, that out of 288,960 English acres which the
county contains, 101,136, or about thirty-five per cent., are
under cultivation ; while 187,824, or about sixty-five per
cent., are in pasture, including 4265 under wood. Property
in land in Wigtonshire is very little subdivided. There
are four or five large proprietors whose united estates em¬
brace about the half of the county. There are compara¬
tively few proprietors whose estates are under L.500. The
average rent of land in 1810 was 8s. 6d. per acre ; the ag¬
gregate rent in 1837 w^as L.175,000, being about 12s. an
acre. The valued rental of the county is L.67,642 Scotish,
old valuation. Leases generally extend to nineteen years.
Two agricultural societies have long existed in the county ;
and the class of farmers, in point of general intelligence and
professional skill, is highly respectable.
Wigtonshire is devoid of mineral wealth, nor can it be
said to possess any considerable manufactures. There is a
whiskey distillery at the Bridge of Biadenoch, within a mile
of Wigton, which consumes yearly about 16,000 bushels of
barley, and gives employment to between twenty and thirty
persons. A woollen manufactory was established in the
parish of Kirkowan in 1822, which in 1838 employed thirty-
nine hands. There are several small breweries scattered.
throughout the county. The salmon and white fishery is
carried on at the mouths of some of the rivers and along
various places on the coast, but to no very considerable ex¬
tent. Exclusively of fishing boats and steamers, the county
has ninety-six vessels; tonnage, 5371.
But Wigtonshire, from the general progress of the arts
of peace, now enjoys advantages unknown there even a few
years ago. Remote as is her situation, she is reaping all
the advantages which steam-navigation is calculated to con¬
fer. Two steam-boats regularly ply between her leading
ports and Whitehaven and Liverpool, so that a ready and
advantageous market is opened for her sheep, black cat¬
tle, and agricultural produce. A farmer can now send his
stock and his corn to Liverpool, and get them disposed of
in the shortest time, at the market price, and for ready
money. Formerly the case was quite otherwise; corn-
dealers and drovers travelled the country, buying grain
and cattle, with the view of shipping them to an English
market. Their purchases were seldom if ever made with
cash : on the contrary, it was almost the invariable prac¬
tice to grant bills for payment, at four or six months. 1 hese
were not always men of capital, and the business which
they followed was, from its very nature, a most precarious
one ; so that, in proportion to their numbers, a greater pro¬
portion of such provincial dealers is known to have be¬
come bankrupt than of any other class of men. Hence the
great risk and eventual losses to which (as is known to the
present w'riter) the farmers in Wigtonshire were continu¬
ally exposed, and the general bankruptcy and distress that
periodically ensued. In addition to the steamers which
regularly ply between Wigtonshire and England, there are
two steam-boats which sail weekly between Stranraer and
Glasgow, so that the inhabitants of this remote county have
884
W I G
Wigton. now the ready and frequent command of the best markets
v' both in Scotland and England, either for buying or selling.
We have already referred to the two government steamers
that daily ply between Portpatrick and Donaghadee. But
while steam-navigation has been productive of such impor¬
tant advantages as we have described, it has been attended
with other results, which, though favourable in a national
point of view, are unfavourable to the district. The traffic
and travelling that had formerly prevailed between Ireland
and England via Portpatrick, through Galloway, have been
in a great measure turned into a new channel, and this
county has in consequence proportionally suffered. There
is now very little travelling by this route ; and the steamers
plying from almost every Irish port to Liverpool or Holy-
head, engross almost the whole of the travelling of which Gal¬
loway formerly enjoyed the advantage. Nor is this all; the
importation of Irish horses and black cattle at Portpatrick
has diminished to a similar extent. It appears from the
New Statistical Account of Scotland, No. 22, p. 153, that
whereas the number of such stock imported at Portpat¬
rick was 17,275 in 1790, and 20,000 in 1812; it was only
1080 in 1837. We may here mention, that the mail-coach
was first introduced into Galloway in 1804, and that it has
since continued to run daily between Dumfries and Port¬
patrick. There is not, and never was, an opposition coach
in Wigtonshire.
This county is distinguished for the antiquity and num¬
ber of its religious houses. The oldest church built of
stone in Scotland was situated at Whithorn, as mentioned
in our account of that borough ; and in the 12th century a
monastery of the Premonstratensian order was founded
there by Fergus, Lord of Galloway. The same individual
established another abbey of the same order called Saulseat
(Sedes Animamm) near Stranraer. Roland, grandson of
Fergus, founded, in 1190, the abbey of Glenluce, for monks
of the Cistertian order ; and the abbey of Wigton was esta¬
blished in 1262, for Black Friars, by Lady Dervorgille ofGal-
loway. (Murray’s Literary History of Galloway, pp. 12, 24,
26, 30, 2d edit. Edinb. 1822, 8vo.) There are also the re¬
mains of numerous subsidiary churches and chapels, built
either for the use of some baron, or for the advantage of the
remote inhabitants of a large parish. At the Reformation,
Wigtonshire contained twenty-one parish churches, exclu¬
sive of the various subsidiary chapels referred to. Parishes
have now been more judiciously arranged: in some cases
three have been united into one ; and though three new pa¬
rishes have been erected, the total number is reduced to
seventeen.
Several eminent characters were natives of this county,
namely, St Ninian, who founded at Leucophibia, now
Whithorn, the bishopric of Candida Casa, or Galloway,
and who died in the fifth century ; Gavin Dunbar, tutor
to James V. and afterwards archbishop of Glasgow, and
lord chancellor of the kingdom ; Sir Patrick Vans, am¬
bassador to Denmark in the time of James VI., and a
lord of session; Patrick Hannay the poet, son to Hannay
of Soibie ; Andrew Macdowall, Lord Bankton, author
of Institutes of the Law of Scotland; Dr Macgill of Ayr,
and Dr Mackenzie of Portpatrick, two eminent divines,
the latter author of Ocean, Stella, and other poems; and
Major Stewart Maxwell, author of the Battle of the Bridge.
Some distinguished men, both laymen and clergymen, such
as Archbishop Beaton, prior of Whithorn ; Bishop Cowper;
Lord Stair, the famous lawyer; his son, the first earl of
Stair; and grandson, Marshal Stair, were connected with
the county, either by office or the possession of property.
Ihe history of Wigtonshire, as part of Galloway, is not
uninteresting. The aborigines, who were of Celtic origin,
were the Novantes ; their chief towns Leucophihia, the pre¬
sent Whithorn, and Rerigonium, on the Rerigonius Sinus,
or Lochryan. The Mull of Galloway was called Promon-
W I G
torium Novantium. Galloway was invaded bv the P
On the retirement (448) of that warlike people T"5'
successively overrun by the Anglo-Saxons of Northnmi^
and by the Piets. But notwithstanding their falling?’
cessively under the dominion of these various peonL 1
original Celtic inhabitants of Galloway were never entir I
displaced; their characteristic customs and manners 6 Y
tinued to predominate, and remains of such may be trZi
even at this day. They were distinguished for darim,
heroism and intrepidity, insomuch that they obtained th?
appellation of the wild Scots of Galloway, ami „btli]3
from the Scotish kings the privilege of forming the van
in every battle at which they were present. The province
was for upwards of a century an independent province
governed by its own princes or lords. Alan, who died in
1234, was the last of the ancient Lords of Galloway. John
Balliol was grandson of Alan by his daughter Lady Der¬
vorgille, and thus possessed extensive estates both in \\is.
tonshire and the stewartry of Kirkcudbright. The county
of Wigton, with the title of earl, was conferred (ISfn
by David II. on Sir Malcolm Fleming; but Fleming, amid
the distraction of the times, was obliged, in 1372, to dis¬
pose of his estates (though he retained the title) to Archi
bald Douglas. From this date the Douglases reigned su¬
preme till their forfeiture in 1453. The county was then
parcelled out among different families, many of which
still remain; and the Agnews of Lochnaw were created
heritable sheriffs. This office remained in their family
till the abolition of hereditary jurisdictions in 1747, with
the exception of seventeen years previous to the revolu¬
tion, when Graham of Claverhouse and his brother Colonel
David Graham were appointed joint-sheriffs. (Chalmers’s
Caledonia, vol. i. passim ; Murray, ui supra j New Stat.
Acc. of Scotland, sec. Wigtonshire".) (c. i.)
Wigton, a royal borough, and the capital of the county of
the same name, is situated on a detached eminence about 200
feet above the level of the sea, at the confluence of the Blade-
noch with Wigton Bay, and 105 miles south-south-west from
Edinburgh. It consists mainly of one street about 600 yards
in length, and, though narrow at the two extremities, so wide
in the centre as to admit of a square containing a bowling-
green and spacious walks. The houses are well built and
substantial; some of them are old, and the town altogether
has a respectable and venerable appearance. It can boast,
however, neither of trade nor manufactures. The harbour
is within a quarter of a mile of the borough, and the dues
are let for the small sum of L.26 per annum. There are
fourteen vessels belonging to Wigton, the aggregate ton¬
nage being about 880. A steam-boat plies between this
port and Whitehaven and Liverpool once a fortnight during
the year. A branch bank has been established here since
1784. A packet plies daily between Wigton and Creetown,
on the opposite side of the bay, a distance of about four
miles. The population, which has long been nearly station¬
ary, was 1837 in 1831. In addition to the parish church,
there is a dissenting chapel; the only other public building is
the town-hall, which also includes a jail. Wigton was created
a royal borough in the time of David II. The number of
councillors is eighteen. The municipal revenue is about
L.350. 'I he borough unites with Whithorn, Stranraer, and
New Galloway in sending a representative to the House of
Commons. The number of registered voters in Wigton in
1840-1 was 102.
1 he town can boast of great antiquity. The first church
here was consecrated to St Machute, an obscure saint, who
died in 554. It originally belonged to the priory of Whit¬
horn, but was afterwards a free rectory, the minister of it
being a member of the chapter of the cathedral. The
eastern gate of the present parish church is supposed to
have formed part of St Machute’s church. In the church¬
yard there are monuments to the memory of several martyrs
p
w *
W I L
W I L
885
hfiiutFered during the reigns of Charles II. and James tience, the talents, and courage which he displayed dur- Wilber-
y,j particularly those in honour of two female martyrs, ing the many dispiriting delays and formidable difficulties force-
l,( ere drowned in the Bladenoch in 1685. Wigton was which he had to encounter before the cause of justice and
f j_.i 10^ c r'h : humanity finally triumphed, are above all praise. In 1797,
he published his celebrated work on Practical Christianity,
which met with such remarkable success that within half
a year five editions had been called for. Not less than
fifty large editions have now been published in England
and America; and it has been translated into the French,
Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German languages. Eccle¬
siastics of every class, from old John Newton to the arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, welcomed it with the loudest ap-
2]o5 miles from London, in the vicinity of the ruins of plause; and Burke spent much of the two last days of his
1 " 1 ^ r ' ,r'1 1 1 ' life in reading it, and said that he derived much comfort
from its perusal. It would be difficult to overrate the in¬
fluence of this work in stemming the tide of irreligion and
nominal Christianity, especially among the higher classes
of society, and in giving a powerful impulse to that warmer
and more earnest piety which has happily distinguished the
last half-century. In 1807, after twenty years of anxiety
and unremitting labour, Mr Wilberforce had the high grati¬
fication of seeing the slave-trade abolished, and that stain
on our national character for ever obliterated. During the
debate on the second reading of the abolition bill, when Sir
Samuel Romilly entreated the young members of parliament
to let this day’s event be a lesson to them how much the re¬
wards of virtue exceeded those of ambition, and then con¬
trasted the feelings of the emperor of the French in all his
greatness, with those of that honourable individual who would
this day lay his head upon his pillow, and remember that the
iilaHty his early years were not suffered “to pass away slave-trade was no more, the whole house, surprised into
wibut permanent impressions of religion. From school, forgetfulness of its ordinary habits, burst forth into accla-
Wberforce was transferred, at the age of seventeen, to St mations of applause ; a tribute of approbation “ such as was
.Mi’s College, Cambridge. On leaving college, he im- scarcely ever before givenfMays^Bishop Porteus^^to^any
l G v/  
h e of a monastery, founded in 1267, for Dominican friars,
fjf] .rvorgille, daughter of Alan, the last lord of Galloway,
^C1 lother of John Balliol the Scotish king. This monas-
Ly ever attained to eminence, and no remains of its ruins
aibow be traced. This latter remark is also applicable to
the}istle of Wigton, once a place of great importance. It
fell ito the hands of Edward I. in 1291. (c. i.)
V gton, a market-town of the county of Cumberland.
It i|n the ward of Cumberland, twelve miles from Carlisle,
]|05 miles from London, in the vicinity of the ruins of
an acient Roman work called Caer Leol. The market is
ot iiesday. The population amounted in 1821 to 4056,
ancM 1831 to 4885; but the parish comprehends three
townships, and in 1831 contained 6501 inhabitants.
MLBERFORCE Cape, a rocky promontory on the
non coast of New Holland, at the west entrance into the
Qujof Carpentaria. Long. 136. 33. E. Lat. 11. 52. S.
ilLBERFORCE, William, was born at Hull on the
24t,|of August 1759. His father, a merchant of that town,
trad his descent from an ancient family which had long
posissed a large estate at Wilberfoss, in the east riding
of je county of York. The father of Wilberforce died
belie his son had completed his tenth year, and he was
thd transferred to the care of a paternal uncle, on whose
deni the ample patrimony which he inherited from his
fatir was largely increased. His uncle’s wife was a great
ad irer of Whitefield’s preaching ; and through her instru-
nai’e town, and soon found his way into all fashionable House of Commons in the year 1825. He had resig e
ans political society. At Cambridge he had formed an the representation of Yorkshire in 1812, on account of his
aaaintance with Mr Pitt, which speedily ripened into an declining health ; and during t,ie re™ain^r ^hh‘S P^’
aitionate union, that none of the vicissitudes of political mentary career he was returned for.tl^; K °US])1^ ^a^u
lificould afterwards dissolve. In the autumn of 1783, her. The interval between the passing of the abolition bill
V, lerforce set out with Pitt for a tour in France ; and on and the close ot Ins parliamentary labours was devote
hi eturn to England he gave his friend most efficient sup- cease ess watchfulness over the interests (dieAicanract.
3in his memorable struggle against the majority of the He lived to witness the consummat on ^he stm^e for
false of Commons At a public meeting held in the the abolition of slavery throughout the British dominions ,
Cde Yard at York’in March 1784, he attacked the mea- and the last P;'b1^ ^m'tlle nadonatdis-
si s of the coalition with such eloquence and success that country was wi mg ‘ when within
htiras immediately nominated as a candidate for the repre- grace at any sacrifice. .^e d^d ^ dy 27j 183J’ W^n™-
« »,io„ of Yorkshire; and so strongly did the current of ^
p uilar opinion flow in Ins favour, that in spite of the . <« pw nprsons ” savs Lord Brougham, “ have
1 ert0 predominant influence of the great Whig families a" a"^^'d & hi herFanj more enviable place in the esteem
o hat county, his opponents gave 0f their fellow-creatures, or have better deserved the place
v turing to the poll. In the autumn of 1784, accompam • d William Wilberforce.” His immense
e by some female relations, and by the celebrated Isaac ^ no’doubt greatly owing to the homage paid to
“ner, dean of Carlisle, he undertook a journey to t e ^ character} but he possessed many other qualifi-
1J15> I , . , .  1 liim tn orrpnt
C tinent. This excursion forms a memorable era in
Ih; for, through the influence of Milner, his early impres¬
ses of religion, which had been greatly dissipated, w^ere
r ived, and a deep and fervent piety now took entiie pos-
Ssion of his mind, and regulated the wdiole of his futuie
c: duct. In the year 1787, he was much occupied in con-
Wting measures for the reformation of manners ; and about
t same time he became the founder of a.n association for
t< discouragement of vice. It was in this year also that
^ Wilberforce entered upon his labours in that great cause
yh which his name is unalterably associated, the aoo i-
tj;i of the slave-trade. To that cause he now dedicated ins
< s and his nights, even to his closing hours. It was m
^9 that he first proposed the abolition of the sa\e
Lie to the House of Commons; and the zeal, the p.v-
cations which must of themselves have raised him to great
eminence. As a public speaker, he enjoyed great and well-
merited celebrity. His eloquence, though for the most part
of the persuasive and pathetic kind, w’as also occasionally bold
and impassioned; and he possessed an extraordinary power
of sarcasm, which, however, the singular kindness and gentle¬
ness of his disposition rarely permitted him to employ. »ir
Samuel Romillv esteemed him “ the most efficient speaker
in the House of Commons;” and Pitt himself said repeatedly,
“ of all the men I ever knew, Wilberforce has the greatest
natural eloquence.” In politics, Mr Wilberforce umform-
iv acted on independent principles, and steadily refused
all office through his whole life. Though strongly attached
to Pitt, both by political opinions and by the ties of tnenu-
886
W I L
Wilkie.
w ileika ship,^ he pursued his course wholly unfettered by party con¬
nection ; and he differed with his illustrious friend upon the
^ two most critical emergencies of his life, the question of
peace w(th France in 1795, and the impeachment of Lord
' e Vi‘‘e ten^ years later. Mr Wilberforce married, in the
year 1797, Miss Barbara Spooner, daughter of a banker of
that name in Birmingham. By this lady he had six chil¬
dren, of whom four sons still survive, his two daughters
having died before their father. (b. q.)
ILEIKA, a circle of the Russian government of Minsk,
extending in north latitude from 54° 24' to 54° 58', and in
east longitude from 26° 7' to 28° 22'. In the west part it
is filled with sandy heaths, and in the east with morasses.
Between these are extensive woods, with portions among
them of land highly productive of corn, hemp, and flax. Se-
veial liveis have their sources within the circle, the most
considerable of which are the Wilia and the Beresina. A
canal of thirty miles in length has been constructed, which
unites the river Duna with the Beresina; but, from want of
a sufficient head of water, it is only navigable in the spring
of the year, even by small barks. The capital of the circle
is of the same name, on the river Wilia. It has nothing re¬
markable, and contains scarcely more than 1000 inhabitants.
It is 554 miles from St Petersburg. Lonff. 26. 40. E Lat
54. 35. 30. N.
WILKIE, W illiam, the author of the Epigoniad, was
born in the parish of Dalmeny and county of Linlithgow
on the 5th of October 1721. His father was a small farmer,
and was not very fortunate in his worldly affairs. He how¬
ever gave his son a liberal education, the early part of which
he received at Dalmeny school; and at the age of thirteen
he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where he was
soon distinguished as a young man of genius. Among his
fellow-students were Dr Robertson the historian, Mr Home
the poet, and some other eminent literary characters. In
tne course of his education he also became acquainted with
David Hume and Adam Ferguson. Before he completed
his studies at the university, his father died, leaving him
only the stock and unexpired lease of his farm, with the care
of three sisters, one of whom being afterwards married to
an experienced farmer, Wilkie availed himself of his prac¬
tical knowledge. He formed a system of farming which
fully answered his own expectations, and secured to him
the approbation of all his neighbours. After becoming a
icentiate of the church of Scotland, he still continued his
former mode of living, cultivating his farm, reading the
classics, and occasionally preaching for the ministers in his
neighbourhood. In 1753, he was presented to the living
of Ratho by the earl of Lauderdale, who was sensible of his
worth, and admired his genius. The duties of his new office
he discharged with fidelity,and was celebrated for his impres¬
sive mode of preaching, while he did not neglect the amuse-
ments of husbandry, and the study of polite literature. In
he published, at Edinburgh, “ The Epigoniad, a Poem,
in nine books,” which is said to have been the result of four¬
teen years study. Hume endeavoured to promote its suc-
cess by addressing a commendatory letter to the editor of
the Critical Review. A second edition of the poem was
published at London in 1769. In 1759 Wilkie was elected
professoi of natural philosophy in the university of St An¬
drews. His whole fortune, when he removed to this place,
did not exceed L.200, which he laid out in the purchase of
a few acres of land in the vicinity of the city. He lived at
St Andrews in the same studious and retired manner as
he had done at Ratho. In 1766 the university conferred
upon him the degree of D. D. He ended his poetical ca¬
reer by publishing a volume of Fables. Lond. 1768, 8vo.
f Angering illness, he died on the 10th of October
l/r~, having only completed the fifty-first year of his aee.
I he personal character of Dr Wilkie exhibited many sin¬
gularities ; but the very distinguished individuals with whom
W 1 L
he was acquainted were all disposed to regard v
man of talf-ntc i '■ regard him
man of talents as well as learning. The ^ubjec't^f1^ " '
r- • . , . . me subn
Epigoniad was injudiciously chosen; nor is if
that he did not acquire the reputation of a1
poet
great epic
WILKINS, John, an eminent philosopher and divine
II of Wa tpr Wilkina a /-v n , ^
son of Walter Wilkins, a goldsmith of Sd vvalT’'
1614. atFawslpv npar 0ra’ vvas b°rn m
the
1614, at Fawsley, near Daventryin NorthamptonSe intl,P
house of his maternal grandfather, John Dod a 2
formist. After being trained in a private school at Oxford"
he was entered of New Inn Hall in 1627, but was nni i
afterwards removed to Magdalen Hall, where he
degrees in arts. On receiving holy orders he W 'S
chaplain to Lord Say, and afterwards to Charles Count P?
latine of the Rhine. To the favour of this prince t
knowledge of mathematics was a strong recommemkt;
ANhe W6 u tWC'nty^Ur he Published “ The Discovery of
a New World; or, a Discourse tending to prove thatV
probabJe there may be another habitable World in fop
Moon: with a Discourse concerning the Possibility of a
Passage thither.” Lond. 1638, 8vo. This was followedb
A Discourse concerning a New Planet; tending to prove
. Probable our Eartb is One of the Planets!” Lond
1640, 8vo. Both these works appeared without his name’
He next produced “ Mercury; or, the secret and swift
Messenger ; shewing how a man may with privacy and sneed
communicate his thoughts to a friend at any distance”
Lond ! 641, 8yo Another of hE works bears the title of
Mathematical Magick ; or, the Wonders that mav be per¬
formed by Mechanical Geometry.” Lond. 1648,8vo. These
four tracts were long afterwards reprinted in a collection of
hi? Mathematical and Philosophical Works. Lond 1708
8vo. Lond. 1802, 2 vols. 8vo. The earliest of his theo-
feCal„0rks was bis “Ecclesiastes; or, a Discourse of the
Gift of Preaching, as it falls under the Rules of Art.” Lond.
1646, 8yo. The ninth edition was printed in 1718. This
publication was succeeded in 1649 by “A Discourse con¬
cerning the Beauty of Providence, in all the rugged pas-
sages of it;” and in 1653 by “ A Discourse concerning the
Gift of Prayer.”
On the commencement of the civil wars he adhered to
t ic parliament, and took the solemn league and covenant.
I be committee for reforming the university appointed him
warden of Wadham College. On the 12th of April 1648 he
was created B. D., and was next day admitted to the office,
foi which his learning, as well as his talents and temper,
eminently qualified him. Next year he was created D. D.,
and about the same period married Robina, the sister of
Oliver Cromwell, and the widow of Dr French, canon of
Christ Church. 1 he protector granted him a dispensation
foi letaining the wardenship, notwithstanding his marriage.
In 1659 Richard Cromwell appointed him master of Trinity
College, Cambridge, but he was ejected in the course of the
following year. The Restoration did not however deprive
Dr \\ ilkins of all hope of preferment. He soon afterwards
became preacher at Gray’s Inn, and rector of St Lawrence-
Jewry. His next promotion was to the deanery of Ilipon. It
was about this period that he published the most remarkable
of his works, “ An Essay towards a Real Character and a
Philosophical Language.” Lond. 1668, fob Of this essay
a. Latin version was completed by Ray, but was never pub¬
lished. During the same year, 1668, he was advanced to
the bishopric of Chester; and his consecration sermon was
preached by Dr fillotson, who had married his step-daugh¬
ter, Elizabeth French. The high preferment which he so
well merited he did not long enjoy. Wilkins was the
fourth bishop appointed to this see since the year 1660.
His fatal disease was a suppression of urine, which was mis¬
taken for the stone. He died at Dr Tillotson’s house in
Chancery-lane, London, on the 19th of November 1672,
having only attained the age of fifty-eight. His funeral
'll1'
fJlD
jsaffl
i
|ol(
i-
W I L
5ern-ji was preached by Dr Lloyd, afterwards bishop of
\V0n2ster, who was himself a man of distinguished learning.
His upers were left to the disposal of Tillotson, who pre-
;)an>ifor the press his treatise “ Of the Principles and
Huts of Natural Religion, two books.” Lond. 1675, 8vo.
Thifjivork was very favourably received, and it reached a
jifthilidon in 1704. The same editor afterwards published
a v0].ne containing fifteen of the bishop’s Sermons. Lond.
168118vo. In the preface he vindicated the character of
this i cellent prelate from some of the malignant aspersions
to wjch it had been exposed.^ Wilkins was a man of a
liben and generous mind, and was as much distinguished
by htamiable disposition as by his intellectual endowments.
15ut was the brother-in-law of Oliver Cromwell, and had
-ubsiibed the covenant; and after the church again became
13 tiiutphant, he was disposed to treat dissenters with a de-
rreeif Christian moderation and charity which the indo-
nitaie bigotry of too many churchmen could not but re-
.ardis ly scandalous. If the other prelates of that age
had l:en animated with the same spirit, the church of Eng-
iandl'ould not so speedily have been felt as a grievous
scoule by a great proportion of its most pious and exem-
planlninisters. Richard Baxter would not have been sub-
jecto; to persecution merely for preaching the gospel with
ide:jeeof zeal and fervour scarcely equalled in that secu-
tdHariz: establishment from which he had found himself
com riled to separate.
’WILL, that faculty of the mind by which it embraces
®ctsornicts any thing offered to it. See Metaphysics.
YVILLANMEZ’S Isle, a small island off the north coast
BofMv Britain, high in the centre, and low and wooded at
the i es. Long. 149. 39. E. Lat. 5. 15. S.
PfLLIAM o/Malmesbury, an historian of considerable
meriitiii the reign of King Stephen, but of whose life few
'partltlars are known. According to Bale and Pitts, he was
surnned Somersetus, from the county in which he was
born: From his own preface to his second book “ De
Regps Anglorum,” it appears that he was addicted to
fileanng from his youth ; that he applied himself to the study
flotc, physic, ethics, and particularly to history. He re-
thireiK) the Benedictine convent at Malmesbury, became
mok, and was made precentor and librarian ; a situation
ii whicJmuch favoured his intention of writing the history of
be lligdom. In this monastery he spent the remainder
ufihiiife, and died in the year 1142. He is one of our
icimosl iiicient and most faithful historians. His principal
I'wUis that entitled “ De Regibus Anglorum,” in five
bool with an appendix, which he styles “ Historic No¬
vella in two more. It is a judicious collection of what¬
ever ite found on record relative to England, from the inva-
ion i the Saxons to his own times.
of Newbury, so called from a monastery in
'torljiire, of which he was a member, wrote a history
Hiio begins at the Conquest and ends at the year 1197.
dis iuin style is preferred to that of Matthew Paris; and
0 I'titled to particular praise for his honest regard to
tr rutl'a treating the fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth with
'e1 (htempt they deserve, as wTell as lor expressing his ap-
:r°b‘J on of Henry II.’s design of reforming the clergy, by
n‘n?|g them under the regulation of the secular power,
i P'-uam o/'Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, was born
11 ft village of Wykeham in Hampshire in 1324. He
Educated at Winchester school; and his patron Nicholas
,, ®jde, governor of Winchester castle, afterwards took
1111 |to his family, and appointed him his counsellor and
secMtry. He could not have made choice of a fitter per-
tpon K that employment, no man in that age writing or
jjeajhg more politely than Wykeham. For this reason,
. ! 01b bishop of Winchester, lord high treasurer of the
appointed him his secretary three years after, and
l,s® commended him to King Edward III. who took him
w i L
887
into his service. Being skilled in geometry and architecture, Willis.
he vvas appointed surveyor of the royal buildings, and also' v—
chief justice in eyre. He superintended the building of
v\ indsor Castle. He w7as afterwards chief secretary of state,
and keeper of the privy seal, and in 1367 succeeded Eding-
ton in the see of Winchester. A little after he was ap¬
pointed lord high chancellor and president of the privy ■
council. That he might well discharge the several func¬
tions of his employments, both ecclesiastical and civil, he
endeavoured on one hand to regulate his own life according
to the strictest maxims, and to promote such parish priests
only as were able to give due instructions to their parish¬
ioners, and at the same time led exemplary lives: on the
other hand, he did all in his power to cause justice to be
impartially administered. In 1371 he resigned his chan¬
cellorship. Edward returning to England, after having
carried on a very successful war in France, found his ex¬
chequer in great disorder. The duke of Lancaster, one of
his sons, at the head of several lords, having brought com¬
plaints against the clergy, who then enjoyed the chief places
in the kingdom, the king removed them from their em¬
ployments. But the laymen who were raised to them be¬
haved so ill that the king was forced to restore the eccle¬
siastics. The duke of Lancaster showed strong animosity
to the clergy, and set every engine at work to ruin Wyke¬
ham. He impeached him of extortion, and obliged him
to appear at the King’s Bench. He got such judges ap¬
pointed as condemned him ; and not satisfied with depriving
him of all the temporalities of his bishopric, he advised Ed¬
ward to banish him; but this prince rejected the proposal
and afterwards restored to Wykeham all that he had been
divested of. Richard II. was but eleven years old when
Edward died, so that the duke of Lancaster had an easy
opportunity of reviving the accusations against the bishop
of Winchester; nevertheless Wykeham vindicated himself.
He now founded two noble colleges, the one in Oxford,
called New College, the other in Winchester. While he
was exerting his utmost endeavours to improve these foun¬
dations, he was recalled to court, and in a manner forced to
accept of the office of lord high chancellor in 1389. Hav¬
ing excellently discharged the duties of that employment
for three years, he obtained leave to resign it, foreseeing the
disturbances that were about to break out. Having returned
to his diocese, he finished his college at Winchester, and
there built so magnificent a cathedral that it almost equals
that of St Paul’s in London. He laid out several sums in
things advantageous to the public and to the poor, notwith¬
standing which, in 1397 he was in great danger, for he and
some others were impeached of high treason in open parlia¬
ment ; however he was again fully cleared. From that time
till his death he kept quiet in his diocese, and there employed
himself in all the duties of a good prelate. He died in
1404, in the eighty-first year of his age.
WILLIS, Thomas, a celebrated English physician, was
born at Great Bedwin, in Wiltshire, on the 27th of January
1621, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford. When that
city was garrisoned for the king, he, among other scholars,
bore arms for his majesty; and he devoted his leisure hours to
the study of physic. The garrison of Oxford at length sur
rendering to the parliament, he applied himself to the prac¬
tice of his profession, and soon rendered himself famous by
his care and skill. He appropriated a room as an oratory
for divine service according to the church of England,
whither most of the loyalists in Oxford daily resorted. In
1660, he became Sedleian professor of natural philosophy,
and the same year took the degree of doctor of physic. In
1664, he discovered the famous medicinal spring at Alstrop,
near Brackley. He was one of the first members of the
Royal Society, and soon made his name illustrious by his
excellent writings. In 1666, after the fire of London, he
removed to Westminster; and his practice became greater
888
W I L
Wil¬
loughby
Cape
W I L
than that of any of the physicians his contemporaries. He
died at his house in St Martin’s, on the llth of November
1675, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He was
Wilmot. j’lSdy admired for his deep insight into natural and experi-
—^ mental philosophy, anatomy, and chemistry, for his suc¬
cessful practice, and for the elegance and purity of his
Latin style. He wrote in English “ A plain and easy
Method for preserving those that are well from the Infec¬
tion of the Plague, and for curing such as are infected.”
All his Latin works were printed in two vols. 4to, at
Geneva in 1676, and at Amsterdam in 1682. His grand¬
son, Browne Willis, LL. D., was the author of several anti¬
quarian works.
WILLOUGHBY Cape, the eastern point of Kangarou
island, on the south coast of New Holland. Long. 138.
13. E. Lat. 35. 48. S.
WILLUGHBY, Francis, a celebrated natural historian,
was the only son of Sir Francis Willughby, and was born in
1635. He was fond of study from his childhood, and held
idleness in abhorrence; being so great an economist with
regard to his time, as not willingly to lose or misapply the
least part of it; by which means he attained great skill in
all branches of learning, and particularly in the mathematics.
But to the history of animals, which was in a great measure
neglected by his countrymen, he particularly applied him¬
self ; and for this purpose carefully read over what had been
written on that subject by others. He prosecuted his studies
in Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of
A. B. in 1656, and of A. M. in 1659. In the following year
we find him residing at Oxford for the benefit of the public
library. He then travelled in search of natural knowledge,
several times over his native country, and afterwards into
France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, at¬
tended by his ingenious friend John Ray. It is remarkable
that, notwithstanding the advantages of birth, fortune, and
parts, he was as humble as any man of the meanest fortune ;
was sober, temperate, and chaste; scrupulously just; so true
to his word and promise that a man might venture his estate
and life upon it; so faithful and constant to his friend as
never to desert him when fortune frowned upon him; and
remarkably pious, patient, and submissive to the divine will.
This is the character given of him by Mr Ray, whose vera¬
city none will doubt. This ingenious and learned gentle¬
man died on the 3d of July 1672, at the age of thirty-seven,
having impaired his health by his application. He wrote,
1. Ornithologiae libri tres, 1676, fol. It was afterwards
translated into English, with an appendix, by Mr Ray. 2.
Historic Piscium libri quatuor, 1686, fol. 3. Letters of
Francis Willughby, Esq., added to Philosophical Letters
between the learned Mr Ray and several of his correspon¬
dents, and published by Dr Derham. 4. Several ingenious
papers in the Philosophical Transactions.
WILMOT, John, earl of Rochester, a great wit in the
reign of Charles II., the son of Henry earl of Rochester, was
born on the 10th of April 1647, at Ditchley in Oxfordshire.
He was instructed in classical learning at the free-school
at Burford, where he obtained a quick relish of the beauties
of the Latin tongue, and afterwards became well versed in
the authors of the Augustan age. In 1659, he was admit¬
ted a nobleman of Wadham College, Oxford, where he was
created A. M. He afterwards travelled through France
and Italy, and at his return was made one of the gentlemen
of the bedchamber to the king, and comptroller of Wood-
stock Park. In 1665, he went to sea, and was in the Re¬
venge, commanded by Sir Thomas Tiddiman, when an
attack was made on the port of Bergen in Norway. During
the whole action he shewed the greatest resolution, and
gained a high reputation for courage, which he supported
in a second expedition, but afterwards lost it in a private ad¬
venture with Lord Mulgrave.
Before the earl of Rochester travelled, he had indulged
in the most disorderly and intemperate way of living.
his return however he seemed to have got the better^ ^ *
entirely. But^ falling into the company of thrcouni^
who continually practised these excesses, he becam11
sunk in debauchery that he was for five years togetl6
addicted to drinking that during all that time he was lerS°
cool enough to be master of himself. His violent lovTf
pleasure, and his disposition to extravagant mirth °
him to great excesses. The first involved him in sensualit
and the other led him into many adventures and ridiculous
carried
frolics.
Once disguising himself so that he could not be
known by his nearest friends, he set up in Tower-street
for an Italian mountebank, and there dispersed his nos
trums for some weeks. He often disguised himself 3$°'
porter, or as a beggar, sometimes to follow a mean amour
at other times he would go- about merely for diversion in
odd shapes, and acted his part so naturally that he could
not be known even by his friends. In short, by his con-
stant excesses, he entirely wore out an excellent constitu-
tion before he was thirty years of age. In October 16?!)
when recovering from a violent disease which ended in a
consumption, he was visited by Dr Burnet, upon an intima-
tion that such a visit would be agreeable to him. Burnet
published their conferences in “ Some Passages of the Life
and Death of John Earl of Rochester;” from which itap-
pears, that though he had lived the life of a libertine and
atheist, he died the death of a penitent Christian. His
death happened on the 26th of July 1680. His Poems
have been several times printed; but when once he ob¬
tained the character of a lewd and obscene writer, every
thing in that strain was ascribed to him; and thus many
pieces not of his writing have crept into the later editions
of his works. The earl of Oxford observes, that he was “a
man whom the Muses were fond to inspire and ashamed to
avow, and who practised without the least reserve that
secret which can make verses more read for their defects
than their merits. Lord Rochester’s poems have much
more obscenity than wit, more wit than poetry, and more
poetry than politeness.” Besides three daughters, the ead
left an only son, Charles, who died in 1681, and thus the
title became extinct.
WILNA, a government of the division called West
Russia, of the Russian empire in Europe. It was formerly
a portion of Lithuania, till the first division of Poland. In
its present state, it extends in north latitude from 53° S'?
to 56° 24', and in east longitude from 20° 54’ to 26° 33'.
It is bounded on the north by Courland, on the north-east
by Witebsk, on the east by Minsk, on the south by Grodno,
on the south-west by the kingdom of Poland, on the west
by Prussia, and on the north-west by the Baltic Sea. It
comprehends 23,782 square miles, divided into thirteen
circles, in which are eleven large cities, 156 smaller cities
or market-towns, and 1536 villages, with 1,357,400 inhabi¬
tants. These being of Polish origin, for the most part ad¬
here to the Romish faith ; but there are a few Protestant
churches both of the Lutheran and Calvinist confession.
Jews are numerous, and constitute the greater part of the
middle classes in all the cities and towns. They are esti¬
mated to form one seventh part of the whole population.
The face of the country is generally level, with but lew
undulations, none of the hills rising to the height of 300
feet above the level of the sea. The lower portions are for
the most part swamps and morasses, and the higher portions
chiefly covered with forests. The Baltic Sea has no ports
within this government, and the sand-banks on the shore
nearly render it inaccessible to ships. The river Duna
touches one part, by which there is a communication wit)
the sea, as well as by the Niemen. These two rivers re¬
ceive the waters of the several small streams with which tne
and
province abounds. All these rivers have a slow course,
some of them in their progress form extensive morasses,
: If
iffiiit'
hi
tes
■
W I L
^tjcially on the east and south-east part of the province.
/ Jnpme cases they form lakes, such as the lake of Norosetz
nc, the city of Wilna, and those of Drissewatty and of
gi.ilau. The climate is not the mildest; the winters,
thigh short, are severely cold, the spring and autumn
jnijit and foggy, and even the summer, though warm, is by
nojneans unclouded. It is however tolerably healthy,
wj, no peculiar diseases, unless the Plica Polonica can be
caid peculiar, a complaint to be found in all parts of Po-
lai„ though everywhere now diminishing in frequency of
ociirrence.
ij'he chief occupation is agriculture, and from it the in-
haitants obtain rather more grain than they consume, and
ini ase the quantity yearly by clearing the woods and con-
veting them into arable land. The chief corn is rye, the
n&; in quantity are wheat and barley, besides which oats,
buc-vvheat, and pulse are grown. Hemp and flax succeed
wu, and hops are cultivated sufficient for the breweries. The
in; cments of agriculture are of the rudest kind. Manure is
bulittle applied, but when the land becomes exhausted it is
su :red to rest for a few years, and new land is broken up.
T | horses are a small and weak race, and the horned cattle,
thlgoats, the sheep, and the swine are equally bad. The
foists supply much timber for commerce, and yield pitch,
taiand charcoal, and the furs of wolves, bears, martens,
an other wild animals. There are no mines, or at least
tine is none worked, but there are valuable quarries, yield-
in granite, limestone, agates, flints, chalcedony, and some
m ble.
he manufactures are almost exclusively of the domestic
ki l; but the distilleries are numerous and on a large scale,
ar some of the spirits which they yield is smuggled over
tf Prussian frontier. The commerce is merely the export
ofi small portion of the product of the soil, and the import
oil few foreign luxuries.
| 'he capital is the city of Wilna, in the circle of its name.
Inl ands on the river Wilia, where that stream falls into the
Vfeija. It is surrounded with walls, is the seat of the
giffirnor, of a catholic bishop, and of the Lutheran con-
si try and superintendent. It has also a university, which
Ir the power of granting degrees in the four faculties of
dihity, law, philosophy, and medicine, but, since the late
in irrection, has been restricted to the last of these branches.
It as before that period frequented by 400 students. Wil¬
li; s built in the ancient fashion, with narrow and crooked
struts; but has still some magnificent palaces of the noble fa¬
ro ‘s of the province, who usually passed the winters there.
It ontains thirty-five Catholic churches, including an old
cc.edral, and the palace chapel, a most expensive building,
an highly admired for one altar in it, dedicated to St Ka-
si jr. It has also three churches for the Greeks, and one
K i for Lutherans and Calvinists, besides a mosque and
<h s’ synagogue. It contained, before the calamitous events
of B31 and 1832, nearly 30,000 inhabitants. A very large
pr wtion of them were and still are Jews. The trade and
ro ufactures are inconsiderable, although the river Wileija
is ivigable to the Baltic Sea. It is 624 miles from St
P"!rsburg. Long. 25. 11. 22. E. Lat. 54. 41. 2. N.
iTLSON, Alexander, the American ornithologist, wfas
ben at Paisley, in Scotland, on the 6th of July 1766. His
fa r was a hand-loom weaver, and he himself followed
thsame trade. His education was more liberal than that
of aany in similar circumstances. Some poems which he
priished, especially those written in the Scotish dialect,
p< ess great merit. In 1794 he emigrated to the United
Sites, where, after working for some time as a weaver, he
ijok himself to the not less laborious but more refined
eiployment of schoolmaster. For a series of years his
was occupied in that country with various studies,
i as mathematics, the German language, music, draw-
and, above all, natural history. At length he resolved
ol. xxi.
W 1 L 889
to devote himself entirely to ornithology, and, at whatever Wilson.
hazard, to form a collection of all the birds of the United v y  
States. For this he was eminently qualified. In the words
of his American biographer, “ he was not only an enthusi¬
astic admirer of the works of creation, but he was consistent
in research, and permitted no dangers or fatigues to abate
his ardour or relax his exertions. He inured himself to
hardships by frequent and laborious exercise, and was never
more happy than when employed in some enterprise which
promised, from its difficulties, the novelties of discovery.
Whatever was obtained with ease appeared to him com¬
paratively uninteresting: the acquisitions of labour alone
seemed worthy of his ambition. He was no closet philoso¬
pher ; he was indebted for his ideas, not to books, but to
nature....His powers of observation were acute, and his
judgment seldom erred. That his industry was great, his
work will ever testify ; and our astonishment may well
be excited that so much should have been performed in
so short a time. A single individual, without patron,
fortune, or recompense, accomplished, in the short space
of seven years, as much as the combined body of Euro¬
pean naturalists have taken a century to achieve. The col¬
lection and discovery of these birds w ere the fruits of many
months of unwearied research amongst forests, swamps, and
morasses, exposed to all the dangers, privations, and fatigues
incident to such an undertaking. What but a remarkable
passion for the pursuit, joined with an ardent desire of fame,
could have supported a solitary individual in labours of body
and mind, compared to which the bustling avocations of
common life are mere holiday activity or recreation ?” With
regard to the literary merit of his “ American Ornithology,”
passages occur in the prefaces and descriptions, which, for
elegance of language, graceful ease, and graphic power, can
scarcely be surpassed. In America he composed various
poetical pieces. The longest of these, “ The Foresters,” a
narrative in verse of a pedestrian journey performed by
himself and two friends to the Falls of Niagara, is decidedly
superior to any of a descriptive kind which he had written
in Scotland, manifesting great improvement both in his
taste and his power of composition. In personal appear¬
ance Wilson was tall, handsome, and vigorous; but adapted
as his frame was for a life of activity, it gradually gave way
under the accumulated and harassing toils to which he was
subjected, and he died of dysentery at Philadelphia on the
23d of August 1813, in the forty-eighth year of his age,
when the publication of his great work, which appeared in
volumes, was nearly completed. Strong good sense, high
moral worth, and a lofty spirit of independence, were the
characteristic features of his mind. With the feelings of a
poet, he had few of the defects that often cling to the poetic
character.
Wilson, Florence, better known by his classical ap¬
pellation of Florentius Volusenus, was born about the year
1500. He is supposed to have been born on the banks of
the river Lossie, near Elgin, and to have received a part of
his education in the university of Aberdeen. He afterwards
prosecuted his studies at Paris, and was there employed as
tutor to a son of Cardinal Wolsey’s brother. Such an
appointment might have led to much higher honour and
emolument; but the death of the cardinal, which took place
in 1530, compelled him to search for new employment.
Another cardinal, Jean de Lorraine, encouraged him in the
pursuit of learning, by assigning to him an annual pension,
of which however the amount was probably small, nor does
it appear to have been punctually paid. He likewise ob¬
tained the favour of Jean du Bellay, bishop of Paris; and
in the year 1534, when that prelate was employed on an
embassy to Rome, Wilson was included in his train, and
had proceeded as far as Avignon, when he was detained by
a malady which compelled him to relinquish his engage¬
ment. In addition to his bodily ailments, he had now to
5 u
890 W I L
TUI son. complain of the exhausted state of his purse; and thus he
V was again left to seek a new path of preferment. He ap¬
pears to have been personally known to Cromwell, then
secretary of state, as well as to Gardiner bishop of Win¬
chester, Fisher bishop of Rochester, and Fox bishop of
Hereford. On reaching Avignon, he was informed that
the bishop of the diocese was anxious to find some person
properly qualified to teach the public school of Carpentras.
This prelate was the celebrated Cardinal Sadoleto, who was
himself distinguished for his Latinity. Wilson lost no time
in proceeding to the episcopal residence, where he experi¬
enced a very gracious reception. The cardinal, as we learn
from one of his letters, was impressed with a most favour¬
able opinion of his character and attainments. His nice
ear was gratified with Wilson’s classical Latinity; nor was
he a little surprised on learning that his visitor was a native
of a country so wild and remote as Scotland. He was
speedily appointed master of the school, with an annual
salary of seventy crowns, which at that period was no incon¬
siderable sum. At Carpentras he appears to have fixed his
residence in the month of November 1535. To the voca¬
tion of teaching grammar he would evidently have preferred
that of teaching philosophy. He did not abandon his phi¬
losophical studies, nor did he neglect the study of theology.
His earliest publication was a theological tract, printed at
Lyon in 1539. He next published the elegant work which
has chiefly recommended him to the notice of posterity:
“ De Animi Tranquillitate Dialogus, Florentio Voluseno
autore.” Lugduni, 1543, 4to. Wilson probably continued
to reside at Carpentras till the year 1546, when he had
formed the resolution of returning to his native country.
He seems to have cherished no antipathy towards the cause
of reformation. The increasing defection from the Ro¬
mish church he imputes, in terms sufficiently plain, to
the pride, luxury, and negligence of the prelates; and
three of the Italian reformers, Martyr, Ochino, and La-
cisio, he mentions, not merely without censure, but even
with undissembled approbation. Having proceeded on his
journey as far as Vienne in Dauphiny, he was there ar¬
rested by the stroke of death, before the termination of the
year 1546.
Wilson, Thomas, bishop of Sodor and Man, was born
in 1663, at Burton, in Cheshire. He received the ru¬
diments of his education at the county town, and from
thence was removed to the university of Dublin. His
allowance at the university was L.20 a year ; a sum, small
as it may now appear, which was in those days sufficient
for a sober youth in so cheap a country as Ireland. His
first intention was to apply himself to the study of physic;
but from this he was diverted by Archdeacon Hewet-
son, by whose advice he dedicated himself to the church.
He continued at college till the year 1686, when, on the
29th of June, he was ordained deacon by the bishop of
Kildare.
The exact time of his leaving Dublin is not known, but,
on account of the political and religious disputes of those
days, it was sooner than he intended. On the 10th of De¬
cember in the same year he was licensed to the curacy of
New Church in Winwick, of which Dr Sherlock, his mater¬
nal uncle, was rector. His stipend was no more than L.30
a year; but being an excellent economist, and having the
advantage of living with his uncle, this small sum was not
only sufficient to supply his own wants, but it enabled him
to supply the wants of others; and for this purpose he set
apart one tenth of his income. In 1692 he was appointed
domestic chaplain to William earl of Derby, and tutor to
his son James Lord Strange, with a salary of L.30 a year.
He was soon after elected master of the alms-house at
Latham, which brought him L.20 a year more. Having
now an income far beyond his expectations or his washes,
except as it increased his ability to do good, he set apart
w I L
one fifth of it for pious uses, and particularly for the poo W
In short, as his income increased he increased the portion IW
of it which was allotted to the purposes of charity. At first tori
he set apart a tenth, then a fifth, afterwards a third and li
lastly, when he became a bishop, he dedicated the full half^'*1®1
of his revenues to pious and charitable uses.
He had not been long in the family of Lord Derby be
fore he was offered the valuable living of Buddesworth in'
Yorkshire, which he refused to accept, as being inconsistent
with the resolves of his conscience against non-residence
the earl choosing still to retain him as chaplain, and tutor
to his son. In 1697 he was promoted, not without some
degree of compulsion on the part of his patron, to the
bishopric of Man, a preferment wffiich he held fifty-eight
years. In 1698 he married Mary, daughter of Thomas
Patten, Esq. of Warrington. By this lady, who survived
her marriage above six years, he had four children, none of
whom survived him except the late Dr .Wilson, prebendary
of Westminster.
Ti
jlinffl
So great was the bishop’s attachment to his flock, that no
temptation could seduce him from their service. He more
than once refused the offer of an English bishopric. There
is an anecdote of Bishop Wilson and Cardinal Fleury, which
reflects great credit on both. The cardinal wanted much
to see him, and sent over on purpose to inquire after
his health, his age, and the date of his consecration, as they
were the two oldest bishops, and he believed the poorest,
in Europe; at the same time inviting him to France. The
bishop sent the cardinal an answer which gave him so high
an opinion of him that the cardinal obtained an order that
no French privateer should ravage the Isle of Man. This
good prelate lived till the year 1755, dying at the advanced
age of ninety-three. His Works were collected by his son
in 1780, 2 vols. 4to. Another edition was published in 2
vols. fol. by the Rev. Clement Cruttwell, who likewise pub¬
lished an edition of the Bible in 3 vols. 4to, with notes by
Bishop Wilson.
Wilson’s Promontory, a remarkable projecting head¬
land of granite, the southernmost point of the island of
New Holland, about twenty miles in length, and from
five to fourteen in breadth. Long. 146. 24. E. Lat. 39.
11T S.
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WILTON, a market and borough town of the county of
Wilts, three miles from Salisbury and eighty-three from
London. It stands on the river Willy, in the hundred of
Branch and Dole, and returns one member to the House
of Commons. It has a market on Wednesday. This place
has given its name to a description of carpets first made
here, and the manufactory is still extensively carried on,
as well as that of some w'oollen cloths. Adjoining to the
town is the magnificent seat and park of the earl of Pem¬
broke. It was the residence of Sir Philip Sidney, where he
composed his Arcadia. The population amounted in 1821
to 2058, and in 1831 to 1997. Several neighbouring vil¬
lages have been added to the borough to form an adequate
constituency.
WILTSHIRE, an inland county of England, in the
western judicial circuit. It is bounded on the north-west
and west by Gloucestershire, on the west by Somersetshire,
on the south by Dorset and Hants, and on the east and
north-east by the latter county and Berkshire. The length
is about fifty miles, and the breadth about thirty-four.
It is of an elliptical form, with very irregular indenta¬
tions on the borders. The area is 1379 square miles, or
882,560 statute acres. The county is divided into twen¬
ty-nine hundreds, comprising one city, twenty-three mar¬
ket-towns, and 295 parishes. The whole of the county
is in the diocese of Salisbury, and is ecclesiastically di¬
vided into two archdeaconries, which are subdivided into
ten deaneries.
The population of this county amounted in 1801 to
l Mies
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Wilts
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185.i)7, in 1811 to 193,828, in 1821 to 222,157, and in making cloths and cassimeres of fine quality, the wool for Wiltshire.
183 o 240,200, thus shewing a slower progressive increase which used to be imported from Spain to Bristol; but of y—^
of t [ inhabitants than has taken place in any other of the late years the fine wools of Saxony have in a great measure
Engih counties. At the last census the males were supplanted those of Spain in this country. The fine wool-
117^2, and the females 122,534. The number of dwel- len trade still employs more than 1000 males above twenty
ling-puses was 46,281, inhabited by 51,659 families, of years of age at Trowbridge, about 600 at Bradford, 200 at
wl,o; 25,045 were chiefly employed in agriculture, 15,627 Westbury, and some at Melksham, Chippenham, and Heytes-
werechiefly employed in trade, manufactures, and handi- bury. Some fine cutlery ware and steel work is made at
craftland 10,987 were not comprised in either of the two Salisbury, but those fabrics are much reduced by their
prealing classes. At the period in question the number rivals at Sheffield and Birmingham. Wilton, which gave
of ir es twenty years of age was 58,439; the occupiers of its name to a description of carpets, has still some remains
f landimploying labourers were 3387 ; the occupiers of land of its former trade.
not nploying labourers, 1239; the labourers employed in Few counties present so many objects of antiquarian
agriiilture, 24,708; the males employed in manufactures, research as Wiltshire. Among those of British origin are
;.nd ;i making manufacturing machinery, 3497; male ser- the Wansdike, a fortification of earth traversing the whole
vanltwenty years of age, 1161; male servants under twenty county; the druidical masses of stone at Stonehenge and
sis yCanof age, 396 ; female servants, 7623 ; employed in retail Avebury; the numerous barrows, ox tumuli, which are to
(radj or in handicraft as masters or workmen, 13,080 ; be seen on a great number of spots on the downs ; and the
earthen ramparts supposed to have formerly enclosed the
towns of the ancient Britons. Among the Roman antiqui¬
ties are many of the roads constructed by that people, their
fortified encampments, and the ruins of several of their
castles, especially those of Marlborough, Devizes, Malmes¬
bury, and Old Sarum. The monastic remains, especially
W I L
W I L
891
banirs, professional and other educated men, 1792; la
hou rs employed in labour not agricultural, 4828; other
mal1 twenty years of age, except servants, 4338.
Te southern division of Wiltshire is chiefly that ex¬
tent e tract of unwooded land usually denominated Salis-
bunPlain. It is an unenclosed country, and has an ap-
peamce of desolateness; but bottoms are frequent, and at Malmesbury, present very interesting subjects of study
havtg generally streams of water running through them,
theiouses and villages are for the most part erected in
the i and the district is much more populous than a tra-
vell! passing over the plain would suspect. The land,
thot'h chiefly used for feeding sheep, is, when brought
uncc the plough, highly productive in turnips, barley, and
wine. There is a tract of rich land between Salisbury
Pla; and Marlborough Downs; and to the north of these
dov»s the country is well enclosed, and abounds in rich
pasjre, on which are fed the cows that produce the ex-
cel.jit cheese known by the name of North Wiltshire.
Thifpeculiar breed of sheep of this county, which are uni-
vertlly called by its name, are all horned, afford heavy
fletf-s of moderately fine wool, and are very numerous ; on
Salbury Plain they are said to be more than 500,000.
Thtproduce of wheat and other grain is estimated to be
to the antiquary. Besides these vestiges of antiquity,
tesselated pavements, coins, urns, fragments of sculpture,
daggers, shields, and ornaments of British, Roman, Saxon,
and Norman fashion, have been discovered. The cathedral
of Salisbury, though not of such an age as to be classed
among antiquities, is an object of great admiration on account
of the elegant design and scientific execution of the struc¬
ture. The beautiful spire is much admired for its height
and its proportions, and, though in a valley, may be seen at
a great distance rising above the surrounding hills. It is
said to be the loftiest in England, rising from the floor of
the church to the height of 400 feet.
The peers deriving their titles from places in this county
are the duke of Marlborough, the marquises of Lansdowne
and of Salisbury, Viscount Bolingbroke, and Barons Arundel
No county has undergone so great changes
— —  and Methuen
le's'- ier'acre Than the general"average of the contiguous by the parliamentary reform bill as Wiltshire. By that lavv
coi ties. There were anciently several extensive forests the county is divided for election purposes into north and
in is county; but, although the districts still retain the south. The elections tor the northern division are held at
nai ! either of Forest or Chace, they are, with the ex-
cepon of Savernake or Marlborough Forest, and Cran-
boune Chace, almost wholly either in pasture or under the
ptogh.
iltshire being an elevated district, many rivers have
the sources in it, or water the lands of it soon after their
ris The most important of these are the Ihames, the
Le er Avon, and the Kennet, all of which are navigable.
Bedes these, are the tributary streams, the Upper Avon, - . , , ' i ^ i at0
th. Willey, the Nadder, the Bourne, the Stour, and the onejv.z. Westbury, W^ton.MalmesburyandCa e N
Br, The canals which pass from or through this county new boroughs were udv Ss of Uect ng
an die Thames and Severn, connecting those two rivers lowing places retain their a c ent e g
wi each other; the Kennet and Avon?which also unites two members ea.ch^
tji"3 rivers. Both of these canals have been most expen- lade, Devizes, an £ ' Trowbridge 10,863;
siv and hitherto unproductive undertakings, designed to pulation excee mg p Westbury, 7324; War-
fio tate the intercourse between London and Briatob The ‘f Caine, «95; Chippen-
Devizes; and the other polling places are Melksham, Malmes¬
bury, and Swindon. The elections tor the southern are at
Salisbury; and the other polling places are Warminster,
East Everley, and Hindon. Each of these divisions returns
two members. By the reform bill the following boroughs,
each of which returned two members, have been disfran¬
chised ; viz. Old Sarum, Ludgershall, Hindon, Great Bed-
win, Heytesbury, Wooton-Basset, and Downton; and the
following towns, which chose two each, have now but
W s and Berks Canal, designed to connect the Severn
w> the Thames, has been a particularly unfortunate con-
ce ■ The Salisbury and Southampton Canal has been
ford of some benefit, by supplying the former place with
coin, but has been little productive to the proprietors.
I his county has long been one of the chief districts for
th manufacture of fine cloths. That branch of industry
is >w however confined to the western part of it. 1 he
PCUlous towns of Bradford, Trowbridge, Devizes, War- w;1j. Wvndham, Esq.; Corsham House, Lord Methuen;
tt'feter, Chippenham, Westbury, Melksham, Caine, an .. House Sir C? W. Malet; Charlton Park, earl of
th Villases surmundinn- them, are chiefly maintained by Wilbury House, cur y.. vv.
ham, 4333. , , • * n
Among a great number of seats belonging to noblemen
and gentlemen, the most remarkable are Longleat, the mar¬
quis of Bath ; Bowood, marquis ot Lansdowne; Tottenham
Park Lord Aylesbury; Wardour Castle, Lord Arundel;
Fonthill Abbey, Mr Morrison ; Wilton, earl of Pembroke ;
Stourhead, Sir R. C. Hoare , Longford Castle, earl of Rad-
New Park, Thomas Estcourt, Esq.; Dintqn House,
tillages surrounding them, are chiefly
892
W I N
Wimble- Suffolk; Stoke Park, Joshua Smith, Esq.; Bradley, duke
on of Somerset; and Ramsbury, Sir Francis Burdett.1'
WIMBLEDON, an extensive parish of the county of
Surrey, in the hundred of Brixton, seven miles from Lon¬
don. The village consists of one main street on the great
road to Portsmouth, but is most remarkable for the number
and elegance of the residences around its common, and in
other parts of the parish. The most striking of these is
the seat of Earl Spencer, and the park which surrounds it,
originally built by Lord Burleigh in 1588, and afterwards
rebuilt by Sarah duchess of Marlborough. Many others
are deserving of attention. The population of the parish
amounted in 1821 to 2195, and in 1831 to 2195.
WIMBORN-MINSTER, a market-town of the county
of Dorset, in the hundred of Badbury and division of
Shaftesbury, 100 miles from London and seven from Poole.
It is finely situated between the rivers Stour and Allen,
over each of which are bridges. Its name is derived from
the minster, a Gothic-Norman structure, which now serves
as the parish church. It has a lofty tower in the middle,
and another at the v/est end, and in the choir are fourteen
stalls. The town has a good market-place, well attended
on Friday, an endowed grammar-school, and several charit¬
able foundations. The population amounted in 1821 to
3563, and in 1831 to 4009; but in this estimate are includ¬
ed the inhabitants of three tythings within the parish.
WINCANTON, a market-town of the county of So¬
merset, in the hundred of Ferres-Norton, 108 miles from
London. It has a market on Wednesday. What little
trade there is, consists in making tickings, dowlas, and other
coarse linen goods. The population amounted in 1821 to
2143, and in 1831 to 2123.
WINCHCOMBE, a market-town of the county of Glou¬
cester, in the hundred of Kiftsgate, ninety-six miles from
London and six from Cheltenham. It is situated in the
Cotswold Hills. It is a place of great antiquity, and was
once deemed a county of itself, having exempt jurisdiction.
The church is deserving of notice, being a fine Gothic
structure, and the burying-place of some of the ancient
kings of Mercia, one of whom, Kenulph, founded a Bene¬
dictine monastery in the sixth century. It is still a bo¬
rough, governed by two bailifs. Till the reign of Charles II.,
this place was the chief seat of the cultivation of tobacco
in England. There is now a good market on Saturday.
The population amounted in 1821 to 2240, and in 1831 to
2514.
WINCHELSEA, a town and parish of the county of
Sussex, in the hundred of Guestling and rape of Hastings,
sixty-seven miles from London. It stands on a rising
ground, overlooking marshes which extend to the sea. The
ancient town of this name was once a large city, and con¬
tained a harbour and eighteen parish churches, nearly the
whole of which have been swallowed up by tempests, and by
the receding of the land. The present town, which is dis¬
tant from the sea a mile and a half, is built upon an emi¬
nence, and was erected in the reign of Edward I. In various
parts of the town are spacious stone-vaults, and extensive
ruins. An attempt was made to introduce the manufac¬
ture of cambrics into this town, but it was attended with no
success. The small market is on Saturday. The popula¬
tion amounted in 1821 to 817, and in 1831 to 772.
Winchslse a Island, in the Gulf of Carpentaria, New
Holland, near the coast of Groote Eylandt, with which it
forms a bay, called by Captain Flinders North-west Bay.
It is about five or six miles long. There is another island
of this name in the Pacific Ocean, thirty miles south-east of
Sir Charles Hardy’s Island.
WINCHESTER, a city in Hampshire, of which it is
W I N
the capital, sixty-two miles from London, and ,
from Southampton. It is built on the side of a hill ^ Vl"d
on the level below it, which extends to the banks of of wi
river Itchin. It is a remarkably clean place; and thoiJ i
many of the houses are in an antique style, it is w jl
built, and the streets, though some are narrow, are w I
paved and well lighted. The country around it’is fertile
yielding supplies, to the two weekly markets on Wednesday
and Saturday, of the best kinds of meat, vegetables fish
and all other requisites for subsistence. With the sea8it
has a communication by a canal, by which coals and other
heavy commodities are furnished at moderate rates. From
these circumstances, the city is inhabited by many respect¬
able families in moderate circumstances, as well as by pro"
fessional persons drawn to it as the county-town, and on
account of the cathedral, the college, and other public in.
stitutions.
This city is one of the most ancient in England. It was
known in the time of the Romans. During the contests of
the Britons and the Saxons it became the capital of the
West Saxons, and, under the reign of Egbert, the capital
of the whole kingdom; and it was not till the reign of
■William the Conqueror that London began to rival it
though not then the royal residence. In the reign of Ed¬
ward I., who preferred London for his abode, Winchester
felt the effects of the royal abandonment, in the loss of the
numerous attendants on the king, and of those who had re¬
paired to the supreme courts of law. Edward III. erected
this city into the staple or mart for wool, which gave to it
some animation; but the plague, which raged in the city
and neighbourhood, caused the removal of the trade to
Calais, then an English fortress, about the year 1360.
The dissolution of many religious houses in the reign of
Henry VIII. inflicted great calamities on the city, and re¬
duced its population, its wealth, and its extent. During
the civil war of the reign of Charles L, it was seized by
the parliament forces under Waller, and to this day it is re¬
lated that he converted the cathedral into horse-barracks,
and caused much injury to many other sacred edifices. In
1643, the king’s forces seized upon it, and converted Win¬
chester into a garrison town, which, after the battle of Nase-
by, and a short siege, surrendered to the forces of Crom¬
well. The fortifications and castle were then destroyed, as
well as the bishop’s palace at Wolversey, and several
churches and other public buildings, few of which were re¬
placed after the restoration. The last historical event relat¬
ing to the place is the plague of 1665, which swept away a
great portion of the inhabitants. Among the objects deserv¬
ing attention, one of the most beneficial in the present day
is the college, founded by William of Wykeham, then the
bishop, between the years 1387 and 1393. It was built on
the site of an ancient grammar-school, certainly existing in
1136, and probably at an earlier period. The building
consists of two large courts, highly ornamented with ancient
sculpture, and a chapel, the ceiling of the vestibule of which
is much admired, while the interior has a fine effect, from
the bold and lofty vaulting being richly adorned with tra¬
cery, and a variety of sculptures, representing kings, pre¬
lates, and saints. Near to the college are the cloisters,
132 feet square, a detached building for those pupils who
are not on the foundation, and a library. The establish¬
ment of the college consists of a warden, ten fellows, seventy
scholars, three chaplains, and masters. This foundation is
connected with New College, Oxford, where the Winches¬
ter scholars become fellows. It has long been a flourish¬
ing institution, and here some of the most distinguished
scholars have received their early education.
The cathedral of Winchester is one of the most interest-
11'
See the Ancient History of South Wiltshire, by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart.; Aubrey’s Introduction to the Survey and Natural-History
of North Wiltshire; the Beauties of Wiltshire displayed in Statistical, Historical, and Descriptive Sketches, by John Britton; Davis s
of the Agriculture of the County of Wilts.
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W I N
in(T illdings in the kingdom, considering its antiquity, the
hi^jcal events of which it has been the theatre, and the
chapter of the persons whose mortal remains have been
deputed within its walls. It is also curious as exhibit¬
ing istructive specimens of the Saxon, Norman, and
Enctih styles of architecture, and of the gradual steps from
one K another of them. The various parts of this building,
the :riods of their erection, and the most minute particu¬
lars if every portion, have been so elaborately and accu¬
rate; detailed by the pen of Dr Milner, a Catholic bishop,
andi v others, that we must refer to their works, more
1] ogpoally as our limits will not enable us to do justice to
admable impressions made on surveying the whole. On
the ithority of Milner, we give the following as the dimen¬
sion of this magnificent building. The whole length of
the iithedral is 545 feet, length of the nave from the west
port to the iron doors at the entrance of the choir 351
feet-length of the choir 136 feet, breadth of the cathe¬
dral, ight-seven feet, and of the choir forty feet, length of
the ransept 186 feet, and height of the tower 150 feet.
Sim the work of Milner was published, the impression
ination first entering the building has been greatly height-
une by the removal of the screen erected in the time of
Bisfj) Fox. It is said that formerly there were in Win-
cheer between eighty and ninety churches. At present
then are only eleven remaining, most of which are very
ancnt, and all deserving of inspection by the lovers of
antiaities.
|[c ancient castle has been converted into a county-
hall n which is shewn the celebrated round table attribut¬
ed i King Arthur. In the town-hall, built on an ancient
fouuation, is preserved the bushel measure given by king
Ed; r, which still bears the name of this city. The mar-
ket-foss is a striking building, and a specimen of the style
of enry VI. Overlooking the city is the King-House,
an ifinished building, erected by Charles II. It has
nevi been inhabited except by French prisoners in time
of nr. Within the confines of the city is the monastery
of Cross, now converted into a respectable kind of
almhouse; and there are many other charitable institu-
tioi The city, divided into three wards, is governed by
a r:yor, six aldermen, and eighteen councillors. It re-
tur two members to the House of Commons. The popu-
lati , including the extra parochial, amounted in 1821 to
m, and in 1831 to 9212.
sWND is a sensible agitation of the atmosphere, occa-
sioi i by a quantity of air flowing from one place to an-
oth. See Meteorology.
|v!ND-Gage. See Physical Geography, vol. xvii. p.
331;!.
11NDLASS, a machine used for raising huge weights,
as ms, stones, anchors, &c. It is very simple, consisting
onl of an axis or roller, supported horizontally at the two
cm by two pieces of wood and a pulley: the two pieces of
woi meet at top, being placed diagonally so as to prop
eac other; the axis or roller goes through the two pieces,
ancurns in them. The pulley is fastened at top where
the;ieces join. Lastly, there are two staves or handspikes
wh i go through the roller, whereby it is turned, and the
rop which comes over the pulley is wound oft and on the
sam.
Windlass, in a ship, is an instrument in small.ships,
pla; d upon the deck, just abaft the fore-mast. It is made
of u )iece of timber six or eight feet square, in form or an
axl ree, whose length is placed horizontally upon two
pie s of wood at the ends thereof, and upon which it is
W I N
893
turned about by the help of handspikes put into holes made Window
for that purpose. This instrument serves for weighing . II
anchors, or hoisting of any weight in or out of the ship, Winko‘jP’s
and will purchase much more than any capstan, and that.
without any danger to those that heave ; for if, in heaving ^
the windlass about, any of the handspikes should happen to
break, the windlass would pall of itself.
WINDOW, an aperture or open place in the wall of a
house to let in the light. Before the use of glass became
general, which was not till towards the end of the 12th
century, the windows in Britain seem generally to have
been composed of paper. Properly prepared with oil, this
forms no contemptible defence against the intrusions of the
weather, and makes no incompetent opening for the admis¬
sion of the light. It is still used by our architects for the
temporary windows of unfinished houses, and not unfre-
quently for the regular ones of our workshops. But some
of the principal buildings we may reasonably suppose to
have been windowed in a superior manner. They could
however be furnished merely with lattices of wood or sheets
of linen, as these two remained the only furniture of our
cathedrals nearly to the eighth century ; and the lattices
continued in some of the meaner towns of Lancashire to
the 18th, and in many districts of Wales, and many of the
adjoining parts of England, are in use even to the present
moment. These seem all to have been fixed in frames that
were called capsamenta, or casements.
WINDSOR, a borough and market town of Berkshire,
twenty-two miles from London, on the banks of the Thames.
Old and New Windsor, the castle, and the hamlets of Clewer
and Dedworth, are included in the parish. Windsor stands
on the side and top of a hill sloping to the river. It
is divided into two wards, and is governed by a mayor, six
aldermen, and eighteen councillors, and it returnatwo mem¬
bers to the House of Commons. The parish church is a
spacious building in the High-street; and near it is the
town-hall, a neat structure supported by columns and arches
of Portland stone. There are also many good houses be¬
longing to individuals. The population, including that of the
castle, amounted in 1821 to 5698, and in 1831 to 7103. The
chief object of admiration is the castle, a royal residence,
with its park, and adjoining to it a tract of land of fifty-six
miles in extent, denominated Windsor Forest. The castle or
palace is a beautiful pile of building, on an eminence, which
makes it visible to a large extent of the surrounding
country. The terrace, overlooking the Thames, is a mag¬
nificent promenade, nearly the third of a mile in length,
from which the views are richly expanded. The interior
consists of two courts, surrounded with apartments for the
royal family and domestics. These are magnificently fur¬
nished, and adorned with pictures, statues, and other valu¬
able curiosities. Within the castle is St George’s chapel,
a most elegantly finished building, with beautifully painted
glass windows; and under it are the vaults in which are
deposited the remains of many of the successive monarchs
of this kingdom, and of the members of their families. The
recent repairs and additions have been made with great taste,
and at an enormous expense.
WINDWARD, in the sea-language, denotes any thing
towards that point from whence the wind blows, in respect
of a ship : thus windward tide is the tide which runs against
the wind. , , , ,
WINKOOP’S Island, a large island on the south coast
of Java. Long. 106. 36. E. Lat. 7. 28. S. There is a bay
of the same name on the south coast of Java. Long 106*
38. E. Lat. 7. 5. S.
894
WINE-MAKING.
M ikin * THE history wines is both curious and amusing ; and
' . their topography is not less so, if we may apply this term
to the several kinds, to their enumeration, and to that of
the countries where they grow, and to the variations fol¬
lowed in their manufacture. This is a subject which would
occupy a volume; and we must therefore pass it over, that
we may dwell on what is of more moment, the general
mode of making this important article, and the several
chemical circumstances connected with it. France is the
only nation which has bestowed much attention on the
philosophy of wine-making, as it is that which excels all
others in the variety and the goodness of its produce.
Fruits, Vinous liquors, resembling wine, may be made from
ture1 na" every fruit, as well as from every vegetable which contains
acids united to its extractive matter. The term wine is
thus applied to the produce of currants, gooseberries, and
many others ; while that of cider is especially reserved for
the liquor to be obtained from apples. That term would
be a fitter one for many of the vinous liquors in question,
and we shall here restrict the term wine to the produce of
the vine.
All fruits consist of the following principles: water,
sugar, a peculiar combination of sugar and extract, called
the sweet principle by the French, supertartrite of potash,
malat of potash, and malic acid, superoxalate of potash, ex¬
tractive matter analogous to mucilage, and vegetable gelatin,
tannin, a principle of flavour, and a colouring principle.
Ihese however are not all found in any one fruit, and
they also vary in their proportion in different fruits. The
essential ones to the making of wine are the tartarous acid,
sugar or the sweet principle, extract, and water ; and those
which are useful, without being indispensable, are flavour,
tannin or astringency, and colour. And it is by possess¬
ing these in right proportions that the grape excels all other
fruits for the purpose of making wine.
Effects of Tartarous acid, or its combinations, are especially indis-
t^es of"01" Pensable: an(* hence it is that the grape, which contains it
fruits. in larSe quantity* produces wine; while the apple, and
other fruits which contain the malic acid, produce cider.
It is essential to the fermentation, as well as to the quality
of the produce; and it is decomposed in the process so as
to increase the quantity of alcohol, which the sugar would
otherwise yield. Where malic acid is also present, the
quality of the wine is bad. Sugar must be considered the
fundamental element, and as that from which the alcohol
is chiefly derived. Thus the most saccharine grapes pro¬
duce the strongest wine. But it seldom exists in a pure
state in the grape, or in any other vegetable. It appears
to be most pure in the sugar-cane; but even there it is
combined with the extractive matter, and also with some
acid, forming the sweet principle of the French. Pure sugar
does not ferment in water, it crystallizes; and whenever
fermentation occurs, some other vegetable matter is pre¬
sent. When sugar, again, has crystallized from a solution
of the sweet principle, what remains runs still more readily
into fermentation. In the produce of the cane, this is
molasses. It is very important to keep this distinction in
view, because the fabrication of sweet wines depends ma¬
terially upon it. It explains many circumstances in the
process of fermentation, and some that are often overlooked.
It explains, among other things, why wine ferments in a
cask when it will not ferment in bottles ; because the sugar
derives the necessary extractive matter from the wood.
The chemical nature of the extractive matter is not known,
but it is supposed to contain azote, as this is the produce
of fermentation. Yeast, or leaven, contains the extractivo
principle in great abundance, and hence its power in ind ^
cing fermentation in a solution of pure sugar. All ve ^
tables contain it; and it is most abundant in' those ju£ ^
which gelatinate in boiling. It is found in the grape and
it is thus the natural leaven of wine, whether existing in
separate state, or united to sugar in the form of the sweet
principle. Water is a much more essential ingredient than
would at first be suspected. If over-abundant, it is diffi.
cult to prevent the produce from running to the acetous
stage. Hence weak wines become sour. If deficient, it is
difficult to establish the fermentation; and hence sweet
wines. Thus also sweet wines are insured by drying the
grapes, or evaporating their juice, both common practices
in the wine countries. Colour must be looked on in the
light of an ornament, and is found in the husk of the grape.
So is the tannin principle, which occasions astringency in
Port wine. Of the principle of flavour chemistry knows
nothing; it seems often the produce of fermentation, as in
Claret and Burgundy wines : in those of Frontignan and
Muscat it is the natural flavour of the fruit.
When the process is complete, the wine is dry, orcon-Onfer
tains no sugar, so that sweet wines, which are compoundsmental
of wine and sugar, are the produce of an incomplete fermen¬
tation. When all the elements above described are in due
proportion, the product is perfect, a dry wine; and the
elements that require particularly to be balanced for this
result are the extract or leaven, and the sugar. If the
former is in excess, the wine tends to vinegar, unless means
are used to stop the fermentation by abstracting the leaven;
if in defect, the product is imperfect, a sweet wine. Hence
the perfection and management of the leaven are among
the most important circumstances in the manufacture. It
is coagulable partially by heat; and hence also it is, as well
as by evaporating the water, that boiled must produces
sweet wine. It is also abstracted by precipitation, and by
the action of sulphurous acids; whence other processes in
use in wine-making.
In fermentation, the superfluous extract or leaven is se¬
parated in two forms, that of yeast and lees; and these
will excite that process in fresh solutions of sugar, or renew
it, or continue it, in the mixture whence it wTas separated;
whence racking and fining. There is however one impor¬
tant difference between the natural or original, and this
artificial or secondary leaven. The latter is soluble in hot
water, and not in cold; and hence it is separated in fer¬
mentation. By restoring this separated matter to wine in
the course of fabrication, the fermenting process is pro¬
longed, or the wine rendered drier; by skimming, and
fining, and racking, the process is checked ; and hence the
application of these practices to sweet wines. The rolling
of wine, or returning on its lees to feed, is hence understood;
and hence also the improvement which certain wines ex¬
perience in long voyages. But the same principle ^
process which improves Madeira destroys Burgundy, aid
the reason must now be obvious. The theory of racking,
fining, and sulphuring, is hence also apparent; and, of the
sulphurous acid, it is a property to combine with the leaven,
and form an insoluble separable compound. It is thus
that it checks fermentation. Hence also it is that sweet
wines do not turn sour: their leaven has been expended.
Thus also we may see that the process of fermentation is
not an unmanageable and a precarious one; but that tlie
essential ingredients are in our power, and that we can
modify them to the desired result. If it has been stopped
prematurely, it may be renewed by fresh leaven; ifin eX*
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W I N E - M A K I N G.
895
file
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ggs. it may be checked or suspended. And thus it is, too,
tha dry wines, and fined wines, and wines in bottles, are
' duible, when they would perish in the cask.
he acid was shown to be also essential to the produce
of 'ine. Mere extract, or leaven, and sugar, produce beer,
no wine. Tartarous acid cannot well be in excess in that
co jTOund in which it exists, viz. the supertartrite of potash ;
heiuse it is a salt of difficult solution, afid the superfluity
ig recipitated; hence the tartar of wine-casks ; hence
ah!the crystals which are seen, in cold weather, to float
intladeira wine. We noticed that it was decomposed in
thi fermentation, and was thought to contribute to the
quiitity of alcohol. The French chemists also assert that
ajrtof it is converted into the malic; hence the peculiar
pnertiesof some wines; hence also the practice of liming
tk/ats, or of sprinkling the grapes with lime in the manu-
faaire of Sherry wines, whence they acquire that peculiar
dnand hard taste which distinguishes them from the wines
oflladeira. As the tartarous salt adds to the fermenting
po»er of the fluid, hence we explain the facility with which
thfjuice of green grapes runs into fermentation when com-
patd with ripe ones ; the immature fruit containing a much
laier proportion of this salt than the mature. Thus also
tbie wines continue to ferment longer, or to retain the
peer of fermenting; and hence the vivacity of Champagne
wies, the most effervescent kinds of which are made from
ha-ripened fruit.
'he temperature of 54° Fahrenheit is considered the
! m t favourable to this process. In extreme heat it fails,
asm extreme cold. Hence the difficulty of making wine
irindia and the West Indian islands. Hence also, in the
tt perate climates, we have it in our power to regulate
fflnentation by the use of heat or of cold. Hence also
it that wines which had ceased to ferment, recommence
iripring; and hence one of the processes essential to the
rrnufactures of Champagne wines, namely, that of watching
tlispring fermentation, and bottling the wines in this stage,
■kir is necessary to fermentation, rather than essential,
lli operation does not cease in closed vessels, but is re-
fcJt'd. Air is not absorbed in the vinous fermentation,
a icugh its oxygen is in the acetous. The wine is
s ianger in close vessels if the process is slower, because a
pation of the alcohol escapes from the vats; and this is
n understood in our malt distilleries. That alcohol is
h i in solution in the carbonic acid which is generated,
a thus it appears to intoxicate more rapidly ; as is well
ktwn in Champagne wines. Under pressure, this com¬
pand is united to the fluid; and being disengaged, pro¬
dies the well-known effervescence. The practice offer-
inutation is partly regulated by this consideration. The
vtlent stage of that process in wine-making is allowed to
tile place in an open vat, the next is partially checked by
a (occasional bung, and in the last of all the vessel is com-
p ely closed. In strong still wines, the whole process may
if'<conducted in open vessels; but in light and brisk ones,
ii|s absolutely necessary that the last part should take
p e in closed ones. Champagne wines are managed so
ferment even in their bottles.
The volume of the fermenting fluid has a considerable
efcct on the process; a few days are sufficient to complete
illvhen the quantity is large. When small, it is difficult
& 'stablish, and tedious in the progress, and the results are
a n different; wines of different qualities being thus pro¬
filed from the very same materials. It is the same in the
Wmate fermentation or ripening of wines. Champagne
" fid be destroyed in a large cask: porter, an extreme
4e, is ripened in enormous quantities, as are many of the
s!>nger wines. Bulk is peculiarly required for the strong
a I sweet wines; Champagne may be made in a gallon
tHasure.
I he first appearance is the production of air-bubbles,
terminating at length in a general ebullition. The liquor Wine-
then becomes turbid, a variety of solid matters are disen- Making,
gaged, some falling to the bottom, and others rising to the
top of the fluid. The leaven before mentioned is thusPfh5Ilomeni1
separated among other matters, while the bulk of the fluid
is materially increased. It is in this stage that we have the
power of regulating the extent of the fermentation, by
separating the floating leaven, or allowing it to return into
the liquor. Flence the process of fermenting in a full
cask ejecting that substance by the bung-hole.
The disengaged gas is chiefly carbonic acid; but hold¬
ing, as first remarked, some alcohol in solution. It appears
by analysis that this is the produce of part of the carbon
of the sugar and of its oxygen ; and this is the great change
which leads to the production of the alcohol. But it also
contains some obscure vegetable matter in suspension;
because, if passed through water, it not only converts it
into vinegar, but deposits that mucilage which in vinegar is
called the mother. It is possible, however, that this may
itself be a new compound ; and it is one which, in certain
cases, contains azote. That substance, which exists in
yeast, has also been found in the disengaged gas, partly, it
is said, in the form of ammonia; and hence, possibly, a
nauseous ammoniacal taste, well known in bad wines, and
very remarkable in those of the Cape of Good Hope.
The generation of heat is one of the most remarkable
phenomena in fermentation, and it bears a proportion to
the bulk of the fluid. It is sometimes so great as to render
it necessary to reduce it by art; its cause is obscure. The
colour of wines is also produced during the fermentation;
the red appears to be a substance analogous to resin,
soluble in alcohol; and thus its production is accounted for.
Hence white wines may be made from red grapes, by ex¬
cluding the husks; hence also red wines are often astrin¬
gent, because the tannin also lies in the husk. Urns also,
in Champagne wines, the red are generally inferior, be¬
cause the species of fermentation required to extract the
colour dissipates part of the flavour.
The formation of alcohol is the last and the essential
phenomenon ; and it is now plain how this must depend
on the quantity of sugar, on the goodness of the fruit, on
the due apportioning of the leaven, and on the manage¬
ment of the process.
Thus, when all the necessary circumstances are present,
the process goes on till the produce is pure wine, or a com¬
pound of alcohol, water, acid, colour, vegetable extract,
and sugar. For although the two latter are said to be
destroyed, there is almost always a minute portion of both
remaining; the former rendered very sensible, in some
wines, by the skinny matter which it deposits on the
sides of the bottles. In a similar manner it happens that
a portion of sugar continues attached to the wine for a long
time, though it is not always sensible except to a fine taste.
Thus it is perceptible in Claret, and even in Madeira,
which are among the driest of our wines. It is often very
sensible in Port, and when in excess is commonly the
mark of a bad wine. In the first stages of the fermenta¬
tion the sugar is never thoroughly decomposed. If that
were the case, indeed, the process would stop, or it would
proceed to vinegar. Further fermentation, that slower
species which takes place in the casks, tends further to
diminish it; but still a portion remains, even when it has
been bottled.
It is the gradual conversion of this sugar, tne clnet
operation that goes on in bottled wines, which is the cause
of the change which these undergo. This process often
requires many years for its completion : that is the case in
the Clarets of Chateau Margaux, and other Bordeaux wines ;
and the same process indeed takes place to a greater or less
decree in Madeira and the other strong wines. In these
cases it is a cause of improvement, the wine becoming
896
W I N E - M A K I N G.
'^e* more perfect under this last tedious fermentation ; in others
J 1'in°~ - ^owever mischievous, and hence the destruction of many
""'~v wines. Thus Champagne is destroyed, and often very
quickly : thus Burgundy also is easily ruined; and thus
even our Port is not a very durable wine, though the de¬
struction is here accelerated by the intermixture of brandy
used in this particular manufacture. Age, which thus me¬
liorates one wine, destroys another, independently of that
loss of flavour which occurs in some of the more delicate,
though this also is the result of the slow fermentation under
review. In the sweet wines the same process tends con¬
stantly to diminish that sweetness ; and hence the compa¬
ratively dry qualities of ancient Malmsey and of Paxaret un¬
der the same circumstances. In this class of wines also the
flavour is injured by the same process, or by age; and hence,
though age may confer merit as well as honour on Malmsey
and Malaga, and generally on the sweet Spanish and Greek
wines, which have little flavour, by diminishing their lusci¬
ousness, it destroys or injures the highly perfumed wines
of Frontignan, which can scarcely be drunk too new.
By the satfle considerations we can account for the
benefit which Madeira wines receive in a hot climate, or in
a hot cellar. The effect of the heat, and, in the case of a
sea-voyage, united to the agitation, whose action was con¬
sidered before, is that of accelerating the imperceptible
fermentation, and thus ripening the wine sooner than
would have happened in a low temperature and at rest.
But it is a mistake to imagine that this is peculiar to
Madeira, or that it is the only wine which can be benefited
by this treatment. It is the same for all the Spanish wines,
for Sherry and for Port; and it is also true of the better
and safer wines of France, of those of Hermitage and the
Bordelais. Claret becomes drinkable in a much shorter
time in a warm than in a cold cellar; and that is equally
true of many more of these wines. But that which some
will bear, others will not; and thus many of the wines of
1' ranee, so far from admitting a high temperature, can
scarcely be preserved even in a low one. As to Port, it is
a useful piece of knowledge to be aware that it may
speedily be rendered aged by heat. And in this case it
deposits its colour, and assumes the marks of old wine to
the eye as well as to the palate. One year will thus do
that for Port which might have required five or six ; but
the period of its entire duration is consequently shortened,
as might be expected. The effect of heat is indeed such
in this case as is suspected by few. In America it is a
well-known practice to boil Madeira, or to heat it to the
boiling temperature; and the effect is that of rendering it
good and old wine, when previously harsh and new. The
same practice is applicable to Port. If newly-bottled wine
be exposed to the sun, it begins shortly to deposit, and
improves in flavour ; and even the rawest wine of this kind
may, by heating it in hot water, be caused, in the course
of a day, to assume the quality which it would have had
after many years of keeping. It is so far from being in¬
jurious, as might be imagined, that it is a valuable secret;
and, as we believe, one that is but little known to those
whose interest it is to give the complexion of old wine to
new, and who generally effect this purpose in a fraudulent
manner, by putting it into foul and crusted bottles.
It is important, in another view, to consider the effects
which follow from a portion of undecomposed sugar re¬
maining in wine. It is supposed to be a means and a test
of the security of wine; and the French chemists assert,
that as long as any portion remains undecomposed, such
wine cannot run into the acetous fermentation. This ap¬
pears true only in a limited sense. In Hock, it would
seem as if every atom of sugar had vanished, and yet the
durability of that wine appears to be endless. If that is
not absolutely the case in Claret and Madeira, still these
are very durable wines ; the most so, after Hock, at least
of the dry class. None of these, when of a good nmV>
ever runs into the acetous fermentation. Perhaps th J'’
depend on some peculiar balance of principles, which ^ ^
mistry has not yet found the means of discovering • f0 6' i
other cases, it is certain that the chemists in question’m
under an error, and that the acetous fermentation wii
come on though sugar should still be present. Thisli
pens in many of the French wines of the lighter kinds Tf
in the sweet wines from the grape, that effect does not tab
place, it is very certain that it happens in the wines made
in this country in imitation of them from various sub
stances. In these cases even sweet wines are found to be
occasionally pricked, as the technical term is, or vinegar
and sugar are co-existent in the fluid at the same time
Nor are even all the foreign sweet wines of the grape ex
empt from this disease; as must be well known to those
who have an extensive knowledge of wines, or of the wine
market.
There is reason to believe, that the cause of this must be
sought as a circumstance which these chemists seem to
have overlooked. If the balance of principles in a sweet
wine has been perfect, and the process of fermentation has
also been complete, and if, in addition to this, these wines
have been so carefully racked and fined that no lee or
leaven remains in them, they may be safe, because there is
nothing left in them to re-excite a fermentation, or to
bring on the acetous stage. But if that is not the case,
if any impurity, any leaven in any form remain, the sweet¬
ness offers no security against the change into vinegar, or
at least against the partial change which constitutes apn'oS.
ed wine. The acetous fermentation may commence, and
proceed as far as the circumstances allow ; and thus vine¬
gar and sweet wine may exist together in the fluid. The
nature of the acetous fermentation is indeed very ill under¬
stood, as little as that of the vinous ; and we are at present
incompetent to reason much about it. It is a common opi¬
nion that it must be preceded by the vinous ; yet this does
not appear to be true. Certain mixtures of sugar, leaven,
and water, will immediately tend to vinegar, without our
being able to detect a previous vinous stage; and this
seems always the case when the solution is very weak, or
the water in large quantity, provided, of course, there be i
access of air. It is indeed unquestionable, that in the com¬
mon process of making vinegar, the acetous fermentation is
going on in a saccharine fluid, so that the mixed taste of
vinegar and sugar is perceptible until that process is com¬
pleted. Vinegar can also be produced by passing alco¬
holized carbonic acid through water, another obscure ope¬
ration ; and in the human stomach it is produced in a very
few minutes, when we can scarcely imagine that any pre¬
vious vinous stage can have taken place.
When all the favourable circumstances above stated are ^ ^
present, the fermentation begins, and passes through its(ermentl
regular stages, till there is produced wine, perfect and drytjon,
if the sugar has been thoroughly and accurately propor¬
tioned to the other ingredients; sweet if it has been in '
excess; and acid, as in Hock, when this substance has been
in undue proportion to the other ingredients. The unfa¬
vourable circumstances must be sought in the temperature,
or in the quality of the fluid. The juice of the grape
rarely labours under any defect but the want of sugar,
arising from a bad variety of this fruit, from a bad season,
or from imperfect ripening. In the latter case, however,
there may be added to defect of sugar or excess of water,
an excess of acid and an excess of extractive matter.
In the wine-countries, the defect of sugar is remedied b\
different expedients. In some, sugar or honey is added to
the juice or must; in others, a portion of the juice is eva¬
porated and added to the rest; and sometimes all the juice
is boiled before it is submitted to fermentation. These
seem to have been the vina coda of the ancients, which,
e Manage.
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WINE-MAKING.
897
fror(Other circunistsncesj w e know to have hcen thicK and be dissipated by a violent or a long fermentation, or bv am ^Vine-
swet wines, reepuiring dilution* X Iwy could not bave been open one $ and bence, for the finer wines, great care is re- striking*
toiljl to any consistence after they had become wine, with- quired through every stage of that process. It is the same
out ?sing all their properties ; and as to wines that were to for the brisker winesas, if this be neglected, this volatile
, t by a knife, it is plain that we must have misappre- substance, on which their peculiar property depends, may
jwn,;d the meaning of the term vinurn in this case, as no be irrecoverably dissipated. A consideration of the gene-
wimcould exist under such a form. To gain the same ral divisions of the quality of wines will render these re-
end: it is a practice in many countries to dry the grapes marks more intelligible.
[,arl'.lly, by suffering them to remain on the vine; but They may be divided into four classes; the sweet and
thisi; chiefly resorted to for sweet wines, as in the case of strong ; the dry and strong; the delicate and light, which
Cyjps, Tokay, Lipari, and others. The other expedient are generally weak compared to the former; and the effer-
for iicreasing the properties of sugar in the juice is by vescent or brisk. Malmsey, Tokay, Frontignan, are ex-
ulas r of Paris or gypsum, not an uncommon ingredient; amples of the first; and the second are peculiarly familiar to
andthis effect, as well as that of absorbing and destroying Britain. Hermitage holds an intermediate rank, as does
suprfluous acid, is also partially attained by the use of Claret, between these and the third class; of which the
;itn: lighter Burgundy wines, the white wines of Greece, and
"le management of the fermentation, supposing the fluid those of the Rhine and the Moselle, maybe considered
to 1 perfect, is regulated by the intended nature of the pure examples; and, of the last, Champagne is almost the
win If sweet wine is desired, not only must the pro- only one that deserves to be named.
iorpn of the water be diminished by one or other of the If therefore the intention is to make either a strong sweet
me;|S above mentioned, if necessary, but the proportion of wine or a strong dry one, the fermentation is commenced
extictive matter or leaven must be reduced, to prevent it in an open vat. But in the former case it is not suffered
to remain there long, as it is in the latter. For the driest
wines, or for those which are manufactured for distillation,
the fermentation is allowed to expend itself in the vat, and
the wine is not tunned till it is made ; the completion of
eje jed at the bung-hole as fast as it is formed. Should the the process merely, or the final solar fermentation, being
revise be desired, or a dry wine be the manufacturer’s ob- reserved for the cask. In the sweet wines, on the con-
jeclthe yeast is suffered to remain on the surface in the trary, it is soon removed from the vat to the casks, that it
vati hat it may be continually returned into the liquor by may be more in the operator’s power to suspend the pro¬
cess, and thus to prevent the annihilation, or total conver¬
sion, of the saccharine matter. In the third class, again, in
the highly flavoured wines, of which Burgundy may be se¬
lected as an example, the fluid is only suffered to remain a
few hours in the vat; from six perhaps to twenty, that
fror. running to the ultimate stage, and producing a dry
ancstrong wine. In this case the yeast is separated as
fastis it rises, by mechanical means; as by fermenting in
fullbasks in such a manner that it may be continuously
thenternal agitation ; or else it is stirred, or rolled in a
cas' or in the vat, so as to protract the fermentation.
Laiy, if the wine is to be brisk, to retain carbonic acid,
as the wines of Champagne, not only must the propor-
tio: of water and leaven be increased, but the fermenta-
tioenust be conducted in vessels partially closed, and these
alsmiust be fully closed before the fermentation is com-
pled. The management of the temperature is easily de-
du.cl from the principles already laid down. A deficiency
period varying according to the state of the temperature,
the particular quality of the juice as to goodness or strength,
and the other views of the manufacturer. This is done to
prevent the dissipation of the flavour, which would be in-
of at is easily remedied by artificial means, by a fire, or jured, if not destroyed, by an open fermentation. The
by xposure to the sun ; and this is sometimes done by same practice is followed for the wines of Champagne,
he: ng a portion of the fluid, and then mixing it with the though there is little flavour to preserve ; the purpose
nm. An equal temperature in the vat is also procured being in this case to secure the power of checking the
by gitation; and when it is necessary carefully to maintain fermentation by pressure, so as to retain the wine in a
a ii:an heat, this is frequently done in the wine-countries 1^"r cfQn'° r,f f'1"2 r‘,’nnp,ia t,1na tn n
bynrrounding it with straw or other bad conductors, or
by ther obvious artifices.
ii apparently minute attentions of this nature, far more
de nds than would, on a superficial view, be imagined;
an the great superiority of the wines of France above
th 13 of Spain, Italy, and Greece, often depends much more
on elicacies of this nature than on any difference in the
qu ity of the grape. In wine-making, indeed, more seems
low stage of this process, and thus to secure a supply of
mixed or combined carbonic acid at the period of use or
drinking.
There is nothing which more strongly distinguishes the Further
bad or inferior wines of Spain and Italy from those of precautions
France, even from those which, from their cheapness, mustj^J®™en*
be considered as belonging to the same class, than the
various disgusting flavours which they commonly present.
Wines may have bad qualities from other causes,—from
oflili to depend on art than on nature; and it is both to the nature of the soil or the grape; but there is far less
thioraise and advantage of the French, that, by these mi- difference in this fruit in different countiies than there is
nu attentions, they' have contrived to excel all Furope in in the care bestowed on the manufacture, do use a shoit
thi art. Italy, Spain, and Greece, with better climates, and intelligible term, it is Jifth which is the. cause of the
anievery natural advantage, are thus the manufacturers of bad quality of these wines ; filth and neglect in eveiy stage
a t msand detestable wines, which, in the hands of French- of the process, from the gathering to the pressing, the fer-
nie, might rival the produce of that country. The recent mentation, and the tunning. In the fermentation, no pi e-
im, ovements made in the Sicilian wines in new hands, are caution too great can be used to have all the vessels c ean,
a !joof how much depends on these attentions ; and those and entirely free from every odour. There is no substance
wh have drunk the nauseous, putrid, acid, and disgusting more delicate than wine, nor any one which is so easily
CO!non wines of Italy and Spain, where nothing is want- contaminated and destroyed by bad flavouis, even in t le
'"Put management and care, will know how to appreciate
thWalue of these.
It conducting the fermentation, some other considera-
fici; are necessary, on which some remarks are also re-
qiT'd. The first of these is the flavour. That evanescent
an’delicate property, the bouquet, as it is called, depends
on ttentions no less minute. The flavour is very apt to
0L. XXI.
minutest quantity.
The same rules apply to the casks as to the vats. New
casks communicate the well-known flavour of oak, often
found in wines, and that, fortunately, is so agreeable that
it is often given designedly by means of oak shavings.
But in the finer wines, where it would be injurious, it is
extracted from the wood by washing, and by hot water and
5 x
898
WINE-MAKING.
Wine-
Making.
by salt. The more destructive evil of musty vats or casks,
,80 often a cause of the nauseous flavour of the common
wines above mentioned, is remedied by scraping, by wash¬
ing with boiling water, and most effectually by firing or
charring the insides; while staves which are deeply injured
are replaced by new ones. Hot lime and water are also
used for the same purposes.
Another precaution is that of removing all the insoluble
matter, of whatever nature, during every stage of the pro¬
cess ; and from this neglect it is also that the great mass of
bad wines is produced in those countries where this art is
neglected. Thus the seeds are always to be removed as
fast as they rise to the surface, as they both render the
wine harsh and communicate a bad flavour. The same is
done with the husks when they have performed their duty
in giving out their colour. It is most peculiarly necessary
to be watchful over these, lest they should become mould¬
ed or musty; whence often arises that taste which re¬
sembles that of what is called corked wine ; a disease also
arising from a bad cask, and often attributed wrongfully to
careless bottling. In the finer wines, a single musty seed
or husk wall ruin a whole tun. In transferring the wine
from the vat to the cask, or from one cask to another,
whether by drawing off or pumping, care must be taken
not to disturb the sediment, and more especially still, to
separate an)7 of the scum which may be on the surface, as
this is always in danger of becoming musty, more particu¬
larly where it is most injurious, that is, in the lighter and
finer wines.
When the quantity of the fermented fluid is considerable,
the remaining wine, which adheres to the solid matter, is
separated by the press, and made into wine of an inferior
quality, either for use or distillation. That refuse is also
subjected to distillation with water in some cases; some¬
times, by means of water, it is converted into vinegar, or
used for the manufacture of white-lead or of verdegris; or,
lastly, formed into cakes with the other refuse of the first
pressing of the grapes, and used for feeding cattle.
- If after the wine is made and tunned, it were suffered to
Jermenti-r g° .°n. ferrnenting> ^ would in many cases be destroyed.
This, it has already been seen, does not easily happen in
the sweet wines, where a large portion of the saccharine
matter remains unchanged, though even these are not ab¬
solutely exempt. Nor does it very easily happen in the
stronger dry wines. Yet it does happen to all, and is al¬
most inevitable in the light still wines, and in the brisk
ones, whatever the strength or sweetness of the latter may
be. Champagne would quickly become vapid, Burgundy
would become stale and sour, and Claret would become vi¬
negar. For though the natural progress is supposed to be
from the vinous to the acetous stage of fermentation, there
are phenomena in practice which show us that we are yet
imperfectly acquainted with the exact nature and varieties
of fermentation. Champagne, for example, becomes mu¬
cilaginous and flat; while, though Burgundy becomes acid,
it is scarcely possible to make it pass to the exact state of
vinegar.
Yet the tendency to the acetous stage must be considered
as general, for want of a better expression ; and on this view
the management after the great fermentation is regulated.
If it is suspected that even intended sweet wine has been over¬
wrought, boiled must or sugar is added to it, and thus, in the
tedious fermentation of the cask, it is secured or restored.
But it must be remarked, that if the acetous stage should
have commenced, that addition would only serve to accele¬
rate and determine it. The remainder of the general ma¬
nagement consists in regulating the fermentation of the cask
by the general principles before laid down ; that is, if the
wine is incomplete, it is not suffered to rise to the bung-
hole, so that the new leaven which is disengaged may fall
back again and protract the fermentation, while this is also
Manage-
tion.
aided by heat, by stirring up the lees, and bv aaban
If the reverse be the case, and it is necessary to cwt Mv'
the secondary fermentation, then a cool temperature^ 5
rest are adopted; while, as fast as the wine wastes itisk
close to the bung by fresh additions, that so the diseneaS
leaven may escape. Some of the other requisites to th
completion of wine will fall better into another section nf
this little essay; but the process of sulphuring belongs to
the second stage of management, as well as to the final one
rations of the manufacture. ^
However vulgar and mechanical the process of sulnhur r
ing may appear, it is a refined chemical operation, the prac'pC?
tice of which was long known before the theory, howeveraildi
discovered, and the theory of which, in a scientific and rigid^’S
view, is not very well understood even now. It has been
already shewn, that the process of fermentation has a per¬
petual tendency to continue as long as all the requisites are
present, and more particularly as long as there is present
that peculiar and obscure substance, the extractive matter
or leaven, on wdiich it mainly depends. If this substance
has been entirely separated in the two forms of yeast and
lee, the process terminates naturally, the produce being
dry or sweet, according to other circumstances now under¬
stood ; but if any portion of leaven remains in the liquor,
then the acetous or some similar stage may come on, and
the wine will be destroyed.
The processes of racking and mechanical separation just
described, are all intended to separate this matter; and
whenever the wine remains turbid, it is always in danger,
because the fermentation may at any time be renewed. But
these operations are often insufficient to disengage all the
leaven or lee, as much of it not only continues mixed, so as
to produce the turbid state, but the extractive matter itself,
which has not been brought to this insoluble form, remains
combined with the fluid.
Ihe merely turbid state is remedied by the process called
fining, which precipitates all the insoluble or disengaged
lee and leaven that will neither subside nor rise; thus re¬
moving one part of the hazard, besides communicating that
brightness and beauty which is demanded in all wines. That
brightness, therefore, is more than a beauty, since without
it there is no security, at least in the finer and lighter wines.
Various substances are used for this purpose, and the action
of many of them is very obscure. They are either chemi¬
cal or mechanical. The mechanical substances are sand
and gypsum, both of which have the property of precipitat¬
ing the insoluble matter, while the latter also absorbs water.
Beechwood chips are sometimes used for the same purpose;
but the mode in which these act is not known. But the
matters chiefly in use are chemical ones, gluten and albu¬
men. Of the latter, eggs and milk are both used, but the
former are preferred. Of gluten, isinglass alone is used;
for, from some causes hitherto undiscovered, the gluten of
terrestrial animals, or common glue, does not produce this
effect to the same extent that it is obtained by the glue of
fishes. It is also usual to adopt albumen for the white wines,
and gluten for the red, as the former is found to precipitate
much of the colour from these last. The proportion used
is very small, an ounce of isinglass being sufficient for a
hundred gallons. To these chemical matters we might
have added starch, gum, rice, and blood ; but they are very
little used. The action of the albumen appears more me¬
chanical than chemical ; becoming coagulated, and then
entangling the dust, if it may so be called, which is sus¬
pended in the fluid, in the same manner as it would purify
muddy water. In the case of the gluten, however, a new
chemical combination is formed with the tannin of the wine,
and the produce is that well-known substance resembling
bird-lime, which is the basis of leather. Hence, also, fining
diminishes the astringency of red wines.
Presuming that one of these substances has been intr0*
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WIN E-MAKING.
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duel- the fluid is strongly agitated, and suffered to repose
till ear, when it is again racked into a fresh cask. It is
fouij very important to select for this purpose dry cold
we8i|er> ant*> as particularly remarked, north-east winds.
Fro* some mysterious cause, in close weather, and fogs,
andbutherly winds, the precipitated matters rise again, and
.|ef< t the objects of the operation. The other precautions
are!i()se °f using a syphon instead of a cock, as affording
<Tejer security ; or, what is now' used in all the best French
'nai,factories, blowing off. This is performed by a condens¬
ing ngine, as in the drawing of porter, and thus access of air
is pi vented. This is very important where fine-flavoured
win are concerned, as it is in brisk wines; because the
caritnic acid which would be lost, carrying away also a
,on>n of the alcohol or strength of the wine, is thus pre-
serd.
f t the leaven held in solution cannot be separated in
thismanner, and for that purpose recourse is had to the
nrojiss of sulphuring. The most common and the simplest
nraiice in this case, is to fill the proposed cask into which
the ine is to be racked, with sulphurous gas, by burning
raauies in it till full. The wine being then introduced,
beemes turbid, and, after the necessary time, it is found
as l:fore. Should the fermentation still be renewed or
dreiled, this operation is repeated as often as it may be ne-
cessry. If, as in the case of some of the Bordeaux wines,
theiuantity of leaven in the wine is so great that it cannot
be rercome in this manner, the combustion of the sulphur
witi n the cask is repeated at intervals during the process
of ling it. But it is also a practice in that country to
imyiegnate with sulphurous acid a quantity of wine, and
thi iubstance or mixed fluid, called Muet, is reserved for
adijig to those which may require it, by which means the
effilcy of the operation is better insured.
Hie theory of this practice seems to a certain extent
simile. The sulphurous acid, or possibly its oxygen, unites
to e extractive matter, or the soluble leaven, and renders
it Soluble, as happens in the act of fermentation itself;
anothus it becomes capable of being separated by the me¬
ek ical processes of racking and fining. It is for this rea-
sorulsothat sulphuring is largely used for the sweet wines,
to sure their preservation in that state. It has been said
thsu manganese, and other substances containing much
ox*;en, will produce the same effect; but the cheapness
an«implicity of the common process renders other expe-
die s unnecessary.
• | opposing wines of any class to have been thus obtained,
tin j is yet much more to be done before they become the
wiis which we know in our market. The processes in
usifor making marketable wines are badly distinguished
bydie term medication, as they are of various natures.
Tliire is indeed a great deal of wane which can scarcely
be; onsidered as strictly natural, though it is a common
pr idice that all wines are so, except when fraudulently
mn|ded, or altered, or mixed. It is difficult to draw the
lift between what may be considered fraud, and what is
legimate; and certainly by those who expect that all
wi ■ is to be what it is commonly thought, the mere pro-
dui: of the grape, and of one process on one grape, every
sulequent process may be esteemed a fraud. We must
bet limit ourselves to some of the most important opera¬
tic!as the whole would lead into a very long detail.
be simplest process is that of mixing different wines to-
ge" er, whether of the same quality or country, or of differ-
eif! ones. In either case this practice may sometimes be
co idered fraudulent, and in the latter especially so. But
in degree it is inseparable from the nature of the manu-
faiure, and the mode in which it is conducted. I he larger
niiler, or the capitalist on the spot, buying in small lots
frei the petty manufacturers, is obliged to adopt this prac-
hc partly to insure a certain quality, and partly for the
purpose of remedying those that are defective, by the addi- Wine-
tion of better ones. Making.
The mode of performing this operation, which requires ' * 
great experience and judgment, is to select, first, that period
of the year in which the wines show a disposition to renew
their fermentation, ^hich is in the spring. They are then
said, in English, to bear the fret; and hence the operation is
called fretting-in. It is only thus that a new and fine wine
can be produced. The operation of mixing different wines in
all cases disturbs both, so that they become foul. They also
tend to ferment again, till a new balance of all their prin¬
ciples is produced; and thus it is expedient to accelerate
and determine this fermentation, so as to form a proper
compound, without which the new wine would be perishable.
After this, also, it becomes necessary once more to have
recourse to sulphuring, fining, and racking; and not till all
this has been gone through is the wine completed. In the
Bordeaux practice of mixing Clarets, the muet or sulphured
wine is sometimes added at the same time, where the wines
being of very discordant qualities, a dangerous fermentation
might be excited.
In the wine-countries it is usual to cultivate particular
grapes or wines, rough, or coloured, or astringent, or high
flavoured, for the mere purpose of mixing with others; so
far is this art from being so simple as is commonly imagin¬
ed. It is a frequent practice to import the wines of one
country to mix with those of another, and thus to suit the
taste of purchasers, or obtain other ends. This practice is
pursued even by the importers into Britain, and, as we need
not say, opens a door to endless frauds, while it may also
be innocent. Thus, in this country, as well as in Portugal,
the wines of Spain, Alicant, Barcelona, and so forth, are
mixed with Port wines; as are the cheaper Clarets of the
south of France, and some other of the strong-flavoured
wines of that country. In a similar manner, the wines of
Fayal and the Canaries are manufactured into Madeira, as
are those of Sicily ; and thus, too, Sherry is largely com¬
pounded out of many of the wines of Spain and Portugal,
and of the islands of the African coast.
But the most extensive operations of this nature are car¬
ried on at Bordeaux with the wines which we call Claret,
not one-thousandth part of which are of a good quality, or
unmixed in some way, and the one half of some of which,
perhaps, are not French, but Spanish wine. The fol¬
lowing statement, while it is curious in itself, will illus¬
trate this subject. In the year 1814, the total quantity
of the Clarets, or Bordeaux of the first class, was as
follows:—
Chateau Margaux  80 tons.
Latour  70 ...
Chateau Lafite  80 ...
In the second class it was thus:
Margaux de Madame Derauzan  60 tons.
M. Chevalier  25 ...
M. Monterison  25 ...
M. Montalambert  25 ...
St Julian Leoville  80 ...
Lanoze  70 ...
Pauillac M. Depichon  60 ...
Brame Mouton  80 ...
We cannot afford room for the remainder of this state¬
ment, comprising the produce of the fourth and the fifth
qualities; but it is plain that very few of those persons who
imagine that they are drinking the first growth of Bordeaux
wines, can even be drinking the second.
The first growth of Claret, it is thus seen, amounts only
to 230 tons for an average; and that even of the second is
only 425; a fraction indeed in the consumption of Europe.
But in the third class, of which we cannot afford to give the
details, there are 1061 tons, and in the fourth 825, making
a <>-eneral total of 2541 tons. Besides this, there are other in-
900
W I N E - M A K I N G.
Wine-
Making.
ferior wines which do not enter into the enumeration ; and it
^ is by mixing the greater number of these in various propor-
^ v ^^ tions that the market is supplied, it being necessary to reserve
many of the better wines to render the others saleable.
We must however remark, that, among the districts
which produce the inferior wines, such as those of the Bas
and the Petit Medoc, a few farms produce small quantities,
of a quality equal nearly to the good St Julian or Lafite
wines; and these add to the bulk of the better kinds, being
generally reserved, and sold at high prices. In the district
Medoc, the seat of the better wines already mentioned, there
are, besides the third and fourth classes, six or eight kinds
of wine, known by the names of Gros Bourgeois, Petit
Bourgeois, Artisan, and Paysan ; and these are manufac¬
tured, with others, for the British market chiefly, by means
of Spanish wines, by mixing with the strong wines of Bene-
casto and Alicant. The same is true of the Grave wines.
This is the great mixture, in fact, by which the market is
filled to almost any extent with Claret wines so called; and
these mixed wines are almost the only ones we drink in this
country. If that be a fraud, it must also be remembered that
such is British taste in wine, and that Claret is generally
esteemed here only in proportion to its strength. Of the
stronger and finer wines there is not enough for even our
consumption ; and as we must have them strong, they are
rendered so by this process. That effect is also obtained,
however, by some of the south of France wines; by those
of Cote, which are used for mixing with the weak Medoc
and Grave wines, for the British market. This is the case
with those of Queyries, such as Monferrant and Bassens;
and those of Palu, such as Macaw, St Remain, Codillac,
St Andre, Lugon, and many more.
Mixture of The French wines of which we have been speaking will
brandy. not endure to be rendered stronger by means of brandy.
The property of this substance, thus mixed, is to decompose
the wine in process of time, causing the extractive matter
or mucilage to be deposited, as well as the colour, as is
daily seen in Port wines, and thus diminishing their powers
of duration. At the same time it destroys their lightness
and flavour, that peculiar indefinable delicacy well known
to drinkers of good wine, but quite imperceptible to British
drinkers of Port. In a certain sense, we may consider that
it is only the bad wines which will bear this medicine; those
which have no flavour of their own, and whose whole merit
already is their strength. What sort of a compound is made
of a weak wine with brandy, ought to be known to those
who drink what is called Lisbon wine. But a depraved taste
has rendered it necessary to our nation, and thus it is largely
used, even in those wines of Portugal and Spain, of which
the chief fault is that of being too strong already. We may
thank the Methuen treaty for being condemned to drink
what Mr Pinkerton calls wine fit for hogs only. This mix¬
ture is performed in the same manner, at the period of fret¬
ting ; and the proportion is regulated partly by the taste of
the consumers, and partly by the badness of the wine. As
it must have a certain strength, the wmrst wines require
most; and hence, whenever we taste the brandy in wine,
we may be sure it is bad. It is a taste sufficiently percep¬
tible to those who know what real wine is.
Flavouring Many wines have naturally so little flavour, that they can
ot wines, scarcely be considered to possess any. There are few in¬
deed that possess this quality in any great degree ; and of
these flavours a large proportion is bad. Wines so highly
perfumed by nature as Hermitage and Burgundy are rare;
indeed these are almost the only examples; and after them
we may consider the finest Clarets, and then the finest of
the Rhine wines. The sweet wines which possess it are
well known ; and these also are but a small part of the total
number in this class, being almost limited to Paxaret and
the Muscat wines, among which Rivesaltes stands first.
Constantia has rather a taste than a flavour; and what the
ordinary sweet Spanish wines possess is rather barf it
good, though, like the taste of Sherry, and porter aur) li- 5'^
they may become agreeable by habit. ’ IVes’ ^
Excepting these cases, and a few among the Italian win ^
which we cannot afford room to detail, many of the fla ^
found in wines are communicated by art; and this S
part of the business of the manufacturer and
Much of this is a secret, but some of the subsCef, "
for the purpose are known. The taste of Greece is now
it was in ancient times, to perfume its wines with turpemif
—the vina picata of the ancients; and this is effected t)6
putting turpentine or rosin into the casks. In Britain J
chivalrous and baronial ancestors perfumed their wines with
every strange ingredient that can be imagined; but that was
the age of spicery and perfumes, and he who ate cinnamon
with his pork, might drink ambergrease in his wine.
The flavour of Madeira is nothing but that which we
know is given by means of bitter almonds, and we believe
of sweet almonds also; and the same practice is followed
for the wines of Saint Lucar. That which is called the
borrachio taste in wine is for the most part that of the tar
with which the seams are secured. In Sherry the flavour
seems produced by the destruction of the acid, the conse¬
quence of the lime used, and possibly by some other action
of that substance on the fruit. One of the most common
ingredients used for flavouring wines is oak chips; and from
this the wretched Lisbon wines acquire the little taste they
have. Orris root is also a common ingredient, and the hhdi-
flavoured wine of Johannesberg is imitated by a proportion
of rose-water. The orris root gives a very agreeable fla¬
vour, and is used in France; and there it is also the custom
to use raspberries and other highly perfumed fruits. A very
agreeable flavour is also said to be produced by wormwood.
I he flowers of the vine itself are likewise used for the same
purpose, their smell much resembling that of our migno¬
nette. This last is an ancient practice in Egypt.
The method of gaining this end requires some delicacy
and attention. In particular, care is taken that it be not
overdone. As the full fermentation would destroy the more
volatile flavours, these substances are only introduced to¬
wards its decline. In Madeira the nut-cake is put into the
cask. Blowers are suspended in a net or cloth, either in
the fluid or the vacant part of the cask, and thus a small
quantity of raspberries communicates a considerable flavour.
Ihe colouring of wine is also part of the business of the Colouring
maker, because colour is in a good measure a matter of’oi ™e
fashion and fancy. Some grapes contain naturally very
little colour, while that of the Claret vine, and many of the
grapes of Spain, are highly charged with the colouring
principle. We already explained that the colour was con¬
tained exclusively in the husk. These latter wines are
often, therefore, selected and reserved for this particular
purpose; and it is also a practice to use the dyeing woods,
logwood and Brazil wood, for obtaining the same end. The
elder-berry, which is full of colour, is also resorted to; and
in Portugal it used to be extensively cultivated for the pur¬
pose of dyeing Port wines. When white wines are thought
too pale for the market, they are coloured browner by means
of the wrell-known ingredient burnt sugar; and the chips of
oak also produce the same effect. By some means also iron
finds its way into some of the French wines, and thus, on
exposure to air, they become black. This unpleasant effect
is not unusual in the sweet wines from the south of France. ^
This property relates almost exclusively to the wines off>r1^ ^
Champagne, and it is one that may err in excess or defect.11
It is already apparent that it is the product of an unfinished
fermentation, and therefore a due degree of it must mainly
depend on the proper management of this process. It is
secured by bottling at the proper season, March, and before
the fermentation is exhausted; and if in danger of excess,
it is restrained or diminished by racking, or decanting and
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WINE -MAKING.
sulijuring. But it happens not unfrequently that it fails
aitoether, either from accident in the management, or a
bac.eason ; from faults in the fruit, or fermentation carried
t0o;ir, or a weak wine exhausting itself unexpectedly. In
this ase the remedy is to introduce sugar, not only into the
casj, but into the bottles. In £ie first case the fermenta-
tions renewed, and the wine may thus become legitimate
anc.rood. In the other the effect is far different, and not
-roo; and hence it is that all the very sweet Champagne
”vin; are bad or indifferent. These are, in fact, a mixture
of ine and sugar rather than proper wine; and in this
cas-the effect of the sugar is not to produce a new' fermen-
tati i, but to disengage the carbonic acid of the wine, as a
saltl>r any other soluble substance w'ould do by a superior
affiity. To gain this end, the solid sugar is corked up in
theiiottle, so that the disengaged gas is retained under the
premre of the cork, ready to fly out whenever that is re-
mo:;d. Thus Champagne which has been destroyed by
ago is rendered at once sweet and effervescent; and this,
hoover convenient a secret it may be to the possessor, is
bun fraud, and a very common one.
lie acidity, or the pricked taste of wines, is a fault which
peifaps ought never to be corrected, as in this case the wine
is jtnerally spoiled. This nevertheless is done, and some-
tims to a considerable extent. Acidity arising from tar-
tams acid, or even from malic acid, if that really be the
aciiin wines which is not tartarous, may be a virtue and a
ijuilty, as it is very remarkably in Hock. But it is often
tho Tht otherwise, even when it is the natural property of
thepine, arising from its own native acid, and after a cor-
reefermentation. In this case means are applied to remedy
it aa disease in the wine. In the manufacture of Sherry,
it ms already remarked that lime was used to prevent it;
ami his is also applied in other cases where tartar is in ex-
cesas the tartrite of lime is insoluble, and can be fined
do'ii and separated by racking. It has been the fashion
to le lead, metallic lead, for this purpose; and in France
it n s formerly used largely in the wines consumed in Paris.
It is then discovered, and the act made penal; and if not
abadoned entirely, it is less used at present everywhere.
Th this is a poisonous substance is too well known; but
thstjhas been overrated in this particular case. The tar-
tritiof lead, like that of lime, is insoluble ; so that after the
leaf.had done its duty, it was discharged by racking and
finiig. Had this not been the case, all Paris, at the time
weibeak of, must have been poisoned. Yet it is a sub¬
stare that ought not to be used, because, in an acid wine
ascscent from fermentation, it might produce either white
leaner subcarbonate of lead, or else sugar of lead, acetite,
boil) of them poisons if in different degrees.
.in’ the acidity of wine from the commencement of the
acorns fermentation there is no proper remedy. It may
be necked if taken in time, as it would be prevented by
canful sulphuring. Here lead is highly pernicious ; and it
neoi scarcely be said, that to add sugar of lead, as has been
doi) from ignorance and fraud united, is to add a poison
witbut even obtaining a remedy. Chalk and lime may be
use with impunity; yet neither can these, and far less
aMes, be used to such an extent as to cure the disease,
us icy unite to the other acids, and also decompose and
deiiroy the wine. To prevent it as far as possible when
con uenced, a low temperature and careful exclusion from
thdiir are necessary. But it must be remembered that air
'vif find access, not merely through cork, but through
seuhg-wax, and indeed through all rosins also; and thus
th| can be no complete security, the best being that of
pHng the bottles on their sides, so that the fluid itself
bejimes its own cork. The Italian practice of using oil is
thwfar safer, but it is balanced by various inconveniences,
f fcpiness is a disease almost peculiar to the wines of
Chtnpagne, and its chemistry is very obscure. It is not a
901
destruction of the wTine, although it materially injures its Wine-
flavour and other qualities. It occurs in this wine from fluking,
the quantity of extractive matter which it still contains, v ^
and wdiich is that by which the fermentation is maintained.
It is conceived to arise from the action of oxygen on this
substance, converting it into a matter analogous" to fibrine,
instead of changing the whole into vinegar. Thus it re¬
sembles the mucilaginous deposit of vinegar called the
mother. In the bottles it may be often cured merely by
heat, by exposure to the sun, or by immersion in hot water.
When obstinate, it is remedied by uncasking and by agita¬
tion, by exposing the fluid to the air. It is also said to be
removed by a small quantity of vegetable acid, or by sugar ;
but when on a large scale, it requires the process of fining.
It is held essential by the French, who are our chief Bottling
teachers in every thing that relates to wane, that a wine-aild cellar'
cellar should not only be dry, but preserved in a very uni- a?e of
form state of temperature, as near to the mean annual heat'Vmes>'
of the country as possible. We have already shewn, how¬
ever, when this rule may be usefully departed from, for the
purpose of accelerating the ripening of wines. In the deli¬
cate wines of that country the rule still holds good, and
very conspicuously too with regard to the wines of Bur¬
gundy and Champagne. It is equally true of the finer and
lighter Italian wines. The wines of Spain and Portugal
seem to defy every thing. It is also held by the French
most essential that a cellar should not be subject to the
agitation ot carriages, the reason of which is plain enough;
and that it should be free of bad smells. As to moisture
however we must remark, that, like heat, it seems to accele¬
rate the deposition and consequent ripening of Port wines.
Of bottling we need say nothing; only let it be remem¬
bered that corks cannot be too good, but that no precau¬
tion will absolutely prevent all communication through a
cork, however secured and sealed.
The rules which we have thus given are all of a general Making of
nature ; but there are yet a few niceties to be explained, and Particular
an example from each of the four classes into wdiich we'vlIies'
divided wines will render the subject more intelligible.
The attentions required in Champagne wines are perhaps Champagne
the most minute and the most complicated, and they there- wines‘
fore stand most in need of being detailed. Champagne is
a late country, and it frequently happens that the frosts
have commenced before the grapes are ripe. Of course it is
an imperfect vintage, which limits that country to this par¬
ticular class of wine. A very brisk wine is not easily se¬
cured from grapes absolutely ripe; and thus the half-
ripened fruit of this district is brought into use. Yet the
best of these wines, the finest class of Sillery, rarely seen
in this country, is made from the ripened grapes; and hence
it is that the best of the Champagne wines are those which
are least brisk or violent, and that great violence is a cha¬
racteristic of the inferior kinds.
The finest wine is produced here by a very light pressure
of the grapes, in which case only the ripest give out their
juice. It is held necessary to gather them when the morning
dew is off, to prevent water being added to the juice. The
next pressure and the least ripe grapes are reserved for the
inferior classes. When the juice is poured into the vat, it
remains one night only, the seeds being carefully separated.
In all cases the greatest care is taken to separate damaged
grapes or rotten ones; and it is as much from this neglect
as any other cause that the common Italian wines are so
bad. If the Champagne is to be red, the fermentation
is suffered to proceed on the husks a little longer, for
the purpose of extracting the colour; and according to the
length of this process, we have the ml de perdrix, and the
pink and red wines. But, as we remarked before, this in¬
jures the flavour, as all good judges of Champagne know.
When the liquor is transferred to the cask, the discharge
of yeast at the bung-hole is encouraged for ten or twelve
902
Wine-
IVlnking1,
WINE -MAKING.
Burgundy
and Bor¬
deaux
wines.
Italian
wines.
Sweet
wines.
Port, Ma¬
deira, &c.
days; and when the fermentation has become moderate, the
bung is put down, and a hole is made by its side. This
hole is occasionally opened to give vent to the air, for a
space of eight or ten days. When no more air is discharged,
fresh wine is introduced, so as to keep the cask constantly
full to the bung-hole. This operation is continued if
necessary till the end of December, when the wine gene¬
rally becomes clear. It is then racked into a fresh cask,
and fined. After this it begins to ferment again, losing a
portion of its sweetness, and improving in quality. If too
sweet, it is not decanted and fined till the fermentation has
been renewed by agitation. As the fineness of this wine is
one of its essential qualities, and one difficult to obtain on
account of its perpetual fermentation, it is racked and fined
a second time, and thus it remains till March. In March
it is bottled ; yet still it ferments, though corked, and again
it begins to deposit. In the best wines it thus remains from
fifteen to eighteen months in the cellar, when it is bottled
over again, and is then marketable. The inferior kinds are
seldom bottled twice, but an expedient is used instead to
get rid of the sediment. For this purpose the bottles are
ranged in frames with their necks downwards, and when
the sediment has been collected in the neck, the cork is
dexterously drawn, and again replaced, after which the
bottles are filled and completed for the market. There are
varieties also in this general process, such as that of suffer¬
ing the wine to remain in the cask for a year or more on its
lees; but we need not enter into these collateral details.
There is little difference in the practice of Burgundy, ex¬
cept what refers to the retention of the carbonic acid. All
else is the same; but great care is taken to clear these wines
of their lees, as, from their extreme delicacy, they would
soon lose their flavour, and also become sour. In the prac¬
tice of Bordeaux also the first stages of the process are the
same, excepting in as far as a longer fermentation in the
husks is used to extract the colour from the red wines.
But there is a difference as to the process of sulphuring,
which is largely used in these, in the manner already de¬
scribed. The red wines of Bordeaux are racked about the
end of March or the beginning of April, but the white in De¬
cember ; and in all these wines great care is taken in all those
circumstances which relate to cleanliness, however rude the
people and the operations may appear on a superficial view.
In the drier Italian wines, the must is allowed to ferment
completely in the vat. In some vineyards a quantity of se¬
lected and half-dried grapes is thrown into each tun when
the wine is finished, so as to give it sweetness, and prevent
the hazard of its running to the acetous stage; a rude and
a bad process. In the manufacture of Florence wine, the
must is withdrawn from the vat as soon as the head is raised,
and the wine is transferred to a cask, where it is only suf¬
fered to remain thirty-six hours, when it is again decanted
into a fresh cask at the end of a few hours, and so on until
it is clear and marketable. Thus it is completed in a short
time by little more than the process of racking.
In different countries the practices used for procuring the
sweet wines vary, but they will be found to depend on one
or other of the principles already laid down. In Italy, as
in the making of Florence wine, the fermentation is quelled
by repeated racking and shifting. Thus the other processes
are partly or entirely saved. But it is necessary that very
sweet and rich grapes should be used if this process is to be
followed. To insure sweetness, on the principles formerly
laid down, the grapes of Tokay are partially dried before
they are used ; and this is also done for the wines of Cyprus,
and for some of those of France and Spain. The remaining
processes, consisting in sulphuring, &c., need not again be
detailed, as they are nearly the same in all countries.
In Oporto, for the dry wines, the practice is to carry on
the complete fermentation of the must in the vats. The
wine is then introduced into large tuns, capable of holding
twenty-five pipes each, and at this stage the brandy isarM i
at the discretion of the maker. In Madeira, the seconl
insensible fermentation is effected in pipes; and at th ' °i
of three months the wine is racked, when a certain nl'
of brandy is added. In both these practices it would see0"
as if the union of the brandy with the wine was less perfm
than it might be rendered by a different management of tk
part of the process. Hence probably it arises, in a mJt
measure, that the taste of brandy is so sensible in many of
these wines. In the best, the quantity is said to be about
a twentieth part; but in the worst class of Port wines it
seems sometimes to amount to a fifth or more. The nr
cess followed in making Sherry is rather more complicated
The grapes in this case are first slightly dried, and then
sprinkled with quicklime. They are then wetted with
brandy when introduced into the press, and a further por¬
tion is again added to the must before fermentation. It is
highly probable that by this practice the brandy is more
perfectly combined in the wine, and the fluid rendered
more uniform; and hence also probably it arises that the
taste of brandy is not to be perceived in genuine Sherry,
though often found in those baser imitations which are ma¬
nufactured from the tasteless wanes of the Canary Islands
and of other parts of Spain. The remainder of the process
for Sherry consists in racking repeatedly, at intervals of a
month or two, fresh brandy in small quantities being added
at each stage of this process.
In conclusion, we remark, that in the attempts to make
wines in our own country from native fruits, the same
rules are of universal application, and that an attention to
them would render these domestic processes more complete
than they now are, and the results more valuable. In Bri¬
tain also it is easy to make very good wine from immature
grapes, by the addition of sugar in the necessary propor¬
tions ; and these can be procured in almost any season, so
that this might even become an object of a petty domestic
commerce. Nor is the manufacture limited to the fruit
alone, since the leaves and tendrils, by infusion, admit of
the same treatment, and with the same results. Very
tolerable wane, perfectly resembling the wines of France,
can thus be made, and at an expense of little more than
the very moderate cost of the sugar. (z. z. z.)
Hiiii
Makj|!
s~Vi
The following table shows the number of gallons of fo¬
reign wine imported into the united kingdom, the quan¬
tities upon which duty has been paid for home consumption,
and the quantities exported ; also the quantities retained for
home consumption, after deducting the amount exported
subsequently to the payment of duty; for the year ended
the 5th January 184d.
Cape 
French..
Portugal....
Spanish 
Madeira 
Bhenish 
Canary 
Fayal 
Sicilian and
other sorts.
Mixed, in
bond  
Quantities
imported.
Quantities
upon which
Duty has been
paid.
Gallons.
460,024
670,105
2,980,363
4,022,315
279,157
75,611
250,804
1,241
- 671,517
Gallons.
457,062
362J12
2,773,404
2,641,171
122,010
62,381
30,149
191
394,124
Quantities
exported.
Quantities
tainedfor Home
Consumption,
after deducting
the Amount ex'
ported subse¬
quently to the
payment of
Duty.
Gallons.
5,467
155,375
391,581
1,238,878
143,829
14,760
280,607
277
189,789
16,515
Total  9,311,247 6,843,204 | 2,437,078
Gallons.
456,773
341,841
2,668,534
2,500,760
112,555
60,056
29,298
191
383,914
6,553,922
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W I N
§ /INGHAM, a small town of the county of Kent, in the
hujlred of the same name, and in the lathe of St Augus¬
tin sixty-two miles from London. A convent was found¬
ed ere in the reign of Edward I. by Archbishop Peck-
lun. Near to it are some fine gentlemen’s seats. The
pojilation amounted in 1821 to 1085, and in 1831 to 1115.
WINKELMANN, John, was born at Stendall, in the
oi(,Marche of Brandenburg, in 1718. He was the son of
apemaker. This wonderful man, to all appearance des-
tinl by his birth to superintend a little school in an obscure
to'ii of Germany, raised himself to the office of president
of Equities in the Vatican. His course of study appears
to ave been very desultory, but he spent two years in the
uiiersity of Halle. After having been seven years rector
of fie school of Seehausen, near Salswedel, he went into
Sa:)ny, where he resided seven years more, and was libra-
ria to Count Bunau at Nothenitz. When he left this
pile, 1754i, he went to Dresden, where he formed an ac-
qumtance with the ablest artists, and particularly with
OiLt, an excellent painter, and one of the best draughts-
m of the age. In that year he abjured Lutheranism,
an embraced the Romish religion. In September 1755,
he^et out for Italy, and arrived at Rome in December fol¬
io ng. His principal object was to see the Vatican library,
an to examine the ruins of Herculaneum.
jlVinkelmann carried with him into Italy a sense of beau-
tymd art, which led him instantly to admire the master-
pics of the Vatican, and with which he began to study
thin. He soon increased his knowledge ; and it was not
tillafter he had thus purified his taste, and conceived an
id; of ideal beauty, which led him into the greatest
gejets of art, that he began to think of the explanation
ofbther monuments, in which his great learning could
no fail to distinguish him. In 1756 he planned his Re-
sttation of Ancient Statues, and a larger work on the
Tile of the Greek Artists; and he designed an account
oiiihe galleries of Rome and Italy, beginning with a
voime on the Belvidere statues, in the manner of Richard-
sc who, he says, only ran over Rome. He also intend-
ei. i history of the corruption of taste in art, the resto-
raun of statues, and an illustration of the obscure points
oilnythology. All these different essays led him to his
Hitory of Art, and his “ Monumenti Inediti.” It must
hi ever be confessed, that the first of these works has not
al he clearness and precision that might be expected in
it general plan and division of its parts and objects; but
it as enlarged and extended the ideas both of antiquaries
ar collectors. The description of the gems and sculptures
oi he Stosch cabinet contributed not a little to extend
Wikelmann’s knowledge. Few persons have opportuni-
ti: of contemplating such vast collections. The engrav-
io; of Lippet and Count Caylus are all that many can arrive
at! Winkelmann’s “ Monumenti Inediti,” of which he had
biiun the third volume in 1767, seem to have secured him
till esteem of antiquaries. Had he lived, we should have
h; a work long wished for; a complete collection of the
b; reliefs discovered from the time of Bartoli to the pre-
KL the greater part of which were in the possession of
ifdinal Albani.
• Vhen Cardinal Albani succeeded to the place of librarian
pi he Vatican, he endeavoured to procure a place in the
Hlbrevy department for Winkelmann, who refused a ca-
n( ry because he would not take the tonsure. In 1761 the
ell tor of Saxony gave him, unsolicited, the place of Coun-
spt>r Richter, the direction of the royal cabinet of medals
antiquities at Dresden. Upon the death of Venuti,
L2, he was appointed president of the antiquities of the
&R$tolic chamber, with power over all discoveries and ex¬
piations of antiquities and pictures. 1 his is a post of
b' our, with an income of 160 scudi per annum. He had
a ospect of the place of president of antiquities in the
W I N 903
Vatican, about to be created, at sixteen scudi per month, Winslow
and was named corresponding member of the Academy of . II
Inscriptions. The king of Prussia offered him, by Col. Winton.
Quintus Icilius, the place of librarian and director of his '-’-'v''’-'
cabinet of medals and antiquities, vacant by the death of
Gautier de la Croze, with a handsome appointment. He
made no scruple of accepting the offer ; but when it came
to the pope’s ears, he added an appointment out of his own
purse, and retained him at Rome.
In April 1768, he left Rome to travel with Cavaceppi
over Germany and Switzerland. When he came to Vienna,
he was so pleased with the reception he met with, that he
made a longer stay there than he had intended. But being
suddenly seized with a secret uneasiness and extraordinary
desire to return to Rome, he set out for Italy, deferring his
visits to his friends in Germany to a future opportunity.
As he passed through Trieste, he was assassinated, June 8,
1786, by a wretch named Arcangeli, a native of Campiglio,
a town in the territory of Pistoia, with whom he had formed
an acquaintance on the road. This miscreant had been
condemned for a robbery to work in fetters four years, and
then to be banished the Austrian territories on an oath
never to return. He had obtained a mitigation of one of
his sentences, and retired to Venice; but changing his
quarters backwards and forwards, he was so reduced in cir¬
cumstances that he at length took up his lodgings at the
inn where Winkelmann happened to arrive. Arcangeli
paid such assiduous court to him, that he entirely gained
his confidence; and having been favoured with a sight of
the valuable presents which he had received at Vienna, form¬
ed a design to murder and rob him. He bought a new
sharp knife on purpose ; and as Winkelmann (who had in
the most friendly manner invited him to Rome) was sitting
down in his chair, early in the morning, he threw a rope
over his head, and, before he could disengage himself, stab¬
bed him in five different places. He had still strength to
descend to the ground-floor and call for help; and being
laid on a bed in the midst of the most violent pain, he had
composure sufficient to receive the last sacraments, and to
make his will, in which he appointed Cardinal Albani his re¬
siduary legatee, and expired in the afternoon. The murderer
was soon after apprehended, and on the 20th of June was
executed on the wheel, opposite the inn where he had com¬
mitted this atrocious deed.
WINSLOW, a market-town of the county of Bucking¬
ham and hundred of Cotslow, fifty miles from London. It
is neat and well built, has a market on I uesday, and its
population amounted in 1821 to 1221, and in 1831 to 1290.
WINTER, one of the four seasons or quarters of the
year. Winter commences on the day when the sun’s dis¬
tance from the zenith of the place is greatest, and ends on
the day when its distance is at a mean between the great¬
est and least. Under the equator, the winter, as well as
other seasons, returns twice every year, but all other
places have only one annual winter; which in the northern
hemisphere begins when the sun is in the tropic of Capri¬
corn, and in the southern hemisphere when in the tropic of
Cancer; so that all places in the same hemisphere have
their winter at the same time.
WINTON, Andrew, prior of Lochleven, appears to
have been born during the reign of David the Second,
which extended from 1329 to 1370. For the few scatter¬
ed notices of him that have been preserved, we are chiefly
indebted to the valuable work which has transmitted his
name to posterity. Of his parentage and education no re¬
cord has hitherto been discovered; but we learn from his
prologue that he was a canon regular of St Andrews, and
prior of the monastery of St Serf. The priory of St An¬
drews was endowed with very ample revenues ; and the
prior, in consideration of his connection with the metropo¬
litan cathedral, was entitled to take precedence of all priors,
904
W I N
Winfon. and even of all abbots. There were five subordinate priories
'"-“v-"'3 *"' belonging to St Andrews ; namely, those of St Serf in the
inch or isle of Lochleven, Portmoak on the northern bank
of the same lake, both in the county of Kinross, Pitten-
weem in the neighbouring county of Fife, the isle of May
near the termination of the Firth of Forth, and Monymusk
in the county of Aberdeen. In the isle of Lochleven there
was a very ancient religious house belonging to the Cul-
dees, for whom the canons regular of St Augustin were
afterwards substituted by the bishop of St Andrews. The
beautiful and romantic situation of this priory furnished a
very suitable abode for a poet; and here Winton must
chiefly have resided during a considerable part of his life. In
the Chartulary of the Priory of St Andrews, which is now
printed, there are several documents bearing the name of
Andrew Winton as prior of Lochleven between the years
1395 and 1413; but his life must have been prolonged se¬
veral years after this last date, for he mentions the death
of Robert duke of Albany, an event which happened in
1420. In the prologue to the last book of his chronicle,
he expresses his anticipation of a speedy dissolution.
His Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland was undertaken at
the suggestion of Sir John Wemyss, ancestor of the noble
family of that name.
This tretys sympylly
I made at the instans of a farde
That hade my serwys in his warde,
Schyr Jhone of the Wemys be rycht name,
Ane honest knycht and of gude fame.
Winton’s chronicle, while it yet remained in manuscript,
was not entirely neglected by more curious enquirers : it
was quoted by Selden, a writer of prodigious research, who
was not however acquainted with the author’s name ; it
afforded some useful information to Ruddiman for his edi¬
tion of Buchanan, and to Innes for his Critical Essay on the
Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland; nor was it completely
overlooked by Lord Hailes and Mr Pinkerton. Of that
portion which relates more immediately to Scotish affairs,
a splendid edition was at length published by the late
David Macpherson, who has added a copious glossary, a
series of valuable annotations, and other useful appendages.1
It may safely be affirmed that none of our ancient writers
has yet been edited in a more faithful and judicious man¬
ner. The basis of his text is the Royal MS. in the British
Museum : this appears to have been transcribed for George
Barclay of Achrody, and its date is supposed to be at least
as early as the year 1430; but he likewise had recourse
to several other manuscripts, belonging to the same insti¬
tution and to the Advocates Library.2
i he chronicle of Winton is valuable as a specimen of
the literary taste and attainments of our ancestors at a very
remote period, but it is still more valuable as a repository
of historical information, and as a delineation of ancient
manners. His simple pages present to our view many cu¬
rious prospects of society ; and with a perseverance of in¬
dustry which had numerous difficulties to encounter, he has
collected and preserved many anecdotes that tend to illus¬
trate the history of his native country. He divides his
work into nine books, “ in honour of the orders nine of
hoiy angels.” Although he merely professes to w'rite an
original chronicle of Scotland, yet, like other Gothic chro¬
niclers, he presents his readers with an outline of the an¬
cient history of the world. Towards the beginning of his
work, he treats of the nature of angels, the creation of the
w orld, the death of Abel, the generations of Cain and Seth,
W I s
the primeval race of giants, the situation of India Eov
Africa, Europe, Britain, Ireland, and divers other count?- ^
the confusion of tongues, and the origin of poetrv fa iv J
idolatry. One chapter he devotee to the history J ^
Amazons, and another to that of Samson. After com
mencing in so hopeful a manner, he continues to amass an
immense pile of lumber, till having completed five books in
this pantographical spirit, he at last confines himself morp
soberly to his proper subject. The adoption of such a plan
is not to be considered as peculiar to the author: Winton
follows the models which at that period were generally an
proved ; and the Latin chronicle of Fordun, who was near
ly contemporary, is composed of the same heterogeneous
materials. 6 f t
W IRE, a piece of metal drawn through the hole of an
iron into a thread of a fineness answering to the hole it
passed through. Wires are frequently drawn so fine as to be
wrought along with other threads of silk, wool, flax, &c. The
metals most commonly drawn into wire are gold, silver
copper, and iron. Gold wire is made of cylindrical ingots
of silver, covered over with a skin of gold, and thus drawn
successively through a vast number of holes, each smaller
and smaller, till at last it is brought to a fineness exceeding
that of a hair. That admirable ductility which makes one of
the distinguishing characters of gold, is nowhere more con¬
spicuous than in this gilt wire. A cylinder of forty-eight
ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold only weighing
one ounce, as Dr Halley informs us, is usually drawn into
a wire, two yards of which weigh no more than one grain;
whence ninety-eight yards of the wire weigh no more than
forty-nine grains, and one single grain of gold covers the
ninety-eight yards ; so that the ten thousandth part of a
grain is above one eighth of an inch long.
WIRS WORTH, a market-town of the county of Derby,
in the hundred of its own name, 139 miles from London
and twelve from the town of Derby. It is situated in a
mining district, where it is the chief object to procure lead
ore, and the silver frequently combined with it. The prin¬
cipal occupation is connected with the various processes of
preparing these metals for use. There are laws regulating
the mining, which are here administered by a court con¬
sisting of a steward and bar-mast, which has two sessions
annually. In the neighbourhood, many millstones and
grindstones are drawn from the quarries. Here are two
springs, one hot, the other cold, so near together that a
man may put a hand in each at the same time. There is
a good market on Tuesday, and two fairs yearly. The
population amounted in 1821 to 3787, and in 1831 to 4082;
but the parish comprehends ten hamlets and townships be¬
sides, whose inhabitants amounted in 1831 to 7754.
W1SBEACH, a town of the county of Cambridge, in
the Isle of Ely, eighty-nine miles from London. It is a
port, standing on a branch of the Ouse communicating
with Lynn. The country around is rich, producing much
corn, a great part of which is sold at the market, and after¬
wards shipped to other parts of the kingdom. The sessions
for the Isle of Ely, which is an exempt jurisdiction, are held
at this place. It is deemed unhealthy. The population
amounted in 1821 to 6515, and in 1831 to 7253.
WISBY, a city of Sweden, the capital of the province
and island of that name, or, as it is sometimes called, Gott-
land. It is situated on the western side of the island, was
formerly a Hanse town, and a place of great trade. It is for¬
tified, is rather irregularly built, but of stone, and in the
style of the ancient German seaports. The harbour is not
1 The orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, be Andrew of Wyntown, Priowr of Sanct Serfis Ynche in Loch Levyn, &c.
4:o & 8vo. 1
2 Of Winton’s chronicle a considerable number of MSS. is mentioned by Macpherson, but several others are known to be prese
There is one in the Lansdowne collection, lately added to the British Museum, another in the library of the university of St Andrews, a
third in that of Captain Wemyss of Wemyss.
Bond. 1795, 2 vols.
Tved.
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fiton
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W I s
dec, and is very small; but it still has some ships belong-
inpo it. It contains 700 houses, with 0880 inhabitants.
Long. 18. 2. 29.
• to it are some quarries of marble.
E. cat. 57. 38. 30. N.
ISCONSIN. The vast tract under this name, erected
inti a territory of the North American Union, stretches
fro Lakes Michigan and Superior to the Missouri and
W.te Earth Rivers, and from the northern frontier of the
Mfouri and Illinois to the boundary between the Ame-
ric;i and British possessions; extending from 40° 30' on
thi west of the Mississippi, and 42° 30' on the east of
tha«river, to 49° north' latitude, and from 87° to 97° west
lontude in the south, and from 90° to 102° in the north.
It about 580 miles in extreme length from north to
9011, and varies from 300 to 600 in breadth, with an area
of bout 275,000 square miles. The greater part of the
termry is still owned and occupied by Indian tribes, and
a 1 ge portion of its surface has not been explored by
whies.
ji general description of the surface and soil of this vast
tra , exceeding in dimensions by one third the whole king-
doi of France, can be applicable to all portions of it. It
is i Dart of the great central table-land of North America,
hang a general elevation from 800 to 1200 feet above
thcevel of the sea; and probably the loftiest mountains
in ne territory do not rise more than 2000 feet above
thiigeneral level. The northern portion of the section
we of the Mississippi is traversed by a broad ridge, pre-
seimg few irregularities of surface, and attaining no great
eleition, although it forms the water-shed between the Mis-
soi! and the Mississippi. Its elevation is only about 500
or 000 feet above the level of the adjoining country. It
is r the most part destitute of trees, but contains nume-
roni lakes, with some wooded patches. There is said to
be mother ridge between this and the Missouri, but infor-
mson as to this whole section is very scanty. A low ridge
of ine-covered hills runs between the sources of the Mis-
sisppi and the tributaries of the Red River; and a similar
rich1 divides the waters of Lake Superior from those of the
M1 issippi and Hudson’s Bay. Another hilly tract stretches
fre the head of Rock River to Lake Superior, between
th Fox and Menomonie Rivers on the east, and the Chip-
pen and Bois Brule on the west, to which has been given
ths name of Wisconsin or Porcupine Hills. Lead has
ben found on the southern part of this tract, where the
0 och and Smoky Mountains are about 1200 feet above
thigeneral level; and copper occurs in the north. By
iai he greater part of the territory is prairie or unwooded
co itry. Farther north, between Lake Superior and Red
Ri>r, is a region of lakes, swamps, and savannahs, or wet
prides, overgrown with sedges and rushes, which may well
be ailed the great source of waters, since it gives rise to
rh s reaching the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson’s Bay, and the
G of St Lawrence, at points from 1200 to 2000 miles
diinnt from this common centre. Much of the soil in the
no hern part is inferior, and unsuitable for cultivation; but
on he south the general features of the country resemble
th'3 of the adjoining states. That portion of the Upper
M issippi lying between the junction of the De Corbeau
an St Anthony’s Falls, presents to the eye a succession of
Pr 'ie and forest land, which has the general charac-
totics of a valuable agricultural country. The soil is
ar; le, and apparently light, but of that ferruginous charac-
tenvhich has turned out so durable and fertile in Michi-
gsj1 Wood is often wanting, though forests may be ob-
se: -'d on the hilly grounds. Wild hay may be cut in any
h^itity. The tract here described is included in the re-
ce' cessions of the Chippewas and Sioux. Although there
aW.nany marshy and barren tracts, yet the rapidity with
wI'li this region has been lately filling w ith settlers is a
Pr 1 that it contains much land of a superior quality. Ihe
ou xxi.
W I T
southern section of the western district, on the Desmoines
and the Iowa, is believed not to be surpassed in fertility
by any portion of the United States; and although con¬
sisting mostly of prairie, contains woodland enough for
economical purposes.
The Mississippi forms the most striking natural feature
of the country. Its most remote source, as has been re-
cently ascertained by the expedition conducted by Mr
Schoolcraft and Lieutenant Allan, is the little lake called
Itasca by the Indians, and La Biche or Elk Lake by the
Canadian traders, 3160 miles from the Gulf of Mexico,
and 102J fiom the Falls of St Anthony. Ihe lake is esti¬
mated by Mr Schoolcraft to be at an elevation of about
1500 feet above the level of the sea, and is separated from
the tributaries of the Red River by the low ridge of hills
called by the voyageurs Hauteur des Terres. The rivers in
this territory are numerous, and mostly flow into the Mis¬
sissippi. The Wisconsin, which joins it at Fort Crawford,
is one of the most important of its tributaries. It is 550
miles long, and is navigable by steam-boats for about a
hundred miles from its junction with the Mississippi.
The settled portion of the territory is divided into twenty-
six counties, of which eight are in the western or Iowa sec¬
tion, and eighteen in the eastern or Wisconsin section.
The area of the former is about 12,500 square miles, the
population at the close of 1837 probably exceeding 20,000;
the latter has an area of about 20,000 square miles, with
about 30,000 inhabitants. But this extensive region is
chiefly inhabited by numerous and powerful tribes of In¬
dians, among whom attempts have been for some time
making to introduce the arts of civilized life. Missionaries
and teachers have been stationed in various districts, by
the different religious societies.
The government wras organized in 1836. The legisla¬
tive assembly consists of a council of thirteen members,
elected for four years, and a house of representatives, elect¬
ed for two years. In 1838, there w7ere published in this
infant state three weekly and one monthly newspaper.
WTSDOM usually denotes a higher and more refined
notion of things or qualities immediately presented to the
mind, as it were, by intuition, without tbe assistance of ra¬
tiocination. Sometimes the word is used, in a moral sense,
for what we call prudence or discretion, which consists in
the soundness of the judgment, and a conduct answerable
to it.
WISMAR, one of the provinces into which the grand
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin is divided. It belonged
to Mecklenburg till 1648, when it was delivered over to
the Swedes, who possessed it till 1803, when it was trans¬
ferred for a sum of money to the present sovereign. It is
situated on the Baltic Sea, and, including the island of
Poel, extends over thirty-eight square miles, or about
25,000 acres, and comprehends one city and thirty-seven
villages, with 15,419 inhabitants. The capital is the city
of the same name, situated on a bay of the Baltic. It is
surrounded with wralls and ditches, contains four Lutheran
churches, three hospitals, an orphan-house, and several
schools, 1350 houses, and 10,070 inhabitants. It has some
foreign commerce, especially in the export of wheat and
other grain; and has several ships annually equipped for the
whale-fishery. There are manufactures of linen goods,
especially of sailcloth, with several breweries and distil¬
leries.
WTT is a quality of certain thoughts and expressions,
more easily perceived than defined. According to Locke,
wit lies in the assemblage of ideas, and putting these to¬
gether with quickness and variety, wherein can be found
any resemblance or congruity, thereby to make up pleasant
pictures and agreeable visions to the fancy. Addison li¬
mited this definition considerably, by observing, that every
resemblance of ideas does not constitute wit, but those
5 Y
905
Wisdom
906 W I T
Wit. onljr which produce delight and surprise. Pope defined
wit to be a quick conception and an easy delivery ; while,
according to a more recent writer, it consists in an assimi¬
lation of distant ideas.
The word wit originally signified wisdom. A wide was
anciently a wise man ; the wittenagemot, or Saxon parlia¬
ment, an assemblage of wise men. So late as the reign of
Elizabeth, a man of pregnant wit, of great wit, was a man
of vast judgment. We still say, in his wits, out of his wits,
for in or out of sound mind. The word however is now
applied in a more limited sense.
Without attempting to expose the insufficiency of the
definitions above mentioned, or hazarding a new definition
of our own, we shall endeavour to point out the varieties or
different sorts of wit.
It is evident that wit excites in the mind an agreeable
surprise, and that this is owing entirely to the strange as¬
semblage of related ideas presented to the mind. This end
is effected, 1. by debasing things pompous or seemingly
grave ; 2. by aggrandizing things little or frivolous ; 3. by
setting ordinary objects in a particular and uncommon
point of view, by means not only remote, but apparently
contrary. Of so much consequence are surprise and no*
velty, that nothing is more tasteless, and sometimes dis¬
gusting, than a joke that has become stale by frequent re¬
petition. For the same reason, even a pun or happy illu¬
sion will appear excellent when thrown out extempore in
conversation, which would be deemed execrable in print.
In like manner, a witty repartee is infinitely more pleasing
than a witty attack; for though in both cases the thing
may be equally new to the reader or hearer, the effect on
him is greatly injured, when there is access to suppose that
it may be the slow production of study and premeditation.
This however holds most with regard to the inferior tribes
of witticism, of which their readiness is the best recom¬
mendation. We shall illustrate these observations by sub¬
joining a specimen or two of each of these sorts of wit.
Of the first sort, which consists in the debasement of
things great and eminent, Butler, amongst a thousand other
instances, has given us those which follow.
And now had Phoebus in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap ;
And, like a lobster boil’d, the morn
From black to red began to turn.
Butler’s Hudibrat, part ii. canto ii.
Here the low allegorical style of the first couplet, and
the simile used in the second, afford us a just notion of this
lowest species, which is distinguished by the name of the
ludicrous. Another specimen from the same author we
have In these lines:
Great on the bench, great in the saddle.
That could as well bind o’er as swaddle,
Mighty he was at both of these,
And styl’d of tear, as well as peace:
So some rats of amphibious nature,
Are either for the land or -water.
Ibid, part i. canto i.
In this coarse kind of drollery, those laughable transla¬
tions or paraphrases of heroic and other serious poems, in
which the authors are said to be travestied, chiefly abound.
The second kind, consisting in the aggrandisement of
little things, which is by far the most splendid, and displays
a soaring imagination, these lines of Pope will serve to il¬
lustrate :
As Berecynthia, while her offspring vie
In homage to the mother of the sky,
Surveys around her in the blest abode,
An hundred sons, and every son a god:
Not with less glory, mighty Dulness crown’d,
Shall take thro’ Grubstreet her triumphant round ;
And her Parnassus glancing o’er at once,
Behold a hundred sons, and each a dunce.
W I T
This whole similitude is spirited. The parent of th
lestials is contrasted by the daughter of night and ch ^
heaven by Grubstreet; gods by dunces. Besides, theT*
rody it contains on a beautiful passage in Virgil add'
particular lustre to it. This species we may term thr **
sonical, or the mock majestic. It affects the most pomiwu
language and sonorous phraseology, as much as the otW
affects the reverse, the vilest and most grovelling dialect ^
To this class also we must refer the application of grave
reflections to mere trifles. For that great and serious ar
naturally associated by the mind, and likewise little and
trifling,, is sufficiently evinced by the common modes ot
expression on these subjects used in every tongue.
apposite instance of such an application we have from Pin-
lips.
My galligaskins, that have long withstood
The winter’s fury and encroaching frosts,
By time subdued, {what will not time subdue?)
An horrid chasm disclose.
Splendid Shilling.
Of the third species of wit, which is by far the most mul¬
tifarious, and which results from what may be called the
queerness or singularity of the imagery, we shall give a few
specimens that will serve to mark some of its principal va¬
rieties. To illustrate all would be impossible. The first
shall be where there is an apparent contrariety in the things
exhibited in connection. This kind of contrast we have in
these lines of Garth :
Then Hydrops next appears amongst the throng;
Bloated and big she slowly sails along:
But like a miser in excess she’s poor,
And pines for thirst amidst her wat’ry store.
Dispensary.
A second sort is, where the things compared are what
with dialecticians would come under the denomination of
disparates, being such as can be ranked under no com¬
mon genus. Of this we shall subjoin an example from
Young.
Health chiefly keeps an Atheist in the dark ;
A fever argues better than a Clarke :
Let but the logic in bis pulse decay,
The Grecian he’ll renounce, and learn to pray.
Universal Passim,
A third variety in this Species springs from confounding
artfully the proper and the metaphorical sense of an ex¬
pression. In this way, one wull assign as a motive what is
discovered to be perfectly absurd when but ever so little
attended to; and yet, from the ordinary meaning of the
words, has a specious appearance on a single glance. Of
this kind we have an instance in the subsequent lines.
While thus the lady talk’d, the knight
Turn’d th’ outside of his eyes to white.
As men of inward light are wont
To turn their optics in upon’t.
Hudibras, part iii. canto I.
A fourth variety, much resembling the former, is when
the argument or comparison (for all argument is a kind ot
comparison) is founded on the supposal of corporeal or per¬
sonal attributes in wTbat is strictly not susceptible of them,
as in the following passage.
But Hudibras gave him a twitch
As quick as lightning in the breech,
Just in the place where honour’s lodg’d,
As wise philosophers have judg’d;
Because a kick in that place more
Hurts honour than deep wounds before.
Ibid, part ii. canto m.
The fifth and only other variety which we shall mention,
is that which arises from a relation, not in the things sig¬
nified, but in the signs, of all relations no doubt the sligM
est. Identity here gives rise to puns and clinches; resew
WIT
> bia,:e to quibbles, cranks, and rhimes. Of these it is quite
uniicessary to exhibit specimens.
▼ITCHCRAFT, a supernatural power of which per-
soniwere formerly supposed to obtain the possession by en-
teri r into a compact with the devil. They gave them-
selvN up to him body and soul; and he engaged that they
siioid want for nothing, and that he would avenge them
upc; all their enemies. As soon as the bargain was con-
clu|d, the devil delivered to the witch an imp, or familiar
spin, to be ready at a call, and do whatever it was direct¬
ed. By the assistance of this imp and the devil together,
the; itch, who was almost always an old woman, was ena-
bleeto transport herself in the air on a broomstick or a spit
to flitant places to attend the meetings of the witches. At
the: meetings the devil always presided. They were also
endied to transform themselves into various shapes, par-
ticiurly to assume the forms of cats and hares, in which
theunost delighted ; to inflict diseases on whomsoever they
thoght proper, and to punish their enemies in a variety of
wa;.
' ie belief that certain persons were endowed with su-
perutural power, and that they were assisted by invisible
spins, is very ancient. The sagoe. of the Romans seem
ratl r to have been sorcerers than witches; and indeed the
id«:>f a witch, as above described, could not have been pre-
valdt till after the propagation of Christianity, as the hea¬
then had no knowledge of the Christian devil. Witchcraft
wa:uhversally believed in Europe till the sixteenth century,
anowen maintained its ground with tolerable firmness till
theiniddle of the seventeenth. Vast numbers of reputed
witlies were convicted and condemned to be burnt every
I yeti The methods of discovering them were various.
On was, to weigh the supposed criminal against the
chich Bible, which, if she was guilty, would preponderate:
aiMfier, by making her attempt to say the Lord’s Prayer.
TH no witch was able to repeat entirely, but would omit
son part or sentence of it. It is remarkable, that all
wit' ies did not hesitate at the same place, some leaving
ouUDne part, and some another. Teats, through which the
inn sucked, were indubitable marks of a witch: these
we always raw, and also insensible, and if squeezed, some-
tims yielded a drop of blood. A witch could not weep
me: than three tears, and that only out of the left eye.
Till want of tears was, by the witch-finders, and even by
soiv judges, considered as a very substantial proof of guilt.
Swioming a witch was another kind of popular ordeal ge-
ne'Hy practised. For this she was stripped naked, and
crn,-bound, the right thumb to the left toe, and the left
thi ib to the right toe. Thus prepared, she was thrown
intla pond or river, in which, if guilty, she could not sink;
foil aving, by her compact with the devil, renounced the
beffit of the water of baptism, that element, in its turn,
reimnced her, and refused to receive her into its bosom.
Sinlobert Filmer mentions two others by fire: the first, by
bu ing the thatch of the house of the suspected witch ;
thiother, burning any animal supposed to be bewitched
by er, as a hog or ox. These, it was held, would force a
wi li to confess. The trial by the stool was another method
us) for the discovery of witches. It was thus managed:
hang taken the suspected witch, she w as placed in the
mil lie of a room upon a stool or table, cross-legged, or in
soil' other uneasy posture; to which, if she submitted not,
shiwas then bound with cords; there she was watched,
un kept without meat or sleep for the space of twenty-
fbii hours ; for, they said, within that time they should see
he imp come and suck. A little hole was likewise made
in ie door for imps to come in at; and lest it should come
in ime less discernible shape, they that watched were
tajfht to be ever and anon sweeping the room, and if they
sa'any spiders or flies, to kill them : if they could not kill
Ail, then they might be sure they were imps. If watches,
W I T 907
under examination or torture, would not confess, all their Witchcraft,
apparel was changed, and every hair of their body shaven
off with a sharp razor, lest they should secrete magical
charms to prevent their confessing. Witches were most
apt to confess on Friday. By such trials as these, and by
the accusation of children, old women, and fools, were
thousands of unhappy Women condemned for witchcraft,
and burnt at the stake.
For a considerable time after the inquisition w'as erected,
the trials of witches, as heretics, were confined to that tri¬
bunal ; but the goods of those who were condemned being
confiscated to the holy office, its ministers were so active
in discovering sorcerers, that the different governments
found it necessary to deprive them of the cognizance of
this crime. On the continent, commissioners were then
appointed for the discovery and conviction of witches, who,
though less active than the inquisitors, wrere but too zealous
in prosecuting their function. In 1494, Sprenger and In-
stitor, two persons employed in this commission, published
a collection of trials, most of which had come before them¬
selves, under the title of Malleus Mahficarum. This served
as a kind of institute for their successors.
The first writers against witchcraft were stigmatized as
atheists, though they only endeavoured to prove the im¬
becility of the persons accused, and the infatuation or the
knavery of their accusers. Such w'ere the epithets bestow¬
ed by Dr More. Wierus, the disciple of the celebrated
Agrippa, gave rise to the first great controversy on this
subject. His master had taught him humanity; and he en¬
deavoured, but with too feeble a hand, to stop the bloody
proceedings of the judges. Wierus appears to have been a
well-disposed, weak man, with extensive reading on this sub¬
ject, but too narrow-minded to comprehend it thoroughly.
He involved himself in unspeakable difficulties, by admit¬
ting the action of supernatural powers in certain diseases,
and in possessions, while he denied that witches had any con¬
currence in them. These appearances, said he, are illusions
of the devil, who persuades simple and melancholy persons
that the mischiet he himself performs is done by them, and
at their pleasure. He was weak enough to attempt the
explanation of every story alleged by his antagonists, with¬
out questioning the truth of the facts.
Bodin, a French lawyer of eminence, who had assisted
at several trials of witches, wrote against Wierus, in his
Demonomania. He urged the concurrent testimonies of
sufficient witnesses, and the confessions of the witches
themselves, to establish the existence of sorcery. Wierus
owned that the unhappy persons believed themselves to be
guilty of the crimes alleged against them, but that they
were deceived by the devil. But wdiat do you make of the
witches’ meetings, cried Bodin ? The witches, replied his
antagonist, are atrabilious. This explanation was so unsa¬
tisfactory, that Wierus passed for a magician, whom the
devil had furnished with specious arguments to save others
from punishment. Lerchemer, Godelmann, Ewichius, Ewal-
dus, and some others, followed him, notwithstanding this
stigma; but they were opposed by men of more acuteness
and consistency than themselves; by Remigius, who had
condemned several hundreds of sorcerers to the flames;
Delrio, whose book is a complete Corpus Magiae ; Cujacius,
Erastus, Scribonius, Camerarius, and a crowd of others.
In this country, while the belief in witchcraft was sup¬
ported by royal authority (for James I. is universally known
to have written on demonology), countenanced by Bacon,
and generally adopted among the people, only one writer
was hardy enough to oppose it. This was Reginald Scot,
who published a collection of impostures detected, under
the title of “ Discoveries of Witchcraft.” James ordered
the book to be burnt by the common executioner, and the
judges continued to burn witches as usual. During the
civil wars, upwards of eighty were hanged in Suffolk, on
908
W I T
Witebsk. the accusations of Hopkins the witch-finder. Webster was
s y the next writer against witchcraft, but he had a different
fate from that of Scot, for most of his arguments were re¬
futed by Glanville. This very acute writer was induced
to publish his Philosophical Considerations about Witch¬
craft, by the apprehension that the increasing disbelief of
witches and apparitions tended to affect the evidences of
religion, and even of a Deity. In respect of argument he
was certainly superior to his adversaries; his reasoning is
perspicuous, though sometimes subtile, placed on the most
specious foundations of evidence, and arranged with great
skill.
On the continent, this controversy seemed almost for¬
gotten, till Bekker published hh Monde Enchantee, in which
he denied the existence of witches, on the Cartesian prin¬
ciple that the Deity is the source of all action, consequently
actions so opposite to his nature and attributes cannot be
supposed to exist. He was answered by Frederick Hoff¬
mann, the father of the modern theory and practice of me¬
dicine, in his dissertation De Diaboli Potentm in Corpora.
The latest witchcraft phrensy was in New England
about the year 1692, when the execution of witches became
a calamity more dreadful than the sword or the pestilence.
The accusers became so daring, that neither civil nor re¬
ligious authority would have proved a security against their
attacks, if all the prosecutions had not been suddenly drop¬
ped, and the prisoners set at liberty. So far did those
wretches proceed in absurdity, that a dog was accused of
throwing persons into fits by looking at them. As soon as the
prosecutions were stopped, all reports of witchcraft ceased.
It would be ridiculous to attempt a serious refutation of
the existence of witches; and the task has long been un¬
necessary. In this country, at least, the discouragement
long given to all suspicion of witchcraft, and the repeal of
the statutes against that crime, have very much weakened,
though perhaps they have not entirely eradicated, the per¬
suasion. On the continent, too, it is evidently on the de¬
cline ; and notwithstanding the exertions of Dr de Haen,
and of the celebrated Lavater, we have little doubt that
in a short time posterity will everywhere wonder at the
credulity of their ancestors. That there ever were witches,
is an opinion which cannot for a moment be admitted by a
thinking man. I he actions imputed to them were either
absurd or impossible; the witnesses by whose evidence they
were condemned, either weak enthusiasts or downright vil¬
lains ; and the confessions ascribed to the witches them¬
selves, effects of a disordered imagination produced by cruel
treatment and excessive watchings. As to the nightly meet¬
ings, demonologists themselves have been obliged to confess
that they were nothing else but uneasy dreams, often pro¬
duced by soporific compositions. The facts which have been
brought forward by the advocates for witchcraft bear in their
front the most evident marks of trick and imposture; and
this has constantly been detected whenever these facts have
been properly examined.
WITEBSK, a government or stadtholderate of the Rus¬
sian dominions in Europe, formerly a portion of what was
denominated White Russia, but now bearing the name
of the largest city within it. It extends in north latitude
from 54° 42' to 57° 21', and in east longitude from 15°
35' to 21° 39'. It is bounded on the north-west by Li¬
vonia, on the north and north-east by Pfkow, on the east
by Smolensk), on the south-east by Mohilew, on the south-
\v est by Minsk, and on the west by Wilna and Courland.
It is divided into twelve circles, with a capital to each ; be¬
sides which there are twenty-three other cities or towns,
and 12,185 villages. It is 14,690 square miles in extent,
and contains 934,900 inhabitants.
The whole is a level plain, without hills; and even hil¬
locks are rare, so that nothing is to be seen but sandy
fields, with here and there the banks of the rivers, and oc-
W I T
casionally a few small lakes. The soil is poor of
sandy loam, with a thin covering of vegetable mould n
chief river is the Duna, which receives and carries
sea the waters of the Mesha, the Kasplia, the III! t
Folota, the Drissa the Druja the Saryja, the Feaeanb
and the Ewest. Among the lakes, the most extensive ! ’
the Usmyn, the Usmiat, the Osweja, and the LubX
which last indeed belongs in part to Livonia. ’
The greater part of the inhabitants adhere to the
church, or to the Greek united. The former has an art
bishop at Mohilew, with sixty-three parishes and forty monaT
tenes ; the second has a bishop at Polozk, with 135 parishp"
and thirty-three monasteries. The orthodox Greeks hav!
sixty-five parishes. Among the Lithuanians, the Livonian,
and the Germans, the Protestants are the most numerous’
1 he Jews are numerous, but chiefly in the cities and towns’
The capital of this government, the city of the same
name, and the capital of a circle, stands on the river Dun i
or Dwina, 460 miles from St Petersburg. It is surrounded
with old walls and towers, has narrow and crooked streets
and contains three Catholic and eleven Greek churches’
1940 houses, and about 14,500 inhabitants. It has six
Greek and two Catholic monasteries, and three synagogues
for the Jews. The city has a considerable number of tan¬
neries, the leather made at which is sent partly to Rwa and
partly to 8t Petersburg. It has several large fairs, where
much business is transacted. Long. 29. 55. E. Lat. 55
11. N.
WITENA MOT, or Witena Gemot, among the Anglo-
Saxons, was a term which literally signified the assembly
of the wise men; and was applied to the great council of
the nation, afterwards called the parliament.
WI f HERS of a Horse, the juncture of the shoulder-
bones at the bottom of the neck and mane, towards the
upper part of the shoulder.
WITNESS, in Law, a person who gives evidence in any
cause, and is sworn to speak the truth.
WITNEY, a market-town and parish of the county of
Oxford, in the hundred of Bampton, sixty-nine miles from
London and eleven from Oxford. It stands on the river
Windrush. It consists of two streets, at the end of one of
which is a fine church in the Gothic style. There is also
an endowed grammar-school, with a good library. This
place has long been celebrated for the manufacture of
blankets, which is still carried on extensively, and they
still maintain their character for superior warmth and light¬
ness. J here is a market on Thursday. The population
of this towm amounted in 1821 to 2827, and in 1831 to
3190 ; but the whole parish, comprehending also four ham¬
lets, in 1831 had 5336 inhabitants.
WI TSIUS, Herman, a learned divine, was born on the
12th of February 1636, at Enckhuysen in North Holland.
His father, a member of the municipal council of that
place, was the author of some pious meditations, written in
his native tongue. In 1650 he became a student in the
university of Utrecht, where he distinguished himself by
his rapid progress in different branches of learning. At the
age of eighteen, he publicly recited a Hebrew'discourse on
the Messiah of the Jews and the Christians. He after¬
wards removed to Groningen, in order to attend the lec-
f"iifo/-*♦■<-» UT ~ ~  1 _ *  J     i»->
Mo, !
J 1
"Ham,}
^Y-v'
tures of Desmarets. He was ordained a minister in . —
and exercised his functions in different places till 1675,
when he was appointed professor of divinity at Franeker.
In 1680 he was nominated to a similar chair at Utrecht;
and in 1685 he proceeded to London as chaplain of the
Dutch embassy sent to congratulate the king on his acces¬
sion to the throne. In 1698 he succeeded Spanheim as
professor of divinity at Leyden; but this office he after¬
wards exchanged for the rectorship of the Theological Col¬
lege. He died on the 22d of October 1708, in the seventy-
third year of his age.
1 A
intry
lor-pe
^chm
WIT
itsius was a judicious, as well as a learned and pious
wri|r; and some of his works continue to be held in much
estfation. Of his more important publications we subjoin
a Mice. 1. Judaeus Christianizans circa Principia Fidei et
SSirrinitatem: sive, Dissertatio de Principiis Fidei Ju-
dffi:um, &c. Traj. ad Rhen. 1661, 12mo. 2. De CEcono-
miiFcederum Dei cum Hominibus libri iv. Leovard. 1677,
9vi This treatise has frequently been printed. It was
tradated into English, and in that form has likewise passed
thnigh many editions. In Hervey’s Theron and Aspasia,
it rceives very high commendation. “ The CEconomy of
theJovenants is a body of divinity, in its method so well
dieted, in its doctrine so truly evangelical, and, what is
novery usual with our systematic writers, in its language
so hned and elegant, in its manner so affectionate and
aniuating, that I would recommend it to every student of
diviity.” 3. Diatribe de septem Epistolarum Apocalyp-
ticrum Sensu historico ac prophetico. Franeq. 1678, 12mo.
4. ixercitationes Sacrae in Symbolum quod Apostolorum
dkiur; et in Orationem Dominicam. Franeq. 1681, 4to.
5. 3gyptiaca et AixatpuXov: sive, de TEgyptiorum Sacro-
ruijcum Hebraicis Collatione libri tres; et de decern Tri-
buus Israelis liber singularis. Accessit Diatribe de Legione
Fuminatrice Christianorum sub imperatore M. Aurelio
Aionino. Amst 1683, 4to. In this valuable work, Wit-
siumaintains, against Sir John Marsham and Dr Spencer,
thi!)the Jews did not borrow from the Egyptians any part
of leir religious rites and ceremonies. The TEgyptiaca
anreprinted in the great collection of Ugolini, Thesau-
rwAntiquitatum Sacrarum, tom. i. The dissertation on
thii:hundering legion was attacked by Larroque. 6. Mis-
ce nea Sacra. Traj. ad Rhen. 1692-1700, 2 tom. 4to.
Til first volume, including thirty additional dissertations,
waa reprinted at Leyden in 1695. 7. Exercitationum
Aademicarum, maxima ex parte historico-critico-theologi-
cmm, decas. Traj. ad Rhen. 1694, 12mo. 8. Meletemata
Ldensia. Lugd. Bat. 1703, 4to. A collective edition of
hifivorks appeared at Herborn, 1712-7, 6 tom. 4to. Be-
siife his Latin treatises, he published several practical
wo:s in Dutch. He was the editor of a Latin version of
G'i win’s Moses and Aaron, printed at Utrecht in 1690,
am of Gataker’s Opera Critica, printed at the same place
in 698. (x.)
YITT, John de, a celebrated Dutch statesman, was
tlwson of Jacob de Witt, burgomaster of Dort, and was
bcci in 1625. He became well skilled in the civil law,
pedes, mathematics, and other sciences, and wrote a trea-
tismn the Elements of Curved Lines, published by Fran-
chSchooten. Having taken his degree of doctor of laws,
he ravelled into foreign courts, where he became esteemed
fo nis genius and prudence. At his return to his native
cotntry in 1650, he became pensionary of Dort, then coun-
seiir-pensionary of Holland and West Friesland, intendant
ar:;register of the fiefs, and keeper of the great seal. He
wslthus at the head of affairs in Holland ; but his opposi-
tic to the re-establishment of the office of stadtholder,
with he thought a violation of the freedom and indepen-
de?e of the republic, cost him his life when the prince of
0.Inge’s party prevailed. He and his brother Cornelius
assassinated by the populace at the Hague in 1674.
Hi was only forty-seven years of age.
iTTTENBERG, a circle of the Prussian province of
Ssibny, and of the government of Merseburg, extending
ov 330 square miles, and comprehending five cities and
toi ls, 104 villages, and 28,700 inhabitants. 1 he capital
is ie city of the same name on the river Elbe, over which
is wooden bridge of about 1000 feet in length. It is a
pW endeared to the Protestants of Germany, as the cradle
of ie reformed religion, where Luther first preached, and
wHre he and Melanchthon were buried. It now' contains
fi' churches, 320 houses, and 6500 inhabitants, including
W L A
909
the military and their families. The university has been Wivels-
removed, but the city still retains an ecclesiastical seminary, combe
Wittenberg has suffered from the hostilities of 1813 and W1 jj.
1814. There is but little commerce, although some linen sL!!y!^
and woollen cloths are made, and there are several distil-
leries and breweries. Long. 12. 39. 39. E. Lat. 51. 52.
45. N.
WIVELSCOMBE, a market-town of the county of So¬
merset, in the hundred of West Kingsbury, ten miles from
Taunton and 156 from London. It stands on the river
Tone. It formerly had considerable manufactories of
coarse woollen goods, which have nearly disappeared by
the rivalry of the northern counties. The town has a cor¬
poration, and is governed by a portreeve. It has a good
market on Tuesday, and two annual fairs. The population
amounted in 1821 to 2791, and in 1831 to 3047.
WIVENHOE, a small town of the county of Essex, in
the hundred of Lexden, fifty-four miles from London. It
stands on the navigable river Colne, and is the place where
the Colchester oysters are shipped for the London market.
It has a regular custom-house and convenient quay. The
population amounted in 1821 to 1287, and in 1831 to 1714.
WLADIMIR, a province or stadtholderate in the cen¬
tral part of the Russian dominions in Europe. It extends
in north latitude from 54° 58' to 57° 1P, and in east longi¬
tude from 37° 32' to 43° IP. It is bounded on the north¬
west by Twer, on the north by Jaroslaw, on the north-east
by Kostroma, on the east by Nishegorod, on the south by
Riazan, and on the west by Moscow. It is divided into
thirteen circles, and comprehends thirteen cities and 4828
villages, included in 1062 parishes. The extent is 19,338
square miles, and the population is 1,334,500 persons.
They are mostly of the original Russian race, and such ad¬
here to the Greek church ; but there are some Poles and
Germans, and a few Tartars. The greater part of the pea¬
santry is in a state of slavery. Of these upwards of 300,000
belong to the nobility, and about 150,000 to the emperor.
The whole is a level district, with no elevation reaching
to 500 feet above the level of the sea. It has much
wood, much heath land, and many morasses. The sloping
of the land is towards the W'olga, which does not touch
the province, but receives the waters of its several streams.
The chief of these rivers is the Oka, into which the Klias-
ma, that comes from Moscow, and the other streams, pour
their waters. There are many lakes: the largest of them
is the Plestsckeiwo, which is about five miles across, and is
the means of communication between the city of Moscow
and the Wolga. Peter the Great was induced to form upon
it an institution for building vessels. The climate of Wladi-
mir is severely cold in winter and intensely hot in summer,
exceeding in both temperatures that of the adjoining pro¬
vince of Moscow. The rivers are generally closed by ice
in the beginning of November, and do not open again till
towards the end of March. Sharp night-frosts are common
even in May. The chief pursuit is agriculture, but it is very
slightly productive. Much of the land is clay mixed with
stones, and often requires six horses to plough it, and then
the product is scarcely more than three times as much as
the seed that is sown. The only kinds of grain are winter
rye, barley, and oats, and a small portion of summer wheat;
but the whole of these do not yield, in the average of years,
more than sufficient for the consumption of ten months,
and supplies are obtained from the neighbouring provinces.
Hemp and flax are more important products of the soil,
and are extensively cultivated. The forests yield timber,
potashes, and pitch. The breeding of cattle is considerable.
The horses in this province are much valued, and great
pains have been taken by the government to improve the
breed of them.
There are some iron mines, which yield not more than
from fifty to sixty quintals of iron in bars. The manufac-
910
Wlod-
zimirz
II
Wodrow.
W O D
ture-s are, woollen cloths, several kinds of linen, and some
cotton goods, a considerable quantity of glass-ware, some
paper and soap, all of which are sent by land to Moscow.
^ The capital is the city of the same name, 602 miles from
St Petersburg. It is very ancient, and, from 1157 to 1328,
was the capital of the empire ; but it has vastly declined
from its former greatness, nor are many traces of that
greatness now to be seen, except the two cathedral churches
of St Mary and Dmitriew. It is now a place of little trade?
and though, besides the cathedrals, it contains twenty-five
churches, there are not more than 1600 inhabitants. It is
the capital of a circle of its name. Long. 40. 22. E. Lat.
56. 17. N.
WLODZIMIRZ, a circle of the Russian government of
Volhynia. It extends in north latitude from 50° 22' to
50° 57', and in east longitude from 24° 8' to 24° 58'. The
river Bug drains it, and forms the boundary towards Po¬
land. The soil is good, and yields abundant crops of
wheat, rye, barley, pease, flax, hops, and tobacco. The
woods and meadows are extensive and profitable. The ca¬
pital is the city of the same name on the river Lug. It
contains several Greek and Catholic churches, with Jewish
synagogues, a monastery, 540 houses, and 3400 inhabitants,
mostly Jews. It is 1070 miles from St Petersburg. Long.
24. 15. E. Lat. 50. 44. 30. N.
WOAHOO, one of the Sandwich Islands, containing, as
near as can be conjectured, 60,000 inhabitants. Long, of
the anchoring place, 202. 9. E. Lat. 21. 43. N.
WOBURN, a market-town of the county of Bedford,
in the hundred of Manshead, forty-two miles from London.
It has a market on Friday. It is tolerably well built, but
the most prominent object is the magnificent seat of the
duke of Bedford, erected on the site of the ancient abbey.
Its facade, the interior richly ornamented with pictures and
statues, the splendid and appropriate furniture, with the
extensive and picturesque park, and the beautiful gardens,
attract numerous visitors. The population of the town
amounted in 1821 to 1656, and in 1831 to 1827.
WODEVILLE, Anthony, earl of Rivers, brother to
the queen of Edward IV., was born in the end of 1442, or
in the beginning of 1443. Though one of the most ac¬
complished men of his age, very little is known of his pri¬
vate history. He was early and constantly employed either
in the tumults of those turbulent times, or in discharging
the duties of some of the highest offices of the state, with
which he was invested. Yet he found leisure to cultivate
letters, and to be the author of works which, though of
little value now, made some noise in that age, when learn¬
ing was at a low ebb in England. These consisted chiefly
of translations from the French ; and his lordship, and his
printer Caxton, were the first English writers who had
the pleasure to see their works published from the press.
This accomplished, brave, and amiable nobleman w’as
treacherously imprisoned’* by Richard III. in Pontefract
Castle, where, during his confinement, he composed a short
poem, which has been preserved by John Rous of War¬
wick, and breathes, says Dr Henry, a noble spirit of pious
resignation to his approaching fate. He was beheaded on
the 23d of June 1483, in the forty-first year of his age.
WODROW, Robert, a well-known ecclesiastical his¬
torian, was born at Glasgow in the year 1679. His father,
James Wodrow, a man of piety and learning, had been
licensed to preach in 1673; but during the times of perse¬
cution he obtained no settled charge, and was obliged to live
a considerable time under concealment, occasionally preach¬
ing to the proscribed presbyterians in the west of Scot¬
land. After the Revolution, he became one of the ministers
of Glasgow; but resigned his pastoral charge in 1692, on
being elected professor of divinity in that university. Ro¬
bert, his second son, entered the university in 1691 ; and
after passing through the usual academical course, with the
W O D
view of qualifying himself for the sacred ministry, he v ! il
a student of divinity under his father. About tU ^
time (in 1698) he was chosen librarian to the unirpr^6 '
an office which he held for four years, availing him'efof
the opportunities it afforded for carrying on his litm
and antiquarian pursuits, and also for becoming acauaim
ed with many persons of eminence, with whom, in afbr
life, he maintained a regular correspondence. On lea
mg the university, he resided for a short time in the fl'
mily of Sir John Maxwell of Nether Pollock, one of the
senators of the College of Justice ; and having offered hi
self as a probationer to the presbytery of Paisley, he vn"
licensed to preach the gospel in March 1703. In the sun "
mer following, the parish of Eastwood, where Sir J0h
Maxwell resided, became vacant by the death of the Rcv
Matthew Crawford, the author of a history of the Church
of Scotland (a work of some value, which still remains un¬
published) ; and Wodrovv having received an unanimous rail
from the heritors, elders, and congregation, to supply the
charge, he was ordained minister of that parish on the 28th
of October 1703. As Eastwood was at the time one of the
smallest parishes in the west of Scotland, he was the better
enabled to devote his leisure hours to the prosecution of his
favourite pursuits, which then included natural history as
well as antiquities. To Edward Lhuyd, the learned keeper
of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, he w’rites in August
1790, “ My lott is by providence cast in the parish of East-
wood, and my house within a quarter of a mile from the
Aldhous-bourn, where you and I were a-lithoscoping. My
pastorall charge does not allow me that time I once had to
follow out these subterranean studyes, but my inclination is
just the same as when I saw you, or rather greater; and I
take it to be one of the best of diversions from more serious
work, and in itself a great duty, to view and admire my
Maker in his works as weel as his word. I have gott to¬
gether some store of our fossiles hereabout from our marie,
our limestone, &c., and heartily wish I had the knowing Mr
Lhuyd here to pick out what he wants, and to help me to
classe a great many species I know not what to make of.”
Throughout the whole of his extensive correspondence,
Wodrow evinces his inquisitive turn of mind, thirsting to ac¬
quire information on all subjects, whether as regarded sci¬
ence, literature, or the state of religion ; and he often apolo¬
gizes for his “ Athenian disposition,” or, as in one place he
more quaintly terms it, “ his Athenian or queristicall tem-
Per-” Thus, soon after his settlement at Eastwood, we find
him availing himself of his acquaintance with the Rev. Patrick
Simpson of Renfrew, and other aged ministers, who had
been ordained before the Restoration, to glean their recol¬
lections of the more eminent presbyterians who flourished
during the period usually called the Second Reformation;
and many of their memorials are treasured up in his MS. vo¬
lumes of Analecta. These pursuits, however, never inter¬
fered with his parochial duties, and his success and faithful¬
ness as a Christian minister endeared him to his own people,
while his reputation as a preacher was considerable; yet,
not being given to change, he resisted all attempts made to
translate him to some more important field of labour in the
church, to Glasgow in 1712, to Stirling in 1717, to the same
place in 1726, and finally to Renfrew in 1729. He was re¬
gular in his attendance on the several ecclesiastical courts,
and he availed himself of his periodical visits to Edinburgh
during the meetings of the General Assembly to prosecute
his historical researches. As might have been expected
from a person of his habits, pursuits, and education, he
took a lively interest in all ecclesiastical proceedings; and in
questions involving matters either of sound doctrine, or
of discipline and church government, he was invariably
found on the popular side. Thus we find him a steady op¬
ponent to the imposition of the abjuration oath, hostile to
the restoration of lay-patronage, and taking a decided though
W O D
■. re’ ctant part in the well-known case of his father’s suc-
'cepr, Professor Simson of Glasgow, who was finally depos¬
ed rom his office for teaching erroneous doctrines. How-
ev, much he might lament the exercise of the powers
co-'erred by the obnoxious act alluded to, which was passed
byjhe Jacobite party for the evident purpose of subverting
th,church as an establishment, he uniformly inculcated sub-
mi ion to the civil power in such matters, and used his best
en :avours to promote peace and harmony in cases of dis-
pu d settlements. It might not indeed be possible to over-
senate the amount of injury done to the interests of reli-
gi, and of the country at large, by this act of Queen Anne,
rearing to lay-patrons the exercise of a civil right, in re-
gai to the presentation of ministers to vacant parishes,
wi out some efficient check on its due exercise. In his
Ml correspondence we find Wodrow often expressing his
den-felt regrets at the evil effects it was then beginning
to iroduce. “ If the Lord open not a door of relief (so he
wttes in 1717), we are in the utmost hazard of a corrupt
miistry.” And the reiterated expression of his fears of “ a
co apt ministry,”and his remarks on “the servile crouching
(o he probationer) to every thing his patron happens to be
fon were but too fully justified by the declining state of the
ch"ch during the last century. Looking at its effects dur-
infiWodrow’s own time, it was the primary cause of eject-
inafrom the bosom of the church some of her most faithful
misters, of alienating the affections of the humbler classes
ofllie people, who retained a longing after the fruits of
go»el ministrations, and of fostering in those who continued
witin its pale a growing laxity of principle, however out-
wally its standards were professed ; and thus, while no ade-
quie means were provided for the spiritual wants of an in¬
casing population, and no attempts made to win back to
th: fold the people who had left it in search of more faithful
anidevoted pastors, the church as an establishment seemed
faaverging into a state of languor and spiritual death. But
it mid be out of place to enlarge on such a topic, even if
Wllrow had filled a more conspicuous situation in the
ch ch. His reputation is founded on his literary labours
as idiligent and successful investigator of the history of the
chich prior to his own times.
he work by which Mr Wodrow is best known, is “ The
Hiiory of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland from
th Restoration to the Revolution.” Edinb. 1721-2, 2 vols.
foj It was the labour of many years. In 1717, having
pr ared the first portion of it, the manuscript was submitted
to eorge Ridpath and other literary friends, and he pro¬
fit by their suggestions. Two years later, the plan was
laiibefore the General Assembly, when it was cordially ap-
pr i d of, and an act was passed recommending the members
of sembly and the several ministers of the church to sub-
scu e for copies, and “ to deal” with such in their bounds
as ere well disposed to encourage the work, “ now ready
for le press.” He obtained by those means a most respect-
abilistof subscribers; and on its publication, the work
beg dedicated to George the First, copies of it were pre-
seii?d, through Dr Fraser, to the king, the queen, the
prii e and princess of Wales, by all of whom it was most
graiously received. In fact, the reception of the w'ork by
thiuublic must have been gratifying to the author; and he
ap. ars from his correspondence to have received with com-
PWive indifference some scurrilous attempts to depreciate
fib ibours by the nonjuring episcopalians, or rather by one
°f icir adherents, Alexander Bruce, advocate, first in an
anoymous tract, “ The Scottish Behemoth dissected, in a
Leer to Mr Robert Wodrow, &c;” Edin. 1722, folio ; and
ffifs in the preface to a Life of Archbishop Sharpe, 1723,
8vil Mr Bruce next announced, in 1724, a great wrork, an
‘‘ Impartial History of the Affairs in Church and State in
Sciland from the Reformation to the Revolution,” in tw'o
vo! nes folio. He did not survive long enough to make
W o D
911
much progress in this work, which was taken up by Bishop Wodrow.
Keith, who published only the first volume in 1734, bring-'  
mg the history down to the year 1568. Keith’s history is
only important as a collection of materials, for the author
was equally destitute of acuteness and liberality. To what
extent he may have profited by Bruce’s labours, is nowhere
stated.
It does not appear in what manner Wodrow’s History was
again brought under the notice of George the First; but his
majesty, “ to certify our esteem of the said author and his
works, by bestowing on him some mark of our bounty,”
ordered the sum of one hundred guineas to be paid to the
Rev. Robert Wodrow by the Treasury. This grant is dat¬
ed the 26th of April 1725 ; and such a mark of royal favour,
wholly unexpected on Wodrow’s part, was well bestowed on
one whose labours served by contrast to exhibit in lively co¬
lours the advantages which were secured to Great Britain by
the Hanoverian succession. In more recent times public
attention was directed to the work by the high eulogium
of Mr Fox on its fidelity and impartiality; and the demand
having increased its price beyond the means of ordinary
purchasers, a new edition in a more commodious form was
published at Glasgow in 1830, 4 vols. 8vo, with a memoir
of the author prefixed, by Robert Burns, D. D., one of the
ministers of Paisley. The work itself was seasonably un¬
dertaken, the materials were ample, and in general not dif¬
ficult of access; the events were still recent, and many of
those who had experienced the hardships and sufferings of
the times were either still alive or had been personal friends
of the author; and he brought to the task a singular degree of
industry, and a fidelity and impartiality which compensated
for his want of literary skill and elegance of composition ; and
by incorporating such a mass of original and authentic do¬
cuments, he has rendered his work interesting by the copi¬
ousness and minuteness of its details, no less than by exhi¬
biting an appalling picture of the times.
The publication of this great work had no effect in relax¬
ing Wodrow’s literary ardour. It had always been with
him a cherished plan to form a series of biographical memoirs
of the more eminent ministers in the church of Scotland ;
and he took every opportunity of collecting materials for
that design. Before proceeding with this task, he wrote
a memoir of his father, Professor Wodrow, who was well
entitled by his learning and usefulness to such a mark of
filial affection and regard. He commences this memoir
with the following remark: “ When I have a design of mak¬
ing all the collections I can now recover, concerning the
lives of persons in this church and nation, remarkable for
piety and usefulness, the apostolical rule of shewing first
piety at home, and requiting parents, seems to lead me to
begin with my worthy and excellent father.” It is dated
February 5th, 1724, and the MS. remained in the possession
of the family for more than a century. This “ Life of
James Wodrow, A. M., Professor of Divinity in the Uni¬
versity of Glasgow,’’ was published at Edinburgh in 1828,
under the direction of the late Dr John Campbell, one of
the ministers of that city. The series of lives, chiefly com¬
piled between 1726 and 1733, forms ten volumes in folio,
with four quarto volumes of appendix. These volumes
are preserved in the library of the University of Glas¬
gow ; and a selection was commenced in 1834 for the
members of the Maitland Club, under the title of “ Col¬
lections upon the Lives of the Reformers and most emi¬
nent Ministers of the Church of Scotland.” This work
is certainly not the most important of Wodrow’s labours.
The lives are compiled and filled with extracts from works
now much better known and more accessible than in his
days, and being in most instances only first draughts hastily
put together, the style is remarkably careless and slovenly.
The lives already printed, however, are rendered of much
greater value by the copious illustrations of the editor, Mr
912
WOK
Woking¬
ham.
Wodstock W. J. Duncan, whose researches have been most assiduous
and successful.
Wodrow’s studious habits appear to have injured his
> health; and during the latter years of his life his usual
pursuits were often interrupted by sickness, and he at
length sunk under a gradual decline on the 21st of March
1734, in the 55th year of his age. In the year 1708 he
was married to Margaret, daughter of Patrick Warner, mi¬
nister of Irvine, and grand-daughter of William Guthrie,
minister of Fenwick, author of a well-known practical trea¬
tise, “ The Trial of a saving Interest in Christ.” Of a
family of sixteen children, nine, with their mother, sur¬
vived him. His last illness he bore with much Christian
fortitude and faith in the gospel, thus giving “ a testimony
in his practical experience to the efficacy of those holy
truths which he preached so faithfully, and vindicated so
nobly by his writings.”
In the course of his researches Mr Wodrow had indus¬
triously formed an extensive and important collection of
manuscripts, chiefly relating to ecclesiastical affairs in Scot¬
land. Some years after his death, the collection was offered
for sale by his family. In May 1742, a portion of the MSS.
was purchased by direction of the General Assembly, and
this portion now remains the property of the Church.
Fifty years later (in 1792) the great mass of his other
MSS. and printed tracts was sold to the Faculty of Advo¬
cates, with the exception of his Biographical Collections
(already mentioned), which were obtained about the same
time by the University of Glasgow. In June 1828, the
Faculty of Advocates likewise secured, what cannot fail to
be esteemed an important accession to the Wodrow Ma¬
nuscripts, 1st, his Analecta,” in six volumes, closely writ¬
ten, being a kind of note-book or diary, in which he has pre¬
served a valuable and amusing record of literary intelligence,
as well as remarkable occurrences, and the news of the day;
2d, a collection of his own letters, in three volumes, closely
written (the first volume not being discovered), from March
1709 to December 1731, comprising copies of nearly 600
letters, which are well worthy of publication ; and, 3d, the
regular series of Letters addressed to him by literary persons,
or by friends and relations, arranged by himself in chrono¬
logical order, in twenty-two volumes 4to, and containing up¬
wards of 3880 letters, between the years 1694 and 1733. In
mentioning these collections, it may be proper to add, that,
for illustrating the literary and ecclesiastical history of the
period which they embrace, the publication of no similar
works would be of greater importance than that of Wodrow’s
Analecta, with an extensive but judicious selection from his
Correspondence. (c, c.
WODSTOCK, a market and borough town of the county
of Oxford, in the hundred of Wootton, sixty -three miles from
London. It stands on a small stream that falls into the Isis.
It is pleasantly situated, and contains some good houses.
There are two branches of manufacture, that of fine leather
gloves, and of good steel cutlery and steel ornaments; but
they are more celebrated for the finish of the work than for
the extent of their productions. Wodstock returns one
member to parliament. There is a good market on Tuesday.
The magnificent palace of the duke of Marlborough adjoins
the town. The building, the gardens, the park, with the
pictures and statues that adorn it, are objects of great at¬
traction ; and the numerous visitors to it contribute in some
degree to the prosperity of the town. The population in
1821 amounted to 1455, and in 1831 to 1380.
WOKINGHAM, a market-town of Berkshire, in the
hundred of Sunning, thirty-two miles from London. It is
within Windsor Forest, and the courts by which it is re¬
gulated are held here. It has a large market-place, which
is well attended on Tuesday, an endowed school; and near
it is an hospital, founded in 1663, for a master and six
brethren under the direction of the company of the drapers
W O L
in London. There is also a charity of L.50, to be
three maidens who have served the same' ma" ^ P|a'd t0
thrPP mu • ,™er during
three successive years. The population in 1821 aL???
to 2490, and 1831 to 2692. amounted v
WOLE1N a town of the Austrian province of Moravia
m the circle of Iglau. It contains 160 houses, with 2
clothKtantS’ wIl° are chiefly occupied in making woollen
WOLF, Christian, a celebrated German philosopher
was born at Breslau, on the 24th of January 1679. Aft
having been well instructed in the rudiments of learnWanH
science in his own country, Wolf prosecuted his studies sue
cessively in the universities of Jena and Leipzig. At th
age of twenty-six he had acquired so much distinction that
he was appointed professor of mathematics, and soon after¬
wards of philosophy in general, in the university of Halle"
After Leibnitz had published his Theodice, Wolf,struck with
the novelty of the edifice which that philosopher had raised
assiduously laboured in the investigation of new metaphy¬
sical truths. He also digested the elements of mathematics
in a new method, and attempted an improvement of the art
of reasoning, in a treatise on the powers of the human under¬
standing. Upon the foundation of Leibnitz’s doctrine of
monads, he formed a new system of cosmologv and pneu-
matology, digested and. demonstrated in a mathematical
method. His work, entitled Thoughts on God, the World,
and the Human Soul, was published in the year 1719; to
which were added, in a subsequent edition, Heads of Ethics
and Policy. Wolf was now rising towards the summit of
philosophical reputation, when the opinion which he enter¬
tained on the doctrine of necessity being deemed by his
colleagues inimical to religion, and an oration which he de¬
livered in praise of the morality of the Chinese having given
much offence, an accusation of heresy was publicly brought
against him ; and though he attempted to justify himself in
a treatise which he wrote on the subject of fatality, a royal
mandate was issued in November 1723, requiring him to
leave the Prussian dominions. Having been formerly in¬
vited by the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel to fill a professor¬
ship of mathematics and philosophy in the university of
Marburg, Wolf now put himself under the patronage of
that prince, who had the liberality to afford him a secure
asylum. The question concerning the grounds of the cen¬
sure which had been passed upon him was now everywhere
freely canvassed ; almost every German university was in¬
flamed with disputes on the subject of liberty and necessity,
and the names of W’olfians and Anti-Wolfians were every¬
where heard. After an interval of nine years, the king of
Prussia reversed his sentence of exile, and appointed him
professor of the law of nature and of nations, and vice-chan¬
cellor of the university of Halle; where his return was wel¬
comed w ith every expression of triumph. From this time
he was employed in completing his institutes of philosophy,
which he lived to accomplish in every branch except policy.
In 1745 he was created a baron by the elector of Bavaria,
and succeeded Ludwig in the office of chancellor of the
university. Fie continued to enjoy these honours till the
year 1754, when he expired on the 9th of April. He pos¬
sessed a clear and methodical understanding, which, by long
exercise in mathematical investigations, was particularly
fitted for the employment of digesting the several branches
of knowledge into regular systems ; and his fertile powers
of invention enabled him to enrich almost every field of
science in which he laboured, with some valuable additions.
Jhe lucid order w'hich appears in all his writings enables
his readers to follow his conceptions with ease and certainty
throughout the longest trains of reasoning. His works are
partly in German and partly in Latin. His Jus Nature,
published from 1740 to 1748, extends to no fewer than
eight volumes in quarto, and must at least be considered as
an adequate specimen of the author’s perseverance.
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W O L
^ 70LFE, James, was born at Westerham, in the county
/ of went, about the beginning of the year ] 726. His father
Wi Lieutenant-general Edward Wolfe. He went into the
ar y when very young, and applying himself with unwearied
asduity to the study of his profession, soon became remark-
ab for his knowledge and his genius. He distinguished
hiihelf at the battle of Lafelt when little more than twenty,
an received the highest encomiums from the commander-
inihief. After the peace he still continued to cultivate the
ar>f war. He contrived to introduce the greatest regu-
lai.y and the exactest discipline into his corps, and at the
sae time to preserve the affection of every soldier. In
17S he was present as a brigadier-general at the siege of
Lt.isbourg. He landed first on the island at the head of
a vision ; and in spite of the violence of the surf, and the
fo e and well-directed fire of the enemy, drove them from
th r post with great precipitation. The surrender of the
to i, which happened soon after, was in a great measure
ovng to his activity, bravery, and skill. The fame which he
at lired during this siege pointed him out to Mr Pitt, who
w; then minister, as the most proper person to command
thiarmy destined to attack Quebec. This was the most
di cult and the most arduous undertaking of the whole war.
QLbec was the capital of the French dominions in North
Aierica; .it was well fortified, situated in the midst of a
lu ile country, and defended by an army of 20,000 men,
reidars and militia, besides a considerable number of In-
dili allies. The troops selected for this expedition con-
si: :d of ten battalions, making up altogether about 7000
Such was the army destined to oppose three times
913
thlr own number, defended by fortifications, in a country
ahgether unknown, and in a late season in that climate for
ni tary operations. But this little army, was always san-
gupe of success; for they were commanded by an officer
wh, by a very uncommon magnanimity and nobleness of
biiaviour, had attached the troops so much to his person,
am inspired them with such resolution and steadiness in
tl execution of their duty, that nothing seemed too diffi-
ci; for them to accomplish. The admirable skill with
w ch his measures were planned, and the prudence and
vi:>ur with which they were executed, are well known. He
laded his army on the northern shore of the river St Law-
rt :e, in spite of the enemy, and forced them to a battle, in
w ch they were completely defeated. The consequence
ol his battle was the reduction of Quebec and the conquest
oll'anada. In the beginning of the battle General Wolfe
vv. wounded in the wrist by a musket-ball; he wrapt his
h.idkerchief round it, continued to give his orders with his
u: il calmness and perspicuity, and informed the soldiers
tl : the advanced parties on the front had his orders to re-
tii, and that they need not be surprised when it happened.
Uvards the end of the battle he received a new wound in
tl breast; he immediately retired behind the rear rank,
s> ported by a grenadier, and laid himself down on the
g und. Soon after a shout was heard, and one of the
o lers who stood by him exclaimed, “ See how' they run !w
1j dying hero asked with some emotion, “Who run?”
“ he enemy,” replied the officer; “ they give way every-
" 're.’’ The general then said, “ Pray, do one of you run
t< Jolonel Burton, and tell him to march Webb’s regiment
" i all speed down to Charles river, to cut off the retreat
o he fugitives from the bridge. Now, God be praised, I
s' 11 die happy 1” He then turned on his side, closed his
e S and expired.
Ihe death of General Wolfe was a national loss univer-
s^v lamented. He inherited from nature an animating
ft'our of sentiment, an intuitive perception, an extensive
Parity, and a passion for glory, which stimulated him to
a uire every species of military knowledge that study could
°hprehend, or that actual service could illustrate and con-
fr'i. This noble warmth of disposition seldom fails to call
VOL. XXI.
forth and unfold all the liberal virtues of the soul. Brave AVolfen-
above all estimation of danger; generous, gentle, compla- buttel
cent, and humane, he w'as the pattern of the officer, thew J
darling of the soldier. There was a sublimity in his genius. ° ^ 0n‘
wdiich soared above the pitch of ordinary minds; and had his
faculties been exercised to their full extent by opportunity
and action, had his judgment been fully matured by age
and experience, he would in all probability have rivalled
in reputation the most celebrated captains of antiquity. His
body was brought to England, and buried with military
honours in Westminster Abbey, where a magnificent mo¬
nument is erected to his memory.
WOLFENBUTTEL, a city of the duchy of Brunswick,
in Germany. It is the capital of the province of the
same name. It stands on the river Oker, and is surround¬
ed with dilapidated walls. It was formerly the residence
of the ruling family, but the palace is converted into a
manufactory. There is a fine public library, with more
than 200,000 volumes, in which is a statue of the poet Les¬
sing, who was librarian. This city is the principal seat of .
the law courts. It has three Lutheran churches, 1100 houses,
and 8300 inhabitants, who carry on fabrics of linen, silk, and
leather, and some breweries and distilleries. Long. 10. 25.
49. E. Lat. 52. 8. 44. N.
WOLLAMAI Cafe, the east point of Philip Island, on
the south coast of New Holland. Long. 145. 25, E. Lat.
38. 38. S.
WOLLASTON, William, descended of an ancient
family in Staffordshire, was born at Coton Clanford on the
26th of March 1659. His father was a private gentleman
of small fortune. In 1674, the son w'as admitted a pen¬
sioner of Sidney College, Cambridge, where, notwithstand¬
ing several disadvantages, he acquired a great degree of
reputation. In 1681, he commenced A. M., having previ¬
ously been an unsuccessful candidate for a fellowship. In
1682, seeing no prospect of preferment, he became assistant
to the head-master of Birmingham school. Some time after,
he obtained a small lecture about two miles distant, but did
the duty the whole Sunday; which, together with the business
of a great free-school for about four years, began to break
his constitution. During this space he likewise underwent
a great deal of trouble and uneasiness, in order to extricate
two of his brothers from some inconveniences to which their
own imprudence had subjected them. In 1688 affixirs took
a new turn. He found himself, by a cousin’s will, entitled
to a very ample estate, and came to London that same year,
where he settled, choosing a private, retired, and studious
life. In 1722, he printed a few copies of his celebrated
work, entitled “ The Religion of Nature delineated.” It
w\as printed for sale in 1725, and so great was its success,
that more than 10,000 were sold in a very few years. He
had scarcely completed his treatise when he unfortunately
broke his arm; and this accident adding strength to dis¬
tempers that had been growing upon him for some time,
accelerated his death, which happened upon the 29th of Oc¬
tober 1724. He was a tender, humane, and in all respects
worthy man, but is represented to have had something of
the irascible in his constitution and temperament. His
“ Religion of Nature delineated” exposed him to some cen¬
sure, as if he had disparaged Christianity by laying so much
stress, as he does in this w7ork, upon the obligations ot truth,
reason, and virtue, and by making no mention of revealed
religion. But this censure must have been the offspring of
io-norance or envy, since it appears from the introduction to
his work that he intended to treat of revealed religion in a
second part, which he lived not to finish.
WOLLASTON, William Hyde, w'as great-grandson
of the preceding, and son of the Rev. Francis Wollaston,
rector of Chiselhurst, and of St Vedast, Foster-lane, and pre¬
centor of St David’s, who died in 1815. His father had
seventeen children. William, his second son, was born on
5 z
914
W O L
W 0 L
Wologda. the 6th of August 1766, and received his academical edu-
cation at Caius College, Cambridge, where he took his de¬
gree of M. D. in 1793.
He first settled as a medical practitioner at Bury St
Edmund’s; but meeting with little success, he removed to
London, where however he was not more fortunate in his
profession. The office of physician to St George’s Hospi¬
tal falling vacant, he was one of the candidates for the ap¬
pointment ; and on the election of his rival, Dr Pemberton,
he was so much chagrined by his defeat, that he resolved
to abandon the profession of medicine, and expressed his
determination never again to write a prescription, were it
even for his own father; and from this time his attention
was wholly directed to natural science. Although almost
every branch of science at different times engaged the at¬
tention of Dr Wollaston, chemistry was that to which he
was most ardently devoted; and it is on his important dis¬
coveries in this department of natural philosophy that his
reputation will chiefly rest. In pursuing his inquiries, he
usually made his experiments on very small specimens of
the substance which he wished to analyse. He possessed an
uncommon neatness of hand, and invented the most inge¬
nious methods of determining the properties and consti¬
tuents of very minute quantities of matter. Among the de¬
licate instruments which he was accustomed to make, was a
sliding rule of chemical equivalents, and a galvanic battery
of such small dimensions that it was contained in a thimble.
He produced wire of platina so extremely fine as to be al¬
most imperceptible to the naked eye. To him we are in¬
debted for the discovery of the malleability of platinum, a
discovery which is supposed to have yielded him above
L.30,000 ; and he is likewise said to have derived great pe¬
cuniary advantages from several of his other discoveries and
inventions, which, as they were generally of a practically
useful nature, were calculated to produce a lucrative return.
Dr Wollaston was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1793, and second secretary on the 30th November 1806.
His communications to the Philosophical Transactions were
numerous and important. On the 30th November 1828, the
Royal Society awarded to him one of the royal medals for
his essay “ On a method of rendering Platina malleable.”
Towards the end of 1828 he was seized with the disorder of
which he died, and which was afterwards ascertained to be
an effusion of blood in the ventricles of the brain. Feeling
that his end was approaching, and being anxious that the
knowledge of his discoveries and inventions should be pre¬
served for the benefit of his fellow-creatures, he devoted
his numbered hours, in the midst of pain and disease, to
dictate such information as he thought worthy of being
preserved.
At the time of his death, which occurred on the 22d
December 1828, Dr Wollaston was senior fellow of Caius
College. In February 1829, Dr Fitton, as president of
the Geological h'ociety, of which Dr Wollaston was for
some time one of the vice-presidents, concluded his an¬
nual address with the following encomium on this eminent
individual: “ It would be difficult to name a man who so
well combined the qualities of an English gentleman and
a philosopher, or whose life better deserves the eulogium
given by the first of our oratoxs to one of our most dis¬
tinguished public characters ; for it was marked by a con¬
stant wish and endeavour to be useful to mankind.”
WOLOGDA, one of those large divisions into which the
European part of the Russian empire is formed, and com¬
monly denominated a government or stadtholdership. The
extent is given differently by several authors; but as Storch
seems the preferable authority, it is here given according to
his representation, at 151,074 square miles. It extends in
north latitude from 58° 23' to 64° 56', and in east longitude
from 38° 47' to 57° 10'. It is bounded on the north by
Archangel, on the north-east by Tobolsk, on the south-east
by Perm and by Wiatka, on the south by Kostroma
the south-west by Jaroslaw, on the west by NovotrornH '
and on the north-west by Olonetz.
The surface of this province is a most extensive plain
on the eastern side touching the Ural Mountains, a fe •
branches or spurs from which penetrate into the north-east
part. Besides these, no hills are to be seen, and butVw
elevations, but immeasurable woods, broad heaths and mo
rasses, small lakes, and especially a most abundant supply
of water in streams of all dimensions. The soil is of vari-
ous qualities, clayey, loamy, and sandy, and in some parts
there is good marl. There are however some tracts of o-ood
alluvial soil to be found over the worst subsoils. In most
parts it is capable of cultivation, but the best portions are
the south-west parts of the province. Cultivation in the
whole province requires watchfulness with respect both to
the weather, the nature of the soil, the rotation of crops,
and the nature and quantity of manure; but, with the
greatest attention to them, it is not common to obtain
more than five times the quantity of the seed that is sown,
even of rye, which is the most extensive crop; whereas
in barley and oats not three times the seed are commonly
obtained. Besides those kinds of grain, a little winter
wheat is sown, and some pease. It is only in very good
years that sufficient corn for the consumption is grown.
According to Storch, the annual quantity of rye and wheat
together does not exceed four English bushels for each
person. Flax and hemp succeed better than either kind of
grain. In some of the divisions beyond the Dwina, no other
corn but barley is attempted to be raised. In the north¬
east part no fruit is grown ; but in the south-west, in the
gardens, apples and cherries come to a tolerable degree of
ripeness. The cultivation of potatoes has of late years
been introduced or extended, and affords a prospect of in¬
creasing the means of subsistence.
The manufacturing industry is not considerable, and only
extends to common necessaries, such as woollen and linen
goods, from their own sheep and flax. A little paper, some
glass and earthenware, and a few metal articles, form the
chief part of the products, exclusive of the leather, and of
the brandy, which is distilled from corn in prodigious quan¬
tities. During the long nights of winter, spinning flax or
wool is the constant occupation of the females, and hence
much yarn is produced and sold to other districts.
The trade is chiefly in domestic articles; and these are
sent by the rivers or canals in summer, or on sledges in
winter, to St Petersburg or Moscow, by merchants residing
in the large towns. They are tallow candles, tar, peltry,
feathers, isinglass, matts, hogs’ bristles, turpentine, potash,
and some wooden furniture. There is a transit-trade, by
which the productions of Siberia are exchanged with those
of Archangel. The number of persons employed in inter¬
nal navigation is very great; and besides these, others,
living on the rivers that are not navigable, are employed
in summer in forming rafts of timber, which are floated
down by the stream till they reach the barges destined to
convey them to the places wffiere the timber is wanted.
The principal rivers are, 1st, The Dwina, which is com¬
posed of several rivulets, which, when united, first receives
that name within the province. It then receives the waters
of the Wytschegda, the Sysola, the Wym, the Keltma, and
the Ustjuga. After leaving the province, it is increased by
the great stream of the Yaga and its tributary brooks, and
runs to the sea at Archangel. 2d, The Petschora, a con¬
siderable river rising from the Ural Mountains, and forming
a means of intercourse between Tobolsk, Wologda, anu
Perm. It is navigable during the whole summer, with a
depth of from twelve to fourteen feet. There is also a
canal, constructed in 1786, which connects the waters o
the rivers that run to the Caspian with those that run to
the Frozen Ocean. There are many lakes, some of them
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W O L
W O L
915
veninxtensive. The largest are the Kubenskoe, the Piati-
sor&i'i) the Sandor, and the Rondas. This vast province,
whir in extent is greater than Britain and Ireland, does not
contin more than 940,000 inhabitants. These are divided
intoi ability, civil officers, clergy, colonists, merchants, citi-
zensaind peasants; the last being by far the most numerous.
The are in fact slaves, one third of whom belong to the no-
hiliti and two thirds to the crown. The whole of the inhabi-
tantiprofess the Greek religion, and are under the spiritual
, 0v nment of a bishop, whose see is in the city of Wologda.
The apital of the province, and also of a circle, is the city
fronrwhich it takes its name. It stands on both sides the
riveWologda, which divides it into two nearly equal parts,
andi' without fortifications. It contains fifty-one churches,
of vt ich six only are of stone, and the others wooden struc-
tart. It has a monastery, a nunnery, an ecclesiastical semi¬
nar some charitable institutions, and public schools for 600
soB|)f the clergy. The dwellings are 1664, of which all but
fortl five are of wood. The inhabitants are 12,100, among
who are many tanners, tallow-chandlers, and some makers
of i k, linen, and woollen goods. The commerce chiefly
con sts of the produce of the soil, or of such manufactured
(loo:, as are of the simplest fabrication, which are sent to
thJeaports in exchange for the few foreign commodities
whifi the condition of society may render desirable. The
citvs 870 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 40. 6. E. Lat.
59.". 3. 30. N.
VOLOKOLAMSK, a circle of the Russian province of
Mffl.ow, bounded on the south-west by Smolensko, on the
wee and north by Twer, and on the other parts by Sweni-
JEl, Rasa, and Moshaik. It extends over 924 square miles,
comrehending one city, eighty-one parishes, and 152 ham-
letiwith 78,600 inhabitants, mostly occupied in agriculture.
TH soil is moderately fertile. The country is well watered
byuimerous brooks, and the surface is level and woody.
TB capital is the city of the same name, on the river Goro-
deita, 440 miles from St Petersburg. It is slightly fortified,
an.ihas a castle, and contains five wooden and three stone
chinches, 290 houses, and 3500 inhabitants. It has some
traee, from being on a great road. Long. 37. 50. E. Lat.
56110. N.
i' OLSEY, Thomas, is said to have been the son of a
bu her at Ipswich. He studied at Magdalen College, Ox-
fon where he formed an acquaintance with the learned Eras-
m|; and in the year 1500 he became rector of Lymington in
Sofcrsetshire. He was afterwards made chaplain to King
Hi ry VIII., and obtained several preferments. Having
grnually acquired an entire ascendency over the mind of the
kipr, he successively obtained several bishoprics, and at
leiith was made archbishop of York, lord high chancellor
of ngland, and prime minister, and was for several yeais
tlnarbiter of Europe. Pope Leo X. created him cardinal
in 515, and made him legate a latere; and the emperor
C i rles V. and the French king Francis I. loaded him with
fafurs, in order to gain him over to their interest; but after
hti ng first sided with the emperor, he deserted him to
es.nise the interest of France. As his revenues were mi¬
ni ise, his pride and ostentation were carried to the greatest
Inflit. He had 500 servants, among whom were nine or
ter lords, fifteen knights, and forty esquires. His ambition
tc»»e pope, his pride, his exactions, and his political de ay
of lenry’s divorce, occasioned his disgrace. In the earlier
pe: of his life he seems to have been licentious in his man-
n«s R was reported, that soon after his preferment to the
ling of Lymington in Somersetshire, he was put into the
sicks hy Sir Amias Paulet, a neighbouring justice of the
P' ce, for getting drunk and making a riot at a fail . 118
W’ttment Wolsey did not forget when he arrived at t ic
li|i station of lord chancellor of England, but summone
l>i corrector up to London, and, after a severe reprmian ,
drained him six years close confinement in the lemp e.
Whatever may have been his faults, there can be no doubt Wolsing-
of their having been aggravated both by the zealous re- fiam
formers and by the creatures of Henry VIII., who was ■yy0iver_
himself neither Papist nor ‘ Protestant. Wolsey was the hampt0n.
patron of learned men, a judge and munificent encourager
of the polite arts, and ought to be considered as the foun¬
der of Christ Church College, Oxford, where, as well as
in other places, many remains of his magnificent ideas in
architecture still exist. He died on the 28th of Novem¬
ber 1530.
W’OLSINGHAM or W'alsingham, a market-town of
the county of Durham, in the ward of Darlington, 260
miles from London, and fourteen from Durham. It stands
on the river Wear, and has a market on Tuesday. The
population amounted in 1821 to 2197, and in 1831 to 2239.
WTOLTSCHANSK, a circle of the Russian government
of Ukraine. It extends in north latitude from 49° 48’ to
50° 32', and in east longitude from 36° 22' to 37° 38'. It
comprehends one city and 110 towns, besides villages, with
88,400 inhabitants, in a space of 1254 square miles. It has
many small rivers, which empty their waters into the Donez.
The soil is generally fertile and the climate temperate. 1 he
capital is a city of the same name as the circle, and as the
river on which it is built. It contains 410 houses, two
churches, and 2850 inhabitants. It is 990 miles from St Pe¬
tersburg. Long. 37. 8. E. Lat. 50. 25. N.
WOLVERHAMPTON, a large town of the county of
Stafford, in the hundred of Leisdon, fourteen miles from
Birmingham, and 130 from London. It is a place of great
antiquity, having in 996 had a school founded by Wul-
frina, the sister of King Edgar, and widow of Aldhelm
duke of Northampton ; previously to which the place was
known by the name of Hampton. T o honour her memory,
her name was prefixed, and it was thus called Wulfrina’s
Hampton, which, in a series of years, was changed to the
name it now bears. During the great civil war, it early
declared in favour of the king, and became the head¬
quarters of the troops commanded by Prince Rupert; but
after Charles’s final defeat at Naseby, it surrendered to
the parliamentary forces.
There are four churches within the town: one of them,
dedicated to St Mary and St Peter, was formerly a colle¬
giate institution. It is a spacious cruciform structure, with
a handsome tower rising from the centre. The font is of
great antiquity, and is most elaborately carved with figuies,
basses, flowers, and foliage. In the chancel are many cu¬
rious and ancient monuments. In the church-yard is a
column twenty feet high, supposed to be of Danish origin,
and exhibiting a profusion of rude sculpture. St John s
church is a handsome edifice, in the Grecian style of
architecture, with the absurd addition of a tower and a
lofty spire. The interior is pleasingly arranged, and is or¬
namented by a painting of the Descent from the Cross by
an artist named Barney, a native of the town. St Paul s
church is a perpetual curacy, and was erected at the expense
of the present incumbent, who, with another person, is joint
patron of the living. St George’s is a handsome structure,
completed in 1827, under the acts of parliament for build¬
ing new churches. Besides these, there are places ot wor-
ship for the several sects of Protestants, a Unitarian chapel,
and a chapel for the Roman Catholics. One of the charit¬
able institutions of the town is a free grammar-school, en- ^
dowed by Sir Steven Jenyns, a native of the place, and lord
mayor of London in 1508. It has a liberal endowment of
above L.1200 per annum, and has from 150 to 160 boys on
its foundation. Among remarkable individuals who received
their education in this school, was the late eminent surgeon
Mr Abernethy, and Sir William Congreve, the inventor of
that most destructive missile which bore his name till it was
changed by the artillery into spherical case-shot. There
is also another, called the Blue-Coat school, for the infe-
916
WOO
Womat rior classes, in which thirty-six boys and thirty girls are
01^ clothed and educated; and most of the churches and cha-
Wood. Pe^s have schools attached to them for the gratuitous in-
struction of children ot the labouring classes. There is
also a valuable medical dispensary. For amusement and
relaxation, a theatre, an assembly-room, a concert-room,
and a subscription-library, have been established ; and there
are annual races on three successive days in the month of
August.
I he town is favourably situated for the conveyance of
the heavy goods fabricated within and around it. It is on
the Stafford and Worcester Canal, and on the Essington
and Wyrley Canal, upon which there is easy communica¬
tion with London, Liverpool, and Bristol. The facility of
communication has been recently increased by the com-
pletion of the Grand Junction Railway, that connects Bir¬
mingham with Liverpool and Manchester. The chief trade
of the town depends on the mines of iron and of coal which
are worked in its vicinity. From them, by mechanical and
human labour, are fabricated vast quantities of domestic
fire-irons, tinned and japanned iron wares, heavy cast and
wrought iron articles, agricultural implements, locks and
keys, nails of all sizes, and various other commodities.
The more ancient part of the town is ill built, and has
a gloomy appearance; but in the modern part there are
some large and handsome dwellings. By the reform bill
this place has obtained the right of returning two members
to the House of Commons. There are good markets on
Wednesdays and Saturdays, and a large fair of three days’
duration in the month of May. The boundaries of the
parish are very extensive, and comprehend eight other
chapelries or townships, in one of which is included the
town of Bilston, with, in 1831, 14,492 inhabitants. The
population of the town itself amounted in 1821 to 18,380,
and in 1831 to 24,732; and that of the parish amounted in
1821 to 36,838, and in 1831 to 48,080.
WOMAT Point, a rocky projection of Cape Barren
island, between Van Diemen’s Land and the south-west
coast of New Holland.
WOOD, Anthony, a well-known literary historian, was
the son of Ihomas Wood, bachelor of arts and of the civil
law, and was born at Oxford on the 17th of December
1632. He studied at Merton College, and in 1655 took
the degree of master of arts. Pie wrote, 1. The History
and Antiquities of the University of Oxford; which was
afterwards translated into Latin by Mr W’ase and Mr Peers,
under the title of Ilistoria et Antiquitates ZJniversitatis
Oxoniensis, 2 vois. folio. 2. Athena Oxonienses; or an
exact Account of all the Writers and Bishops who have
had their education in the University of Oxford, from the
year 1500 to 1600, 2 fols. folio; which was enlarged in a
second edition published in 1721 by Bishop Tanner. This
work, which is highly valuable as a collection of materials,
has been greatly improved by Dr Bliss. Upon its publica¬
tion, the author was attacked by the university in defence
of Edward earl of Clarendon, lord high chancellor of Eng¬
land, and chancellor of the university, and was likewise
animadverted upon by Bishop Burnet; upon which he pub¬
lished a Vindication of the Historiographer of the University
of Oxford. He died at Oxford on the 29th of November
1695.
V W ood, a substance of which the trunks and branches of
trees consist. See Planting, Timber, and Vegetable
Physiology.
Wood, Fossil. Fossil wood, or whole trees, or parts of
them, are very frequently found buried in the earth, and
that in different strata; sometimes in stone, but more usually
in earth, and sometimes in small pieces loose among the
gravel. These, according to the time they have lain in
the earth, or the matter they have lain among, are found
differently altered from their original state; some of them
WOO
having suffered very little change, and others bein,
highly impregnated with crystalline, sparry, pyriticil
other extraneous matter, as to appear mere masses of st °r
or lumps of the common matter of the pyrites, &c ofT
dimensions, and more or less of the internal figure of h
vegetable bodies into the pores of which they have
their way. See Geology. 0,8(16
WOOD-ENGRAVING is the art of representing ob
jects on wood, by lines and points, in order to their bein'
impressed on paper. This art is of very ancient daJ
having been practised by the Egyptians. Some bricks found
on the site of ancient Babylon are preserved in the Bri
tish Museum, with characters upon them which have plainlv
been indented from engraved blocks of wood. It appears
also, from specimens that are extant, that the Greeks and
Romans were acquainted with methods of wood-cutting
for impressing letters and characters on various substances!
The probability of the art being known to the Chinese, or
actually having been carried to the extent of delineating
figures, in the thirteenth century, has been successfully dis¬
proved by Mr Jackson, in his able and learned Treatise on
Wood-Engraving. The art was however used in the thir¬
teenth and fourteenth centuries for attesting documents, and
about the commencement of the fifteenth century, by the
Germans, for marking figures on playing-cards.
The most ancient wmod-cut of which there is any au¬
thentic account, is that of St Christopher carrying an in¬
fant Christ through the water, now in the possession ot
Earl Spencer. It is eleven and a quarter inches high,
and eight and one eighth inches wide. The impression is
dated in 1423 ; and the figures of the saint and the youth¬
ful Saviour are executed with very considerable spirit and
feeling. Wood-cuts of the Annunciation and of Si Brid¬
get of Sweden appear to belong to this period, when the art
began to be much encouraged by the church. Heineken,
in allusion to this, tells us, that “ having visited in my last
tour a great many convents in Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria,
and in the Austrian states, I everywhere discovered in
their libraries many of those kinds of figures, engraved on
wood, and pasted either at the beginning or the end of old
volumes of the fifteenth century. I have indeed obtained
several of them. 'These facts, taken altogether, have con¬
firmed me in my opinion, that the next step of the en¬
graver in wood after playing-cards, was to engrave figures
of saints, which, being distributed and lost among the laity,
were in part preserved by the monks, who pasted them in
the earliest printed books with which they furnished their
libraries.”
Between 1430 and 1450, several works technically called
block-books, chiefly illustrative of the Scriptures, appear¬
ed. The most remarkable among these is the Apocalypse,
or History of St John, which was probably engraved in
1434, and is reputed to have been the production of Lau¬
rence Coster, a Dutchman. According to Heineken, there
have been six editions of this book. “ Though some of
the designs,” Jackson observes, “ are very indifferent, yet
there are others which display considerable ability, and se¬
veral of the single figures are decidedly superior to any
that are contained in the other block-books. They are
drawn with greater vigour and feeling.” The figures in an¬
other of these block-books, called the History of the Virgin,
are also very gracefully delineated, and the style in which
the cuts are engraved exhibits a more advanced stage of the
art than we find in the Apocalypse. Another specimen
of block-books is called the Biblia Pauperum (see Hate
CCCCXI1I. art. Printing), the figures it contains having,
it is conjectured, been executed for the purpose of impart¬
ing a knowdedge of sacred history to those who could not
afford to purchase a manuscript copy of the Scriptures.
Several of the cuts in this work, though rude, are not in¬
expressive of the scenes which they represent. The AlpM"
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imposed of grotesque figures from wood engravings,
was irobably executed about the middle of the fifteenth
ceni ry; and Jackson, judging from their style, thinks that
theyire the work of a native of France.
\wod-engraving began to be combined with printing
after the invention of the latter art, in the fifteenth cen¬
tury In the Psalter, printed by Faust and Schceffer at
Meiz in 1457, the large initial letters engraved in wood
are > beautiful that they have never been excelled. From
the erfection which these letters exhibit, it is evident
thatl he workmen were trained to the art. The prac-
ticeff introducing wood-cuts became general in Germany,
andl as known in Italy, towards the end of the fifteenth
ceniry- The first books in the English language contain¬
ing' ood-engravings were those printed by Caxton about
14i7' The use of cross hatchings (which are black lines
crossng each other generally diagonally) produced a great
diage in the art, giving colour and shadow to the sub-
jectJ
Tie next attempt at improvement in this art was by
Huj> da Carpi, to whom is attributed the invention of
chiboscuro. Carpi was an Italian; but the Germans
alstdaim the invention, and produce in evidence several
engivings by Mair, a disciple of Martin Schoen. His
mo* of performing this was very simple. He first en-
grard the subject upon copper, and finished it as much as
theartists of his time usually did. He next prepared a
blon: of wood, upon which he cut out the extreme lights,
andhen impressed it upon the print; by which means a
faimtint was added to all the rest of the piece, excepting
onliiin those parts where the lights were meant to predo-
minte, which appear on the specimens extant to be colour¬
ed dth white paint. The drawings for this species of en-
gratng were made with a pen on tinted paper, and the
liglh were drawm upon the paper with white paint.
Hit there is a material difference between the chiar-
oscro of the old German masters and that of the Italians.
Ma and Cranach engraved the outlines and deep shadows
upo copper. The impression taken in this state was
tin: d over by means of a single block of wood, with those
pan hollowed out which were designed to be left white
upoi the print. On the contrary, the mode of engraving
by lugo da Carpi was, to cut the outline on one block of
wad, the dark shadows upon a second, and the light sha¬
dow, or half-tint, upon a third. The first being impressed
upst the paper, the outlines only appeared. This block
beig taken away, the second was put in its place, and
beig also impressed on the paper, the dark shadows were
ad'ild to the outlines ; and the third block being put in
thwume place upon the removal of the second, and also
ioijiessed upon the paper, made the dim tints, when the
prib was completed. In some instances the number of
blinks was increased, but the operation was still the same,
theorint receiving an impression from every block.
Ibert Uurer, tow ards the end of the fifteenth and com-
mecement of the sixteenth century, was the great pro-
mc r of wood-engraving. It is supposed that many of the
wee 1-cuts, though bearing his name, were only engraved
freu drawings made on the block by him. “ One of the
peuliar advantages of wood-engraving,” Mr Jackson ob-
senes, “ is the effect with which strong shades can be re¬
printed ; and of this Durer has generally availed himself
wi the greatest skill. On comparing his works engraved
onwood with all those previously executed in the same
mJiiner, we shall find that his figures are not only much
beer drawn and more skilfully grouped, but that, instead
of icking, in hard outline, against the back-ground, they
stfcd out with the natural appearance of rotundity. I he
ruls of perspective are more attentively observed, the
baK-grounds better filled, and a number of subordinate
°fc cts introduced, such as trees, herbage, flowers, ani-
WOO
917
mals, and children, which at once give a pleasing variety Wood-
to the subject, and impart to it the stamp of truth. Though Engraving,
the figures in many of his designs may not indeed be cor- " v
rect in point of costume,—for though he diligently studied
nature, it was only in her German dress,—yret their cha¬
racter and expression are generally appropriate and natural.
Though incapable of imparting to sacred subjects the ele¬
vated character which is given to them by llaffaele, his re¬
presentations are perhaps no less like the originals than
those of the great Italian master.”
Besides Durer, there were Burgmair, Cranach, Schauf-
flein, and other German artists of celebrity, who engraved
on wood. At this period the best wood-engravings were
of considerable size, and designed in a bold and free man¬
ner ; and at no time was the art more encouraged and
esteemed. Hans Holbein, in 1538, produced the Dunce
of Death, in a series of wood-cuts, which for truth and
freedom of execution has never been surpassed. “ The
manner,” Mr Jackson remarks, “ in which they are en¬
graved is comparatively simple; there is no laboured and
unnecessary cross-hatching where the same effect might be
obtained by simpler means; no display of fine work merely
to show the artist’s talent in cutting delicate lines. Every
line is expressive, and the end is always obtained by the
simplest means. In this the talent and feeling of the en¬
graver are chiefly displayed. He wastes not his time in
mere mechanical execution, which in the present day is
often mistaken for excellence; he endeavours to give to
each character its appropriate expression ; and in this he
appears to have succeeded better, considering the small
size of the cuts, than any other wood-engraver, either of
times past or present.”
Wood-engraving now made considerable progress in
Italy, particularly in Venice; and the engravings of this
period in that country were little inferior to the German
works. The art rather declined on the continent about the
end of the sixteenth century, when copperplate engraving
came into use. In England, it continued to flourish, as
several works of the time show. Jegher of Antwerp, w7ho
was born in 1578, was so eminent in the art, that he was
employed by Rubens to work under his inspection ; and he
executed several pieces which are held in much estimation.
They are particularly distinguished for boldness and spirit.
Towards the end of the seventeenth century, wood-en¬
graving was greatly neglected, and w'as employed only for
common decorations, and never almost to delineate any sub¬
ject of interest.
About the year 1723, John Michael Papillon produced
many successful works in wood-engraving, particularly or¬
namental foliage, flowers, and shells. In 1766, he pub¬
lished his History of Wood-Engraving, the cuts in which
are his own workmanship. The book, although deficient
in many respects, evinces a laudable diligence in bringing
the art into more extended employment.
Wood-engraving w'as for many years in a very degene¬
rate state, and almost wholly lost, till it was revived in Eng¬
land by the celebrated Thomas Bewick. This artist was
born in the parish of Ovingham, in Northumberland, in
1753. Having shown a taste for drawing, he was entered
apprentice with Mr Ralph Beilby, engraver, at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne; and in 1775 he had made such progress as
to obtain a premium from the Society of Arts for his wood¬
engraving of the “ old hound.” He afterwards produced
his well-known History of Quadrupeds, which was suc¬
ceeded by his History of British Birds and other standard
works, which brought him so much celebrity, that he was
universally hailed as the reviver as well as improver of the
art. His great excellence was the singular fidelity of his
designs. “ It needs only to glance at the works of Be¬
wick,” observes an anonymous writer, “ to convince our¬
selves with what wonderful facility the very countenance
918
WOO
woo
Wood- and air of his animals are marked and distinguished. There
Engraving. is grave owl. f^g gjUy^ wavering lapwing; the pert jay;
v_^"the impudent, overfed sparrow ; the airy lark; the sleepy-
headed gourmand duck; the restless titmouse; the insigni¬
ficant wren; the clean, harmless gull; the keen, rapacious
kite; every one has character. There are no ‘ muffin
faces.’ This is far beyond the mere pencilling of fur or
feathers; it is the seizure and transfusion of countenance.
In this Bewick’s skill seems unapproached, and unap¬
proachable, by any other artist who has ever attempted
this line.” This was written in 1825, during the lifetime
of Bewick ; and since that time, although he has perhaps
been surpassed by some of his pupils in mechanical skill,
none has equalled him in his truthful conception and de¬
lineation of nature.
John Bewick, brother to Thomas, acquired the art from
him, and practised it in London for several years. His
abilities, though respectable, were not so brilliant as those
of his brother. His cuts have not the same interest, and
his style of engraving is not considered very good. He
died in 1795, aged thirty-five. His more illustrious brother
Thomas lived till 1828, and continued to ply his art till
within a short time of his death. Wood-engraving is much
indebted to this famous artist, not only for the excellence
to which he brought it, but for the taste he created for
such productions; a taste which has been maintained by
the many admirable works of his pupils, and other artists
of the present day. Of late, wood-engraving has made con¬
siderable progress in Germany and France.
The wood generally used by wood-engravers is box,
which, from its hardness and toughness, bears the action of
the press better than any other; and the smallest kinds, be¬
ing the most compact, are preferred. The blocks are cut
directly across the grain. Before the drawing is made, the
block is rubbed over with Bath-brick and a little water. If
the drawing is a delicate one, the block, except the place
where the artist commences, is covered with paper. The
habit of using magnifying glasses is not recommended to
beginners.
There are four kinds of cutting tools used in wood-en¬
graving, gravers, tint-tools, gouges or scoopers, and flat
tools or chisels. The gravers are of various sizes, and are
employed for the principal part of the work. What are
called tint-tools are chiefly for cutting parallel lines. Gouges
are for scooping out the wood towards the centre of the
block, and chisels for cutting away the wood towards the
edges. The printing press is employed in taking impres¬
sions from an engraved block of wood. “ The block,” ac¬
cording to Mr Jackson, “ is inked by being beat with the
pressman’s balls or roller, in the same manner as type; and
the paper being turned over upon it from the tympan, it is
then run in under ihe platten, which being acted on by the
lever, presses the paper on to the raised lines of the block,
and thus produces the impression. Impressions from wood
are thus obtained by the on-pression of the paper against
the raised or prominent lines.”
Wood-engraving is now generally used in illustrating
publications of all kinds. “ In the child’s first book,” Mr
Jackson observes, “ wood-cuts are introduced, to enable
the infant mind to connect words with things. The youth
gains his knowledge of the forms of foreign animals from
wood-cuts; and the mathematician avails himself of wood¬
engraving to execute his diagrams. It has been employed,
in the representation of religious subjects, as an aid to de¬
votion ; to celebrate the triumphs of kings and warriors;
to illustrate the pages of the historian, the traveller, and
the poet; and, by its means, copies of the works of tl
greatest artists of former times have been afforded at'6
price which enabled the very poorest classes to become
purchasers. As at least one hundred thousand good im
pressions can be obtained from a wood-cut, if properly en ^'^
graved and carefully printed, and as the additional cost of '
printing wood-cuts with letter-press is inconsiderable when
compared with the cost of printing steel or copper plates
separately, the art will never want encouragement, nor
again sink into neglect, so long as there are artists of ta.
lent to furnish designs, and good engravers io execute
them.” The great utility of wood-engraving will indeed, in
all probability, prevent the art from ever again declining.
Within these few years it has attained a very high degree
of perfection ; and every day, works are issuing from the
press, adorned with the most varied specimens of this va¬
luable art. (Zt zq
WOOD AH, a long curved island in the Gulf of Carpen¬
taria, on the west coast, extending about thirteen miles in
length. Lat. of its northern point, 13. 22. S.
WOODBRIDGE, a market-town of the county of Suf¬
folk, in the hundred of Loes, eight miles from Ipswich and
seventy-eight from London. It is situated on the navi-
gable river Deben, and has some ship-building, and some
trade by sea with London, Newcastle, and Hull. The
principal streets are well built and well paved. The pa¬
rish church is a fine structure, built of black flints, and has
a tower 180 feet in height, which serves as a sea-mark.
There is a large market on Wednesday, chiefly for corn.
The population amounted in 1821 to 4060, and in 1831 to
4769.
WOODC FI ESTER, a town of the county of Glouces¬
ter, in the hundred of Longtrees, 104 miles from London.
It is a manufacturing place for broad cloths, but the trade
is on the decline. There is an endowed grammar school;
and near to it is the magnificent seat of Lord Ducie. The
population amounted in 1821 to 929, and in 1831 to 885.
WOODWARD, John, was born in Derbyshire, on the
1st of May 1665. He was educated at a country school,
where he learned the Latin and Greek languages, and was
afterwards sent to London, where he is said to have been
put apprentice to a linen-draper. He was not long in that
station till he became acquainted with Dr Barwick, an
eminent physician, who took him under his tuition and into
his family. Here he prosecuted with great vigour andsuc-
cess the study of philosophy, anatomy, and physic. In
1692, Dr Stillingfleet quitting the place of professor ol
physic in Gresham College, Woodward was chosen to suc¬
ceed him, and the year following was elected F.R.S. In
1695 he wras created M. D. by Archbishop Tenison, andin
the following year he was admitted to the same degree at
Cambridge. His principal work is entitled “ An Essay to¬
wards a Natural History of the Earth and Terrestrial
Bodies, especially Minerals.” Lond. 1695, 8vo. A Latin
translation of it appeared at Zurich in 1704; and in 17R
he published “ Naturalis Historia Telluris illustrata et
aucta.” He wrote many other pieces, which were well
received by the learned world. He founded and en¬
dowed a professorship of natural history in the university
of Cambridge ; and this chair was first occupied by the ce¬
lebrated Dr Middleton. Dr Woodward died in Gresham
College, on the 25th of April 1728.
WOODY Head, a high cape on the coast of New Zea¬
land, in the South Pacific Ocean. Lat. 37. 42. S.
Woody Island, an island in the Eastern Seas. Long-
106. 5. E. Lat. 1. 46. N.
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Wddi
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
Te word wool is usually employed to designate the pile
or tj| sheep and of some other animals. It may be defin¬
ed apecies of hair, but it is distinguishable from ordinary
hairnroperly so called, by being much more soft and flex-
ible..md by possessing in a superior degree the property
of fting, which we shall hereafter have occasion to de-
M rill. It is sometimes difficult to express that with which
mosipeople are familiar; and yet, as popular conception is
olte? inadequate and incomplete, further description be-
cotn; necessary. This is especially the case with regard to
wocc We all seem at first sight to perceive the distinction
betwen wool and hair. In ordinary cases, like light and
dariess, they are sufficiently distinguishable. The bristles
of hog stand at a wide distance from the soft pile of
the ixon lamb. Yet, in many intermediate cases, it would
be llrd to say what is the one and not the other. There
arei'me animal coverings which seem to stand between the
twocxtremes ; the hair of some goats and the wool of some
she* seeming entirely to change characters.
list of the furred animals have, in a state ol nature,
bottliair and wool; the hair long and conspicuous, forming
tliemter coating of the animal; and the wool short, soft,
andlown-like, and lying hidden beneath the coarser hair.
In lie beaver this is very conspicuous. To all outward
appirance it is a coarse-haired animal ; and it is not until
theong hair is plucked that the soft wool used in the ma-
ndhture of hats becomes visible. The skin of the racoon,
of lb wild cat, and even of the otter, coarse as its outer
hai' tppears, produces wool; and the finer fleece of the rab¬
bit,, ailed coney s wool, is well known in commerce.
Te also apply the term wool to the fibre of the cotton
plaj (see Cotton Manufactures), an application which
w«i iot unknown to the Mantuan bard :
 nemora -/Ethiopian molli canentia lana.
ln|e present article we shall confine ourselves to a descrip-
tio: af the wool of the sheep, and its properties ; and especi-
allno its manufacture into woollen cloths and worsted stuffs.
lie original stock of the several varieties of sheep is
sal to be the Argali (Ovis ammon), which is still found
will on the mountains of Siberia and Kamtschatka. 1 his
seens to be scarcely distinguishable from the Moufflon
{t's aries), or wild sheep of the mountain districts of
Savinia, Corsica, and Asia Minor. But its fleece, which
is arse as well as short, resembles hair rather than wool;
an lit is not until improved by culture that its covering as-
suiks the woolly character.
Ihe effects of a more temperate climate, of more regu-
lamnd better pasture, and especially of careful shelter
frai the inclemencies of the weather, are indeed very re-
miiKable. The coarser hair gradually disappears, and the
sllter and finer wool which we have described as invest-
injthe skin of various animals, becomes more abundantly
dedoped.
|ii modifying the physical character of animals by breed-
in; it is well known that the dam has more influence over
th form and other peculiarities of the progeny than the
sin; yet, as regards the quality of the wool, the order is
re Tsed, and the sire has been ascertained to act the moie
ctspicuous part. In the first place, the ram more rapidly
ui ergoes the change above mentioned when subjected to
mVs care; and in the second, he imparts to the wool of the
piigeny a greater share of fineness than an improved ewe
'"ilddo. Thus it has been laid down by those who ha\e
had great experience in the breeding and crossing of sheep, Wool,
that a fine-woolled ram and a coarse-woolled ewe will pro- and its Ma-
duce lambs with wool three fourths instead of half as fine as uatactores.
the wool of the sire; whilst a coarse-woolled ram and a fine-
woolled ewe will produce lambs with wool only one quarter
as fine as that of the sire. To keep up the quality of wool,
therefore, the finest-woolled rams must be continually in¬
troduced, otherwise deterioration cannot be avoided. This
is well understood in all the wool-growing countries. In
Germany very high prices are given for fine-woolled rams;
and in Australia, the newest field for wool-growing, the at¬
tention of flock-masters is fully alive to the same fact.
'i he removal of the coarse woolled is an object of equal
importance. Even among the best flocks coarse-haired va¬
rieties will spring up from mere peculiarities of constitution.
This is especially the case in our changeable climate, where
the sheep are liable to be affected by sudden changes of
temperature. If the removal of such sheep is not at once
attended to, the flock will materially deteriorate in a very-
few generations.
But although deterioration soon becomes obvious, the
superior character of a particular breed of sheep will be
perceptible in particular localities, even after the lapse of
ages; and it is not a little remarkable, that the vestiges of
the finer-w-oolled animals is still to be traced in localities
which were formerly the seats of manufacture. Angora, for
instance, the ancient Ancyra, still retains the fine-fleeced
goat; and the cat and the rabbit of that district still pro¬
duce a wool remarkable for its fineness, its softness, and
its length. The fine-woolled sheep of Tarentum, so much
valued by the Greeks and Romans, originally came from
Asia Minor, where the traces of similar animals are still to
be met with ; and the descendants of the same breed, con¬
spicuous even in their degeneracy, form the common stock
of Sicily and the southern parts of Italy.
This permanency in the character of the breeds of sheep
is doubtless partly owing to food and climate. 1 he effect
of pasturage on the fleece is well known. 1 lie experiments
that have been made in this country have placet! it beyond
a doubt. The wool of sheep fed in chalky disti icts v\ ill be
greatly inferior to that of sheep of similar chaiacter pas¬
tured on land more congenial to the growth of soft wool ;
and it is even said, that where flocks have been fed on bad
herbage, and their fleeces are harsh, considerable impro\e-
ment will take place by removing them to better pasture,
if it be only for a single month previously to shearing.
In that case “ the bad effects of any late herbage will be
counteracted, and the fleeces of their flocks will handle soft,
and increase in weight, and consequently in value.”1
“ By way of example,” says the author we have just
quoted, “ we will suppose half a flock of South-Down sheep,
reared in the centre of the South Downs (known to be cal¬
careous and chalky land), and the other moiety transferred
to some of the rich land found in the neighbourhood of
Pevensey Level, near Lewes. The contrast that would be
perceptible in the fleeces of these two portions of the same
flock when shorn, is inconceivable to those who have not
had an opportunity of witnessing the powerful influence of
a change in pasture on the wool of sheep.
“ Both the temperature of climate, and herbage, have an
evident effect on wool, as may be seen in England on that
of those flocks pastured within a few miles of the sea-coast,
bemnning with the Isle of Sheppey, round the coast of Kent,
Sussex, and Hampshire. The wool of flocks which are fed
1 Southey’s Treatise on Sheep, 1810, p. 14.
920
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
Wool, within ten miles of the sea-coast generally possesses a longer
and its Ma-staple, and more pliancy of texture, and consequently it is
nu actures. |3etter adapted to the use of the spinner, than the produce
of the same flock pastured farther in the interior on similar
soil. This difference I am disposed to impute to the ex¬
halations arising from the sea, which, like the smoke of
London, extend inland at least ten miles, thus operating on
the herbage as well as on wool.”1
Of all the varieties of which wool is susceptible, the
length of the staple is the most important in its results.
Wool is accordingly divided into two classes, short or
clothing wool, and long or combing wool, each class being
subdivided into a variety of sorts, according to their fine¬
ness, and the length, and soundness of the staple.
The finest wools are of short staple, so that the worsted
spinner has sometimes difficulty in obtaining wools fine
enough for the more delicate fabrics ; but man’s ingenuity
has found a remedy for this, by combing wools of much
shorter staple than was formerly deemed possible. In the
case of the coarser wools there is no such difficulty, as they
are usually of long staple. Wools which unite a high de¬
gree of fineness and softness with considerable length of
staple, bear a high price.
I he sorting of wool is the business of the wool-sorter,
a trade which requires the nicest discrimination. Such
is the tact which habit gives, that the most skilful sorter
can appreciate differences which even the microscope can
scarcely detect; and in appreciating the other qualities of the
fleece, and weighing and balancing one against the other,
a degree of accuracy is attained of which no instrument
is capable. Of minute differences of quality, and of the
result or balance of all the qualities taken together, the
price of wool is perhaps the best measure, and we shall
therefore presently advert to it more fully.
ihe principal qualities which the sorter regards in short
or clothing wools may be stated as follows :
1. The fineness of the fibre. 4. Colour.
2. Its softness. 5. Clean state of the fleece.
3. Soundness of the staple. 6. Weight.
1. Ihe fineness of the fibre is of very great importance.
Modern machinery is capable of producing a finer thread
from coarser wools than formerly, and the thinner and
lighter fabrics can be made from it; but unless the wool
be also fine, no art can make a fine, compact, and even cloth.
This will be^readily understood when we come to describe
the process by which a surface is produced ; a surface which
consists wholly of the ultimate fibres of the wool.
Besides the fineness of the fibre, its regularity is of great
importance. I here are some kinds of wool which are only
fine at the lower end near the back of the animal, while
the extremity of the wool is coarse and hairy. There is
perhaps no wool in which some irregularity is not percepti¬
ble, though it is much more conspicuous in some samples
than in others. Cateris paribus, the value of two samples
will depend on evenness or regularity, and it is for this
quality that the wool of the Merino sheep is so remarkable.
In some fleeces of the finer sorts, an admixture of coarse
hairs will often be visible; in some cases, long and silvery;
in others, short and rigid: these latter are technically call¬
ed hemps. We do not remember to have seen the cause
suggested, but we apprehend that this may merely be a
mark of age. In the human eyebrow, for instance, it is
well-known that long coarse hairs make their appearance
even before the meridian of life ; and it is by no means im¬
probable that age may have some connexion with a similar
phenomenon in the wool of sheep. When the wool is uni¬
form, it is said to be true grown.
Ihe finest Merino fleeces are usually divided into four
Spanish ewe 
Lasteria pile 
Ewe 
Coronet pile 
Native Merino ram..,
Saxon 
Pictets Merino ram.,
Best Negrette pile...,
Alva pile 
Bambouillet ewe 
Imperial pile.... 
Morte 
By eland 
South-Dow'n 
Anglo-Negrette ram.
Charenton ram 
Ryeland ram 
Cape 4th cross 
Wilts ewe 
Outward
End.
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 1
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Sr
iouthey’s Treatise on Sheep, p. 14.
sorts; the first three being called by the Spaniards
Jina, and tercera ; the fourth or coarse part, from tFt ,’ H
and shanks, not being sent to market. The disiLioS^
of quality in German and other wools will afterward, f!^
specified. ue ^
In English fleeces, however, the proportions are differ,
ent, the finest portion seldom exceeding one third* b t
our English sorters discriminate qualities much more nire
ly, making of the whole fleece no less than eight or ten
sorts, varying perceptibly from each other in fineness and
known by the following names:
Prime. Seconds.
Choice. Fine Abb.
Super. Coarse Abb.
Head. Livery.
Downrights. Short coarse or breech wool.
Some sorters will even select from the prime sort the
few remarkably fine locks which they may find, and so
make a very superior sort, which they call pick-lock.
It is said that the very nice discrimination which the
wool-sorter attains by constant practice is considerably im-
paired if the practice be discontinued for a short period.
It follows that both the buyer and the seller, the manu¬
facturer and the grower, must frequently err in their judg¬
ment respecting the comparative qualities of particular
samples. Various attempts have accordingly been made
to determine the fineness of the fibre by means of instru¬
ments ; but, admitting that accuracy is attainable by their
means—a very doubtful point—their use can never be¬
come general, as the art of using instruments would pro¬
bably be more difficult of attainment by the Leicestershire
wool-grower or the Y orkshire manufacturer than the art of
sorting wool.
Ihe individuals who have taken the most trouble to
ascertain the fineness of wool by means of instruments
are Dr Parry, Mr Luccock, and Dr Ure. These instru¬
ments consist of a micrometer and a lens ; and they differ
from each other only in the mode of application and ad¬
justment. The result of these experiments seems to be,
that the finest wools are about of an inch in diameter,
while the coarsest of the combing wools are about ^ of
an inch. Dr Parry’s table of the diameters of clothing
wools, which has often been printed, is as follows.
Table oj comparative Diameters of various Clothing Wools. I,)^
Dr lire
V00|si
IftOTS
|rry’s
fTlie
iicet
In of
In'
tli I”!
jtfroir
Of all ti
keniine1
tWabo
Iff bon
1 j kind!
lip
ij is no
i^tbe
Itness
lliich i:
iorha
■ibed i
l[k It
ess of
; Ifof tl
Siler.
11, Wht
lit for
; ttanc
ispotiv
tlksurl
flllbe
land
item
1 itries
1 re can
I i-face
perl
ties fine
entlytc
II is (
lliitcjj
Irtite
I He R
1 Lool
l|l) the
“‘The
I M
II icons]
J Hires
ii litiK)
11 com
■ be tor
“ Jpect
ii Wei
it,of,
^yol
8 irioti
heeu
‘dtiisi
1 tOL. v
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
921
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9
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it grou(n
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it can
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lams,
bjei
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k
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fees,
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fttomf1
lpecu]
I'.r,
ns i8
DtUre in 1837 made a series of experiments on differ¬
ent viols, and published the results. He found that the
ilarreits of the finer qualities varied in diameter from
i_u° yj-’qq of an inch, which agrees pretty nearly with
Jr llrry’s table.
2.;fhe softness of the wool is a quality of not less im-
jortace than its fineness, the more especially as the per-
ectu of the felting property mainly depends upon it.
ligiuality is easily distinguishable by the touch, both in
he nv wool and in the finished cloth, which, when made
fonU'Oft wool, is itself extremely soft. Such cloth bears
i raiin higher price than cloth equal in other respects, but
nadilfrom harsher wool.
Otall the European wools, that of Saxony seems to be
ire-i nnent in point of softness. When England only im-
jortii about 2,500,000 Ibs.of wool from Germany, “Saxony
otH bore a very high price in proportion to cloth from all
theikinds of wool; but now that Germany affords us near-
v 3(000,000 lbs., the supply reaches the demand, and the
Jrico s not excessive.
Althe European wools yield to that of India in respect
f s< ness. It is grown on sheep of small size, the wool
wlrich is short and soft near the skin, with long coarse
raolRr hair growing through it, similar to what we have
lescned in the case of the beaver and other furred ani-
ualffl It should be observed, that it is chiefly upon the
olmfts of the wool that the felting property depends ;
ii we shall hereafter have occasion to speak more
ullyjif that property, we now' proceed to the quality next
n oner.
S.What is called the soundness, which is only another
lamifor the strength of the staple, is obviously of less
mpoiance in clothing wool than in combing wool. Still
U is at wholly disregarded in the former, as the durability
f til surface of the cloth will mainly depend upon it.
4<..rhe colour of the fleece, that is, its whiteness, is ob-
domy an essential quality, whether for white cloth or for
ighthnd bright colours. Indeed even the darkest colours
ire Tobably richer, and possess more lustre on a clear
hitlground, than when the wool is dark or mixed. Black
ind own wool led sheep are not uncommon in most of the
mumries of Europe ; but their wool is of less value, and
henican be no object in encouraging the breed. The
leolacrfaced sheep of Norfolk, which is also to be met with
" n outer English counties and in Scotland, and which pro-
luce fine wool, has this defect, that dark fibres are fre-
ueiry to be met with. In Canada, the whole of the pea-
J is clothed in a domestic cloth, called by the inhabi-
I ml,'toffe du pays, which is made of a mixture ot black
ind kite wool.
T'l; Romans were particularly careful in expelling the
Hi larlwoolled sheep from their flocks ; and wre are told by
irg that they even examined the tongue and palate of
flie mis, and if they exhibited any blackness, such sheep
cfvewejected. It is said that a dark soil imparts a tint to
oojlwhich renders it wholly unfit for white or any bright
L'lotll.
5..rhe cleanness of the wool is another quality which
i he firchasers cannot disregard, as its influence on weight
s soonspicuous. Here however there is a difficulty, which
equies a very nice balancing of opposite and conflicting
j l'ialties, and which demands explanation. All wools, as
they ome from the sheep’& back, are more or less greasy
h° tit touch. The cause of this greasiness is the presence
peculiar kind of potass soap, secreted by the animal,
11 died by the farmers the yolk. The softness and flexi-
tl, Wlitjjof the wool depends almost wholly on the abundance
jf' fl» yolk; yet as it readily forms a lather with water, and
kes'tot add to the value, but only increases the weight of
he i?ece when shorn, it should be washed out. In Bri-
;ainnis is done before shearing ; but this is not sufficient
H. xxi.
:(pnd
to get rid of the yolk in any sheep, and especially in Me- Wool,
rinos. and its Ma-
The grease, although so necessary to the softness 0f the nufactures-
living fleece, has been found to be injurious to the wool
when shorn ; as a sort of fermentation takes place, and the
fleece is rendered hard and harsh by the very substance
which softens it while living.
After this explanation, the reader will perceive that, as
far as mere weight is concerned, the grower is interested
in washing out as small a quantity of the yolk as possible,
while the buyer is interested in having the wool as well
washed as possible. Both are interested in the presence
of a good yolk originally, as the quality of the w;ool is therpi
by improved. Fermentation from imperfect washing is not
uncommon. If this proceed to a great extent, the wool is
injured; but a moderate degree of fermentation is said to
render the wool better suited to manufacture.
6. The weight of the fleece is a quality of the utmost
importance to the grower ; but it must not be obtained by
the sacrifice of fineness or of cleanness. Weight, as we
have seen, may arise from the presence of yolk. It may
also arise from coarseness; and even where it arises from
length of fibre, that is a quality which generally supposes
a certain degree of coarseness. An abundant supply of
food will sometimes increase the length of the staple; but
if this be accompanied by increased coarseness, as it ge¬
nerally is, it is not to be desired. What the grower wants,
and what the buyer cannot object to, is that weight of
fleece which arises from the closeness of the pile on the
back of the animal; a quality which supposes greater fine¬
ness, and generally greater softness, though usually accom¬
panied by extreme shortness of staple.
With regard to long wool, or combing wool, as it is indif¬
ferently called, the desirable qualities are the same, with
the addition of length of staple, which stands at the head of
all. Very great length of staple was formerly of more import¬
ance than it has been of late, because the mode of combing
wools of moderate length was not known. We have seen
accounts in old annual registers and magazines, of wool of
twelve, sixteen, and even twenty inches staple; but that
could only be produced by leaving the sheep two years
unshorn. We have however now lying before us wool of
eleven inches staple, but it is extremely harsh and coarse.
The usual length of combing wool is from three to eight
inches ; but wool of two inches can now be combed, which
admits of the use of very fine and soft wools, provided they
be of sound staple, for the production of the finer Merinos,
mousselines de laine, and the better sorts of hosiery.
As the comber dispenses with length, soundness of staple
becomes extremely important. Without soundness, the short
and fine wools would not bear the operation of the comb ;
with it the skilful comber will now venture upon wools, to
comb which would a few years since have been deemed an
impossibility.
The other qualities of wool,—colour, i.e. whiteness, clean¬
ness, i. e. freedom from yolk, and weight,—are of as much
importance in combing as in clothing wools, subject, of ^
course, to the pre-eminence of the other qualities which we
have enumerated.
We now come to consider the sources of supply, that is,
the various wool-growing countries whence the large de¬
mand of Great Britain has been and is satisfied.
Various estimates have been made of the number of sheep
in Great Britain, and of the quantity of wool produced; but
the earliest which enjoys any reputation for accuracy is
that of Mr Luccock, in his Treatise on English Wool, in
1800. According to his very minute calculation, the quan¬
tity of wool produced in England alone in 1800 was 384,000
packs, of 240 lbs. each, or 92,160,000 lbs. It is thought
that the number of sheep has not greatly increased since;
but Mr Hubbard, who in 1828 submitted to the Lords’
922
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
ancHts Ma ^ ? b ft ? the plan °! Lucc°ck s’ amv~ M‘Culloch at 520,000 packs, or 124,800,000 lbs U
nufactures. V' CO™luSlon that’ °cwmS to the increased weight of in Great Britain and Ireland are estimated a ‘
the fleeces, the quantity of wool produced had at that time The following table exhibits the ouanHtf ?;000>000-
increased to 463,169 packs. Taking Scotland and Ireland short wool produced in each county of Englandl
into account, the total quantity of wool is estimated by Mr 1828, according to Luccock and Hubbard! 1800and ^
:*il
Number of Sheep and Quantity of Sheeps Wool produced in England, according to Mr Luccock's Table* ™ • ,,,
Mr Hubbard, and made applicable to 1828. ’ ^
County.
Northumberland 
Durham 
Ditto 
Cumberland 
Westmoreland 
York, west riding 
Ditto, east ditto 
Ditto, north ditto 
Holderness 
Other part of Yorkshire...
Lancaster 
Chester 
Derby 
Nottingham 
Lincoln 
Ditto, rich land 
Ditto, marshes 
Ditto, miscellaneous land.
Rutland 
Northampton 
Warwick  
Ditto 
Leicester 
Ditto 
Oxford  
Bucks  
Gloucester 
Ditto 
Somerset 
Worcester 
Monmouth 
Hereford 
Shropshire 
Stafford 
Ditto 
Bedford 
Berks 
Huntingdon 
Ditto 
Cambridge 
Ditto 
Suffolk 
Norfolk 
Ditto 
Essex 
Hertford 
Middlesex 
Kent 
Ditto, Romney market....
Ditto, the marsh 
Surrey 
Sussex, downs 
Ditto, lowlands 
Hampshire 
Isle of Wight 
Wilts, downs 
Ditto, pasture 
Dorset 
Devon 
Ditto 
Cornwall 
1800.
Number of
Short-Wool
Sheep.
538,162
159,385
378,400
223,725
383,122
306,240
365,326
310,000
65,000
362,400
255,147
123,648
182,962
20,000
304,584
222,968
355,000
67,744
497,000
683,704
Total j 14,854,299
203,000
Weight
of
Fleece.
5
9
3f
34
var.
5
var.
8
8
34
var.
3
500,700
330,504
177,619
500,000
422,034
183,120
204,000
306,600
108,000
519,000
277,000
45,000
524,475
283,000
316,800
547,000
516,600
61,000
583.500
117.500
632,240
436,850
var.
54
9
8
8
5
6
3
34
7
var.
3
var.
8
44
34
var.
2
24
2
7
5
34
44
7
4
8
24
2
7
3
41
4
34
7
7
3
2
3
34
2?
3
3f
4
8
4
Number
of
Packs.
12,333
3,320
5,915
3,262
6,678
6,380
5,939
4,522
926
4,530
4,112
2,833
2,287
*291
5,303
2,787
5,400
9,388
4,820
1,431
4,200
4,397
1,526
4,250
4,151
2,000
1,128
5,176
5,697
6,486
5,297
750
7,000
3.540
2.540
6,837
6,457
800
6,684
1,460
9,880
7,280
3,382
193,475
Number of
Long-Wool
Sheep.
67,200
84,000
14,310
1,241,625
87,500
505,657
114,000
640,000
160,000
380,528
200,000
3,720
87,500
41,688
38,500
185,000
108,330
19
750
4,153,308
Number
of
Packs.
2,520
2,800
477
46,561
2,916
16,855
2,370
16,000
Weight
of
Fleece.
5J
3,333
11,100
6,666
113
5
5
54
6
5
8
8
44
44
6
64
6
9
9
6
6
6
5
5
6
8
5
4|
4
4
2,552
1,390
1,123
5,400
3,160
6,458
4
}44
5
34
154
44
8
44
44
74
4
5
5
4f
64
64
34
3
3
3
4
n
4
QS
5
8
7
131,794
1828.
Number of
Packs of
Short Wool.
6,167
7,883
4,660
4,390
5,708
5,821
1,218
5,215
2,778
2,344
4,471
1,270
8,801
4,273
8,650
2,885
937
4,127
3,960
6,837
6,457
1,016
6,685
1,958
9,878
2,275
120,655
Number of
Packs of
Long Wool.
6,166
3,818
2,388
4,389
7,656
1,902
2,800
477
6,910
3,091
46,561
3,281
12,641
2,850
16,000
8,574
10,013
6,345
4,645
8,875
6,666
5,216
6,541
2.960
5,555
4.960
3,503
4,250
4,4
1,390
8,546
1,203
2,8
10,380
5,010
2,934
6,826
6,458
5,920
263,847
died
From the reign of Charles II. until the year 1825, the if we kept it in the country, foreigners would be compe
exportation of British wool was prohibited, under an im- to come to us for manufactured woollens. During
pression that our wool was superior to all others, and that early part of the last century, numerous pamphlets issued
the
jieab
|cei
flePre
1 .»l)le«
importe
pen
#!imp
iii be
i ihieV'
pasri
1 it (Lo
mindec
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pry,
Spanii
Mia
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wo
it, bein
itlrate:
iihspn
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s id kv(
t fa thl
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t fa, oi
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t «1 its 1
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11 in fa
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11 End
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Hofth
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3 'In th£
I
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
J'Wi,
:jt!ie ^
Jcert
JjD^
5/
foardi
iiportf
ilirapl;
pit
l,tlie
Itiev
pas
i (L°
linH
iifed,
% pel
|Ho
ptodiici[
lary.
iSpani:
is, and
nerttap-
product 1
romihe press for and against that mischievous policy; and
rhe tience of running wool prevailed to a great extent.
ri,ec; pamphlets are noticed in Smith’s Memoirs of Wool,
3 nd absurdity of the prohibition is exposed in a manner
'diicl certainly anticipated the general current of the po-
itica md economical knowledge of that age.
TH prevalence of this disposition to export wool in spite
,[ se’re laws, affords a proof that our production of wool
\-as it advance of our means of working it up. We were
n fa(lan agricultural nation, and it was not until our spin-
]ing achinery was improved, and our skill became rapidly
level ied, that the tide may be said to have turned.
Tcrards the end of the last century, as will be seen by
je t;.le we shall presently exhibit, England began to be
n iruorter of wool. Laws prohibiting the “ running of
roof hen became a dead letter ; and before 1800, we were
nnuf: importers to the extent of 4,000,000 lbs., our whole
eraatl being about 100,000,000 lbs. At this period, how-
' ver,,ie landowners began to take the alarm, and a duty,
minievous duty, of 5s. 3d. per cwt. was imposed on all
rei« wool imported into Great Britain. In 1813 the
riluty
irateiv
ibprUi
uuj.as raised to 6s. 8d. per cwt.; and in 1819 Mr Van-
ttari(Lord Bexley), perhaps the most ignorant and vul-
Far-ntnded minister that ever managed, or rather mis-
banaed, the financial affairs of this realm, raised the duty
0 15*1. per cwt., or 6d. per lb. The effect of this was
irapii to deteriorate the quality of British manufacture.
To pliduce the finer cloths, foreign wools were absolutely
icceifiry. When Mr Vansittart imposed this duty, the
oft [panish wools were much used in the clothing dis-
rictaand the Saxony wools were coming into use. (See
he iixt table.) The English wools were utterly unfit for
he induction of our finest cloths; and our exports, in con-
eqinice of the virtual prohibition of foreign wools, showed
ymflpms of decline. In 1824 the duty was reduced ^0
Id., id at the end of the same year to Id. In July 1825
he (i)ty was further reduced to ^d. on wools under Is. in
irico being continued at Id. on wools at and over Is., at
vhic rates the duties have since remained. This reduc-
;ion is produced the most beneficial effects, not merely on
nam ictures, but also on the steady price of English wools,
vine;have been much higher on the average since the re¬
luct a than they were before, although we have become
mpoers to the extent of half the whole quantity we con¬
sume when Mr Vansittart’s tax was imposed. Ihe re-
Juctjn of this impolitic duty has in fact been one ot the
ousii by which our manufactures have so rapidly increased
iinci4826.
Hfing said thus much of the quantity of English wool
[onsmed in the manufactures, we now come to the history
of om foreign importations.
W have already stated, that before the end of the last
cent y, our production, in point of quantity, was greater
1 thiumhe amount of our wants. Importation up to 180‘
ehavig been free, some small quantity of foreign wool
(bum its way into this country; but it was only an ex-
f char e of one quality for another, and our real deman
toprevims to 1800 was exceedingly small. Our whole impor-
tatic; in fact, only averaged 4,000,000 lbs., the greater part
ofrv^ch consisted of the fine soft clothing wool of ^Pai”‘
'll'year 1800 exhibited an increase to nearly 9,000,000
s., f which 6,000,000 was still received from Spain, and
;j(near, 1,500,000 from Portugal. This went on untd the
peae when an increased quantity of Saxon wool came in¬
to t]i English markets. The Merino breed ot sheep ia
beer introduced into Saxony by the elector, afterwards
kinaf that state, and with most signal success. ILnung'
he ar, our imports from Germany had never reac iu
■ ,00,000; in 1815 they exceeded 3,000,000, and t e
quaijity has since increased, so as to exceed 25,Ot ,
lbs.m the average of years, while the quantity of Spams 1
wool has progressively declined. These changes, and the Wool,
general progress of our importations of foreign wool, will bean^.lts Ma*
best exhibited by the following table, giving the importa- nutac^ules*
tions in periods of five years from 1796 to 1835.
Table showing the principal Sources of Supply of Foreign
Wool from 1796 to 1835.
Year.
17961
1799 j
1800
1805
1810
1815
1820
1825
1830
1835
Spain.
3,300,000
6,062,824
6,858,738
5,952,407
6,927,579
3,536,227
8,206,472
1,643,513
1,602,752
Germany.
300,000
412,394
36,787
778,835
3,137,438
5,113,242
28,799,660
26,073,882
23,798,186
New South
Wales.
167
99,415
323,995
1.967.309
4.210.310
Other
Countries.
400,000
2,140,066
1,645,751
4,264,315
4,926,696
1,324,860
5,507,734
2,628,355
12,563,276
Total.
4,000,000
8,615,284
8,541,276
10,936,224
14,991,713
10,073,746
42,837,861
32,313,059
42,174,523
The great change that is now going on, however, consists
in the rapid increase in the supply of wool from Australia;
a change which the above table exhibits to a certain ex¬
tent, but which the more detailed comparison we are about
to offer will place in a more conspicuous light.
The first person who became impressed with the pecu¬
liar fitness of New South Wales for the growth of wool was
Captain John Macarthur, one of the most intelligent and
energetic of the early settlers in that colony. He there
commenced farming operations in 1793, but his only sheep
at that time were Bengal ewes, whose wool is extreme¬
ly coarse. About two years after, he procured a Merino
ram from the Cape, with two ewes of the same breed,
and with these he began crossing, and selecting the finest-
woolled rams to breed with, so as continually to improve
the wool on the principle pointed out in the early part of
this article.
In 1802, he brought specimens of his wool to England,
which being approved by some experienced cloth manu¬
facturers, he obtained a hearing before the privy council.
He obtained an additional grant of land in a very fer¬
tile part of the colony, and with three fine-woolled Merino
rams and two ewes he returned to the colony to prosecute
his favourite plan. It is scarcely necessary to state, that the
most extraordinary success has attended the breeding of
sheep; and the wool is said to be equal, when perfectly
clean, to the Merino wools of Saxony, and would sell for as
high a price, but for the little care taken in washing pre¬
viously to shearing. In fineness, softness, length, and sound¬
ness of staple, and in colour, the Australian wools equal
those of Germany ; but they are in a bad state as to clean¬
ness, though we believe that in this respect more care is
evinced than formerly. If washed after shearing, they
would arrive in sounder condition, and would command
a higher price ; but whether they would yield a larger
profit, depends on the additional labour which, in the
case supposed, it would be necessary to bestow. This
is a point sometimes overlooked. Persons unaccustom¬
ed to reason upon facts connected with production are
apt to think it must be better worth the producer’s while
to brino- to market a good article, and so command a high
price, than an inferior and therefore a low-priced article.
But if to raise the value of his wrool, say from 2s. to 2s. 6d.,
the New South Wales flock-master found it necessary to
expend additional labour to the value of sevenpence, it is
clear the advantage is on the side of the inferior wool.
In 1810 the importation of wool from Australia was only
167 lb., worth not above L.15. In 1820, the quantity had
nearly reached 100,000 lbs.; and this year it will most likely
exceed 12,000,000 lbs., being equal to our whole importa¬
tion from every country in the world in 1810. Ihe lol-
924
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
r+00M l0winS an accoun^ the quantity of wool imported into
xmiu-LvoTthis coimtry from New South Wales and Van Diemen’s
mitdctures. Land from 182() to
1820   99,415
1821   175,433
1822   138,498
1823   477,261
1824   382,907
1825   323,995
1826  1,106,302
1827   315,807
1828  1,574,186
1829  1,838,642
1830   1,967,309
1831   2,493,337
1832   2,377,057
1833   3,516,869
1834   3,558,091
1835   4,210,310
1836   4,996,645
1837   7,060,525
1838   7,837,423
1839  10,128,774
1790   1,000,000
1800 35,000,000
1810 85,000,000
1820 160,000,000
1830 350,000,000
1840 600,000,000
in the Australian colonies,
from the Cape is as follows.
The progress of our
imports
1831   47,868
1832   83,257
1833   93,325
1834  .141,707
The great advantage of the growth of wool to a new co¬
lony like New South Wales is, that what really amounts to
a large resource for her, forms but a small proportion of the
whole quantity required in the market which she supplies.
Thus the price of the article is not regulated by the cost of
production, but by the state of the home-market. The
local price may continue many years above the cost of pro¬
duction, and therefore give a great stimulus to supply; and
yet the quantity may go on doubling in short periods, with¬
out reducing the price. This feature has been pointed out
in the New Zealand Journal, a newspaper published in
London, and devoted to the affairs of the colony which it
represents ; and also by the Westminster Review for De¬
cember, in a paper on colonization.
“ In the production of wool,” says the writer in that re¬
view, “ Australia enjoys an advantage which is somewhat
analogous to the rent of the most fertile land in old countries.
The demand of the consuming countries greatly exceeding
the power of supply possessed by Australia, and no other
country being able to produce so cheaply, the price is kept
up to the European cost of production. Thus they enjoy
a species of monopoly price. This has hitherto been the
case with the cotton of America. It is now scarce sixty
years since cotton was first exported from America, and
this year the production is about 600,000,000 lbs. The
following has been its progress in round numbers.
 191,624
1836  331,972
1837  468,611
1838  422,506
Freedom of colonization and commerce is also onerati
beneficially with respect to the production of wool in 7
East Indies. In 1820, about 8000 lbs. were imported frn6
thence ; from that period to 1833 inclusive, the line in the
official tables is blank. In 1834 the quantity imnortoH J
67,763 lbs., in 1835 it was 295,848, and in 1838 it ]J
increased to 1,897,266.
The South American States and Mexico, the importa
tions from which, previously to 1833, were insignificant sel-
dom exceeding 200,000 lbs., now furnish considerable q’uan
titles. M
In Europe also a quarter of a century of peace has pro
duced very striking effects in the production of wool
Russia, w hich furnished but little previously to 1825 now
supplies upwards of 4,000,000 lbs. From Italy, in like’man-
ner, we now import nearly as much as from Spain; while
from insular and continental Greece and Turkey together
we receive about 2,000,000 lbs.
With these necessary explanations, we submit to the
reader the following table from the official returns, which is
divided so as to exhibit the sources of supply in a conspicu¬
ous manner.
|s, tii
"“factwes,
Table of the Importations of Wool in 1835 and 1838.
“ The price of cotton, owing to the large demand created
by our continually improving machinery, has generally ex¬
ceeded the cost of production. This has generally stimu¬
lated production, and yet not so rapidly as the demand in¬
creased ; hence the cotton of America has gone on dis¬
placing successive portions of eastern cotton, until the for¬
mer now occupies all the channels of consumption ; and so
it w ill be with Australian wool. The consumption of fo¬
reign wool alone is in England 50,000,000 lbs. The greater
portion of this will probably be displaced by the wool of
the Australian colonies. In like manner, it will gradually
cease to be worth while to raise sheep for their wool in
many of the countries which now produce it....With this
increased facility of production,” continues the reviewer,
“ it is not impossible that the manufacture of woollens will
greatly increase in this country ; that England will, in short,
enjoy that pre-eminence which she now does in the case
of the cotton manufacture, which she undoubtedly partly
owes to the cultivation of the raw material in America.”
Our importations from the Cape assume an important
place in the following table. The average supply from
the Cape during the four years ending with 1830 did not
reach 30,000 lbs. annually. From that year a rapid in¬
crease has taken place; and if a better system of coloniza¬
tion were pursued at the Cape, so as to make the colony
attractive to capitalists, the increase would be as marked as
Country whence Imported.
Germany  
Russia 
Rest of northern Europe ....
Spain 
Italy 
Greece 
Rest of southern Europe ....
Northern Africa 
Southern Africa  
Rest of Africa 
Australia 
East Indies 
Rest of Asia  
South America and Mexico
North America  
All countries  42,194,532
23,798,185
4,024,740
1,157,345
1,002,752
1,051,005
1,281,839
1,304,410
810,025
191,024
5,102
4,210,301
295,848
2,195,400
239,349
1838.
27,506,282
3,769,102
1,063,074
1,814,877
1,758,894
848,091
1,040,613
511,426
422,506
1,867
7,837,423
1,897,266
4,059,958
62,976
52,594,355
The exportation of wool from this country is not exten¬
sive. We have for several years supplied Belgium with
British wool, and France has been our customer for a small
quantity. To the United States our export of wool is al¬
most wholly foreign. The following table exhibits the total
quantity exported for the years corresponding with the last
table.
An Account of the British and Foreign Wool exported to
the Countries specified, in the years 1835 and 1838.
Countries.
To Belgium  
... France  
... United States 
... All other countries.
All countries.
1835.
3,282,330
2,034,695
3,209,424
217,855
8,744,304
1838.
5,489,093
2,003,047
144,679
112,381
7,749,200
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m,m
aa !| a
‘»eus8
h 1, for w
5ft Of I
at.
IS, til
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES. 925
Tte, then, the result of our wool trade may be stated in sarily very limited in quantity, and being always readily Wool,
mncmmbers as loliows. bought, do not fluctuate much in price. an<l its Ma-
jjoirn
dfortet
' Toj
liporW
|ufac
!( 01
le price p
1,
nan, dl
not
feiii
fftrian
jjieinia
[jiijarii
aniL,.
Sees..
;li ani p;
it.
(i. \i
5 via
la....
sceres.
itremai
artugal
subs’
«s'.
Mssufactured  165,000,000
W(* conclude this part of our article with a statement
theorices of foreign and British wools at the end of June
84*.
Per Lb.
ermn, duty paid:
a ) 1st and 2d Elect  3 0 a 5 0
W ’ >Prima   2 3 a 3 0
Silfcian, ^ Secunda.....    1 9 a 2 3
Aurian, 4 Elect...  2 9 a 3 6
BoCTiian, > Prima  2 0 a 2 6
Hiiigarian,) Secunda   1 4> a 1 10
La b  2 0 a 3 6
Pues  I 6 a 2 6
Firs  1 0 a 1 6
janjh and Portuguese:
Lenesa  2
Ito, 2i
itto, 3e
fee, Li
lto,G
Diem^;
ito, 2i
itto, 3t
itto, Li
ito, G
|lstq!
itto, 2i
itto, 3i
iilifleel
lorthai
k
di
ffit lei
cor
dit
. dit
eceste
hoik,
ito, D
[itto,M
Hm
Lbo
S'iiri])i( 1
k
tens
ifor
of
*dat
Lbs.
Gn n in the British isles  125,000,000
Imjrted1  50,000,000
Together  175,000,000
Eajrted  10,000,000
Sepvia 
Sail 
Cadres 
Esemadura
Paugal 
Lesibs’ 
G#ts’.
2
0
10
8
6
0
2
4
8
4
6
0
3
9
5
4
0
9
6
0
5
iusttlian, 1st quality  1 10
D !o, 2d quality  1 4
Dilo, 3d quality  1 2
Diio, Lambs’  1 6
Di o, Grease ’.  0 9
an Hemen’s Land, 1st quality  1 9
Di o, 2d quality  1 5
Diio, 3d quality  1 1
Di o, Lambs’    1 6
D o, Grease  0 9
ape 1st quality  1 6
Ditto, 2d quality  1 1
Dr o, 3d quality and grease  0 8
ritiii fleeces  1 1
N th and South Down hoggets 
half bred ditto 
ditto, ewes, clothing  0 10 a 0
Kit fleeces..  1 2 a 1
combing skins  0 10^ a 1
ditto flannel wools  Oil a 1
ditto blanket wools  0 7 a 0
Lkcester fleeces  0 10 a 0
In oik, Devons  0 7 a 0
Do, Downs 
D'to, Merino 
Guts’ wool, Turkey 
Yi n, mohair   
TL above prices are those of the qualities ordinarily to
)e fund in the market. Occasionally some exceedingly
ne tmples are to be met with; they are called “ fancy
a^anaflps,” and of course fetch fancy prices. We have now
3efo us a sample of beautiful Saxon clothing wool of this
„ undfor which 7s. 6d. was paid by an extensive manufac-
Lure of Leeds at a time that “ Saxon first electoral was
jjuot l at perhaps 5s. 6d.” Such fancy wools being neces-
101
3
2
3
10
11
9
price.
The origin of the manufacture of woollens is beyond thenufactuTes-
reach of tradition; but the keeping of sheep was among v '
the prominent occupations of the oldest nations or tribes of
which we have any record. It has been supposed that
sheep and goats were originally kept for their milk, and
the use of their skins for clothing could not fail to suggest
itself to the rudest people. Indeed, among all savage tribes,
even at the present day, we find the skins of beasts com¬
monly employed for the above purpose; and among those
barbarous nations a little advanced in intelligence, textile
fabrics of various materials, and displaying more or less of
ingenuity, are manufactured. The arts of spinning and
weaving were known to and practised by the Egyptians;
but the peculiarity of the woollen manufacture consists in
the advantage which is therein taken of the felting pro¬
perty of wool. Pliny tells us that the art of fulling
cloth was discovered by Nicias of Megara; but as Megara
was founded only about 400 years before the building of
Rome, or 1131 years before the Christian era, there is every
reason to believe that the art was practised in the east long
before his time.
Indeed the accidental matting of wool upon the sheep’s
back would naturally suggest the felting process. “ Whilst
the skins of sheep,” observes Mr Luccock in his Treatise
on Wool, “ dressed with the wool on, served as clothing, it
is obvious that only one useful fleece could be obtained from
one animal; and as the fleece is generally cast or falls off
once a year, this produce must have been wasted. In a
very early period, however, the property which wool pos¬
sesses of felting was discovered; or, in other words, it was
found, that by pressure and moisture, the fibres of wool
might be made to adhere together, and produce a compact
pliable substance, quite as durable and more convenient
than the skins formerly used. This appears to me to be
the first effort to produce a woollen manufacture.’’
The art of spinning and weaving wool was known in the
time of Moses, who wrote in 1450 b. c., or 320 years before
the foundation of Megara; and as common use and ex¬
posure to weather would, to a certain extent, /«// an old
garment, the fulling of cloth could not long remain un¬
known.
There is reason to believe that among the Romans the
woollen manufacture had attained considerable perfection.
We find among the Roman w7riters many passages drawing
the distinction between the piled or napped fabrics and
those which were simply woven, the threads being left ex¬
posed. The former were called joe#®, and the latter tritai;
and we may almost fancy that we discover in the distinc¬
tion the difference between a fine cloth tunic and a com¬
mon stuff garment.
From the very complete manner in which the Romans
established themselves in Britain—resembling more our
modern colonies, which have been described as “ complete
in all their parts,” than our early American colonies, which
were mere masses of labourers—we may infer that the wool¬
len manufacture was introduced by them. Indeed Camden
says they had a cloth manufactory at Winchester.
From” the time of the Romans until the conquest we
have no record of the manufacture of woollens; and even
then the notices scattered among the writings of historians
are exceedingly scanty. This however is certain, that
among the Saxons, and indeed for many centuries after
the conquest, the costume of the peasantry was of leather;
and there is reason to believe that the “ buff jerkin” re¬
tained its place as the ordinary dress of the labouring
people of England until the time of the commonwealth.
It is generally supposed that the woollen manufacture
i Average of the last/our years, 51,841,246.
926
andTt0sMa-WaS.ifiTSt introduced in.to. this country in the reign of Ed-
rmfactures. w^rd , ^ 5 ^ut though it increased considerably during that
y —< prince s reign, there is abundant evidence of its previous
existence. Indeed Mr M‘Culloch remarks,1 that “ there
ai e notices in the statute-book of‘broad cloths two yards
within the list, 2 more than one hundred years before the
date of the measures adopted by Edward III. for its im¬
provement to which observation we may add, that scat¬
tered notices of the manufacture during most of the ten
reigns preceding that of Edward III. are to be found.3
It is stated by William of Malmesbury, that some Flemish
weavers established themselves in the vicinity of Carlisle in
the reign of William the Conqueror; but on some disagree¬
ment with the people in the reign of Henry I., they w'ere
afterwards removed to Pembrokeshire. In the same reign,
cloth-weavers are mentioned in the exchequer accounts;
and in the two following reigns they are represented as
paying fines to the crown for the privilege of carrying on
their trade.4
In the reign of Edward I. the office of aulnager of cloth
was held for some time by one Peroult le Tayleur; but he
having forfeited it, the office was conferred, by command of
the king, on one Pierre de Edmonton, “ if he were fit for
it.” These several facts prove the statement of Mr M‘Cul-
loch, that the manufacture existed; but beyond that we
really know nothing.
In the fourth year of the reign of Edward III., John
Kemp, a Flanders cloth-worker, received a license to esta¬
blish himself in this country. Accordingly he settled, with
a number of dyers and fullers, at Kendal in Westmoreland,
where his name appears at this day. “ Kendal Green”
afterwards became celebrated, as every romance reader
knows. It is mentioned by Shakspeare in his play of Henry
IV.; and in the reign of Elizabeth the manufacture was in
a most flourishing condition.
During the reign of Edward III. the manufacture seems
to have spread itself all over the country. (Rymer’s Fce-
dera, vol. i. 195.) Woollen fustians were made at Norwich,
baizes at budbury, broad cloths in Kent, kerseys in Devon,
friezes in Wales, cloths in Worcestershire, Gloucestershire,
Hampshire, Sussex, and Berkshire, coarse cloths in the west
riding of Yorkshire, and serges at Colchester in Essex and
Taunton in Devon.
There was also during this reign, and indeed previously
to it, much legislation in the mistaken spirit of interfe¬
rence so common in that age, and since unhappily conti¬
nued by the operation of sinister interests, for the purpose
of regulating the trade. On the plea of the superiority of
English wool, the cloth-makers of London had been for¬
bidden, as early as the reign of Plenry II. (1185), to mix
Spanish with native wools; but the circumstance at this
distant day only proves two things: 1. that the wool of
Spain, like that of Germany in modern times, is absolutely
necessary for the production of cloth of good quality; and
2. that the class connected with the land were at least as
powerful as they are at the present day.
The improvement of the cloth manufacture caused a
diminution of the exportation of wool, and a duty was levied
on the exportation of cloth. Various acts, which would
now be deemed extremely vexatious, but which were then
intended to protect the trade, were passed relative to the
measurement and fulling of the cloth; and in the year 1357,
Blackwell Hall was established by the mayor and common
council of London as the cloth-market of the city.
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
In an exchequer record of the year 1355, mihlUU,i.
Misselden in 1623, we find among the expomancl i!? by N
the following records of the woollen trade. lmponsNi«|a.
1
Exports—Wool, 31,65U sacks  T ifiQnAn^
Felts, 3665 No   U8^ 9
Cloth, 4774 cloths    J?;9
Worsted, 8061 pieces   g’J 9
Imports—Cloth, 1832 cloths  
This statement is valuable, as shewing: that in rQ’
of Edward III. we imported fine cloths and ex^d ^
cloths, as their respective values in the above table shew5
. Dliring the following reigns the same spirit of undue
interference ran through the legislation of the period In
the reign of Henry IV. cloths were ordered to be stamned
with a seal of lead. In that of Henry VI. cloth-searchers
were appointed for every hundred throughout the kingdom
and the exportation of yarn was strictly prohibited. In the
same reign we find evidences of the “ reciprocity system”
which has since been revived in the same narrow spirit. It
was enacted, “ that if our woollens were not received in
Brabant, Holland, and Zealand, then the merchandise orow-
ing or wrought within the dominions of the duke of Bour-
goine shall be_ prohibited in England, under pain of for¬
feiture;” and in the following reign the importation of
woollens was prohibited. These several facts are chiefly
valuable for the inferences which we may draw from them
touching the growth of the woollen manufacture. The
first-named act shews that, early in the fifteenth century,
we were enabled to supply with woollens the very countries
whence we derived the manufacture; and the last-named
act affords evidence that the cloth manufactures in the lat¬
ter part of the same century had become sufficiently power¬
ful to tuin the tide of bad legislation in their own favour.
We have seen that in the reign of Edward III. the high-
priced cloths were imported, the manufactures of this coun¬
try being of a coarser kind ; which however were even then
produced under sufficient advantage, considered relatively
to other nations, to form a considerable article of export.
In the reign of Henry VII. however a change had taken
place ; cloths of considerable fineness must have been pro¬
duced, for we find that, in the fourth year of that monarch’s
reign, a maximum was fixed on the price of fine cloth:
“ every retailer of fine cloth who should sell a yard of the
finest scarlet grained cloth above sixteen shillings” should
forfeit 40s. a yard for the same. During this reign the
“ merchant adventurers,” who dealt much in manufactures,
selling the same to foreigners, became a powerful body.
In the following reign the woollen trade was generally
in a most flourishing state, and the worsted manufacture
especially increased rapidly. Some attempts were made
by the crown, through the agency of Wolsey, to inter¬
fere with the freedom of the merchants; but we find these
men entertaining more correct notions than their rulers.
Wolsey is said to have threatened that the king would pur¬
chase of the manufacturers, open a new mart at Whitehall,
and sell to the strangers ; but the merchants told the car¬
dinal, that the king might buy as well at Blackwell Hall,
and that the strangers would gladlier receive their goods
there than at Westminster. In this there is good political
economy, and it does not appear that the king ever acted
on his threat.
At this time one Jack of Newbury was deemed the
* ^‘Culloch’s Statistical Account of the British Empire, vol. ii. p. 43. 2 Henry III
Memotr^fw1 erf 0n,Ce foT 'T1 °f ^ fact3 resP^ting the early history of the woollen manufactures are taken from Smith’*
is eXrLll T he TrkS t0 Whl-Ch he referS- 1)o" n to the year 1720, it is perhaps the most accurate record of the subject extant. It
is extremely interestino*. and is writt.pn in a smnf nf  • .1 «
•  1 . . ' . . : —. . . yeai 1 / zu, u is pernaps tne most accural
4 M T > aund‘S Ttten ln a Spint of liberality far beyond the age in which the author lived.
Maaox 3 History of the Exchequer.
The pound sterling of Edward III. contained three times as much silver as at the present day.
3 !li traC
IfactuK
(triod.
and
into
(Jit
V
flsed un
ut
•Isis sti
increas
8 tenon
ltd in
I of
tow 1
(brove
he as:
. knche
|o ma
and f
I if the
this ti
ir
compa
turers.
Ini we
ard ei
lercba:
| j been
ignor
j thougl
count
wive a
aeigna
aster of
Ipecausi
Ise.
jgn th
to gi
the
lation
oly.
eper
$e Ste
the tn
1 tKient
h zahetl
igno
f tos.
| act®
musat
f (tnof
"'as inf
laden,
iso in
Jtclo,
^ loo1
| for
talth)
U trad
fjctiiro
(riod-
f)an(
i into
ii as
se'luOj
i until
jis st;
icreas
tenouj,
{din
l of
cow
tove
iieass^
anche j
tba!
the
o ma
irade
fthe
this ti
pi1
ibodie)
bole < e
comps r,
turers.1
Im we’
ird e! i
iercba:i
le fell,
lad b
beccip
ignor'1
though'
bcturoi
count
Isiveab
tignai
iter of i
ecausi )le
se,
r;.u‘
iifflent0'
abeth
tigno
Mo
wan
factor,
busat
kof
k in-
Kei
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
927
eate? clothier in England. He was the owner of one
nclrfl looms, and is said to have equipped as many men-
■arp f°r the Scotish wars at his own cost.
Yorb at this time the next city to London in population
d Wf 1th, had long been deemed the great seat of the
lollet trade in the northern counties. This branch of
in ire had established itself there in the reign of Ed-
ird III., and it seems steadily to have increased from
t pi iod. The trade also spread into other parts of the
unt' and we find many evidences that Halifax had
owriiinto importance. The trade indeed prevailed in
difttt as early as 1414, but it does not appear to have
creaiid until after the year 1443, when the advance was
adyuntil 1540, during which period the number of
use»s stated by Wright, in his History of Halifax, to
velii reased from thirteen to 520. They had even in-
encenough to procure acts of parliament in their favour,
'uchd in the narrow spirit of the legislation of that day.
I Acr of parliament for the regulation of the woollen
“idftow began to multiply, which, if they prove nothing
se, pave the importance which the staple trade had at
is tile assumed. In the reign of Edward VI. Coventry
Mnchester are named as the seats of manufacture;
1 d iirihat of Philip and Mary a long act was passed regu-
[ting;:he making of woollen cloths, and confining the
me ) market-towns. Ten or eleven counties, besides
orthmd South Wales, were excepted in the act; but it
is dibmed so oppressive that it was amended in the first
ar cthe next reign.
At iis time it should be observed, that the freedom of
nd industry was wholly unknown. Guilds or cor-
rataiodies monopolized every trade or calling; and even
vnole export trade of England was in the hands of
ee ompanies, the merchants of the staple, the merchant
verirers, and the merchants of the steelyard, the latter
whin were foreigners. In 1551 the merchants of the
eelvd exported 44,000 cloths; and shortly afterwards
e nrchant adventurers, into whose hands this branch
' trab fell, exported 100,000 cloths. The exportation of
ool (ad been for some time diminishing, and we were
id! becoming a manufacturing nation. Acts indicative
thegnorance which prevailed continued to be passed;
t a:lough the state sought to regulate every thing, our
anwctures and trade grew in spite of vicious legislation,
mnccounties and towns, however, were relieved from the
prtsive acts of former reigns, and a considerable number
fonign artisans settled in England ; but generally the
anuer of legislation was bad, and was indeed only toler-
Icause that of other countries was either equally bad
r wcse. The exportation of sheep was prohibited “ for
vor good causes and considerations;” and in the follow-
thig rign the export of “ white cloths” was prohibited, in
girder to give a boon to our dyers ; but other countries
thcloptol the same narrow policy, and by prohibiting the
npoJition of British dyed cloths, defeated the intended
miKply. The woollen manufacture now declined apace,
Ttid ®b persecutions and civil disorder during the contest
ith lie Stewarts, that is, from 1620 to 1688, almost annihi-
diie trade. The exportation of wool was alternately
rohiited and permitted, according to the notions ot the
vfiment. The great prosperity of the woollen trade
Elabeth’s reign had been coincident with free trade;
at ji, ignorance prevailed throughout all classes, vain at-
s(?tnp to secure monopolies found favour with the public,
otwhistanding repeated failures. Oppressions drove the
lamkcturers out of the kingdom; and it is said that
ivojjlousand left the country at one time under Ihomas
"elhkn of Warwick, and shortly after more joined them.
Tis as in the year 1665, when the white clothing trade
adlilen off from 100,000 cloths to 11,000, without any
ln icipe in the exportation of dyed cloths.
The legislation of the commonwealth wras just as unwise Wool,
as that of the Stewarts. The exportation of wool, fullers’an(l its Ma-
earth, and all the materials of manufacture, was prevented, ^^ures.
and it seems never to have entered the minds of the pro- v
moters and framers of these laws that other nations could
produce these articles; nor was it until about the year
1660 that the superiority of Spanish clothing wool was ad¬
mitted, when our manufacturers began to mix it with Eng¬
lish wool, to the great improvement of the cloth.
To enumerate the various schemes to remedy the de¬
pressed state of the woollen manufacture about this period,
would occupy more space than we can afford. They will
however be found in Smith’s Memoirs of Wool, a work to
which we are much indebted. Suffice it to say, that bad
legislation continued its work until it had paralyzed the
trade.
In the mean time the woollen manufacture found its way
into Ireland. Some English clothiers had settled at Dub¬
lin, Cork, and Kinsale, and a more considerable establish¬
ment was formed at Clonmel. Some Frenchmen also set up
a manufacture of druggets at Waterford, and the success of
these excited the jealousy of the English clothiers, who as¬
cribed the depression of the trade to Irish competition.
The farmer also attributed part of his distress to the im¬
portation of Irish wools; and, with singular inconsistency,
the clandestine export of both English and Irish wools was
deemed the cause of the increase of foreign manufactures.
These erroneous notions produced another crop of bad le¬
gislation, and the result was, that the very evils complained
of were actually produced. Nearly all the tracts on trade
published at that time, and nearly all of which are briefly
noticed in Smith’s Memoirs of Wool, will be found harping
on the declining state of trade, and recommending measures
calculated to produce the worst of evils. The great complaint
was “ the running of wool;” and although the consump¬
tion of Spanish wool was annually increasing, because its
merits were becoming known, manufacturers, traders, le¬
gislators, all seemed to act under an impression that no
wool in the world equalled that of Great Britain.
As the consumption of Spanish wool increased, English
cloth improved; and, immediately before the Revolution,
our manufacturers opposed with some success the rivalry of
the French, which had become extremely injurious to Bri¬
tish manufactures.
The tranquillity produced by the establishment of the
princess Mary and the prince of Orange on the throne
was extremely favourable to the woollen manufacturers,
more especially as many of them were Protestant dissen¬
ters, who had not enjoyed under the domination of the
Stewarts that degree of religious liberty which they craved.
Towards the end of the century, it was calculated that the
total woollens manufactured in this country amounted to
L.8,000,000, of which about L.2,000,000 were exported.
From 1718 to 1722 it averaged L.3,000,000. For the
ten years ending with 1748 the number was L.3,300,000;
and for the following five years L.4,200,000, from which
time the advance has been progressive down to the present
time.
The principal seats of the woollen manufacture are the
western counties and the west riding of Yorkshire. From
the year 1726 until the year 1821 accounts were kept of the
quantity of cloth manufactured in the west riding of York¬
shire, as exhibited by the returns from the several fulling
mills made at the Easter quarter-sessions held at Pontefract.
The table for every year of the period will be found in
Marshall’s Statistical Tables ; but for the purpose of bring¬
ing the progressive increase of the manufacture before
the eye of the reader, apart from all occasional and tempo¬
rary fluctuations, we have arranged the last fifty years of
the table in five periods, giving the total and averages for
each period.
928
Wool,
and its Ma¬
nufactures.
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
Statement of the Number of Pieces and Yards of Broad and Narrow Cloth milled in the West Ridina of Vnrl v ,
1772 to 1821, divided mto Periods of Ten Years, showing the Totals and Averages during each Per^
Ten Years ending with the Year
specified.
1781.
| Total 
( Average..
1791 /  
( Average.
1801 If°tal 
1 Average..
1811 1 Total 
Average..
1821.
Total.
Average 
Broads.
Pieces.
1,063,288
106,327
1,507,097
150,710
2,370,073
237,007
2,817,807
281,780
3,169,686
316,768
Yards.
31,542,322
3,154,232
47,674,316
4,767,432
75,612,373
7,561,237
91,762,295
9,176,230
100,078,027
10,007,803
Narrows.
946,704
94,670
1,261,103
126,110
1,570,154
157,015
1,526,204
152,620
1,352,056
135,206
24,997,158
2,499,716
38,249,317
3,824,932
53,277,085
5,327,708
57,199,714
5,719,971
53,038,125
5,303,813
Both.
Pieces.
2,009,972
200,997
2,768,200
276,820
3,940,227
394,023
4,344,0) 1
434,401
4,521,742
452,174
56,539,480
5,653,948
85,923,633
8,592,363
128,889,458
12,888,946
148,962,009
14,896,201
153,116,172
15,311,617
The only account we have of the quantity manufactured
in the west of England, is the following official table of the
Hoc!,.
"utacturt ‘
'S-V^
manufactures of Gloucestershire, taken from the Assistant
Hand-Loom Commissioners’ Report of that district.
A Return of the Number of Yards of Woollen Cloth made in Gloucestershire in each Year from 1822 to 1838 in 1 '
so far as it can be supplied by the Records of the Excise Department. C ^
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
Broad Cloth,
in Yards.
356,743
1,051,909
1,209,827
1,089,086
972,394
704,908
914,834
914,731
936,279
1,283,577
1,333,664
1,030,632
1,499,676
1,265,100
1,285,771
1,045,857
863,443
Narrow Cloth,
in Yards.
34,081
187,924
179,213
159,559
99,961
124,078
237,115
201,458
220,274
246,322
330,721
244,613
386,114
381,467
304,054
296,085
358,099
Broad and
Narrow Cloth,
the kinds not
being kept
distinct.
316,755
441,137
289,352
322,580
352,770
519,914
452,360
355,018
330,799
383,122
433,181
35,550
79,909
141,589
299,876
284,620
Cassimere,
in Yards.
13,258
45,487
31,469
41,132
33,646
26,551
6,702
14.753
15,123
24,737
50,932
104,510
67.754
115,709
153,421
75,991
40,869
Felt, in
Yards.
Spanish
Stripe, in
Yards.
13,113
18,425
31,259
37,886
40,890
58,724
48,318
21,298
78,030
12,592
23,680
4,760
7,770
3,200
8,913
4,007
6,040
10,720
14,880
9,984
22,408
26,272
7,162
6,624
5,532
19,138
22,770
27,392
39,523
Pounds of
Wool.
11,334-
12,324
40,180
128,627
27,679
9,598
68,476
29,941
4,796
23,829
27,046
37,415
38,631
17,544
14,573
13,491
3,474
Pounds of
Worsted.
Dozens of
Hose.
50
145
222
66
1,483
240
138
10,960
30,120
30,583
46,146
31,246
21,876
16,640
9,240
5,090
13,914
15,109
21,307 '
13,622
17,386
15,045
3,196
20,789
16,206
15,946
164
164
11,206
The broad and narrow cloths of the west riding of York
do not comprise much more than one fourth of the woollen
and worsted goods produced in that county. They are for
the most part the produce of the clothing townships around
Leeds, and in part of the villages in the neighbourhood of
Huddersfield and Halifax; but they exclude the blankets
and heavy woollens of Dewsbury and its neighbourhood,
the worsteds of Bradford and Halifax, the “ fancy cloths”
of Huddersfield and Halifax, and the flannels and baizes
of the district of Saddleworth, which have their market at
Rochdale in Lancashire. In the neighbourhood of Skipton
and Addingham are produced those worsteds which contain
a mixture of cotton.
The west of England still enjoys its pre-eminence in the
manufacture of superfine cloths, besides which serges,
blankets, and flannels, are there produced. Woollen cloths
are made principally at Frome, Ilminster, Twerton, and
Chard in Somersetshire; at Stroud, Wootton, Chalford,
Dursley, Nailsworth, and Stonehouse, in Gloucestershire ;
at Bradford, Heytesbury, Melksham, Chippenham, Caine,
Wilton, in Wiltshire ; at Lyme Regis, Up-Lyme, and Dor¬
chester, in Dorsetshire. Kidderminster in Worcestershire is
the seat of the carpet manufacture of the west of England;
Salisbury and Cullompton of the celebrated Salisbury
flannels; Wellington in Somersetshire, and almost every
village in Devon, produce serges ; Witney in Oxfordshire
still manufactures blankets to a considerable extent, and
North Wales still sustains its reputation for superior flan¬
nels ; but in point of cheapness the west of England has
been for years giving way to the west riding of York,
though the latter owes a considerable portion of its trade
as much to its proximity to Liverpool, the great shipping
port of the trade of the western world, as to any circum- f
stance more immediately connected with production.
The west of Scotland has long carried on the manu¬
facture of such woollen fabrics as were formerly pecu¬
liar to the country; but of late years the manufactures of
other articles, such as blankets and fine and coarse broad
cloths, have established themselves there with great suc¬
cess. The woollen goods now produced in the south-west
of Scotland are, carpets, fine and coarse cloths, blankets,
fancy trouser-pieces, tartans, shepherds’ plaids, shawls of
various kinds, and mousselines de laine.
Numerous estimates have been attempted of the num¬
ber of persons employed in the woollen and worsted ma¬
nufactures of Great Britain, or rather of the proportion of
the population supported thereby ; but as the data afforded
by official returns for making even an approximate estimate
are exceedingly imperfect, no reliance upon them can pos¬
sibly be claimed. There is a note to Marshall’s Statistical
Tables, noticing many of the errors which have been com¬
mitted ; but he has himself not escaped errors. He says,
“ the first Lord Ellenborough, in his place in parliament,
once stated that there were upwards of 3,000,000 of per¬
sons engaged in and dependent on the woollen manufac¬
ture. The Edinburgh Review more recently asserted
that there were upwards of 1,000,000 so occupied and de¬
pendent. From the statement below his own table, it "“l
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L
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
929
he en to be doubtful whether, in all its varied operations, means of separating the woollen manufactures of Scotland Wool,
mot than 250,000, certainly not 300,000, persons are en- from those engaged in other branches; but we find fromanditsMa-
gjigd in or dependent on that branch of industry.” (P. 3.) the Report of the Assistant Hand-Loom Commissioners for nuiactares.
Thi statement to which Mr Marshall alludes, was made Scotland, that the woollen trade is carried on to a consi- ''—“'v"—
hyjr Law, afterwards Lord Ellenborough, in 1800, when derable extent in the shires of Lanark, Renfrew', and Ayr;
elided as counsel for the petitioners against the exporta- and also, though not so largely, in Dumfries, Roxburgh,
tionof wool to Ireland. He said there were 1,500,000 Selkirk, Edinburgh, and slightly in Peebles and Bute.
We are disposed to estimate the w'oollen trade somewhere
betw een a fourth and a fifth of that of England. The cli¬
mate being more severe, there is a much more constant
use of woollen among the people than in England. The
shepherd’s plaid takes the place of the linen smock-frock of
reruns immediately employed, and that 3,000,000 were
collterally employed; meaning thereby to include ma-
chife-makers, carriers, and so forth. No doubt he w'as
the: wrong ; but at the present day we cannot think the
nuuoer short of 1,000,000, and when the census of the
pre nt year is made, it will be probably found to exceed the south, so that the extent of the manufacture must not
it. Indeed Mr Marshall’s own table shows a much greater
mn her. He takes the several counties, and separates the
agrultural, mining, and manufacturing, from each other.
Tin, in the west riding he gives,—coal and iron, 13,997
fan ies; agriculture, 15,331 ; manufactures, 85,096 ; all
otkrs, 17,767; making the manufacturing families about
tw thirds of the whole. Now these are nearly all en-
<rajf d in the woollen trade, for those engaged in the cot-
toilmanufacture will be compensated by at least an equal
nuiber in Lancashire engaged in the manufacture of
baes, flannels, &c. In like manner, the manufactures
otllr than woollen are insignificant, and will be compen-
sattl by woollens manufactured elsewhere. His table then
wi istand as follows:
Wilt riding of York 85,096
W t of England woollen districts   20,851
N<wich and Kendal mixed stuffs 17,570
Le ester North Derby hosiery, half worsted 20,464
Families 143,981
' he proper multiple to count families into population is
5|jthat is, Great Britain in 1831 contained, in round num¬
bed, 3,000,000 families, and 16,000,000 individuals. Hence
141981 families = 766,899 persons. This does not in¬
due the flannel manufacturers of North Wales, the blan-
keimanufacturers of Oxfordshire, and some scattered ma¬
im ctures in other districts, for which an allowance of
(00 families is not excessive. We shall then have 163,981
fan lies, and 874,565 persons, directly supported by the wool
ler manufacture in England and Wales. We have no
An Account of the Quantity of Woollen Manufactures exported in the year 1838, shewing the Country to which each Article was sent
be judged by the quantity exported. However, to be on
the safe side, we will fix it at one fifth of that of England,
or 32,800 families, or 174,933 people, dependent on the
woollen manufacture, which, added to our previous number,
gives 196,781 families, and 1,059,495 people.
But it must be further observed, that this calculation is
based on the population returns of 1831, since which time
our population, manufactures, and trade, have greatly in¬
creased. Between 1821 and 1831, the increase for the
whole kingdom was 15^ per cent.; and since then, from
improvements in agriculture, and generally productive har¬
vests, it is generally thought that the ratio of increase will
be found to be greater. The increase of the manufactur¬
ing districts generally was much greater, for the most part
exceeding twenty per cent. With the moderate addition
of fifteen per cent, for the increase of the woollen manu¬
facture in 1841, as compared with 1831, we have 226,298
families, consisting of 1,218,424 persons, dependent on
the woollen manufacture for their subsistence.1 When we
consider that our manufactures employ 1,350,239 families,
and that the woollen manufacture requires a greater num¬
ber of manual operations than any other, we are inclined
to think our estimate within the truth.
Although the quantity produced, and amount of capital
employed, in the manufacture, is a subject of difficulty, and
all calculations are mere approximations, more or less re¬
mote, according to the care with which the calculations
were made, the quantity exported is more accurately ascer¬
tained ; and the following table conveys the most recent
account published.
Iftsia, 
ffcden,  
way, . • . .
Lanark, ....
issia, ....
many 
and 
gium, .....
nee, ....
tugal, Azores, &c. .
in and the Canaries,
raltar, ....
. ' . '
ian Islands,
| 'key and Greece, .
ea and Greek Islands,
occo, ....
ia and Palestine,
t Indies and China,
w Holland, &c. . . .
ie of Good Hope, .
lica (other parts),
Jtish North Amer. Colonies,
jjtish West Indies, .
Jted States,
eign West Indies, .
izil 
JJsico and South America,
yarnsey, Jersey, Sic.
Total,
Woollen
Yarn.
Cloths
of all
Sorts.
Lbs.
144,308
1,355
390
1,647,680
600,291
113,485
140,254
3,806
435
1,099
63,831
36
1,176
252
555
10,991
322,003
1,540
364
32,039
3,085,890
Napped
Coat¬
ings,
Duffles,
&c.
Pieces.
1,713
71
418
50
18
13,061
2,755
694
560
30,630
862
3,234
13,198
1,789
78
2,369
5
92,297
4,957
3,709
2,306
52,394
7,191
258,314
8,221
40,378
43,730
2,833
Pieces.
9
2
46
16
if,593
6,970
5,693
20
225
10
71
5
‘“22
52
16
56
1,346
*540
43
62
Kersey¬
meres.
Baizes
of all
Sorts,
587,903
Pieces. (Pieces
138
147
89
55
1
4,723
924
810
436
1,530
153
636
1,731
116
3
21
5
342
339
1,792
173
1,344
378
13,999
58
575
5,354
56
466
17,052
248
71
8,298
1,538
107
3
1
Stuffs
Woollen ; Flannels.
Blankets
and
Blanket¬
ing.
Carpets
and
Carpet¬
ing.
11
116
826
208
509]
3,800
447]
363
5,349
2,2661
87
Pieces.
35,063
7,731
2,395
264
3
346,034
96,778
70,081
22,152
27,579
18,260
11,102
114,578
2,270
1,021
10,332
63
‘“l73
138,667
10,028
11,334
5,719
34,191
12,703
315,542
9,115
29,756
22,639
3,311
Yards.
11,909
1,409
4,413
177
100
342,650
190,110
216,139
20,330
5,970
9,174
11,434
22,253
3,993
4,340
8,185
112,497
62,658
59,276
6,355
384,584
74,380
120,583
3,448
6,000
11,905
85,127
Yards.
72
1,270
1,088
11,600
2,360
2,410
1,185
2,389
10,200
2,240
2,836
2,460
620
1,872
54,231
239,940
34,140
9,970
260,844
163,810
1,482,551
107,304
107,728
36,559
19,127
Yards.
10,212
1.204
1,345
714
3,201
59,646
44,711
17,131
17,111
2,480
895
4,885
32,206
2,137
418
4,004
55
41,308
52,610
18,865
230
123,723
3,354
200,648
4,619
6,960
58,608
14,259
36,428 41.8131 1,358,984 1 1,779,525 1 2.658,806 727,539
Woollens
Mixed
with
Cotton.
Hosiery.
Stockings,
Woollen or
Worsted.
Yards.
23,860
2,490
871
24
3,000
282,924
30,356
123,260
71,843
31,962
1,863
33,878
171,000
4,500
2A58
200
1,800
5T1I6
23,975
14,081
22,618
60,529
21,786
631,265
11,626
137,735
85,211
1,846,231 109,758
31
61
403
22
1,576
9,104
6,746
98
314
216
358
1,939
93
i'l7
874
6,007
2,030
106
17,322
1,540
57,998
505
1,291
843
162
Sundries,
Coverlids,
Rugs, Tapes,
and Small
Wares.
L.
343
67
438
96
35
12,647
7,161
2,030
603
1,135
266
1,098
2,570
190
410
1,022
100
4,364
8,124
2,881
3,251
22,542
10,017
30,290
2,704
3,834
3,068
2,051
123,335
Declared
Value of
Woollen
Goods.
L.
94,419
13,899
10,978
1,373
685
734,902
299,503
160,451
53,708
224,383
44,054
55,700
258,157
16,245
3,140
25,083
303
412
6191345
104,120
64,778
32,448
359,632
95,412
1,854,S60
65,882
228,932
332,348
40,531
5,796,069
Mr M‘Culloch, in his Statistical Account of the British Empire, estimates the number of people
ni inconsistent with our estimate of 226,298 families in 1841.
OC. XXI.
employed in 1826 at 334,000. This is
6 B
930
Wool,
and its Ma¬
nufactures.
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
An Account of the Woollen Manufactures exported from Great Britain, distinguishing each
Goods, from 1820 to 1838.
Date.
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1828
1827
1828
1820
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
Cloths of
all Sorts.
Pieces.
288,700
375,464
420,497
356,027
407,720
384,880
328,559
371,965
335,042
363,075
388,269
436,143
396,661
597,189
521,214
619,886
720.587
387.587
587,903
Napped
Coatings
Duffles.
Pieces.
59,644
69,622
67,757
54,226
51,585
45,268
41,800
51,690
40,646
16,186
22,377
13,892
23,453
19,543
22,868
20,083
22,814
23,605
26,847
Kersey- ., .
meres. Baizes-
Pieces.
78,944
91,402
95,870
94,344
108,012
126,448
86,038
122,049
84,524
33,465
34J14
29,650
40,984
31,795
23,891
29,203
29,610
22,930
36,428
Pieces.
37,183
41.610
43.447
41,539
47,105
47,100
36,862
47,574
49,567
52,777
49,164
30,259
34,874
43,036
43,338
47,854
45,555
43,477
41,813
Stuffs
Woollen '~r
Worsted.
Pieces.
828,900
1,022,342
1,078,428
1,150,133
1.242.403
1,138,808
1,125,308
1,258,667
1,310,853
1.307.558
1,252,512
1.487.404
1,800,714
1.690.559
1,298,775
1,673,069
1,406,000
1,041,636
1.358,984
Carpets
Blanketing. and
Carpeting.
Yards.
2,569,105
3,504,851
4,503,612
4,311,997
3,105,961
2,959,594
2,432,120
2,518,887
2,539,766
1,572,920
1,613,099
1,572,558
2,304,750
2,055,072
1,821,394
2,067,620
2,190,008
1,635,457
1,779,522
Yards.
1,288,409
1,424,238
1.926,711
2,131,632
1,990,041
2,162,834
1,082,582
1,899,600
2,097,542
1,839,961
2,176,391
2,546,328
1,681,840
3,128,106
2,537,772
3,122,341
4,333,876
2,431,683
2,558,806
Yards.
526,124
764.922
884.922
778,426
848,842
888,324
903,597
1,195,939
1,197,947
811.538
672,869
678,656
690,042
667,377
606,912
938,848
1,008,013
753,964
727.539
Woollens
mixed with Hosiery.
Cotton.
Yards.
407,716
627,800
1,120,326
918,469
1,393,443
1,793,301
531,517
846,768
981,152
1,074,077
1,099,518
1,000,004
1,334,072
1,605,056
1,723,069
1,778,389
1,467,927
1,051,972
1,846,231
Sundries. Bec'ared
Value.
In 1815, Mr Stevenson estimated the whole value of the
woollen manufactures of Great Britain at L.18,000,000,
and the number of people actually employed at 500,000.
Mr M‘Culloch estimates the value in 1827 at L.22,500,000,
on the supposition that the manufactured article is worth
three times the value of the wool, the quantity of which he
estimated at 490,000 packs English, or 117,600,000 lbs.;
and 30,000,000 imported, a quantity far within the present
amount. Our calculation proceeds on the basis of 226,298
families, earning on an average 17s. 6d. per family, and
allowing a consumption of wool worth L. 10,000,000, with
an allowance of twenty-five per cent, on all outlay for wear
and tear, interest, and profit of capital. We then have the
following estimate:
Value of wool employed L.10,000,000
Oil, dye-stuffs, soap, &c 1,500,000
Wages 10,296,559
Wear and tear, profits, &c 4,359,311
Dozens.
59,960
107,979
136,597
106,420
113,123
106,498
71,922
148,117
159,463
91,285
111,146
143,774
152,810
232,766
173,063
207,014
163,182
74,047
109,758
L.
39,337
38,986
47,042
44,619
43,361
45,335
37,223
43,559
48,314
41,948
54,038
64,648
55,443
78,236
75,841
110,689
142,553
92,617
123,335
L.
5,586,138
6,462,866
6,488,167
5,636,586
6,034,051
6.158.648
4,966,879
5.245.649
5,069,74]
4,587,606
4,728,666
5,232,013
5,224,478
6,294,432
5,736,871
6,840,511
7,639,353
4,655,977
5,795,069
8. Carding.*
9. Slubbing.*
10. Spinning.*
11. Reeling.*
12. Warping, patenting.
13. Sizing.*
14. Weaving.*
15. Scouring.
16. Dying (when piece
dyed). _
17. Burling.
* These processes
L.26,155,870
We now come to describe the manufacture of the wool
of the sheep in its two great divisions of w'oollen and worst¬
ed manufacture. Before we enter fully into the two pro¬
cesses, it may be well to indicate in wThat the difference
consists. We have already described that peculiar pro¬
perty of wool called the felting property, by which the
fibres, when submitted to heat, moisture, and pressure com¬
bined, form one almost homogeneous mass. Of this pro¬
perty advantage is taken in almost every article of woollen
manufacture, the yarn being softly and loosely spun for
the purpose. In the case of worsted, on the other hand,
the felting property is neglected, the wool is submitted to
the process of combing, which rather impairs, though it
does not destroy, the felting property ; and the fibres being
elongated and laid even, the thread is twisted and spun
hard, so as to feel close, hard, and thread-like to the touch,
and not soft and loose like the yarn destined for the manu¬
facture of woollen cloths. Keeping this distinction in
view, we will first treat of the manufacture of cloths, the
most perfect of woollen fabrics ; and the following is a ca¬
talogue of the processes, which we shall describe seriatim.
1. Sorting the wool. 4. Willying or twillying.*
2. Scouring or washing. 5. Picking or moating.
%
'>“Y>
18. Fulling or felting*
19. Scouring.
20. Drying (tentering).
21. Raising, dressing, or
teazling.*
22. Shearing or cutting.*
23. Brushing.*
24. Picking, drawing, and
marking.
25. Pressing.*
26. Packing.
are performed by machines.
3. Dying (when wool-
dyed).
6. Oiling.
7. Scribbling.*
The sorting of the wool, and the tactov delicacy of hand
and nice discrimination which it requires, have been de¬
scribed in the first division of this article. The sorter is
usually attended by a boy to distribute the sorts: so at¬
tended, a skilful sorter can sort a pack of German wool in
about two days, and a pack of English in one. The wages
which a sorter is capable of earning vary from 25s. to L2,
L.2. 10s., and even L.3; but the latter demands a union
of skill and rapidity seldom attained.
The proper sort having been selected, the wool is
scoured or washed, to free it from the animal grease with
which it abounds. This in the west of England invariably,
and in Yorkshire generally, is effected as follows. Stale
urine, called in the west of England “ ley,” is mixed with
a small quantity of soap, and heated to about 120°. In
this detergent the wool is soaked. On removal, it is placed
in a wire basket, and submitted to the operation of running
water, by which the grease and other impurities are washed
away. By some manufacturers of Yorkshire, the wool is
washed with warm soap and water, and, after receiving a
second washing in clean water, to free it from the soap, is
passed through strong iron rollers, by which the wool is
pressed nearly dry. The business of scouring or washing
is performed by men; and by the first process, two are
capable of cleaning two packs in a day.
Cloth, other than white cloth, is either “ wool-dyed” or
“ piece-dyed.” Of the former, the dyeing is the first pro¬
cess after washing. The larger manufacturers themselves
dye all the common colours, such as browns and olives;
but the true or woaded colours, such as blue, Avool-black,
and green, can only be well done by those who make it
their special business. The small manufacturers send all
colours to the dyers. The prices paid for dyeing vary, ac-
f
leina;
iciiice
ipectii
Is fiR
Mil
(lie
iltton
id eve
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kl
151
i; to'
ilieve,
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WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
931
ceiling to the colours, from lOd. to Is. 6d. per.lb.; that
is, lOd. to Is. for woaded medleys, Is. to Is. 2d. for wool-
dvd blacks, and Is. 2d. to Is. 6d. for blues. Piece-dyed
cjjhs are sent to the dyeing-house after fulling and scour-
inj(see Dyeing).
)elivered at the mill:—the wool (dyed or undyed, as the
cr may be) is now submitted to the first of a series of
narhines, all of them admirably adapted to perform their
relective parts in the production of the woven fabric.
Tfs first machine is called the willy or the shakewilly in
Y’kshire, and the twilly in Gloucestershire. Both seem
to;ie a corrupt mode of pronouncing the willow of the
caon manufacture (as the Scotish call window windy);
an even willow is probably a corruption of winnow, win-
tu 'ing the wool being really the office it performs.
Inhere are various kinds of willying machines in use, but
ffibest appears to be the conical willy, made by Mr Lilly
oftlanchester. It was first applied to the cleansing of cot-
toc; but it has been tried in Leeds wdth success, and, w7e
btfceve, is now used to a considerable extent.
"he willy consists of a revolving cone, armed with four
ms of iron spikes, strongly fixed to four longitudinal bars,
vvich being fastened to three concentric wheels of different
dineters, the common axis of which forms the shaft of
tlj machine, the conical form thereof is at once accounted
fo This cone revolves at the rate of from 300 to 500
Solutions per minute, within a casing cylinder, armed
wh similar spikes, but placed so as to alternate with the
specs on the cone. At the small end of the cone is a
c* centric covering of thin sheet-iron, and at the large
eil is a gridiron plate.
[’he machine is fed by means of an endless apron, the
wnl entering at the smaller end, so that when most en¬
titled it is subjected to the least motion. This apron is
aireat improvement on former machines, which were filled
bchand; an operation attended with danger, and some-
tibes resulting in accidents. By the revolutions of the
ciinder, the wool is torn, disentangled, and cleansed ; and
blithe gradually increasing centrifugal force, it is impelled
fivvards towards the large end of the cone, encountering
in ts way increased motion; which, however, it is the bet-
t® able to bear, by becoming less and less entangled at
eiry revolution.
'Alien the wool thus reaches the base of the cone, it is
to-ed into a chamber, where it is received upon another
ealess apron, moving in a direction from the machine in-
snd of towards it. Over this apron is a cylindrical wire
c:e, which revolves on an axis disposed parallel to the
aiion, and immediately over it a revolving fan. Both
tl se are covered and protected by sheet-iron casings, but
cnmunicate with the chamber which receives the wool
firn the cone. When the whole is at work, the fan, drawing
till dust out of the chamber, blows it through a chimney
omipe, connected with the machine for the purpose. The
ere prevents the escape of the wool with the dust, and
b its passage over the apron it lays down the wool in a
cfltinuous fleece.
fhe coarser wools, destined for common cloths, are wil-
liil more than once; for instance, before as well as after
(Ling, and after oiling and before being scribbled. The
fi r wools do not however require this, as the operation of
siibbling is a sufficient preparation for carding.
i in the west of England the wool is beaten with wooden
riers by women, after which it is placed on a wire screen
ophurdle, and pulled with the hands, so as to get rid of
a burs, or pitch, or other dirt which may not have been
sj»arated by the willy. In Yorkshire the wool is picked
1|a boy, called a wool-moater. If this be not done, the
stibbling machine is injured by any lumps of pitch so fre-
<]f'ntly found in wool.
The wool is next oiled for the scribbling machine, three
or four pounds of Gallipoli oil being intimately mingled Wool,
with twenty pounds of wool. A man can oil about twenty and its Ma-
score, that is, 400 lbs., in a day. nufactures.
The process of scribbling differs but little from that of
carding; the only difference being that the machine is
coarser, and that the wool is delivered in a continuous
fleece instead of narrow bands or slivers. The object of
both is further to separate and open out the fibre of the !
wool, and even to tear it asunder. Both processes should,
if successfully performed, equalize the quantity of wool in
a given length of cardings. In order that the disentangling
and separating of the wool may be as complete as possible
before it is moved from the scribbling to the carding en¬
gine, it is sometimes made to undergo the scribbling pro¬
cess two or even three times.
In Plate CLXXVII. (Cotton Manufacture) figs. 1,
2, 3, and 4, the carding engine used in the cotton manu¬
facture is showm ; but the wool-carding engine is some¬
what different, as it consists of one large cylinder or card-
drum, surmounted by three pairs of smaller cylinders, called
urchins, all of them covered wbth card-cloths armed with
carding wires. The smaller cylinders are of unequal size.
The larger of the twTo is called the worker, and the smaller
the cleaner, which revolves at great speed. At one end of
the engine is an endless feeding apron, upon which equal •
portions, by weight, of the oiled wool is evenly spread by
hand. This apron, by its motion towards the engine, de¬
livers the wool through a pair of feed-rollers, which distri¬
bute it upon the card-drum. From this the wool is gra¬
dually stripped, as it were fibre by fibre, by the first worker,
whence it is received by the first cleaner, and by it again
deposited in the card-drum. This is twice repeated, so
that the disentanglement and separation of the fibre be¬
comes more and more complete. When it has passed over
the last cylinder on to the drum, it is taken from it by a
cylinder somewhat larger than the workers, and called a
doffer ; from w hich again the wool is scraped off by a dof¬
fing knife, which moves rapidly up and dowm by means of
a crank, so that it scrapes the doffer downwards only. In
the scribbling process, the wool is w'ound round a revolving
roller, in an endless fleece, having the appearance of a fine
blanket. But the carding engines differ from the scrib¬
bling machines in the mode in which the doffer is armed,
and in the contrivance for receiving the wool from the
doffer. The doffer, instead of being uniformly covered
with wires, is merely armed with a succession of card-lea¬
thers, arranged in longitudinal bands parallel with the axis
of the doffer. The effect of this is, that the doffing-knife
detaches the wool from the doffer, in the shape of bands or
slivers. These, instead of being wound round a roller, fall
into the flutes of a fluted cylinder ; and as half of this cy¬
linder is covered with a case, called a shell, near enough
to the cylinder to touch the slivers as they lie in the flutes
or grooves, they are rolled into what are called cardings,
and are received upon an apron moving in a direction from
the engine.
The several cylinders move at different velocities, not
merely in relation to their surface, but in the relative num¬
ber of revolutions which they perform in a given time.
The card-drum is usually three feet in diameter, and makes
one hundred revolutions in a minute. The workers are
about eight inches in diameter, and make only ten revolu¬
tions in a minute; hence the surface of the drum moves
forty-five times as fast as the workers. Their surfaces
move in the same direction.
The cleaners revolve in the contrary direction, and they
card the wool on the drum as well as on the workers. They
move very rapidly, namely, 300 revolutions in a minute ;
but as they are only one ninth of the diameter of the drum,
their surface has only one third of the velocity of the sur¬
face of the drum.
932
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
Wool, The worker next the doffers is called the fly, from its
nufactures* £reat velocity. It is furnished with straight teeth, and it does
not take the fibres from the card-drum, but merely raises
them to the surface, from which they are stripped by the
doffer, the surface velocity of which is only one thirtieth
of that of the drum. The wool is then scraped off by the
doffing-knife, and rolled into cardings, as already described.
These several processes come under the general term
■preparing. Within the last year, a patent has been taken
out by Mr Thomas Walker of Galashiels, for an improved
mode of feeding the preparing machinery, which is said to
produce a more even yarn than the old methods.
After the wool is thus prepared by the operations of wil-
lying, scribbling, and carding, it is in a state to be spun
into yarn by machines, which elongate the cardings, rovings,
or rollers as they are called in some districts, and at the
same time twist them in the required degree. The pro¬
cess of spinning, and the recent improvements in the ma¬
chinery employed in it, have been carefully described in
the articles Cotton Manufacture and Spinning; and
all that now remains is to describe the mode of spinning
yarn proper for the manufacture of woollen cloth. This
is effected in two operations. The first, called slubbing,
is performed with a machine called a slubbing billy, w'hich
is certainly behind the generally improved state of manu¬
facturing machinery ; and the second and more complete
spinning is effected either with the jenny or the mule.
In the operation of slubbing, the cardings are joined to¬
gether end to end, elongated to a certain extent, and slight¬
ly twisted to give them sufficient cohesion and strength.
The “ slubbing” thus produced has the appearance of a soft
and weak thread.
The annexed figure will give a clear conception of the
slubbing billy and its mode of operation. The spindles are
arranged on a moveable carriage, which runs along the
frame of the billy on friction wheels. The cardings are
arranged on an endless apron, in a slanting direction, at
the end of the frame, opposite to the carriage. They then
pass under a wooden roller, which presses lightly upon them,
so as slightly to compress them. In front of this roller
will be seen a moveable rail, which, when it rests upon the
cardings, prevents their being drawn through the rollers,
but when elevated by means of the lever seen underneath,
prevents the cardings from being drawn forward by the
retiring of the spindle carriage. Immediately over the
spindles, it will be observed, is a wire, which, when let
down upon the yarns, presses them downwards, and allows
them to be wound round the spindles by their revolutions,
as the carriage is moved home by the slubber.
We will now suppose the carriage to be at rest, not as seen
in the figure, but close to the rail and roller above described.
A small wheel on the carriage, by passing under the levers
(seen under the roller and rail), elevates the rail, and permits
the cardings to be drawn freely through the roller the mo¬
ment the slubber moves the carriage towards the extremity
of the machine. The cardings are brought from the cardins? W
engines by children, and, by a slight lateral rolling motiona»(liS8
of the fingers, are joined on to the ends of the cardings al-nufact»W
ready attached to the machine. This is repeated as often
as necessary. In order to prevent the undue thickening
of the cardings at the junction, each carding is smaller at
the ends; and some little tact is required on the part of
the piecers, or pieceners, as the children who perform this
work are called, to prevent any inequality at the junction
This tact is soon acquired, even by very young children
The slubber now seizes the rail of the carriage, and
draws it slowly out. As the rail in front of the slubbimr
roller is elevated by the upward pressure of the lever the
carding is drawn through, without being elongated, about
eight inches. At this point the lever is disengaged, and
the rail descends upon the cardings and pinches them
fast. As no more can be drawn out, the further drawing
back of the carriage necessarily elongates the cardings, and
by the motion of the spindles a slight twist is at the same
time given to them. This is effected by the slubber turn¬
ing the wheel with his right hand, his left being occupied
with the carriage-rail; and the handle, as will be seen, is
brought within his reach for the purpose.
It should be observed, that during this part of the opera¬
tion, from the inclined position of the spindles, the yarn is
not wound round them by their revolution, but at every
turn it slips off, being merely twisted by the revolutions of
the spindles. When the slubber judges the yarn to be
sufficiently twisted, he moves the carriage forward, and at
the same time brings the faller-wire down upon the whole
row of yarns; then, by setting the spindles in position, the
yarns are wound round them in the form of a double cone.
The faller-wire is connected with the carriage-rail by two
arms; and as the rail turns on its axis, the slubber is able to
raise or depress the wire as he grasps the rail to move the
carriage forward, by the motion of his wrist.
The billy, like the jenny, has generally sixty spindles.
One carding engine will keep one billy employed, and, with
steady work, one slubber should have four pieceners, who
consequently have each fifteen cardings to manage. There
is no excessive labour in the operation, nor is the attention of
the children painfully overstretched ; but the evidence given
before the Factory Commissioners shews that the children
were subject to much cruelty from the slubbers, who are
often irregular and intemperate, making up for lost hours by
excessive work, and beating the children who work under
them for the slightest fault. Dr Ure mentions an invention
by Mr Charles Wilson, intended to supersede the slubbing
billy in preparing the wool for spinning. It consists of an
adaptation of a system of rollers to the carding machine, by
which the cardings are sufficiently elongated for the opera¬
tions of the mule or the jenny. We are not aware that this ma¬
chine has come into use : if so, it has not been our fortune
to meet with it, though our acquaintance with the clothing
districts of the west riding of Yorkshire is extensive.
The whole history of the great inventions by which the
art of spinning has arrived at its present state of perfection
has been already given in the articles Cotton Manufac¬
ture and Spinning. The jenny is still used to some ex¬
tent in Yorkshire, though the mule is fast superseding it.
In some of the clothing villages of the west riding, it is the
custom of the manufacturers to give out the work in slub¬
bing, and the workman spins and weaves at so much per
string of ten feet. In other places the small manufacturers,
who have perhaps two, four, or six looms, purchase the
wool, and get it scribbled, carded, and slubbed at a mill,
then spin and iveave it themselves, and after getting it
fulled at the mill, carry it to the Leeds cloth-market in an
unfinished state. In both these cases the jenny is made
use of. These mills are not unfrequently built by subscrip¬
tion by the small manufacturers. A manager is appointed,
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WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
933
theregular price for slubbing, See., is charged, and the pro-
■ fjtsgire divided at the end of the year. In the larger ma~
■ nul ctories at Leeds, the mule is used instead of the jenny.
In ime of these factories all the operations from sorting
thewool to packing the cloth are carried on, whilst in some
theweaving is given out. The establishment of Messrs
Hit, Bramley, and Co. is a sample of an admirably regulat¬
ed actory, where the whole process of cloth-making is car-
rie on; and we are much indebted to those gentlemen for
thafacilities afforded us in the prosecution of our inquiries.
TcMessrs Ripley and Ogle we are also similarly indebted.
|he operations of warping and weaving, and indeed every
thiig connected with them, have been fully described in the
artt'le Weaving : all that we need mention here is, that the
hail-loom is chiefly employed at present, though there
sews every probability that Messrs Sharpe and Roberts’s
imroved power-loom will rapidly supersede the hand-loom.
In,everal factories of Leeds, power-looms are employed to
weve the finest and broadest cloths, namely, such as are
twve quarters wide in the loom ; and we could discover no
wr iter difficulty than in the weaving of worsted stuffs, to
wljch power has been extensively applied.
’he cloth is woven of the width just mentioned, to allow
foithe shrinking which it undergoes by the processes of
sewring and fulling, especially the latter. The outer edges
ofhe cloth have a list border, which receives the tenter-
hccks in stretching. This list in the west of England is
mile of goats’ hair, but in Yorkshire it is merely formed
ofoarse yarn. This, we believe, is all that is necessary to
bedded to what will be found in the article Weaving.
ifter the cloth comes from the loom, and before it can
uitergo any other process, it is necessary to scour it, in
onr to get rid of the oil and size to which the wool and
yao have been subjected in the preparatory processes.
Tls is performed at the mill, in a somewhat rude machine,
caed the stocks, and consisting of a pair of wooden mai¬
ls, worked alternately by a cog-wheel. The cloth is ex¬
pend to the stroke of the mallet in an inclined trough, the
eu of which is curved, so that the tendency of the stroke
is o turn the cloth round and round, and different por-
ti«s are alternately exposed to the operation of the ham-
mrs. At first soap or some other detergent is used, but at
la a stream of pure water is let in upon it.
St is now carried to the drying room or tenter-ground,
an stretched upon a vertical rail or tenter-hooks, where
it i; left to dry in the extended state. The lower rail of
tic tenter-frame is made to slide, so that the cloth may ac-
qure the requisite degree of tension.
The cloth thus cleansed and dried is delivered over to
til burlers, who pick out all irregular threads, hairs, or dirt
o lvvhatever kind, which may remain in the fabric. This
press is called burling, and to perform it, the cloth is ex-
aaned both on the surface and through the web against a
stong light. In the larger factories a room is assigned to
tin business of burling ; but in the cloth-villages of the w est
rilling, during the summer months, the process is carried on
trthe wayside and in lanes, on walls and on hedges.
The cloth is now ready for the operation of the fulling-
nd, which, like the scouring stocks, is furnished with mal-
le:i driven by a cog-wheel; but the milling trough has a
saare instead of a circular end, so that the cloth receives
tl: direct blow of the mallets, and is not made to escape
fun the blow by the operation itself. The stroke of the
ittllets is extremely heavy, but it does not injure the cloth,
opaccount of the multitude of folds. This greater force,
as compared with the scouring stocks, is produced by the Wool,
hanging of the hammers. The shafts of the scouring stocks and its Ma-
are nearer to the perpendicular, so as to cause the mallets1111 ac ures.
to move more horizontally, and therefore with less velocity.
They are hence called hanging stocks, while those of the
fulling-mill are ca\\ed fulling stocks.
Improvement has of late found its way into this branch
of the cloth-manufacture as well as into others. The old
fulling-mill was of wood; but such machines are now con¬
structed of iron, with much more accuracy, and work with
greater precision. The best of these is the invention of
Messrs Willans and Ogle of Leeds. The bed of this ma¬
chine is hollow', so as to form a steam-chest, connected by a
pipe with a boiler, so as to keep up the degree of heat neces¬
sary to the perfection of the fulling or felting process. But
the great improvement of this machine is a contrivance for
altering the form of the trough against which the cloth re¬
ceives the stroke of the mallet. This consists of a move-
able curved plate, traversing on a fixed hinge-rod at the
bottom of the trough. The upper edge of this curved plate
is capable of being advanced towards or withdrawn from
the mallets, by means of a screw-rod attached to its back.
By this means the directness, and therefore the force, of the
stroke is altered so as to suit the different qualities of cloth.
To the felting property of wool we have already alluded.
By the united operations of beating, heat, and moisture, the
minutely jagged surfaces of the fibres of the w ool are made
intimately to cohere, and form not a mere woven tissue
like cotton, flax, or silk, but a felted homogeneous mass,
similar to the paper on which we print. If a piece of cloth
be cut it will not unravel, the tissue is almost lost under the
thick fulled surface raised upon it, and the weaving seems
less to give a character to the fabric than to impart the
requisite degree of strength.1 Superfine cloths have four
fullings of three hours each, a thick solution of soap being
spread between each layer of cloth every time. Scour¬
ing is aided by fuller’s earth, that which is found in Eng¬
land being said to be superior to any other.2 * * * Rinsing with
clear water completes the process, which diminishes the
width of the cloth between forty and forty-five per cent.,
and the length about fifty per cent. After every impurity
is washed out, the cloth is again stretched upon the tenters
until it is completely dry.
The cloth next undergoes the operation of teazling, by
which the loose fibres of the wrool are raised to the surface,
so as to form, when duly cut or sheared, the pile or nap,
For this purpose the teazle, a species of thistle (dipsacus
fullorum) is employed. This useful plant is cultivated in
the clothing countries, and especially in Somersetshire,
where they are sold in packs of 20,000, at about L.6 per
pack. In periods of scarcity the price has advanced as
high as L.22 per pack, followed by a great importation from
France, and a consequent glut, reducing the price to L.3.
A piece of forty yards consumes 3000. This state of cir¬
cumstances has induced many to turn their attention to
the invention of some metallic substitute, but the thistle
teazle still maintains its supremacy.
Formerly the teazle was fixed in a hand frame, and
worked by two men in the manner of a large two-handled
brush or hand-card; but for many years the gig-mill has
been employed, in which the teazles are arranged in a cy¬
linder, and the cloth being stretched on two cloth-beams,
one above and one below the teazle cylinder, the cloth
moving in a direction contrary to its revolutions, its surface
is exposed to the operation of the teazles. In the older
1 Cloth has recently been produced by the felting process alone, without the aid of weaving. Some machinery has been erected at Leeds,
at) it is expected to succeed. In France, cloth has been produced by the same invention. The scheme is not new, for as early as 1794, Mr
Jjeph Booth took out a patent for the production of cloth without weaving; but after being tried at Taunton, at Lewisham in Kent, and
att lerton in Surrey, it was abandoned. We trust the present effort will be successful.
' • “ Here the Dutchmen found fuller’s earth, a precious treasure, whereof England hath better than all Christendom beside ; so that nature
seem to point out our land for the staple of drapery, if the idlenesse of her inhabitants be not the only hindrance thereof.”—Fuller’s
CSirch History.
93^
WOOL, AND Lio MANUFACTURES.
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WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
935
b»d> similar to those used by printers for pressing the
■shifts of books. Between each piece of cloth, for many
arepressed at the same time, are two iron-plates, each one
ha. the width of the cloth. If the cloth is to be hot pressed,
an operation not applied to the best cloths, as the patenting
sujprsedes the necessity of this process, these plates are
hened; but this only gives a gloss which is a poor substi-
tufl for that beautiful face which our finest cloths exhibit.
TK cloth is now finished, and is packed in bales for
msket. Sometimes it is cut into ends or half-pieces.
Vith respect to the worsted manufacture, we need not
ta*lhe reader’s attention at any great length, as most of the
pncesses have been described in other articles, to which we
shsl refer.
he wool employed in the worsted manufacture is the
lor or combing, as distinguished from the short or cloth-
ingwool; and the object of all the preparatory processes is
to militate the production of a finer and more perfectly
spin thread than would be fit for fulled cloth. By the
oprations of worsted spinning, indeed, the felting property
ofhe wool is greatly impaired, though not wholly destroy¬
ed! and the worsted fabric is not homogeneous, like the
fuld cloth, but is reticulated like linen and cotton fabrics.
'he several processes of a worsted factory are as follows:
1. Sorting, 7. Drawing,
2. Washing, 8. Roving,
3. Drying, 9. Spinning,
4. Plucking, 10. Reeling,
5. Combing, 11. Weaving,
6. Breaking, &c. &c.
or the worsted manufacture, the washing of the wool is
ver carefully performed with soap and water, the greater
pai of the moisture being pressed out between rollers.
Tl wool is then carried to the drying room, where it is
spiad on the floor which is over the boilers of the steam-
er|ine, by which a high temperature is kept up.
i/hen the wool is thoroughly dried, it is passed through a
mshine called a plucker, which consists of a pair of spiked
rolbrs fed by an endless apron. By the revolving spikes of
the machine the fibres of the wool are cleansed and straight-
end ; and as the interior is furnished with a fan or blower,
thiwool is blown out at the opposite end of the machine.
The wool is now ready for the process of combing, which
is erformed either by the hand or by machinery; but as
noe of the various combing machines which have been in-
veted has attained that perfection which has been imparted
toither automatic contrivances, the finest long wools are
imriably combed by hand. This is to be deplored, as
th operation is certainly not healthy. Great heat is re-
qued to keep the combs in a proper state, and this heat is
pnfluced by charcoal.
lach comber has two pair of combs, one pair having
tti rows of teeth, and the
ottr three rows for the last
ccjibing. These teeth are
fijfl in a wooden stock fur-
niiiled with a handle, as in
thiannexed figure. The rows
of eeth are one third of an
inn apart.
for heating the combs the
wok man has a peculiar kind
of tove, furnished with a hot-
plse at top, covered with an-
otPtr plate to confine the heat,
thtie being just space be-
tvren the two to admit the prongs of the combs. This
shore is generally heated with charcoal, but in some fac-
toiss steam has been applied to the heating of the combs,
art we believe it has been attended with success.
'he workman has also a post affixed in the combing room,
te.
The comber
with an iron stem or receiver for the combs, with an upturn- Wool,
ed end which enters the hole in the middle of the handle ofanci its Ma*
the comb, whilst at the other end of the stem is a pin which ^u<actur^s-
enters the hollow end of the handle. The ^
operation of both these pins is to keep the ^
comb sufficiently firm for the workman’s pur¬
pose. In the annexed figure, a exhibits the
pin which enters the end of the handle, and b
the upturned end, to which the hole in the
middle of the handle of the comb is adapted.
The combing operation is thus performed,
first takes a handful of wool of about four ounces, and
sprinkles upon it a quantity of oil varying from one fortieth
to one sixtieth of the weight of the wool. One of the
combs, duly heated, is affixed to the post with the teeth up¬
wards, and the comber, taking half the oiled wool in his
hands, throws successive portions over the teeth of the
comb, drawing it through and through, and leaving a por¬
tion of the wool on the comb till the whole is deposited.
The comb is now placed with its points in the stove, and
the wool hanging down so as to become heated. The
other comb then takes the place of the first on the post,
and receives the other half of the wool, when it is also re¬
moved to the stove. When the combs are sufficiently heat¬
ed, the comber takes one in each hand. That in the left
he holds over his knee, and with that in his right he combs
the wool upon the first, passing the teeth of one comb into
the wool upon the other, beginning with the extremities of
the fibres, and continuing till he reaches the thicker mass
of wool, near to the teeth of the comb. Thus the combs
gradually approach each other, but without touching, as
that would break the fibres instead of laying them parallel,
which is the object of combing.
In order that the wool on both combs may be combed
equally, the comber frequently changes hands; but when
it is nearly sufficiently combed, he continues to comb off’
the one comb on to the other, so that nearly all the wool
is gathered upon one comb, and hangs down in a long lock.
This comb he warms for a short time, and fixes in the post,
and proceeds to draw off the fleece in a continuous sliver.
A small portion of short wool remains on the combs after the
sliver has been drawn oft’. This is called noils, and is sold
to the cloth-makers. The wool then undergoes a second
combing at a lower temperature, and being collected in
parcels of ten slivers, is ready for the next operation.
Several machines have been invented, designed to su¬
persede the hand-combs. That which has been adopted
to a considerable extent, and which we had an opportunity
of seeing in full operation in the worsted spinning establish¬
ment of the late firm of Messrs Hindes
and Derham at Leeds, is a foreign in¬
vention, but patented in this country
by Mr John Platt of Salford, in Novem¬
ber 1827, so that it has now stood the
test of fourteen years’ trial. It consists
of two revolving combs, fixed in a
frame, as in the annexed figure, and
inclined at an angle of twenty-seven
degrees. These wheels are in the or¬
dinary form, with comb-teeth set at the
edge of the rim, at right angles to the
radii of the wheel. These wheels are
made to revolve with great rapidity at
first, at such a distance that the extre¬
mities of the wool, thrown off by centrifugal force, can
alone be combed; but the circular combs are made gradu¬
ally to approach each other, so as to imitate the hand pro¬
cess, as already described. This motion is effected by mount¬
ing the axle of one of the wheels in slides ; the traverse move¬
ment being effected by means of an endless screw, attached
to the under part of the frame. The frame-work of tb
936
H^00\r w^ee^s follow, and steam circulates freely in it, so as
mifactures'10 keep U.P the re(luired degree of temperature,
y—^ -< The circular combs are fed by a boy, who sits on the
ground, and throws the wool upon the teeth in the same
manner that the comber does on the hand-comb. When
one comb is charged, they are thrown into gear by shifting
the driving belt on to the proper pulley; and as they re-
yoive with rapidity against each other, gradually approach-
ing, as already described, the whole length of the staple is
combed out smooth. They are then thrown out of gear,
and one end of the sliver being drawn through rollers, the
sliver is pulled off by a boy. The noils being then re¬
moved, the machine is charged anew.
After the wool has been combed by one or other of the
above means, it is removed to the breaking frame, which
opens out any fibres which may have escaped from the
combs in a partially felted state. The principal part of
the breaking frame consists of two rows of endless comb-
chains, of which one pair is exhibited in the annexed figure.
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
locities of the several parts of the machine are as follows \
The velocity of the comb-chain is twice that of the
rollers, that of the second or receiving rollers (not she,„i>«£:
twice that of the chain, and that of the last pair a littl "'"V1
greater than the second, simply because their diameter ! ^
a little more. 18
The annexed
enlarged view of
one of the fluted
cylinders, around
which the end¬
less chain re¬
volves, will bet¬
ter explain the
manner in which
the comb-chain is
formed, and the
manner in which it operates
The reader must bear in mind that the frame-work is omit¬
ted in the drawing, as not being essential to the due un¬
derstanding of the process. I he wool is introduced be¬
tween the feed-rollers at o, by means of an endless apron,
upon which equal weights of wool are uniformly spread out
from time to time. 1 he teeth of the endless combs are
arranged alternately, so that those of the upper are midway
between those of the under comb-chain. The arrows in¬
dicate the direction of the motion, and both move with the
same velocity. The two small rollers in the centre are
merely to give the chain of combs a due degree of tension.
After the wool has passed through the part of the machine
here delineated, it is received by two rollers of the same
diameter as the feed-rollers. The sliver then passes through
a copper trumpet-shaped funnel, and then between another
pair of rollers, and falls into a tin can. The respective ve-
r  The chain is formed of a
senes of small rectangular pieces of tin, the half of one over¬
lapping the other. The hinges are formed by little discs
of the metal, which are turned up at right angles. The
teeth are soldered to each piece of tin ; and in the end which
overlaps is cut a groove, to admit of the free motion of the
teeth as the leaves pass over the cylinders. So long as the
chain is clear of the cylinders, the tin leaves lie evenly, one
upon the other; but as soon as the chain meets the cylin¬
ders, the overlapping ends are lifted, as shown in the diagram
and the wool upon the teeth is cleaned off or disengaged’
so as to be ready to be taken up by the second pair of rol¬
lers, passed through the funnel between the last pair of rol¬
lers, and into the can, as already described.
The sliver is now ready for the drawing frame; but here
our task is at an end. The operations of the drawing
frame, the roving frame, and the spinning throstle, have
been minutely described in the articles Cotton Manufac¬
ture and Spinning, and the article Weaving will fill up
what is there and here wanting.
A few words must yet be added on the condition of the
people employed, and on the future prosperity of the ma¬
nufacture. The following table is from Mr Miles’s Report
on the condition of the hand-loom weavers of the west of
England.1
Siatemmiof Ihe Average Wages of different Classes of Work-people connected with the Manufacture of Woollen Cloth
the County of Gloucester, from the year 1808 to 1838, shewing the Decrease per cent, in the Wages of each Class.
Description of Work-people.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Sorters 
Scourers 
Beaters and Pickers 
Engine-man 
Feeders to Scribblers 
Ditto to Carders 
Roller-joiners 
Slubber or Abb Spinner 
Spinner at Jenny ’’’*'
Mule Spinner 
Ditto Piecers 
Warpers "
Master Weavers and Factory Weavers.... {
Millmen, 
Burlers 
Rowers or Roughers ’*
Dyers 
Cutters   
Brushers ”
Markers and Drawers 
Pressers and Packers  ,
By whom the
Labour is
performed.
Men
Men
Women
Men
Children
Children
Children
Men
Women
Men
Women
Women
Men & )
Women /
Men
Women
Men
Men
Men
Men
Women
Men
Amount of Wages paid in the Year.
1808
s. d.
30 0
15 0
8 0
1818.
1819
s. d.
30 0
15 0
7 0
24 0
14 0
10 0
16 0
21 0
10 0
21 0
24 0
21 0
15 0
10 0
18 0
23 0
14 0
s. d.
30 0
14 0
6 0
1829
24 0
3 6
22 0
12 0
9 0
16 0
21 0
10 0
24 0
24 0
20 0
15 0
10 0
18 0
25 0
6 0
8 0
13 0
20 0
10 0
24 0
20 0
20 0
15 0
9 0
16 0
s. d.
30 0
13 0
6 0
24 0
3 0
3 6
3 0
21 0
10 0
25 0
5 0
7 0
1837.
12 0
20 0
7 0
24 0
18 0
18 0
14 0
9 0
14 0
s. d.
30 0
13 0
5 6
24 0
3 0
3 • 6
2 6
20 0
8 0
22 0
5 0
7 0
s. d.
30 0
13 0
5 6
24 0
3 0
11 0
20 0
6 0
24 0
16 0
16 0
14 0
8 0
13 0
20 0
7 0
22 0
5 0
7 0
10 0
20 0
6 0
24 0
14 0
14 0
14 0
8 0
13 0
s. d.
30 0
13 0
5 6
24 0
3 0
3 6
2 0
17 0
6 0
22 0
5 0
7 0
10 0
20 0
6 0
24 0
12 0
13 0
14 0
8 0
13 0
lire
ilk
»0l
1 Assistant Commissioners’ Reports, part v. p. 374.
I j;n
fa If
f /
Icngt.
jfj 5^'
Idacti
l-altl
|e;ible
(iiiber
|arn(
| the
entity
rfpricf
hit
irtshi
high
nnber
th.
t
13135
laessai
leapt
ii the Report of Mr Chapman for the west riding of
1 la-yfeline, there is a detailed statement, from the weavers’
©Vi lips, of the earnings of thirty-three individuals, ranging
yfr n 7s. 6d. per week to 26s., varying according to age,
st:ngth, industry, and skill. These varying circumstances
an stated, and certainly give a better view of the possible
an actual earnings of men than any statement of averages.
Bi although an average may be fallacious, it may be ser-
vkable to ascertain at what points in the scale the largest
nnber of cases occurs. We find it stated that
earned above 20s. 4 earned from 10s. to 12s.
• ... from 16s. to 20s. 3 ... under 10s.
1;  12s. to 16s.
Althe manufacture of the west riding has improved, the
qi ntity of work has much increased without any increase
0j price, so that the weekly earnings are said greatly to
In e diminished within the last twenty years. Wages in
yfehire are paid by the string, a measure of ten feet, be-
ir higher according to the set, as it is called, that is, the
n,uber of portelhs or thirty-eight threads of warp in the
w th. Thus eighty is deemed a medium set, and has
m 22,800 yards of weft in each string, or 5700 picks or
sh its; whereas in 1817 the same sethad only 12,540 yards,
J3135 picks, the effect of this increased wefting. The
nnessary consequence of the improvement in the manufac-
tuj upon wages is shown in the following table.
r
ill to
82 to
S2J to
832 to
I Him
«
i tei we:
0
iters
B
0:
t Slate
te-t
ar
111 won
1 Mi,
1 t\ver
^as
*0L
WOOL, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
937
Washers (paid by the week, not by the job)
Preparers (at the drawing frames), girls 0
Spinners, girls under 13 0
... over 13 0
Overlookers in both departments 0
Heelers, girls and women 0
Punchers, who make up the hanks into ) ^ -
packets, girls and women J
Men (who are overlookers) 0 18
Packers, men 
Engine-man 
Fireman 
L. s.
0 18
to o 7
to 0 2
to 0 6
to 1 1
to 0 13
d- Wool,
0 and its Ma-
^ nufactures.
0 ' V
0
9
to 0 8 O
to
1 4
0 18
1 4
0 16
But the most important feature in the condition of the
weavers, as pointed out in Mr Chapman’s Report, is, that in
1800, and for some few years after, money wages were as
low, and perhaps lower, than in 1838; that about the year
1804 or 1806, wages advanced; that they continued high
until 1815 or 1816, since which time they have declined,
but not quite to the point they were at in 1800. The fol¬
lowing statement confirms this view.
Weekly Earnings of a skilful Worsted Weaver, from. 1787
to 1838.
1787 10s.
1800 10s.
1804 17s.
1814 34s. fid.
1815.. .31s. 6d.
1820.. .21s.
1822.. . 2 Is.
1824.. .21s.
1829.. .20s. 1835...15s. Gd.
1831.. .18s. 1836...15s. Gd.
1833.. .17s. 1837...14s.
1834.. .16s. 1838...12s. Gd.
r
Years.
|17 to 1822.
■i22to 1827.
1127 to 1832.
I j.!32 to 1837.
Weight of
Weft per
String.
Number
of Skeins
per
String
Lbs. ox.
2 12
3 0
3 4
3 8
8
ql
12
15
Number
of Yards of
Weft per
String.
12,540
14,440
18,240
22,800
Price paid
for Weav¬
ing per
String.
s. d.
1 10
2 0
2 0
2 1
Average
Weekly
Earnings.
L. s.
1 4
1 0
0 15
0 9
The high wages which prevailed from 1804 to 1815
arose entirely out of the improvements in spinning. The
quantity of yarn was so great that it was difficult to get
weavers, and they were enabled to make their own terms;
but the profits of weaving soon increased the supply of
weavers. Children were extensively taught to weave ; and
as, in the case of cotton and worsted, the work is light, the
labour of the parent was soon transferred to the child. In
the case of woollen cloth, however, this could not take
place. Cloth-weaving is emphatically a man’s work; so
that the cloth-weaver’s wages are as much as those of the
worsted and cotton-weaver put together, the average pro¬
portion being as 15s., 9s., and 6s. per week.
But a comparative statement of mere money wages does
not inform us respecting the improving, stationary, or re¬
trograde condition of the operative. For that purpose we
must ascertain the command he has over the necessaries,
comforts, and conveniencies of life. In this the following
table will aid us.
^Statement of the Prices of various Articles of Food and Household Stores for the use of Greenwich Hospital, from
1800 to 1835.
The wages of the several operatives employed in Octo-
bi 1838 in the establishment of Messrs Hindes and Der-
htd were as follows :
L. s.
to
Viol-sorters 1 6 3^ to 1 10
Overlooker 
C nbers, by hand 0 14 9
Overlooker, 28s., with a house worth 5s 
By machine (boys) 0 4 0
Overlooker 
I 10
1 6
= 1 13
to 0 10
1 4
Year.
1800.
1810.
1815.
1820.
1825.
1830.
1835.
Flesh per
Cwt.
Flour per
Sack.
L. s. d.
3 4 4
3 12 6
3 8 0
3 10 44
2 19 64
2 3 6
2 o 74
L. s. d.
4 16 0
4 8 4
2 4 9
2 15 1
2 13 4
2 14 11
1 11 0
Butter
per lb.
s. d.
0 111
1 If
1 2
0 91
o 101
0 64
0 74
Cheese
per lb.
d.
H
84
8
7
5l
C4
4
Oatmeal
per
Bushel.
s. d.
14 0
11 7
10 3
13 4
17 6
16 11
14 6
Salt per
Bushel.
19 9
19 9
2 10
1 8
1 3
Beer per
Barrel.
15 4f
15 101
16 61
12 64
13 94
Candles per
doz. lbs.
11
8
6 0
5 34
from this table it appears that every article in which the
oj rative’s wages are expended, is considerably cheaper
ntv than at an earlier period; and if we could collect a
siular comparative table of the price of clothing, the sav-
would be more conspicuous. In 1800 a week s wages
'Juld purchase *71 of a bushel of wheat, or 17^ lbs. of
(§h, or fifteen Chelsea rations ; in 1837 a week’s wages
vpnld purchase l-64 bushels of wheat, or 34 lbs. of flesh,
a twenty Chelsea rations, the ration consisting of one
dl ’s food for a man. On so much of the weaver’s earn-
iws as he expends in butter, cheese, salt, candles, &c.
VOL. XXI.
there is a saving of about 40 per cent., and on his clothing
much more, so that 10s. in 1800 was certainly no more than
6s. 8d. at the present time.
The manufacturer’s moral condition has improved with
his physical condition, lie is careful to educate his chil¬
dren to the full extent of his means; he evinces self-re¬
spect in all the relations of life, and therefore commands the
respect of others. The legislature and the government have
also of late years done much to elevate and improve his
condition. The various provisions for the regulation of
factories bring the employer under a system of necessary
6 c
938
WOO
woo
"W ooler superintendence, proved to be necessary by the disclosure of
jl much mismanagement and oppression. Objections may be
. 00 S °L11*- urged against some of their details, but not to their prin-
ciple. Children should be under the guardianship of the
state; and however bad in principle it may be to interfere
with the contract between the employer and employed, that
rule must be broken through, or rather does not apply,
where one of the parties is morally and legally unable to
contract. It is certainly an evil of the factory system that
the child is taken from his home, and converted into little
better than a portion of the machine which he attends.
Under improved regulations however this evil may be re¬
medied, by withdrawing the younger children from the fac¬
tory, and transferring them to their proper position, the
school. This has been half done already ; and if the state
of opinion of the people themselves demanded such a step,
the legislature might take it at once. But a government
can never be much in advance of popular opinion, and it is
generally behind it. Neither the employers nor the em¬
ployed saw any thing disgraceful in working the tender in¬
fant instead of educating him ; and no sound legislation
can take place, no efficient public guardianship can be esta¬
blished, until the working people themselves believe that
the employment of a child is disgraceful. When that be¬
lief becomes universal, as we are convinced it will, the fac¬
tory age may as easily be limited to fourteen as to eight;
but if it were now to be attempted, it would only be to
throw the child upon the labour of the hand-loom, to the
still further depression of the parents’ already too scanty
wages.
In all other respects, machinery has done much for the
improvement of the operatives, and that in two ways. First,
the better tool gives better wages ; and, second, cheap pro¬
duction daily gives the working millions an increased com¬
mand over the necessaries and comforts of life. It has been
the fate of every machine to be opposed at its introduce,
tion ; but as the working classes are almost always hon t
in their opposition, many of the machines which were moSt
opposed are now' most cherished. Nor ought this to excit
surprise. The first view of a machine seems to threateJ
the displacement of labour, and it is only at a second and
closer view that the labourer himself finds labour facilitated0
production increased, and, in one way or another, fresh ]a’
hour employed by more than the labour at first displaced'
and as all improvements are adopted gradually, it generally
happens that the increased employment anticipates the ]a.
hour displaced. Can any one doubt that this has been the
case with regard to the improvements in spinning? fr ;s
to these great improvements that we owe our pre-emi-
nence in the cotton manufacture.
The woollen manufacture is certainly in a less organized
state. The machinery employed is not so highly improved.
The application of power is recent and imperfect; the jenny
still performs much w'ork that should be done by theJ self¬
acting mule ; the whole work of preparing, including slab¬
bing, is susceptible of great improvement. In every branch
of the manufacture there is room for more economical ar¬
rangements. When the woollen manufacture has attained
the perfection of machinery, and, above all, of organization
of which it is susceptible, the result must be a greatly in¬
creased trade. In the manufacture of woollens we cannot
attain that extraordinary supremacy which we enjoy in the
cotton manufacture, because cloth-making is to be found
among the occupations of almost every people on the face
of the earth. Still we see every prospect of an improved
trade ; and should increased freedom of commerce be con¬
current with improved economy of manufactures, w-e believe
that it is on the woollen and worsted manufacture of the
west riding of Yorkshire that the increase would be most
conspicuous. (d. l.)
WOOLER, a small town in the east division of Glen¬
dale, in the ward of Coquetdale and county of Northumber¬
land. It stands on a gentle eminence, on the eastern decli¬
vity of the Cheviot Hills, at the foot of which runs the river
Wooler, which falls into the Till about a mile below. It
is a town of considerable antiquity; but all that now re¬
mains of its ancient state is a fragment or two of the castle
walls. This vicinity is considered as healthy, and at one
time was much frequented by invalids, many of whom were
accustomed to drink goats’ milk. The sole trade of Wooler
depends on the articles required for the consumption of its
inhabitants and those of the neighbourhood. Near to it
are the remains of Roman and Scotish camps. It possesses
a plain church, and several places of worship for Presbyte¬
rians. There is also a dispensary, with two subscription
libraries. The market-day is on Thursday. The popula¬
tion in 1821 amounted to 1830, and in 1831 to 1926.
WOOLSTON, Thomas, was born at Northampton in
1669, and educated at Sidney College, Cambridge. He
was chosen a fellow, and proceeded to the degree of B. D.
His first appearance in the learned world was in 1705, in
a work entitled “ The old Apology for the Truth of the
Christian Religion, against the Jews and Gentiles, re¬
vived.” He afterwards wrote many pieces ; but what
made the most noise were his six Discourses on the Mi¬
racles of Christ, which occasioned a great number of books
and pamphlets upon the subject, and raised a prosecution
against him. At his trial in Guildhall, before the lord chief
justice Raymond, he spoke several times himself; and urged,
that “ he thought it very hard that he should be tried by a
set of men who, though otherwise very learned and worthy
persons, were no more judges of the subjects on which he
wrote, than himself was a judge of the most crabbed points
of the law.” He was sentenced to a year’s imprisonmenl,
and to pay a fine of L.100. He purchased the liberty of
the rules of the king’s bench, where he continued after the
expiration of the year, being unable to pay the fine. The
greatest obstruction to his deliverance from confinement
wras the obligation of giving security not to offend by any
future writings, he being resolved to write again as freely
as before. While some supposed him to have written
with the settled intention of subverting Christianity under
the pretence of defending it, others believed him disor¬
dered in his mind; and many circumstances concurred
which gave countenance to this opinion. He died Ja¬
nuary 27, 1732-3, after an illness of four days ; and, a few
minutes before his death, uttered these words : “ This is a
struggle which all men must go through, and which I bear
not only patiently, but with willingness.” His body was
interred in St George’s church-yard, Southwark.
WOOLWICH, a large town and parish of the county of
Kent, in the lathe of Sutton and the hundred of Black-
heath, eight miles from London. It stands on the banks
of the river Thames, and contains buildings of great extent
connected with the public service, both naval and military.
The dock-yard is well calculated for building and equipping
ships of war of the largest size. It has attached to it an
extensive rope-walk ; the building called the Red House,
for curing meat for the use of the navy ; the government
bake-house, a most extensive gun-yard, and magazines for
securing in time of peace, and for arranging for immediate
service, every thing requisite for fitting out a large fto
in a few days. The barrack for the artillery is a vast and
magnificent pile of building, and near to a large field call¬
ed the Warren, in which cannon and mortars are exer¬
cised, and experiments made in the practice of gunnery.
Well, i"
P00I
an
i.fcle m
miiers t
01, a:
^OOTT(
air. in t
won
adjoining yard is the laboratory, where the se¬
veral kinds of fire-working are carried on, and the most
est etive projectiles are prepared. There is also the
Roy Academy, with its appropriate professors and mas¬
ters,,^ which the officers of the engineers and artillery
recce their professional instructions. Woolwich has a
<roocparish church; and the weekly market, on Friday,
Ts w,H supplied. The population amounted in 1821 to
17,OH, and in 1831 to 17,661.
COTTON-BASSET, a market-town in the county
of'VWts and hundred of Kingsbridge, eighty-nine miles
' roofLondon. It stands on a gentle eminence, which corn-
mans an extensive view, and consists of one long street,
t is;, poor place, with mean houses, and has an inconsi-
derale market on Friday. Until 1832, it returned two
ers to parliament. The population amounted in 1821
fin
ive
i pans
j'fll su|
(C3,an
i -ooi
Iblts a:
F ‘“chulh, in which are several monuments to members of ascend the Avon. The other rivers are, the Stour, the Sal
to lf)l, and in 1831 to 1896.
V'iotton-under-Edge, a town of the county of Glou-
cest , in the hundred of Berkeley, 108 miles from London.
It isvell built and pleasantly situated, and has a handsome
of t
||nted
|)RC
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j unde<
jjesou
;shire.
paving
ibour:
in its
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jte rail
3 lie po1
i ations
pl6;
iff thei
182.
;ed b;
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c e, mai
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ipdthe
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:ipiers
! iloyed
anufa
i e8021
«|ers oi
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in
iityye
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j 446
1 here
'ed fr(
Hills,
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va!e o
W O Pt
939
which they exhibited twenty years ago. The farms are ge- Worcester,
nerally of small extent, from forty to three hundred acres, v
and the cultivation is generally well conducted. The arable
land, which, in the rotation of crops, produces artificial
grasses, is estimated to be 360,000 acres; the permanent
grass land 100,000 acres; and the woods, wastes, rivers,
roads, sites of towns, and gardens, 40,000. The crops of
wheat, barley, and especially of beans, are more productive
than the average of England. Hops are extensively culti¬
vated, and the pear-trees are so abundant and so productive
as to afford perry for the common drink of the labourers in
agriculture. There is no breed of cattle peculiar to Wor¬
cestershire, as it is found more profitable to buy oxen and
sheep in a lean condition from poorer districts, and to fatten
them in this county, than to breed them on its rich soil.
The great rivers Severn and Avon are both navigable,
the former to an extent of nearly two hundred miles from
its mouth, and the latter to Stratford from its junction with
the former. The Severn abounds with salmon, shad, and
lampreys, though those delicious fish are never known to
the’ierkeley family. It has a good market on Friday
Som of the finer cloths are made here. The population
amented in 1821 to 5004, and in 1831 to 5482.
ItORCESTER, an inland English county in the Ox-
fordbircuit, and nearly in the centre of the kingdom. It
is bunded on the north by Staffordshire and Shropshire,
on lie south by Gloucestershire, and on the east by War
warpe, the Ledden, and the Rea. This county has par¬
taken largely of the benefit communicated by internal navi¬
gation. The canals are, the Trent and Severn, the Droit-
wich, the Worcester and Birmingham, the Dudley and Leo¬
minster. The town of Stourport has risen into importance
since the extension of canals, and exhibits a large maritime
town in the centre of the kingdom, connecting its various
wiefthire. Its figure is very irregular; and it is remarkable productions in a focus, and distributing them where needed.
for aving several detached portions scattered about the
neijibouring counties, which makes it difficult to be accu-
ratein its dimensions. It may be stated as about thirty
mil* in length and twenty-four in breadth, and to be 723
squj.e miles or 462,720 acres in extent
Although this county has hitherto had no railways formed
through it, yet as one portion of it is in contact with the
town of Birmingham, that part has, by the vicinity, the
means of the most rapid communication with London, Li¬
verpool, and Manchester ; and projects are now on foot
Hie population of the county at the four decennial enu- which in a few years may give facilities of speedy inter-
mefitions has been as follows: in 1801, 139,331; in 1811,
l(iC)46; in 1821, 184,424; and in 1831,211,400. At the
lastif these periods the males were 103,383 and the females
101182. The number of dwelling-houses was 41,406, in-
habied by 45,512 families; of whom 14,654 were chiefly
yed in agriculture; 19,040 were chiefly employed in
trat, manufactures, and handicraft; and 11,828 were not
cottirised in either of the preceding classes. At the same
course with Bristol and Exeter, and may perhaps be ex¬
tended to Plymouth.
The county possesses a variety of manufactures in hard¬
ware, carpet-making, gloves, and china. At Dudley, Stour¬
bridge, and Old Swinford, about 450 males upwards of
twenty years of age are employed at the forges, who make
anvils, chains, and the heavier kinds of iron tools and ma¬
chinery. At Woolverley, and some other neighbouring vil-
perjd the number of males twenty years of age was 52,796 ; lages, about 280 men make gun-barrels, edge-tools, and
thestccupiers of land employing labourers were 2636; the files. At Tardebig, and the parishes near it, 540 men
occpiers not employing labourers, 1260; the labourers make needles and fish-hooks. The number of nailers
enpoyed in agriculture, 14,590; the labourers employed throughout the county is about 3000, chiefly in and near
in sianufactures, and in making manufacturing machinery, Bromsgrove, Dudley, and Swinford. At and around Kid-
wen 8024 ; those employed in retail trade or handicraft, as derminster, 2300 men are employed in making carpets, and
mailers or workmen, 12,693; those described as bankers, in preparing materials for that manufacture. At Worcester,
prcessional and other educated men, 2085; labourers em- and in its suburbs, nearly 1000 men, and a much greater
plcpd in labour not agricultural, 6544; other males under number of females, are employed in making gloves; and
tw»ty years, except servants, 2885; male servants twenty about fifty men, besides many females, are occupied in
yeas of age, 1079 ; male servants under twenty years of making china, chiefly in burnishing and other delicate ope-
ag|446 ; female servants, 8162. rations. At Pershore, some men are employed in making
liere is a soft beauty on the face of this county, when watch-springs,
vieed from any elevation, such as the Malvern or Abber- The salt made at Droitwich supplies nearly one half of
leyTills, which is highly gratifying. From such spots the England with that indispensable article. The duty collect-
stati of its cultivation appears to great advantage, as there ed there before the abatement of the tax amounted to more
areio parts of any considerable extent so barren or neglect- than L. 1000 per day. 1 he water, from which the salt is
ed s to be destitute of an agreeable and profitable verdure, made by evaporation, is more highly saturated than any
Wh the exception of those hills, the former of which rise to other that has been discovered. Researches in the bowels
thtieightof 1440 feet, the whole county consists of gentle of the earth have shown that a river of salt water, about
un Illations, wholly enclosed, well wooded, and intersected twenty-two inches in depth, runs about 250 feet below the
by |ie great rivers Severn and Avon, and their several tribu- surface. Immediately above this subterranean stream is a
tatjstreams. The abundance of orchards of pear-trees, and bed of gypsum 130 feet thick. When this stratum is pene-
thtscattered hop plantations, give a peculiar richness to the trated by the borer, the spring rises to the surface, and yields
auimnal scenery. Even the poorer parts of the county, a never-failing supply of water, so fully saturated that no
beiveen the towns of Droitwich and Bromsgrove, have of more salt can be dissolved in it. The springs at Droitwich
latubeen cultivated ; and though they do not rival in beauty hold in solution about one fourth of their weight in salt; and
tlkrale of Evesham, they are far from the aspect of sterility no other in England holds more than a ninth. The subter-
940
W O R
W 0 R
Worcester, raneous river runs over a bed of rock-salt, whose thickness
v has not yet been ascertained. Besides the springs at Droit-
wich, other mineral springs are found at Malvern, which are
resorted to for their healing properties, as well as for the
pure air ol the district. The combinations of the wells are
carbonate of soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia,
carbonate of iron, sulphate of soda, and muriate of soda.
The most considerable places, and their population in the
year 1831, were the following.
Worcester  18,610 Tardebig  3627
Dudley  23,043
Kidderminster ... 20,865
Bromsgrove  8,612
Stourbridge  6,148
Evesham    3,991
Bewdley 3,908
The titles derived from the county are the marquisate of
Worcester and the earldom of Beauchamp. For election
purposes the county has been formed into two divisions,
distinguished as the eastern and the western, each of which
elects two members to the House of Commons. The elec¬
tion for the eastern division is held at Droitwich; and the
other polling places are Pershore, Shipston, and Stour¬
bridge. The election for the WPtit^rn ic liolrl of X\T_
Malvern, Great and
Little  3535
Droitwich  2487
Upton on Severn.. 2343
Pershore  2080
bridge. The election for the western is held at Worces¬
ter ; and the other polling places are Upton, Stourport, and
Tenbury. The city of Worcester and the borough of
Evesham, as formerly, return two members, and Bewdley
one. By the reform bill, Droitwich has been deprived of
one of its members, and Kidderminster and Dudley have
been constituted boroughs, each electing one member.
Among the numerous seats of noblemen and gentlemen
in this county, the most distinguished are, Madresfield, Lord
Beauchamp; Hagley, Lord Lyttelton; Croome Court, earl
of Coventry ; North wick, Lord Northwick ; Hartlebury
Castle, bishop of Worcester ; Dailsford, late Warren Hast¬
ings ; Ombersley Court, marquis of Downshire; Hewell
Grange, earl of Plymouth ; Hanbury Hall, John Phillips;
Overbury, James Martin ; Winterdyne House, William
Moselay ; Westwood House, Sir Herbert Packington ; and
Whitely Court, Lord Foley.1
Worcester city, the capital of the county of that name,
in nearly the centre of England. It is finely situated on
a gradual ascent from the left bank of the river Severn,
over which is an elegant stone bridge. The river is navi¬
gable for barges far above the town; and after the winter
rains, timber is floated down from Montgomeryshire in
Wales. The trade by the river is very considerable, as by
that channel the foreign and colonial productions required
by the inhabitants are supplied from Liverpool or from
Bristol. One branch of trade, that of culinary salt from
the brine springs of Droitwich, about six miles higher up
the river, and connected with it by a short canal, is very
extensive, as it supplies some of the western counties of
England, and some parts of South Wales, with that indis¬
pensable article.
In past time this city had some trade in making wool¬
len cloths and carpets ; but that business has departed, and
now the chief manufacturing employment is the making of
leather gloves. There is also a manufactory of porcelain,
more remarkable for the beauty of the work than for its
being in any extensive demand. The city was anciently
surrounded with walls, in which were six gates, some
traces of which are still to be seen. Worcester suffered
much during the WTirs between the rival houses of York
and Lancaster; but the most remarkable event of a his¬
torical nature was the great battle fought here in 1650,
by the English army under Cromwell, and the Scotish
army under the command of King Charles II. The loss
of the king’s troops is stated to have been 2000 men killed
and 8000 taken prisoners. Most of the latter were sold w
slaves to the colonies in America and the West Lid'38 '
The destruction of the walls and gates was orderpd k
Cromwell after his decisive victory. It is, geneJ?
speaking, a well-built city, and the chief street, the For
gate, is remarkably fine. The guildhall, in that street
a handsome structure, finished in 1723. Its front whi’ h
is of brick, is ornamented with stone quoins, with mould
mgs and tablets to the windows, of the same materials'
Ihe principal entrance, after ascending some semicircular
steps, is ornamented with columns of the composite order
highly enriched, and crowned with an indented cornice and
open pediment, in which are the city arms. On each side
of this principal entrance are the statues of the two kin<rs
Charles, in niches; and over it a statue of Queen Anne
The county-jail and the county-hall are fine buildings’
The market-house is another fine edifice. It is highly orna¬
mented, and conveniently arranged for the purpose it is in-
tended to serve. The cathedral, whose effect is lessened bv
the close approach of some of the surrounding dwellings, is a
noble specimen of Gothic simplicity. It was first erected
by Ethelred, king of Mercia, in 680, when it was a convent
of secular priests. Soon after the Norman conquest, it was
laid in ashes by the Welsh, and was afterwards rebuilt
with greater magnificence, though not entirely completed
until the year 1374. The building is 394 feet in length,
78 in breadth, and the tower is 162 feet high. On the
south side is a chapel of curious workmanship. Both the
church and the cloisters are arched with stone of a reddish
colour; and in the tower are eight good bells, the largest
of which weighs 6600 pounds. The elegant window in
the west front was constructed on occasion of the visit of
George III. to this city in 1788, when, at the music meet¬
ing, the throne was placed near to it. Another window
was built at the east end in 1792, containing some excel¬
lent painting in glass. The pulpit is octagonal, and of
stone, curiously carved in the Gothic manner, with the
symbols of the four evangelists, and a representation of the
New Jerusalem, as described in the book of Revelation,
i he altar-piece is of plain oak, having in the centre a paint¬
ing of the descent from the cross. The chief monument is
that of King John, standing in the midst of the choir; but
the body was interred under a small stone in the eastern
part of the church. On each side of the figure of the king
are those of the bishops Wolstan and Oswald. On the
south side of the altar is Prince Arthur’s sepulchral chapel,
a most curious piece of antique workmanship, which was
repaired and beautified in 1791. It consists of five orders
of images, viz. virgins, bishops, kings, confessors, and
angels, ornamented with the various badges of royalty;
and under an arched roof is the tomb, of fine marble. There
are also several other handsome monuments, one of Bishop
Hough, by Roubiliac. The cloisters, where the monks for¬
merly resided, and which are now inhabited by the digni¬
taries of the cathedral, are 125 feet by 120, and sixteen
feet in breadth. The vaulted roof is adorned with a va¬
riety of sculptures. The bishop’s palace stands near the
cathedral, in a most commanding situation, overlooking the
river Severn, which flows at the bottom of the garden.
There are nine parish churches within and two without
the walls. The most remarkable of them are, St Michael’s,
a very ancient specimen of ecclesiastical architecture; St
Andrew’s, with a lofty and well-proportioned tower, built in
' 1 kJJ TTiViJ l *.11 VI TV uvy IT Vv* 7 — —
the eleventh century; All-Saints, which was rebuilt m
i -) n.. ..n. i-*— x. n ... ■. r*. j ...... ,..—i. "at..o band—
1742, an edifice of the modern style ; St Martin’s, a .—-
some edifice, finished in 1772, after four years’labour; and
St Nicholas, of which the interior is neat and commodious.
Its style of architecture, executed in stone, is very pleasing,
■ ~     - - the
 J    — ■ ~ J l
the front being of the Doric order, with six pilasters,
1 See Nashe’s Survey of Worcestershire : Pitt’s Agricultural Survey; Brewer’s Worcestershire,
WOR
. |o,3r part rusticated, and the roof balustraded. The other
/ lurches do not deserve particular notice. Besides these,
th e are places of worship for the Roman Catholics, the
Q kers, and several other denominations of protestant
(Renters.
' he country around Worcester is highly fertile, and the
su.ily of every kind of provisions is abundant in the mar-
ke, which are held every Wednesday, Friday, and Satur-
dai The river Severn affords an abundant supply of sal¬
mi, and lampreys, and other fresh-water fish. Among
ot :r articles of cultivation, hops are the most extensive ;
an this city is the largest depot for that article after Maid-
stoe and Canterbury. Coals are supplied by the Severn
at, cheap rate; and, under all circumstances, few places
arbetter adapted for the residence of families who wish
tomite economy with comfort.
'he city gives the title of marquis to the eldest son of
tin duke of Beaufort. It returns two members to the
Hiise of Commons ; and by the late law it is divided into
shwards, and is governed by a mayor, twelve aldermen,
ar thirty-five councillors, with justices of the peace ap-
pqiited by the crown. The population amounted in 1821
toi!7,849, and in 1831 to 18,610. Worcester is 111
mes from London, fifty-five from Oxford, and twenty-two
fmi Birmingham, with excellent roads in every direction
amnd it.
WORCESTER, Edward Somerset, Marquis of, was
a stinguished political character in the time of Charles I.,
hr whom he was created earl of Glamorgan, wdiile heir
aparent to the marquis of Worcester. This nobleman
finished chiefly in the reign of Charles I., and seems to
hse been a most zealous adherent to the cause of that un-
faunate monarch, on whose account it is said that he and
hifather wasted an immense sum. Of this the king was
sc ensible, that he granted to the earl a most extraordi-
patent, the chief powers of which were, to make him
go eralissimo of three armies, and admiral with nomination
oiliis officers; to enable him to raise money by selling his
mesty’s woods, wardships, customs, and prerogatives ; and
tcxeate by blank patents, to be filled up at Glamorgan’s
plisure, from the rank of marquis to that of baronet. It
ari: thing, says Lord Orford, could justify the delegation of
siili authority, besides his majesty having lost all autho-
rii when he conferred it, it was the promise with which
tl king concluded, of bestowing the princess Elizabeth on
Cunorgan’s son. This patent was given up by the mar-
qjs to the House of Peers after the restoration. He died
irl667, after he had published his celebrated work en-
ti.;d “ A Century of the Names and Scantlings of such
Iiientions as at present I can call to mind to have tried
aii. perfected, which (my former notes being lost) I have,
at he instance of a powerful friend, endeavoured now, in
tl year 1655, to set these down in such a way as may
smiciently instruct me to put any of them in practice.”
Sne of the inventions referred to in this work are the
flowing. A ship-destroying engine, a coach-stopping
ecine, a balance water-work, a bucket fountain, an eb-
b g and flowing castle-clock, a tinder-box pistol, a pocket
lader, a most admirable way to raise weights, a stupen-
(1 is water-work. For the last contrivance the marquis
pi cured an act of parliament in 1663, for the sole benefit
aning from it, one tenth of it being appropriated to Charles
Land his successors.
j Various and very opposite opinions have been held with
rjiard to the title of this nobleman to be considered as a
tichanical genius. Lord Orford has pronounced his
v-rk an amazing piece of folly ; and Mr Hume, speaking
ohis political conduct, says, “ that the king judged aright
O'this nobleman’s character, appears from his Century of
Ms, or Scantling of Inventions, wdiich is a ridiculous com-
pind of lies, chimeras, and impossibilities, and shows what
W O R
941
Worm.
might be expected from such a man.” It may be fairly Worgaum
presumed, that neither Lord Orford nor Mr Hume was
qualified to judge of the marquis’s work, otherwise a more v
temperate or more modified opinion would have been given.
By others, its author has been regarded as one of the great¬
est mechanical geniuses; and he is considered as the in¬
ventor of the steam-engine, which he denominates a stu¬
pendous water-work. See Steam-Engine.
WORGAUM, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Aurungabad, situated twenty miles west of Poonah.
WORK, in the manege. To work a horse, is to exercise
him at pace, trot, or gallop, and ride him at the manege.
To work a horse upon volts, or head and haunches in or
between two heels, is to passage him, or make him go side¬
ways upon parallel lines.
To Work, in sea-language, is to direct the movements
of a ship, by adapting the sails to the force and direction of
the wind.
WORK-HOUSE, a place where indigent, vagrant, and
idle people are set to work, and supplied with food and cloth¬
ing. Work-houses are of two kinds, or at least are employed
for two different purposes. Some are used as prisons for va¬
grants or sturdy beggars, who are there confined and com¬
pelled to labour for the benefit of the society which main¬
tains them ; whilst others, sometimes called poor-houses, are
charitable asylums for such indigent persons as through age
or infirmity are unable to support themselves by their own
labour. See Poor-Laws.
WORKINGTON, a market-town of the county of Cum¬
berland, in the ward of Allerdale, 311 miles from London.
It stands on the sea-shore, where the rivers Derwent and
Cocker enter the ocean. The coal-mines near it are the
chief source of the trade, as they supply annual loading to
hundreds of ships. There are also a considerable salmon fish¬
ery, and some works for refining salt. The population of the
town amounted in 1821 to 6439, and in 1831 to 6415; but
the parish contains other four townships, and the collective
number of inhabitants at the census of 1831 was 7196.
WORKSOP, a market-town in the county of Notting¬
ham and hundred of Bassetlaw, 143 miles from London. It
stands in a pleasant valley near the source of the river Ry-
ton. Here was formerly an Augustinian monastery, the
chapel of which, in the cathedral form, is used as the pa¬
rish church. Adjoining to the towm there was formerly a
magnificent seat belonging to the duke of Norfolk. There
is a market on Wednesday. The population amounted in
1821 to 4567, and in 1831 to 5566.
WORM, Ouaf, or Olaus Wormius, a learned Danish
physician, was born on the 13th of May 1588, at Arhusen
in Jutland. After beginning his studies at home, he resided
in several foreign universities, and travelled to various parts
of Europe for improvement. After having taken the de¬
gree of M. D. at Basel, he returned to his native country
in 1613, and was made professor of polite literature in the
university of Copenhagen. In 1615, he was translated
to the chair of the Greek professor; and in 1624 to the
professorship of physic, which he held till his death. These
occupations did not hinder him from practising in his pro¬
fession, and from being the fashionable physician : the king
and court of Denmark always employed him ; and Christian
IV., as a recompense for his services, conferred on him a
canonry of Lund. He published some pieces on subjects
relating to his profession ; several works in defence of Aris¬
totle’s philosophy ; and several concerning the antiquities
of Denmark and Norway; for which latter he is principally
regarded, as they are very learned, and contain many curi¬
ous particulars. He died on the 7th of September 1654.
Worm, in Gunnery, a screw of iron, to be fixed on the
end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a firelock, carabine,
or pistol, being the same with the wad hook, only the one
is more proper for small arms, and the other for cannon.
942
Worm
W O R
Worm, in Chemistry, is a long winding pipe, placed in a
Worltpad tuk water, to cool and condense the vapours in the dis-
^ ^ ‘ dilation of spirits.
W' ORMS, an ancient city of Germany, now in the prin¬
cipality of Hesse-Darmstadt and province of the Rhine,
and the capital of the bailiwick of its own name. It stands
on the Rhine, where the Eisbach falls into that river.
It is surrounded with ancient and untenable fortifications,
and is much reduced from the condition it once exhibited
when it was an imperial city. It contains two Catholic, two
Lutheran, and one reformed church, 910 houses, and 8100
inhabitants. It has some trade by the river and at its fairs,
but chiefly in the products of the district. It is more remark¬
able for its antiquities and the historical recollections which
it recalls. It was the seat of frequent diets of the empire.
Long. 8. 15. 7. E. Lat. 49. 37. 49. N.
WORONESH, one of the governments or stadtholderates
into which the Russian empire in Europe is divided. It
takes the name from its capital city, and extends in north
latitude from 48° 37' to 52° 53', and in east longitude from
38° 35' to 14° 17'. It is bounded on the north by Tambow,
on the north-east by Saratow, on the east and south-east by
the country of the Don Cossacks, on the south-west by Jeka-
terinoslaw, and on the west by Slobodsk-Ukraine and Kursk.
It comprehends the vast space, including the circle of
Nowochopersk recently added to it, of 34,034 square miles,
in which are sixteen cities and towns, 769 parishes with
each its church, and numerous villages and hamlets. The
inhabitants are 1,445,900, mostly of the race of the indige¬
nous Russians, but having many Cossacks and some Gipsys
mingled with them. There are also several newly-planted
people, called colonists, of various races. With the excep¬
tion of some Germans who have settled there, and keep
separate, they all adhere to the Greek church. The nobles
are less numerous than in some of the other governments,
but more than one third of the whole inhabitants are their
slaves.
The climate is temperate, as may be presumed from the
latitude. The rivers seldom freeze till the end of Decem¬
ber, and are open again in March. It is a healthy district,
the people attain a great age, the cattle are large and strong,
and the vegetable productions of the milder climates make
their appearance in the southern parts. The grain chiefly
cultivated is rye, some little wheat, barley, oats, buck-wheat,
and, in the south, maize. Though the soil is fertile, from
careless husbandry the product of corn rarely exceeds the
consumption ; but, on the other hand, the crops of flax and
hemp supply considerable materials for commerce. Some
wood for fuel likewise occasions a little trade by the rivers.
The principal manufacture is coarse cloth from the wool of
the province, which is chiefly used for the clothing of the
troops. Some linen is also made; and there are several tan¬
neries, distilleries, and breweries.
The city of Woronesh is the capital of the province, as
well as of the circle of its name. It stands on a rising
ground near that part of the river Don into which the river
Woronesh falls. It is without fortifications, contains the
palace of the governor and of the bishop, eighteen churches
all built ot stone, an ecclesiastical seminary, two monas¬
teries, 3000 houses, and 20,300 inhabitants, who carry
on some trade with Siberia and Orenburg. Here Peter
the Great founded a dock-yard for building vessels, but
it has since been removed to Towrow. It is 790 miles
from St Petersburg. Long. 40. 48. 30. E. Lat. 51. 40.
30. N.
WORSHIP of God {cultus Dei) amounts to the same
with what we otherwise call religion. See Religion and
Theology.
WORS TEAD, an ancient market-town in the county of
Norfolk and hundred of Tunstead, only remarkable from
having given its name to a kind ot woollen thread. It has a
WOT
small market on Saturday. The population amnnm .i •
1821 to 706, and in 1831 to 830. P Unted 111
WORT, the infusion of malt, of which beer is rnaf]0
See Brewing. “wcie.
WORTHING, a town of the county of Sussex, fifty
nine miles from London, in the hundred of BriehtfL j
rape of Bramber. It is in the parish of Broadwater on ?
sea-shore, and within the last thirty years has been ftp
quented for the purpose of sea-bathing. From a hmu
with a few fishing cottages, it has thus increased to an ek
gant and well-built town, containing churches and chandJ
a market-house, and splendid hotels. The climate is mil,]’
being defended from the north and east winds by the South’
Down Hills. The population amounted in 1821 to ^79;"
and in 1831 to 4576. Ub’
WOTTON, Sir Henry, an eminent writer, was the son
ot 1 homas VY otton, Esq., and was born on the 30th of March
1568. He studied for some time at New College, Oxford
whence he removed to Queen’s College, where he made a
great progress in logic and philosophy; and wrote a tra°-edv
for the use of that college, called Tancredo. Accordinir
to Walton, he proceeded A. M. After leaving the university
he travelled into France, Germany, and Italy; and having
spent about nine years abroad, he returned to England, and
became secretary to Robert earl of Essex, with whom he
continued till that earl was apprehended for high treason.
He then retired to Florence, where he became known to the
grand duke of Tuscany, who sent him privately with letters
to James VI. king of Scotland, under the name of Octavio
Baldi, to inform that king of a design against his life. Some
months after he went back to Florence; but King James
coming to the possession of the crown of England, Wotton
returned home, was knighted by his majesty, and sent am¬
bassador to the republic of Venice, and afterwards was
employed in many other embassies to that and other courts;
but the only reward he obtained for these services was his
having the provostship of Eton College conferred upon
him in the year 1623. He was ordained deacon, as the
office could not be regularly held by a layman. He died
in December 1639. After his decease, some of his ma¬
nuscripts and printed tracts were published together in
a volume, entitled Reliquice Wottoniance ; but he was the
author of various works which are not included in this
collection. Flis life by Isaac Walton is well known to the
learned.
Wotton, William, a learned divine and writer, was the
son of Henry Wotton, B. D., rector of Wrentham in Suffolk,
where he was born on the 13th of August 1666. He was
educated by his father, a gentleman well skilled in the
learned languages, under whom he made such amazing
proficiency, that at five years of age it is said he could ren¬
der several chapters of the gospels out of Latin and Greek,
and many psalms in Hebrew, into his mother tongue.
When he was very young he remembered the whole of
almost every discourse he had heard, and often surprised a
preacher by repeating his sermon to him. He was admit¬
ted into Catharine Hall in Cambridge some months before
he was ten years old; when the progress he made in learn¬
ing in that university engaged Dr Duport, then master of
Magdalen College, and dean of Peterborough, to write an
elegant copy of Latin verses in his praise. In 1679 he
took the degree of A. B. when he was but twelve years and
five months old ; and the winter following he was invited to
London by Dr Burnet, then preacher at the Rolls, who in¬
troduced him to most of the learned men in that city, and
particularly to Dr Lloyd, bishop of St Asaph, to whom he
recommended himself by repeating to him one of his ser¬
mons, as Dr Burnet had engaged he should. In 1691 he
commenced B. D. The same year Bishop Lloyd gave him
the sinecure of Llandrillo, in Denbighshire. He was after¬
wards made chaplain to the earl of Nottingham, then secre*
W II E
W R I
943
1 of
feyn
,:l!ecti(
l[8v°
icliu
nfer
He
tary f state, who presented him to the rectory of Middle-
ton Keynes, in Bucks, and to whom he dedicated his
Reections upon Ancient and Modern Learning.” Lond.
1694 8vo. In 1705, Bishop Burnet gave him a prebend
in tli church of Salisbury ; and in 1707, Archbishop Teni-
sonpnferred upon him the degree of D. D. In 1714, the
if%lties under which he laboured with respect to his pri-
vate'ortune obliged him to retire into South Wales, where
heps treated with great kindness and humanity by the
Vcnt*men of that country. He then wrote the “ Memoirs
of tl! Cathedral Churches of St David’s and Llandaff,” and
hisi’‘Miscellaneous Discourses relating to the Traditions
nd Jsages of the Scribes and Phariseeswdiich were
fterards printed. He died on the 13th of February
]72li Dr Wotton was remarkable for his humanity and
frieiliness of temper; the narrowness of a party spirit ne¬
ver roke in upon any of his friendships ; and his time and
abilies were at the service of any person who was making
ad wees in real learning. He wrote, besides the above
wor , 1. A History of Rome ; 2. A Defence of his Reflec-
tiolaupon Ancient and Modern Learning ; 3. A Discourse
coniirning the Languages of Babel; 4. Advice to a Young
Stta-nt, with a Method of Study for the first four Years ;
and.»ther learned pieces.
BOUNDS, in Surgery. See Surgery.
MOW, a fortified town of Hindustan, province of Guje-
rat, istrictof Neyer, of which it may be considered as the
cafirid. It is the residence of 1000 Rajpoot families.
L<W. 71. 23. E. Lat. 24. 11. N.
MOWAMIA, a town of Hindustan, province of Gujerat,
onile eastern shore of the Runn, where there is a ferry
foi tionveying travellers to the district of Cutch. Long.
70. 7. E. Lat. 22. 50. N.
\REATH, in Heraldry, a roll of fine linen or silk (like
thjiiof a Turkish turban), consisting of the colours borne
in iti: escutcheon, placed in an achievement between the
h el net and the crest, and immediately supporting the crest.
\REN, Sir Christopher, one of the most learned,
sci«Stific, and eminent architects of his age, was the son of
Dr Christopher Wren, dean of Windsor, and was born on
th|Soth of October 1632. He studied at Wadham College,
Oxiird; where he took the degree of A. M. in 1653, and
shosen fellow of All Souls College. When very young
scovered a surprising genius for the mathematics; in
|i science he made great advances before he was six-
| years old. In 1657, he was made professor of astro-
at Gresham College, London; but he resigned this
in 1660, on his being chosen to the Savilian pro-
rship of astronomy in Oxford. He was next year
?d LL. D., and in 1663 was elected fellow of the Royal
Sdc ty. He was one of the commissioners for the repara-
tioinf St Paul’s ; and in 1665 travelled into France to exa-
the most beautiful edifices there, when he made many
o inn us observations. At his return to England, he drew
a mole plan for rebuilding the city of London after the
firfi This plan he presented to parliament; and upon the
decise of Sir John Denham in 1668, was made surveyor-
gaircal of his majesty’s works. From that time he had the
dirdtion of a great number of public edifices, by which he
actjired the highest reputation. He built the magnificent
the re at Oxford, St Paul’s Cathedral, the churches of St
Stefien Walbrook and St Mary-le-Bow; the Monument,
thenodern part of the palace of Hampton Court, Chelsea
CffSe’ one of the wings of Greenwich Hospital, and many
o# beautiful edifices. He was president of the Royal
SwEty, one of the commissioners of Chelsea College, and
twig member of parliament, first for Plymouth in Devon-
sfif, and then for Melcombe Regis in the same county.
El 1718 he was removed from his place of surveyor-gene-
ial . He died on the 21st of February 1723, in the ninety-
hilsiyear of his age, and was interred in the vault under
Writing.
St Paul’s. This eminent man also distinguished himself Wrestling
by many curious inventions and discoveries in natural phi¬
losophy ; and, among many others, contrived an instrument,
for measuring the quantity of rain that falls on any space of ’
land for a year. He devised various methods of rendering
astronomical observations more accurate and easy; and was
the first author of the anatomical experiment of injecting
liquors into the veins of animals, &c. He translated into
Latin Mr Oughtred’s Horologiographia Geometrica; and
wrote a Survey of the Cathedral Church of Salisbury, and
other pieces. After his death his posthumous Works and
draughts were published by his son.
WRESTLING, a kind of combat or engagement be¬
tween two persons unarmed, body to body, to prove their
strength and dexterity, and try which can throw his oppo¬
nent to the ground. Wrestling is an exercise of very great
antiquity and fame. It was in use in the heroic age ; wit¬
ness Hercules, who wrestled with Antaeus. It continued a
long time in the highest repute, and had considerable re¬
wards and honours assigned to it at the Olympic games.
It was the custom for the athletae to anoint their bodies
with oil, to give the less hold to their antagonists.
WREXHAM, a market-town of the county of Denbigh,
in North Wales, in the hundred of the same name, 188
miles from London and ten from Chester. It is finely si¬
tuated on a rising ground, and has a church, in elegance
and beauty surpassing many of the cathedrals of the king¬
dom, and richly adorned with images and curious carved
work, and many handsome monuments. It has a neat
town-hall, and a well-endowed free-school. What little
trade there is consists in making flannels, but in the vici¬
nity are considerable iron-works. It is a borough, and, con¬
jointly with Denbigh, Holt, and Ruthin, returns one member
to the House of Commons. There are markets on Mon¬
day and Thursday. The town consists of two parts, called
Wrexham Abbot and Wrexham Regis, whose population
amounted in 1821 to 4795, and in 1831 to 5484.
WRINGTON, a market-town of the county of Somer¬
set, in the hundred of Brent and Wrington, 125 miles from
London. It is chiefly noted as the birth-place of that great
philosopher John Locke. It has a small market on Tues¬
day. The population amounted in 1821 to 1349, and in
1831 to 1540.
WRIT, in Law, signifies, in general, the king’s precept
in writing under seal, issuing out of some court, directed to
the sheriff or other officer, and commanding something to
be done in relation to a suit or action, or giving commission
to have the same done. And, according to Fitzherbert, a
writ is said to be a formal letter of the king in parchment,
sealed with his seal, and directed to some judge, officer, or
minister, &c. at the suit of a subject, for the cause briefly
expressed, which is to be determined in the proper court
according to law.
Writs, in civil actions, are either original or judicial.
Original are such as are issued out of the court of chancery
for the summoning of a defendant to appear, and are granted
before the suit is commenced, in order to begin the same;
and judicial writs issue out of the court where the original
is returned, after the suit is begun.
WRITING, the art or act of signifying and conveying
our ideas to others, by letters or characters visible to the
eye.
The most ancient remains of writing which have been
transmitted to us are upon hard substances, such as stones
and metals, which were used by the ancients for edicts and
matters of public notoriety. The decalogue was written on
two tables of stone; but this practice was not peculiar to the
Jews, for it was used by most of the eastern nations, as well
as by the Greeks and Romans ; and therefore the ridicule
which Voltaire attempts to cast upon that part of the book
of Genesis, where the people are commanded to write the
944
W U R
W U R
Wurda.
Vv udwan law on stones, is absurd ; for what is there said by no means
implies that other materials might not be used on common
occasions. The laws penal, civil, and ceremonial, among
the Greeks, were engraven on tables of brass, which were
called cyrbes.
We find that wood was also used for writing on in dif¬
ferent countries, ihe Chinese, before the invention of pa¬
per, wrote or engraved with an iron tool upon thin boards
or on bamboo. Pliny says that table-books of wood were
in use before the time of Homer. These table-books were
called by the Romans jmgillares. The wood was cut into
thin slices, and finely plained and polished. The writing
was at first upon the bare wood, with an iron instrument
called a style. In latter times these tables were usually
waxed over, and written upon with that instrument. The
matter written upon the tables which were thus waxed over
was easily effaced, and by smoothing the wax new matter
might be substituted in the place of what had been written
before. Ihe Greeks and Romans continued the use of
waxed table-books long after the use of papyrus, leaves, and
skins became common, because they were so convenient
for correcting extemporary compositions.
Table-books of ivory are still used for memorandums, but
they are commonly written upon with black-lead pencils.
The practice of writing on table-books covered with wax
was not entirely laid aside till the commencement of the
fourteenth century.
1 he bark of trees was also used for writing by the an¬
cients, and is so still in several parts of Asia. The same
thing may be said of the leaves of trees. It is needless to
observe the use of parchment and vellum, papyrus and
paper, for writing ; it is too well known. The method of
fabricating these substances has been already described as
they occurred in the order of the alphabet.
It is obvious, that when men wrote, or rather engraved,
on hard substances, instruments of metal were necessary,
such as the chisel and the stylus ; but the latter was chiefly
used for writing upon boards, waxed tablets, or on bark.
When the ancients wrote on softer materials than wood
or metal, other instruments were used for writing with, of
which reeds and canes seem to have been the first. Reeds
and canes are still used as instruments for writing with by
the 1 artars, the Indians, the Persians, the Turks, and the
Greeks. Pencils made of hair are used by the Chinese for
their writing : they first liquefy their ink, and dip their pen¬
cils into it. Hair-pencils have likewise been used for writ¬
ing in Europe. Large capital letters were made with them
from the time of the Roman emperors till the sixteenth
century. After the invention of printing they were drawn
by the illuminators. Quills of geese, swans, peacocks,
crows, and other birds, have been used in these western
parts for writing with, but how long is not easy to ascer¬
tain. Isidorus Hispalensis, or Isidore of Seville, who lived
about the middle of the seventh century, describes a pen
made of a quill as used in his time. See Bibliography,
Hieroglyphics, and Languages.
WUDWAN, a town of Hindustan, province of Gujerat,
district of Chalawara. It is of considerable extent and po¬
pulation, and possesses a fort of considerable strength, al¬
most new. It belongs to a rajpoot family noted for their
skill and bravery in predatory wars. In 1805 it was be¬
sieged for two months without success by the Guicowar’s
army. It carries on, by means of caravans, an extensive
trade with the Gulf of Cambay. These caravans require an
escort of twenty to thirty matchlock-men, to guard against
the freebooters that infest the country.
WURDA, a river of Hindustan, province of Berar. It
has its source in the Injardy Hills, two miles north of the
Barooly Pass, in the province of Berar, whence it flows in
a south-east direction, and after a course of about 200
miles falls into the Godavery.
WURTEMBERG, a kingdom in the interior of G w-
many, formed, within the last few years, out of the anci^" ' i^®'
duchy of the same name, with the addition of several small'
territories progressively combined with it, in the reigns ef',
the last two sovereigns, by an accommodating policy, an/
sedulous regard to their own interest during the progr/!
and conclusion of the French revolution. By an armisti/
made with France in 1796, all the territories on the left
bank of the Rhine were ceded to that power ; but by th
opportune peace of Luneville in 1801, and a separate treatv
which followed as a consequence of it, Wiirtemberff was
raised to the dignity of a grand duchy, and obtained several
districts which had either been portions of small indepen-
dent states or ecclesiastical dominions. Among these were
the cities of Heilbron, Gmiind, Hall, Rothweil, and some
others, with the districts around them. The whole of these
acquisitions extended over 633 square miles, and contained
115,000 inhabitants. In December 1805, in consequence
of the part taken in the war between France and Austria,
the kingly dignity was assumed, and the possession of se¬
veral other portions was guaranteed by the former power.
These acquisitions comprehended several districts on the
Danube, whose inhabitants were estimated to be 158,000.
In 1806, when the confederation of the Rhine was formed,
Wiirtemberg joined it, and stipulated to contribute to its
support 12,000 men; in consequence of which, other con-
siderable additions to its territory were made. Several ex
119,*
inc:
tin*
changes of dominion took place with Baden and Bavaria,
but rather for the sake of rendering the limits more distinct
. O      vwumiv
than to increase possessions. The part taken by Wiirtem¬
berg in the wars declared by France against'Prussia in
1806, and against Austria in 1809, led to a further augmen¬
tation ; and by choosing the precise moment for deserting
the cause of Bonaparte in 1813, the king was enabled, at
the subsequent congress of Vienna, to obtain the sanction
of all the great European powers to the title which he had
assumed, and to the territory which had been acquired. The
kingdom of Wiirtemberg was thus fixed in the condition
described in the following pages.
The whole is nearly enclosed between Baden and Bava¬
ria ; the former bounding it on the western and northern
sides, and the latter on the eastern and southern, except
that on one part of its southern frontier the Lake of Con¬
stance separates it from Switzerland. It is of an irregular
form, extending from 47° 35' to 49° 35' north latitude. On
a very small portion of its northern boundary it comes in
contact with the grand duchy of ITesse-Darmstadt. Its
whole extent is 7573 square miles, or 4,846,720 English
statute acres.
The ancient divisions of the duchy of Wiirtemberg were
various, according to their position and feudal claims; and
the additional territories that had been recently acquired
were in very irregular and unequal allotments. Of late, a
new division has taken place into circles, which are again sub¬
divided into Oberamts or bailiwicks. Besides these circles,
the capita], the city of Stuttgart, forms by itself a separate
division, though its inhabitants are included in the popula¬
tion returns of the Neckar circle.
The circles, with their extent and population, are,
Extent in Population
Statute Acres. in 1834.
Circle of the Neckar  904,320 442,447
Circle of the Jaxt 1,3 1 8,400 349,779
Ci;th“u)k.!r.S.:} 1.™ 414,489
Circle of the Danube 1,468,160 362,999
4,895,360 1,569,714
By a subsequent enumeration taken at the end of the
year 1835, the result, no account of each circle being
given, appears to shew that the males of the kingdom were
The
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WURTEMBERG.
945
9, and the females 825,180, making thus 1,611,799.
increase of the population seems still to be progres-
ive, i may probably at this time (1841) exceed 1,750,000
rsas.
Ijii population is found in 130 cities (having or formerly
avil( had walls), 128 market-towns, 1115 parishes, 558
ainljcs, 2591 farms, and 269 castles or seats of the nobi-
ty. The increase of population, calculated by the excess
f bills ver deaths, has been about 10,000 on an average
f sap:ral years.
'11 inhabitants are partly of Swabian and partly of Fran-
oniji origin, and retain the peculiar pronunciation of the
aceirom which they are descended. There are likewise
ompettlements of the Waldenses. The Swabians make
i many words very different from the other German
eom and adopt many variations in the idioms not known
lse»ere. These may be observed to alter at every ten
r tfclve miles in travelling through the country.
il prevailing religion in old Wiirtemberg was the Lu-
her*, for which it suffered most severely during the thirty
eattlwar. No toleration was granted to any other sect
xc« to the Waldenses, and they were confined within
irestibed limits, and even in those spots were under some
triA’egulations, and excluded from the rights of citizen-
hipi Since 1806, the three religious parties have enjoyed
he (fee exercise of their modes of worship, and a partici-
atiffl in all civic rights, with eligibility to all public offices.
rhaj'Utherans and Calvinists, now united, are distinguished
jy tl: name of the Evangelical Church. Their number
53 was 1,087,413, and that of the Romish church
25. There are many sectaries, such as Separatists,
ts, Hernhutters, and others, who are neither favoured
rsecuted by the government. Through the whole
testant Wiirtemberg there is a great number of per-
istinguished by the appellation of Pietists, who hold
rivate meetings for devotion, but do not in other re¬
separate from their churches. The Lutheran church
s uiller the direction of six superintendents, whose dioceses
irejmded into fifty deaconries, and supplied with 818 pas-
orsj The Catholics are governed by a vicar general, who
s as sted by a council consisting of clerical and lay mem-
)er« the priests under them are about 640. The Lu-
hei clergy are in general better supported, and taken
foiii somewhat higher class of people than in most of the
>tlid parts of protestant Germany. The Jews, who have
!sti||shed themselves chiefly in the new provinces of Wiir-
en Irg, amount to about 10,766 persons.
Ffr parts of Germany have exhibited more or better
pea lens of knowledge and talent than have been produced
rotlhe institutions for education in Wiirtemberg. The
itattj las, for its population, more means for acquiring learn-
ngl The endowed classical schools are fifty-five, from
tvhiq the theological pupils are transferred to the univer-
ityi, Tubingen, where they are maintained from the funds
)f t i istitution. In these establishments the pupils are
ot mfined to mere professional pursuits, but have their
$tt< ion directed to general knowledge. The university
>f bingen has long been considered one of the best in
Gle i|any. 'There are, besides, the gymnasium at Stutt-
K?ar knd seminaries for the protestant clergy at Maulbroun,
apclmnthal, Ulm, Heilbron, and Ochriengen ; and for Ca-
4 at Rothenburg, Rothweil, and Ellwang. Schools for
instoicting the poorer classes of the people are amply pro¬
vide: in every part of the kingdom, so that the knowledge
of’ ■ding, writing, and arithmetic is almost universal. No
villje is without its school, and scarcely a market-town
'vitaiut a classical instructor.
!e kingdom may be considered as hilly, if not moun-
tamts. On the eastern part is the group of the Swabian
(Alp^and on the western the Black Forest, a continuation
of’ tlf Swiss Alps. The highest points of these two groups
Vl. xxi.
of elevations are from 2500 to 2800 feet. The eastern are ^ urtem-
not so lofty as the western ranges of hills, but they are more
bleak, raw, and unhealthy. There are no plains, but some
extensive and beautiful valleys, highly fruitful, of which that
of the Neckar with its branches, and that of the Danube
from Tutlingen to Ulm, are the most celebrated. The va¬
rious smaller valleys, running between the hills, and ter¬
minating on the banks of the several rivers, present rich and
beautiful prospects. The woods are extensive, and contain
almost every kind of forest-tree ; but the absence of hedge¬
rows is a great drawback to the beauty of the country in
most parts of the kingdom. The scenery is much indebted
to the rivers and the several tributary streams which run
through all the valleys. The Neckar rises in the southern
extremity of Wiirtemberg, and, with many windings, leaves
the kingdom on its northern frontier, in its course to join
the Rhine. It collects the waters of the Kocker, the Jaxt,
the Rems, the Ens, the Erms, and the Zaber. The Danube
rises in this kingdom, from the mountains of the Black Fo¬
rest, and leaves it at Ulm, on the frontiers of Bavaria. It
is increased by the several streams of the Uler and the
Brentz. The Tauber, in the north, is one of those streams
which contribute to the waters of the Maine. The Schussen
and the Argen are two small rivers that empty themselves
into the Lake of Constance. That lake borders a small
part of the kingdom. The Feder Lake, about three miles
in length and breadth, and those of Laufen and Pfaffen,
which are smaller, lie within its boundaries.
The land of Wiirtemberg has been recently classed thus :
meadows 640,000, arable 1,620,000, woods and forests
1,520,000, and vineyards 61,000 acres; the remainder is
either waste or occupied by the lakes, rivers, cities, and
towns. In no part of Germany is so much attention di¬
rected to agriculture as in this kingdom, and in no part of
it are the practices so generally good. The cultivation of
green crops is much dittused. Turnips, but more especially
mangel wurzel, are grown to clear the land from weeds, and
to a great extent have superseded the former mode of fal¬
lowing. Potatoes are very extensively cultivated, and not
only form the chief food of the working classes, but are used
for the purpose of making brandy, as well as feeding cattle.
The rape and poppy plants are grown for making oil; and
that which is expressed from the latter is found to be equal,
if not superior, for the use of the table, to the oil of olives.
Flemp and flax are raised in abundance, the former chiefly
in the middle provinces, and the latter most extensively in
the district of the Black Forest. The harvests of corn are
tolerably productive of wheat, rye, oats, and, in some of the
warmer districts, of maize. The supply of grain is estimat¬
ed for the whole kingdom at about 23,000,000 bushels ; of
which, as potatoes are extensively used for food, some is
every year sent to supply the wants of the neighbouring
states. The woods afford more fuel and building materials
than are demanded for domestic consumption; and the sur¬
plus, by means of the rivers, is conveyed to the countries
lower down the several streams. The vineyards produce
abundance of wine, and, though generally not of a good
quality, and much of it very bad, its culture is found very
beneficial. The best wines usually comprehended in the
general class of Neckar wine are those made on the hills
near the old castle of Wiirtemberg, at Uhlbach, Fehlbach,
Upper and Lower Turkheim, Lichtenberg, Rosswag, Maul¬
broun, and Tauberthal. The most productive vineyards are
those on the western borders of the eastern Alps, where a
single acre has been known to yield more than 2000 gal¬
lons ; but it more resembles vinegar than wine. It is ge¬
nerally remarked that the Neckar wines have much dete¬
riorated of late years ; which is attributed to negligence in
the choice of the most proper plants, and to attention being
principally paid to such as yield much, rather than to such
as yield the best wine. The wine made in the year 1811,
6 D
946
W U R T E M B E R G.
Wurtem. as was the case on the banks of the Rhine, and in most parts
bei'g- of Germany, was of an unusually good quality; and such
Y " of it as now remains sells for 300 florins the emir, while
the wines of later years are not worth more than 139 florins.
The annual value of the wines made in the kingdom on an
average is L.400,000 sterling.
The cattle in Wurtemberg have been carefully attended
to, and the cows especially are of a very good description,
which is attributed to the care in improving the breed, and
to their being generally stall-fed, or soiled with green food.
The butter is excellent, and in many districts good cheese
is made, but the last less extensively than with due pains
it might be. The sheep have been much improved by con¬
stant crossings between the old races of the country and
those of the Rousillon and Merino breeds, and now the
greater part of the flocks are of the fine-woolled kind. The
breed of horses was at one time much improved by the in¬
troduction of Holstein and English stallions. Of late years
they have been retrograding, but the government has" now
been induced to take steps, by introducing studs of the best
horses, for improving them again. The number of cattle
in the year 1820 was thus enumerated: horses 80,870,
cows 599,490, sheep 488,940, swine 114,200, goats 16,620,
asses 1008. There is however good reason to conclude,
from what is known of the prosperous state of the country,
that the increase in the live-stock has kept advancing in "a
degree similar to that of the human beings.
The fisheries are very productive both in the lakes and
the rivers. The Lake of Constance affords abundance
of salmon trout, perch, carp, and barbel ; the other lakes
and the rivers yield trout, eels, barbel, pike, and several
other kinds of fish ; and in the Feder Lake the shad is found
of a very large size.
The only mines that are extensively worked are those of
iron, at Neuhausen, Fluorn, Neuenberg, Aalen, and Was-
seralfingen. The ore from these mines is prepared both by
smelting and the hammer, and supplies the manufacturers
of Fredicksthal, Christophsthal, Ludwigsthal, Flarras, and
Heidenheim, with minerals for their cutlery and ironmong¬
ery. There are saline springs at Hall, Suftz, Offenau, and
Weisbach, from whence are annually made about 8000 tons
of culinary salt; and a new spring, lately opened at Koch-
endorf, promises to afford a more copious supply, so as to
dispense with the quantity of that commodity now purchas¬
ed from the kingdom of Bavaria.
Since the conclusion of war, some valuable mineral
springs, before unknown or neglected, have been used for
medicinal purposes; and accommodations have been provided
in a style of elegance and convenience which attracts to them
a great number of visitors in the summer months, when the
power of the waters is deemed most efficacious. The prin¬
cipal of these are at Kannstadt, on the right bank of the
Neckar, a few miles from Stuttgart. There are more than
thirty springs in and about the town. The waters are cold ;
they contain Glauber, Epsom, and common salts, mixed with
a small portion of iron, and are found of great efficacy in
curing disorders of the digestive powers." At Wildbad
in the Black Forest, nearer to the capital of Baden than
to the capital of \\ iirtemberg, the springs are hot, vary¬
ing from the temperature of 65° to 100° of Fahrenheit.
The water is colourless, and has neither taste nor smell,
but it gives out much carbonic acid gas. Few ingredients
of a medicinal nature have been detected in it; but the
use of the baths has been found by experience highly
salutary in gouty and i-heumatic complaints, and the tem¬
perature being nearly the same as that of the human blood,
the use of them is highly pleasant to the feelings. The
baths are hollows scooped out from the granite rock,
some large enough to hold many persons at once, who,
however, when bathing in company, have bathing gowns
provided for them. The supply of water is so°copious
that it is constantly flowing, and never allowed to stavnafp W
in the baths. Rippoldsau is also in the Black Forest and b"’
on the confines of Baden, to which duchy it formerly be-
longed. The accommodations are tolerably settled a 1
gradually improving, but scarcely yet adapted'for more’ fbl
150 or 200 visitors. The water is alkali-saline, is pleasant
to take as a common drink, and is as effervescent as the cele¬
brated water of the Selzer well.
The chief manufactory of Wiirtemberg is that of linen
The inhabitants of the eastern Alps and of the Black Fo¬
rest are employed in this branch of industry. In those dis¬
tricts almost every female is occupied during the winter in
spinning, and every peasant is a weaver. Both fine and
coarse linen is produced, and also diaper and sail-cloth.
In Miinsengen there is a manufactory for damask table-
linen, which produces most excellent goods. In some parts
of the kingdom the females find employment in making a
coarse kind of bone-lace* The cloth-manufactures are in¬
considerable, and seem to be far from flourishing; and
much of the wool clipped within the kingdom is either ex¬
ported in the raw state, or, after being spun, to the neigh¬
bouring countries. Cotton spinning and weaving have been
introduced at several places, but those establishments are
in a languishing state. Leather, glass, paper, snuff, beer,
hardware, cutlery, with oil, pitch, tar, and potash, are all
made in different parts of the kingdom. The breweries,
and especially the distilleries, are numerous. In the lar<re
village of Mossingen there are no less than 280 stills for
making brandy and whiskey. This is the country for mak¬
ing wooden clocks ; and those works produced in Wiirtera-
berg, or from natives of it who have transferred their la¬
bour to other countries, are to be seen in almost every part
of Europe.
The chief commerce of Wurtemberg consists in the ex¬
change of its commodities with the adjoining states. It
sells to them 18,000 oxen, 12,000 cows, 75,000 sheep and
lambs, and 550,000 lbs. of wool, more than it buys. The
usual export of corn beyond the import is 80,000 quarters.
I he corn exported chiefly consists of rye, most of which is
sent to Switzerland from the Wurtemberg ports ofFrede-
rickshaven and Morsburg, on the Lake of Constance. The
other sales include linens, leather, snuff, pitch, tar, potash,
oil, and wood, and wooden toys of various descriptions.
The imports are silk, cotton, wool, East and West India
productions, flax, hemp, hides, and salt. The balance of
payments is usually in favour of Wurtemberg.
The government of Wurtemberg is at present an here¬
ditary limited monarchy. The king is the sole sovereign,
and acts without control by bis ministers, in every execu¬
tive department. He appoints to all offices, makes war and
peace, commands the forces, distributes rewards, confers
dignities and honours, executes justice, and dispenses par¬
dons. Under the ancient dukes, within the original ter¬
ritories of Wurtemberg there existed a feudal constitution.
The states, consisting of fourteen prelates and seventy-one
deputies from the cities, exercised some legislative autho¬
rity ; but on the assumption of the kingly dignity, and the
addition of the acquired provinces in 1806, the monarch as¬
sumed unlimited power, until the termination of the war,
and the end of the congress of Vienna, when a new con¬
stitution was promulgated. Two legislative chambers were
instituted. The upper was composed of the mediatized
princes, the high nobility, and the prelates of the Protes¬
tant and Catholic churches; the lower consisted ol the
deputies from the cities of Stuttgart, Tiibingen, Ludwigs-
burg, Ellwang, Ulm, Heilbron, and Reutlingen, from tne
learned institutions, and from the several bailiwicks. The
privileges of the nobles were thought by themselves to be
invaded, and they did not concur in this constitution. Dif¬
ficulties arose in reducing to practice the project, and how
far it may be realized, or how it may eventually work, can*
j yet '■
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W U R
notiyet be fully ascertained- The citizens and the pea¬
sant enjoy equal rights, and the feudal slavery of the latter
is universally abolished. All have equal pretensions to pub-
lictoiployments, and all the Christian sects enjoy the same
rigls. The feudal tenures are destroyed, and the estates
forEerly subject to them are converted into freehold pro-
peies. .
lie administration is executed by six ministers, whose
deirtments are thus denominated : justice, foreign affairs,
donistic affairs, war, finance, and police. Each of these
nilsters is at the head of the board which regulates his
0.1 branch of the executive government. The law is
foiled upon the ancient feudal principles which prevailed
in w iirtemberg at the earliest period, but in some in¬
states is tempered by the addition or intermixture of the
]>LIan law. The administration of justice in smaller mat-
telis executed by provincial judges. There are four su-
rnr courts for the four circles, and a supreme tribunal of
apfal and revision is established at Stuttgart.
1 lie finances of the kingdom are in an improving condi-
tioi The income, according to the latest budget, amount¬
ed'o 10,794,114 florins, of which about 4,000,000 are de-
riyil from the royal domains, and the remainder from direct
anjiindirect taxes. The expenditure was 9,150,460, thus
leaing a surplus of 1,643,654 florins, which wras applied
tJie payment of the interest and to the reduction of the
pdiic debt. That debt has been reduced during the long
paj:e, and now amounts to about 23,000,000 florins, bear-
infinterest at the average rate of four per cent. The florin
th»e is equal to twenty pence sterling. To the honour
olhe kingdom, it is to be observed, that the expenditure
o(|the church and on education (chiefly for the latter ob¬
is greater than for the war department by 350,000
■ns.
I’he army consists chiefly of what may be called skeleton
jjments, and, though now not exceeding 5000 men, can
gnstantly augmented in case of need to 16,000, by call-
dnto service those on furlough. It wmuld then consist
pur regiments of cavalry, eight regiments of infantry, a
L of guards, of horse and of foot artillery, a small corps
otjiflemen, and another of sappers. The contingent to the
(Jrman league is fixed at 13,955 men.
^he cities whose population exceeds 6000 are the fol-
Ic-iing. Stuttgart, including the military, 35,000 ; Ulm,
ISpOO; Heilbron, 10,500; Reutlingen, 10,400; Tubingen,
7j O; Esslingen, 6500 ; Hall, 6300; Ludwigsburg, 6200 ;
1 ;henburg, 6150; Gmiind, 6050.
i VURZBURG, a large city of Bavaria, formerly the ca-
piil of the sequestrated ecclesiastical principality of that
njue, but now the chief place of a bailiwick to which it
g es the name, in the Bavarian province of the Lower
IVI ine. It still retains the name of a grand duchy, and
c< iprehends an extent of nearly 2000 square miles, with
population of about 290,000 souls. The land is for the
«|st part level, but is surrounded with woody mountains
oijthree sides. It is watered by many small streams which
fij into the Maine, and ultimately into the Rhine. The
si is fertile, yielding abundance of corn ; but the vineyards
jiupy a great portion of the land very profitably. 1 he
b ;t wines are produced near the capital, and are known
b jthe names of Stein wane, or Leisten wine. I he dis-
tifct is not rich in minerals, nor has it much manufacturing
itilustry. The city is built on the river Maine, by which
its divided into two parts connected by a bridge. It is
surrounded with walls and ditches; and it is defended, by
ti? citadel of Marienburg, built on a hill 400 feet high,
dich overlooks the city. Some of the streets are broad,
ipl contain fine piles of building ; but others are gloomy
sd narrow. The most distinguished edifice is the former
tfscopal, now royal residence, a building of vast extent,
ad of some beauty; and the grounds belonging to it are
W Y C
947
laid out and preserved in good taste. The university was Wycherley
founded after the model of that of Bologna, in 1403, and J v ■-'
after suffering much in stormy times, was renewed in 1582 ;
but since that period it has numbered among its professors
some of the most eminent men of Germany. The library
of the institution contains upwards of 100,000 volumes,
and there are also collections of the different branches of
natural history, and all scientific helps. Besides the cathe¬
dral, Wurzburg contains several churches and monasteries.
The inhabitants are for the most part Catholics, and in 1834
amounted to 22,674. The chief trade is in wine, and some
is carried on in timber. Long. 9. 49. 25. E. Lat. 49. 46.
6. N.
W YCHERLEY, William, a comic writer who occupied
a very conspicuous place among the wits of his age, was.
born about the year 1640. He was the eldest son of
Daniel Wycherley, Esq., a gentleman possessed of a consi¬
derable estate near the town of Shrewsbury. Wycherley
was probably a cavalier by descent, for during the last
years of the commonwealth he was sent by his father, at
the susceptible age of fifteeen, to prosecute his studies in
France; a country which an old puritan v/as not likely to
select as the most eligible place of instruction for his off¬
spring. While in France, he passed some time on the
banks of the Charente, and was a frequent and acceptable
guest of the duke of Montausier; and in compliment to
the duchess, the accomplished Julie d’Angennes de Ram-
bouillet, who is celebrated in the letters of Voiture, the
young Englishman became a convert to the Romish faith.
From the bosom of that infallible church he was after¬
wards recalled by the eloquence of Dr Barlow ; but to
what visible communion a man so profligate, both in prac¬
tice and speculation, belonged, is a matter of no great mo¬
ment.
Upon the eve of the Restoration he returned to Eng¬
land, and, from Wood’s Athenae Oxonienses, it appears that
he lived for some time in the provost’s lodge at Queen’s
College, Oxford, but left that university without being ma¬
triculated. He now proceeded to London, and entered him¬
self of the Middle Temple; but if he had acquired in
France too keen an appetite for pleasure to submit to aca¬
demic restraint, it was not probable that he would apply
himself with much earnestness to voluntary drudgery.
The gayeties of the metropolis soon converted the stu¬
dent of law into a man of wit and gallantry; nor did any
one experience less difficulty in assuming that ostentatious
profligacy which was regarded as the true badge of loyalty.
In 1672 he produced a comedy entitled “ Love in a Wood,
or St James’s Park,” which was acted at the Theatre Royal
with great applause. Among the admirers of the author’s
genius was the duchess of Cleveland, the mistress of the
king, and one of the most celebrated beauties of her time.
Love in a Wood is dedicated to that lady ; a compliment for
which she manifested the sincerity of her gratitude by the
most signal tokens. Dennis relates, that when Wycherley
was taking the air in that place of fashionable resort which
had given a name to his play, his carriage came in contact
with that of her grace, who threw herself half out of the
window, and rallied him with a freedom and gayety that can¬
not well be repeated. The result of this rencontre was, that
Wycherley became the successful rival of his sovereign, and
incurred the displeasure of the haughty Buckingham. In
this emergency, he solicited the good offices of Rochester
and Sedley, who had such confidence in his colloquial
powers that they hurried him off to sup at the apartments
of the duke. The event justified this bold proceeding, for,
like a noble bard of modern times, who should have been
the contemporary of his grace, he was always most “ strongly
acted on by what was nearest;” and after some irresistible
sally of his guest, he exclaimed with an oath, “ My cousin’s
in the right on’t!” But Charles could be as fickle as herself.
948
W Y C
Wycherley.« This year, 1672,” says Burnet, “ the king declared a new
mistress, and made her duchess of Portsmouth.”
He now rose to high favour with Buckingham, who, as mas¬
ter of the horse, appointed him one of his equerries, and, as
colonel of a regiment, captain-lieutenant of his own company.
He is likewise said to have conferred upon him many other
advantages. But the poet had not yet reached the height
of his good fortune. His next patron was the merry mo¬
narch himself, who thought no reward too great for a jest,
and no recompense too inconsiderable for those who had
shed their blood in his service. Such devotion indeed was
strongly indicative of folly, and Charles admired none but
men of wit. Wycherley was fortunate enough to inspire
the king with excessive fondness, which was crowned by
the veiy singular condescension of paying him a visit at his
lodgings, when he was ill of a fever. When he became
somewhat convalescent, his majesty advised him to try the
air of Montpellier, and furnished him with five hundred
pounds to defray his travelling expenses.
In 1673 was acted at the Duke’s Theatre Wycherley’s
second comedy, “ The Gentleman Dancing-Master.” The
incidents o^ this play are quite farcical, and the catastrophe
is obvious from the commencement. It appears to have
been coldly received, for in the prologue to his next co-
medy, the Country Wife, occurs the following line:
The late so baffl'd scribbler of the day.
“ The Country Wife” w^as acted in 1675, and was fol-
lowed in 1677 by “ 1 he Plain Dealer/5 Wycherley’s first
play made him the paramour of a woman who w'anted only
the name of a queen, and his last made him the husband
of a countess. Being on a visit to Tunbridge, he entered a
bookseller’s shop, and while he remained there a lady came
and inquired for the Plain Dealer. “ There he is for you,
Madam, said a friend of his, one Mr Fairbeard, by whom
he was accompanied, pushing Wycherley towards her. This
lady was the countess of Drogheda; and an acquaintance,
thus ludicrously commenced, soon ripened into an intimacy
that terminated in a matrimonial union. Wycherley’s splen-
did marriage was the most disastrous incident of his life.
His lady s outrageous jealousy, for which it was not impro¬
bable that he gave her some cause, imbittered his existence,
foi she became infuriated whenever he disappeared from
her sight. Sometimes, by special favour, he was permitted
to dine at the Cock I avern, opposite their lodgings in Bow
Street; but upon these occasions he was compelled to leave
the windows open, that she might be satisfied there was no
woman present. She did not live long to torment him,
and left him her whole fortune at her death ; but her will
was contested, and he found himself heir to nothing but a
suit at law. Being unable to pay the expenses of litiga¬
tion, and some other debts which he had contracted when
he thought himself beyond the reach of poverty, he was
thrown into a jail, where he was suffered to languish for
the space of seven years. From giddy splendour to unpi-
tied destitution there was an easy and natural transition. To
the king it is not likely that he had the assurance to apply;
but his father would do nothing for him, and he was re¬
fused a loan of twenty pounds from his bookseller, who
had made large sums of money by his works. From this
abyss of misery he was rescued at last by a hand that was
soon afterwards deprived of the power to do either good or
evil. Charles was now dead, and his luckless successor
happening to see the Plain Dealer acted, was touched with
W Y c
compassion for its author, and assigned him » „ •
two hundred pounds a year.1 He also gave order!?11 ,°fWyS,
immediate payment of his debts, and sent Lord \r i the
to ascertain their amount; but Wvcherlev wqo u 11 ^rave
tell that nobleman how much he owed He w t0
stored to liberty, but continued to be harassed bv l?re'
ditors till near the close of his life, when he dL ?*
expedient to satisfy their demands, which at such i i an
crisis could scarcely have occurred to any one hm v
By the will of his father, to whom he seLs to havPTel
ittle but his birth, he was deprived of the power of aliJat
mg the family estate; and not wishing to quit the? u
in debt, a feeling which deserves commendation he m'd
w ? y?Ung W°n?an Possessed of fifteen hundred pounds
W ith odious indelicacy, this creature was induced to 2.
her hand to the expiring debauchee by the inducemeift of
a handsome jointure. Having discharged his other deh
with part of his wife’s fortune, he paid the debt of nature!,!
the 1st of January 17 lo, eleven days after the celebration
of his nuptials. A little while before he closed his eves for
the last time, he is said to have requested his wife with
Cervantic gravity, not to take an old man for her second
msband. I bus was a life of frolics closed with perfect
consistency. Major Pack says that he died a papist He
was a great admirer of Dryden, in whose honour he wrote
some indifferent verses : perhaps the melodious reasoning
in the Hind and Panther had some share in the merit of
his reconversion to the Romish faith.
Wycherley is eminent only as a writer for the sta^e but
he is the author of a large volume entitled “ Miscellany
Poems, as Satyrs, Epistles, Love-Verses, Songs, Sonnets
&c. ’ Lond. 1704, fol. The times had changed since
Charles s days, but Wycherley continued the same. The
public ear had become habituated to gracefully-expanded
sentiments which he wanted the skill to supply, and if not
to more severe morality, to less inharmonious impurity
than his ; and the dissonant and licentious crudities of the
vcteian lake excited little attention. The versification
of Wycherley is scarcely more felicitous than that of Dr
Donne. Several years after his death appeared “ The
Posthumous Works of William Wycherley, Esq. in prose
and verse : faithfully publish’d from his original manu-
sciipts, by Mr Theobald. In two parts. To which are
prefixed, some Memoirs of Mr Wycherley’s life, by Major
lack.^ Lond. 1 ?28, 8vo. By appealing to the avarice of one
Captain Shrimpton, who had married his relict, the book¬
sellers obtained the possession of the papers which formed
this collection, in which there is nothing that can add to
the reputation of Wycherley, either in a moral or intellec¬
tual point of view. His folio volume is curious, as con¬
taining the pieces alluded to in the following passage in
Johnson’s Life of Pope: “ His esteem of Pope was such
that he submitted some poems to his revision, and when
Pope, perhaps proud of such confidence, was sufficient¬
ly bold in his criticisms and liberal in his alterations, the
old scribbler was angry to see his pages defaced, and felt
more pain from the detection than content from the amend¬
ment of his faults. They parted ; but Pope always con¬
sidered him with kindness, and visited him a little time be¬
fore he died.”3 Lady M. W. Montagu says that Pope paid
his court to him with a view to a legacy; but this calumny
is sufficiently refuted in the state of Wycherley’s affairs.
At this period Pope was about sixteen, and Wycherley had
passed his grand climacteric.4
JaLe^kindli1^ a+1?ea F%ht which the author was in, betwixt the English and Dutch,” p.235.
him unon nnp nr nih r f Fa>eFeen prompted by the remembrance of mutual danger. It is possible that Wvcherley served under
e vmr 'acquired, ^ ^ ^ ^ the DutcL “sle ISlSwledge, how
• 'vish ‘° ‘lisinheri‘ * whom * dis,ike<1-
‘ 1 te le“e^, that p,lssed bel"'e“ Pop' «n<i Wycherley are to be found in Warton’s edition of Popes Worts, i-o!. vii. p. 1-52.
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949
■ W Y C L I F F E
1YCLIFFE, John, who was bon, about the year 1324, duties, had so far shocked his piety, as to dispose him to
derM his name from the place of h,s natmty a village expect a speedy and signal manifestation of the displeasure —
six mles from Richmond in \orkshire. from the era of of heaven” After an interval of a lew years he distin
the Borman conquest, the family to which he is supposed guished himself by his strenuous opposition to the mendi-
tojfe belonged had been lords of the manor, and patrons cant orders, who then infested the best parts of Europe
of k rectory of Wychfte ; and it is to be inferred that his and, under the pretext of betaking themselves to a life of
parhts were able and willing to give him the best educa- poverty and devotion, consumed the fruits of the earth and
tioidV’hich the kingdom then afforded. In due time he be- too often set an example which did not tend to edification,
cam a commoner of Queen’s College, Oxford, a seminary In 1360 he published his Objections to the Friars, which
of.1 cry recent institution; but he speedily removed to were long afterwards committed to the press by Dr James.
Meson College, which then enjoyed a higher reputation The errors and vices of the mendicants, it has been re-
thaiany other house of learning: the scholastic celebrity marked, had never been so generally or so forcibly assailed;
of ]uns, Ockham, and Bradwardine, was alone sufficient and while those who preceded aimed only at the removal
toflnsecrate its walls. Having been duly initiated in lo- of particular abuses, he perceived that the institution itself
gicvnd rhetoric, he dnected his attention to other branches was unnecessary and pernicious, fhe friars were a class
of nowledge. His proficiency in the civil, the canon, of men whom it was dangerous to provoke ; nor is it to be
aortthe municipal law, has been noticed by Lewis, and doubted that he thus made a large addition to the catalogue
othi biographers; but his greatest efforts were devoted to of his enemies. His friends however were likewise nume-
theiitudy of theology, not merely that barren art which rous. In 1361 the society of Balliol College presented
hen taught in the schools, but that divine science
wbn is derived from the spirit as well as the letter of the
Scmtures. In the prosecution of his inquiries, he had to
conend with numerous and formidable difficulties: the
geijis of the age was hostile to any plan of study or mode
ofivestigation which the church had not sanctioned; the
texiof the sacred writings was in a great measure neglect-
od„rhile its place was supplied by systems of scholastic
divsity; the original language of the New, as well as the
OhiTestament, was almost totally unknown in the king-
dor; the inhabitants of the western world had almost uni-
him to the rectory of Fillingham, in the diocese of Lincoln ;
and he became master of that college in the course of the
same year. In 1368, he exchanged this living for Lutger-
shall, in the archdeaconry of Bucks; a benefice of inferior
value, but situated at a more convenient distance from Ox¬
ford. After retaining his mastership for the space of four
years, he was appointed warden of Canterbury Hail, re¬
cently founded in the same university by Simon Islep,
archbishop of Canterbury, with a provision for twelve scho¬
lars, eight of whom were to be secular clerks, and the re¬
maining four, including the warden, were to be chosen
vernlly surrendered their understanding to the control of from the monks of Christ Church, Canterbury. The war-
a My of priests, who reduced spiritual tyranny and delu
sioito a complete system; and the student eagerly bent
on le search of divine truth, was left without encourage-
inen: and without a guide. But in spite of all these disad-
anges, Wycliffe pursued his course ■with alacrity and
peuverance. He arrived at a degree of scriptural know-
leclb which had not been equalled for many centuries ;
am his veneration for the sacred writings procured him
thmonourable appellation of the Evangelic Doctor.
is earliest publication, entitled “ The last Age of the
Chrch,”1 appeared in 1356, when he is conjectured to have
attuned the age of thirty-two. In 1347, England had
be^ visited by a pestilence, which first made its appear-
an-i in Tartary, and after ravaging various countries of
den first nominated by the founder, was one Wodehall, a
fierce and turbulent monk, whom he soon found it neces¬
sary to remove from his office. Wycliffe was invited to
supply his place, and the archbishop did not long survive.
His successor in the primacy was Langham, bishop of Ely,
who had previously been abbot of Westminster, and still
retained the spirit of a monk. Wodehall appealed to this
new visitor, and found the support which he expected. The
appointment of Wycliffe having, with little regard to law
or fact, been pronounced null and void, a person named
Radyngate was first substituted in his place, and in the
course of a few weeks Wodehall resumed the office of war¬
den. From this arbitrary sentence, Wycliffe appealed to
the sovereign pontiff; and, after an interval of several years,
Jss, proceeded* by the shores of the Nile to the islands of found it was vain to expect that justice should flow' from so
w .... ... ^ polluted a fountain. The decision of the pope was con¬
firmed by the authority of the king, who did not however
pronounce an unbribed judgment.
About the time when Wycliffe was appointed warden of
Canterbury Hall, a controversy had arisen between Urban
the Fifth and Edward the Third, in consequence of the re¬
newed demand of an annual tribute of a thousand marks,
as an acknow ledgment of the feudal superiority of the pon¬
tiff over the kingdoms of England and Ireland. The pay¬
ment of this degrading tribute had never been regular, and
it had been entirely discontinued for thirty-three years;
but on the renewal of the papal claim, the king thought it
necessary to consult both houses of parliament. “ The
prelates solicited a day for private deliberation; but as¬
sembling on the morrow, the lords spiritual and temporal,
and the members of the commons, were unanimous in stat¬
ing, that neither King John, nor any other sovereign, had
Gtnce, and carried devastation to almost every nation of
Euope. So prodigious was the waste of human life, that
thi quarter of the globe is supposed to have lost a fourth
pa of its inhabitants.2 The direful distemper was even com-
muicated to the brute creation, and the land was covered
wit putrid carcasses. These portentous signs of the
tints filled the pious mind of Wycliffe with gloomy appre-
henions, and led him to indulge in speculations respecting
thoast age of the church. He arrived at the conclusion
thi the day of judgment was not to be deferred beyond
tlwblose of the century in which he himseli lived. Many
inc/iduals of a visionary turn of mind, and some possessed
oft ie most vigorous understanding, have in various ages
ha: rded similar predictions. It is stated by Dr Vaughan,
this “ the opinions and the feeling disclosed in this pro-
dm ion, though but imperfectly developed, are such as to
pro are the reader to anticipate in Wycliffe a devout op-
fThe last Age of the Church, b, John Wjcliffe ; now firs, printed from a manuscript in the Dni.er.ity Lib™,. Dublin. Edited, with
not, by James Henthorn Todd, D. D., &c. Dublin, 1840, sm. 4to. _ TT i -vr T> tr-n-lnted hv B G Babinpton M D o 77
It exaggeration, that Europe loW during the Black Deaih 25,000,000 of inhabitant.’’
950
W Y C L I F F E.
Wycliffe. which he had taken on receiving the crown.
0   By the tem¬
poral nobility, and the popular representatives, it was far¬
ther determined, that should the pontiff commence his
threatened process against the monarch of England, as his
vassal, the strength of the nation should be instantly call¬
ed to the king’s aid.”1 But the most gross and scandalous
usurpations will always find a sufficient number of defend-
ers, when the usurpers have the power of bestowing a suf¬
ficient number of rew.ards. The claims of the pope were
maintained by some nameless monk, who on this subject
published a tract, in which he called upon Wycliffe to re¬
fute his arguments. In this appeal to him by name, we
discover an obvious proof that his character had already
become very conspicuous; and although it was apparently
the writer’s intention to do him an injury rather than an
honour, he did not decline the challenge which had thus
been given. He published a work in which he endeavour¬
ed to circumscribe the arrogant claims of the church, and
to fix the legitimate extent of civil authority : he main¬
tained the right of the king and his parliament to refuse
the tribute claimed by the court of Rome, to subject all
ecclesiastics to the secular jurisdiction in all civil cases, and
even to alienate the property of the church. Some of his
opinions are so much at variance with the doctrines of the
canon law, that he had evidently made no inconsiderable
progress in his retrograde motions from the popish stand¬
ard of orthodoxy.
The question respecting the wardenship was finally de¬
cided in the year 1372, when the king confirmed the sen¬
tence of the pope. Wycliffe now found other employment
in the university. Having taken the degree of D. D., says
Lewis, he “ publickly professed divinity, and read lectures
in it; which he did with very great applause, having such
an authority in the schools, that whatever he said was re¬
ceived as an oracle. In these lectures he frequently took
notice of the corruptions of the begging friars, which at
first he did in a soft and gentle manner, till finding that
his detecting their abuses was what was acceptable to his
hearers, he proceeded to deal more plainly and openly with
them. ’ It is more than probable that the influence which
he exercised over his own age, is in some degree to be
ascribed to the circumstance of his occupying a theologi¬
cal chair in this university, which about that period was
frequented by a great multitude of students. The in¬
vention of printing had not yet afforded the means of dis¬
seminating knowledge with great facility, and with great
rapidity: books, which could only be multiplied by the
slow process of transcription, were necessarily sold at a
high price; and the number of individuals capable of read¬
ing them was surprisingly small. But the voice of the
public teacher was raised with living energy; and his opi¬
nions, inculcated with learning and fervour, could not fail
to influence those who in their turn were to become public
teachers.
In the year 1374, he was employed in an embassy to the
pope, Gregory the Eleventh, whose residence was at Avig¬
non. The first person named in the commission is the
bishop of Bangor, and the second is Dr Wycliffe. Their
mission had a reference to one of the flagrant abuses of
that period, the papal reservation of benefices in the Eng¬
lish church. The ecclesiastical revenues, to a very great
amount, were appropriated in this manner, and in many
instances were most unworthily bestowed upon foreigners
who were entirely unacquainted with the language of the
country, and who were sometimes of too tender "an age to
be intrusted with the cure of souls. Against this branch
of pontifical usurpation, the statute of provisors had been
enacted in the year 1350. The embassy was not received
at Avignon, but at Bruges; and with most of the nontiff
would have been an act of wisdom to keep all stranm J ‘
distance from their ordinary place of residence, which 1
too commonly the fountain-head of all iniquity. J0h f
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had at the same period renaL^
to Bruges on another diplomatic mission; nor is it Lrn
bable that Wycliffe may thus have had a favourable onnn!
tumty of recommending himself to his powerful protection'
I he duke, as Dr Vaughan has remarked, is “ the nnlv* ‘
<°f Edward the Third, whose name is connected with the
religion of that period, and who is known as the natron ne
Chaucer ami Wycliffe.” It is not certain that the 1
returned to England before the year 1376 ; but in the mean
time he received different marks of the royal favour. He
had formerly been nominated one of the king’s chaplains
In the month of November 1375, the king presented him
to the prebend of Aust, in the collegiate church of West-
bury, in the diocese of Worcester, and about the same pe-
nod to the rectory of Lutterworth in Leicestershire the
presentation to this benefice having devolved upon the
crown, in consequence of the minority of the patron, Lord
Ferrars.
Wycliffe had now risen to high distinction, and if his views
had been directed to the ordinary objects of a mere church¬
man’s ambition, it is probable that he might have obtained
much higher preferment. Many individuals of the middle
classes were gradually added to the number of his converts;
nor was the duke of Lancaster the only man of rank and
influence who regarded his person and doctrines with a
favourable eye. But his proceedings must for a long time
have excited the watchful jealousy of those who enjoyed
the principal emoluments of the church, and were suspi¬
cious of all spiritual innovations, lest they might eventually
lead to some encroachment on their own temporalities ;'for
it has been remarked in every age, that those well-beneficed
clergymen who, by the general tenor of their conduct, indi¬
cate the most perfect indifference as to the vital interests
of religion, are yet the most loud and vehement in proclaim
ing the danger to which their “ excellent establishment
must be exposed by the slightest change or concession
Being accused of heresy, he was summoned to appear be
fore the convocation, which commenced its sittings in the
month of February 1377, and in which Courtenay, bishop
of London, made the most conspicuous figure. This pre¬
late was son to the earl of Devonshire, by a grand-daughter
of Edward the First, and added the pride of royal descent
to the arrogance of priestly elevation. Wycliffe made his
appearance at St Paul’s on the 19th of the same month,
and, to the no small dissatisfaction of the bishop and his
partisans, was accompanied by the duke of Lancaster, and
by Lord Percy, earl-marshal of England. So great was
the concourse of people, that it was not without consider¬
able difficulty that the marshal could procure him an ave¬
nue to the presence of his judges, Archbishop Sudbury,
and other prelates, who were assembled in our Lady’s
chapel, behind the high altar. “ Dr Wicliffe, according to
custom, stood before the commissioners, as one cited to ap¬
pear there to hear what things they had to lay to his charge;
but the earl-marshal, out of tenderness for Dr Wicliffe>
and having but little regard to a court which owed all its
authority to a foreign powrer, bid him sit down, telling him
he had many things to answer to, and therefore had need
of a soft seat to rest him upon during so tedious an atten¬
dance. T he bishop of London, hearing that, answered,
‘ he should not sit there;’ for, says he, ‘ it is neither ac¬
cording to law nor reason, that he who was cited here to
answer before his ordinary, should sit downe during the
time of his answer;’ adding, ‘ that if he could have guessed
Review,0pini°nS °f J°bn ^ WyCliffc’ D- D-’ VoL L 280, second edition. Lond. 1831, 2 vok 8vo. See the Edinburgh
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W Y C L I F F E.
951
th« the earl-marshal would have played the master there,
op Den so troublesome, he would not have suffered him to
C013 into the court.’ On which many angry words passed
beirixt the bishop and the earl-marshal. The duke of
Laiaaster took the earl-marshal’s part, and told the bishop
th#‘ the earl-marshal’s motion was but reasonable, and that
ag r him, who was grown so proud and arrogant, he would
bri i down the pride, not only of him, but of all the prelacy
of England; that he depended upon the greatness of his
faffily, but that they should have enough to do to support
thenselves.”1
, jhe duke of Lancaster did not then stand high in the
poplar favour; and his magnificent palace of the Savoy
waiittacked during the tumults which followed this stormy
disiission. A clergyman, who had the misfortune of being
miiaken for Lord Percy, was put to death by the populace.
TH decease of the aged king ensued on the 21st of June
13f, and he was succeeded by his grandson Richard, who
haaiot completed the twelfth year of his age. A parlia-
mat was summoned soon after his accession, and the sub¬
let of the papal encroachments was again resumed. By
thi parliament, a question was submitted to the judgment
of 'ycliffe, whether a kingdom might not, in a case of ne-
ces’ty, prevent its treasures from being conveyed to a
fotign country, although it should even be demanded by
thu pope himself. Here we have a sufficient proof that
thieharge of heresy, however it might expose him to re-
seiiment from the rulers of the church, had not diminished
hfcrredit with the rulers of the state. What answer the
pdassor of divinity returned to this question, no reader
can fail to anticipate. His opinions as to the temporalities
of he church must have been thought fully as dangerous
as is theological doctrines ; and on the same day no few er
thi four different bulls had been issued against him by
Gtgory the Eleventh ; three of which were directed to the
aro bishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, and a
fouih to the chancellor and university of Oxford. All
tine documents, together with an apostolical epistle ad-
dr sed to King Edward on the same subject, are dated on
tin 22d of May. The bulls of this “ servant of the ser-
vais of God,” enjoin the parties to whom they are ad-
dr sed to commit John Wycliffe to prison, and, having
trsismitted to Rome a full account of his heretical tenets,
to etain him in custody until they should receive further
inductions; but should they fail in their endeavours to
seb his person, they are required to affix in suitable places
a > ation for his appearance before the pontiff within three
m ths from the date of such citation. These pastoral
m dates were not however very effectually executed; but
di ng the earlier part of the year 1378, he appeared be-
fo a meeting of papal delegates in the archiepiscopal
duel at Lambeth. His doctrines were rapidly extending
the influence, not merely among the people, but even at
ccrt. The populace were now alarmed for his personal
salty, and, having surrounded the chapel, many of them
fored their way into it, and gave sufficient indications of
th part which they were prepared to act; nor was the
notification of the delegates diminished by the appearance
of ir Lewis Clifford, who, in the name of the queen mother,
th widow of the Black Prince, prohibited them from pro-
ceding to any definite sentence respecting the doctrine oi
coduct of Wycliffe.
j le therefore returned to his former occupations, and by
hiioulpit discourses, his academical lectures, and his vari¬
ous writings, laboured to promote the cause of truth. The Wycliffe.
great and glorious labour of his declining years was his ^
complete version of the Bible. It has always been one of
the chief arts of priestcraft to keep mankind in a state of
ignorance; and it may easily be conceived that an attempt
to render the sacred books intelligible to every person- ca¬
pable of reading his mother-tongue, could not fail to kindle
the fiery rage of the old Red Dragon. In our owm time,
we have heard divers denunciations from high-churchmen
as to the danger of circulating the Bible without the Book
of Common Prayer. According to their estimate, it is
better to withhold the one, unless it can be duly qualified
by the other. Are we then to conclude that there is no
safety beyond the precincts of their own church; that the
religion of protestants is only a safe way to salvation, when
that way is paced in certain trammels, and swept with a
white surplice ? Or is the spiritual improvement of man¬
kind of real importance in so far only as it may be circum¬
scribed within the boundaries of episcopacy ? The spirit of
popery is not confined to professed papists. To trans¬
late the Bible was in Wycliffe regarded as an act of
heresy, and his version continued to be a proscribed book
till the era of the Reformation. Being ignorant of the
Hebrew and Greek languages, which he had no oppor¬
tunity of learning, he was under the necessity of trans¬
lating from the Vulgate.2 What aid he may have re¬
ceived from others in the prosecution of his laborious
undertaking, it is impossible to ascertain; but it is com¬
monly understood that he was not without coadjutors. In
a theological point of view, the value of his translation is
far from being inconsiderable, and its value is still more
conspicuous in illustrating the history of the English tongue.
Wycliffe may indeed be regarded as the father of English
prose. His version affords a very ample specimen of the
language, as it existed in the fourteenth century; nor is it
a little curious to remark, in very many instances, how im¬
materially his phraseology differs from that of the autho¬
rized version executed in the reign of King James. Of
his translation of the New Testament, an edition was pub¬
lished by Mr Lewis in the year 1731, and another by Mr
Baber in the year 1810; but it is not very creditable to
his countrymen, who have derived so much benefit from
his pious labours, that his translation of the Old Testament
still remains in manuscript. This great deficiency however
is at last to be supplied: Mr Forshall and Sir Frederic
Madden, both of the British Museum, are now engaged in
preparing an edition, which is to issue from the univeisitv
press at Oxford. Of the influence of Wycliffe’s biblical
labours, no person seems to have obtained a clearer view
than Dr Lingard. He made, says this historian, “a new
translation,3 multiplied the copies with the aid of tran¬
scribers, and by his poor priests recommended it to the
perusal of their hearers. In their hands it became an en-
gine of wonderful power. Men were flattered with the
appeal to their private judgment; the new doctrines insen¬
sibly acquired partisans and protectors in the higher classes,
who alone were acquainted with the use of letters; a spirit
of enquiry was generated ; and the seeds were sown of that
religious revolution, which, in little more than a century,
astonished and convulsed the nations of Europe.”
Wycliffe had at first exposed the discipline of the church,
and the scandalous lives of churchmen; but he at length
raised his voice against several of its doctrines, and parti¬
cularly against the doctrine of transubstantiation. VV her-
See however
'Lewis’s History of the Life and Sufferings of the reverend and learn^
f oi the last edition, Oxford, 1820, 8vo, which contains vanous ad'lit on prolans, sed quern linguarum sacrarum pent.a,
I' Jablonski has described Wycliffe as “ vir excellent! tngemo.magno amnio,,e^ ^ . p £>,,)
liqhrumque elegantiorum studia deficiebant.” (Institu lones . the subject, it clearly appears that no entire trails a ion in o i
I! From the researches of Mr Baber, who has bestowed much attent • J f the translator, ...eluding a long catalogue of his works,
llisb language had preceded that of Wycliffe. J ^'toT has
Spikewise Dr Vaughan’s Life of Wycliffe, vol. if P* *
952
W Y C
Wycliffe. ever the understanding of mankind can be so completely
''““v'"—' debased as to admit this portentous doctrine, the dominion
of the priest must be absolute: he is thus invested with a
creative power; after the admission of such a dogma, no
other can be found of very hard digestion; and he who
exercises so much influence over a future world, must not
be left without an ample share of what belongs to this. A
persecution was again excited against the reformer; and
the duke of Lancaster, who had hitherto befriended him,
and who was well aware of the secular corruptions of the
clergy, was not however prepared to support him in his
attack on what was considered as a fundamental doctrine
of the church. Courtenay, who had now become archbishop
of Canterbury, was endowed with the spirit of an inquisitor,
and appears to have wanted no inclination to confer upon
Wycliffe the honour of martyrdom. This venerable man
was summoned before a convocation held at Oxford ; but
although he made no recantation of his supposed errors,
they did not venture to treat him as an obstinate heretic.
A letter was however procured from the king, command¬
ing him to banish himself from the university. About the
same period, he was cited to appear before the pope; but,
in return, he gave his holiness some salutary advice, and
informed him that he neither felt strength nor inclination
for so long a journey. His constitution was indeed ex¬
hausted by his multifarious exertions, and he had already
been affected with a paralysis, which at length proved fatal.
But after his final retirement to Lutterworth, he still
continued to labour in the same great cause. He died
on the last day of December 1384, when, according to the
computation of his biographers, he had attained the age of
sixty.
The grain of mustard-seed which was now sown became
a great tree. The doctrines which Wycliffe propagated
with so much zeal and ability, could not again be sup¬
pressed : the seat of Antichrist was gradually shaken from
its old foundation; and the impulse which he gave to reli¬
gious enquiry is apparently destined to reach the distant
ages of futurity. His theological opinions cannot be de¬
tailed in this brief and imperfect notice. It may however
be remarked, that he clearly anticipated the most distin¬
guishing doctrines of the protestants, and that his opinions
on certain points present an obvious coincidence with those
of Calvin. Of the simplicity of primitive times, he was too
devoted an admirer to secure the unqualified approbation
of modern churchmen; and one biographer is not a little
scandalized, because it seems perfectly clear that he did
not consider the episcopal order as at all essential to the
legitimate constitution of a Christian church. We find
Wycliffe “ zealously inculcating the lessons of inspiration
on the fall of man, and the consequent depravity of human
nature; on the excellence and perpetual obligation of the
moral law; on the exclusive dependence of every child of
Adam, for the remission of his sins, on the atonement of
Christ ; and for victory over temptation, and the possession
of holiness, on the aids of divine grace.” We have already
had occasion to state, that the influence of his opinions ex¬
tended to persons of various ranks and denominations. Lord
Cobham, the most illustrious of his followers, sealed his tes¬
timony with his blood, and many individuals of inferior con¬
dition were likewise brought to the stake. The religion of
the people was to be purified by fire and fagot; and Henry
the Fifth, endeavouring to atone for the follies of his youth
by the bigotry of his manhood, rendered himself a willing
WYE
instrument of persecution in the hands of an unU„ ,,
unrelenting priesthood. ^ anQ " y%
The influence of Wycliffe’s doctrines soon extend^] vv
England to the continent, and their connexion with
subsequent progress of the reformation may very easily h
traced. The next conspicuous stage was the kingdom of
Bohemia. The king of Bohemia’s sister was the consort
of Richard the Second, and she came to England in th
year 1382. She was a religious princess, and constant^
studied the four gospels in English, explained by the ex
positions of the doctors. The Bohemians who had fre"
quented her court, returned to their own country, and
carried along with them some of the works of the great
reformer, which, being written in Latin, were intelligible
to the learned of all the European nations. Jerom of
Prague, who had studied in the university of Oxford is
said to have translated many of his works into the Bohe¬
mian language; but, according to another and a more pro¬
bable account, he only copied some of them in England
and carried the transcripts to Bohemia.1 By this eminent
person, and by his pious leader John Huss, the writings
and character of Wycliffe were held in the highest venera¬
tion ; and they endeavoured to follow his footsteps, by con-
tributing to remove the corruptions of the church. Their
earthly career was however terminated in a more tragical
manner. The council of Constance, which condemned
them both to the flames, added gross perfidy to inhuman
cruelty, by violating the safeconduct which Huss had ob¬
tained from the emperor Sigismund, and which that prince
had not the honour or the resolution to enforce.2 The
same council, a miserable assemblage of those who acted
as the representatives of the Christian community, pro¬
nounced sentence of condemnation on the whole of Wy.
cliffe’s writings ; and having decided that he had died an
obstinate heretic, and that his memory should be held as
infamous, they further decreed that his bones, which had
now reposed in the dust for the space of thirty years, should
be removed from consecrated ground, and scattered on the
dunghill. But the cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots,
and doctors, who were permitted to play such fantastic tricks
before high Heaven, are themselves mingled with the vilest
earth, while the name and memory of John Wycliffe con¬
tinue to be held in unimpaired veneration. (x.)
WYCOMBE, Chipping or High, a market-town of the
county of Bucks and hundred of Desborough, twenty-nine
miles from London. It is a well-built town, pleasantly situ¬
ated on a brook which joins the Thames at Marlow, but
near Wycombe turns the wheels of several paper-mills, and
of others for grinding corn. It is incorporated under a
mayor, four aldermen, and eleven councillors. A good
market is held on Friday. The population amounted in
1821 to 5599, and in 1831 to 6299.
WY E, a town of the county of Kent, in the lathe of Scray
and hundred of the same name, fifty-five miles from Lon¬
don. It stands on the river Stour, and had a market, which
has of late years been discontinued. The population
amounted in 1821 to 1508, and in 1831 to 1639.
Wye, a river of South Wales, which, issuing out of Plin-
lymmon Hill, very near the source of the Severn, crosses
the north-east corner of Radnorshire, giving name to the
towm of Rhyadergowy (Fall of the Wye), where it is preci¬
pitated in a cataract; then flowing between this county and
Brecknockshire, it crosses Herefordshire, and dividing the
counties of Gloucester and Monmouth, falls into the mouth
Lenfant, Hist, du Conciie de Corvstance, tom. i. p. 110. Gilpin, who is not very critical in his enquiries, has stated that “ he translated
many of them into his native language, having with great pains made himself master of the English.” (Lives of John Wickliff, and of the
most eminent of his Disciples, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and Zisca. Lond. 1765, 8vo.)
If the reader has any inclination to see how perfidy and cruelty can be justified by a true Jesuit, we beg leave to refer him to the elaborate
publication of Heribertus Rosweydus, “ De Fide Haereticis servanda ex decreto Concilii Constantiensis Dissertatio cum Daniele Plancio,
acholao Delphensis Moderatore; in qua, qua; de Husso Historia est excutitur.” Antvcrpia, 1610, 8vo.
11821 tc
m
itafea
ssnioun
| led in IJ
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f th: Severn below Chepstow. The romantic beauties of
ie jye, which flows in a deep bed, between lofty rocks
loti 1 with hanging woods, and here and there crowned
)j r ued castles, have employed the descriptive powers of
"hejn and pencil.
WiE is also the name of a river in Derbyshire, which
ises 1 the north-west part, above Buxton ; and, flowing
outHeast, falls into the Derwent below Bakewell.
Wi MONDHAM, a market-town of the county of Nor-
blk, i the hundred of Forehoe, 100 miles from London,
md me from Norwich. It is pleasantly situated, and has
t cin ch formed out of the ruins of an old Benedictine
ranvat. It has a market on Friday. The population of
hi:hole parish, comprehending six divisions, amounted
n ]i!l to 4708, and in 1831 to 5484.
W« NAAD, a district of Hindustan, province of Mala-
iar, tuated between the 11th and 12th degrees of north
atitue, and comprehending an area of 1250 square miles.
isaountainous, and overrun with wood. It is now in-
Ind 1 in the Malabar collectorship. Its immediate ruler is
Ni chieftain, now tributary to the British.
X E N
953
WYNDHAM, Sir William, descended of an ancient Wyndham
family, was born about the year 1687, and succeeded young II
to the title and estate of his father. On his return from Xenocrates*
his travels, he was chosen member for the county of Somer- ''
set, in which station he served in the three last parliaments
of Queen Anne, and as long as he lived. After the change
of the ministry in 1710, he was appointed secretary at war;
and in 1 /13 was raised to be chancellor of the exchequer.
Upon the breach between the earl of Oxford and Lord'
Bolingbroke, he adhered to the interests of the latter. He
was removed from his employment on the accession of
George L, and falling under suspicion on the breaking
out of the rebellion in 1715, was apprehended. He made
his escape ; a reward was published for apprehending him ;
he surrendered, was committed to the Tower, but never
brought to a trial. After he regained his liberty, he con¬
tinued in opposition to the several administrations under
which he lived, and died in 1740.
WYRA Ghur, a town of Hindustan, province of Gund-
waneh, formerly tributary to the rajah of Nagpore. Long.
80. 56. E. Lat. 20. 31. N.
X.
r or
L, di
; accienljo'
s bts| I
issedtliry
the
or x, is the twenty third letter of our alphabet, and a
iV double consonant. It was not used by the Hebrews
t SEcient Greeks; for as it is a compound letter, the
'mciiits, who used great simplicity in their writings, ex-
reffid this letter by its component letters c s. Neither
liavi the Italians this letter, but express it by ss. X
b scaifly begins any word in our language but such as are of
reec origin; and is in few others but what are of Latin
deriiition, as perplex, reflexion, defluxion, &c. We often
expiss this sound by single letters, as chs, in backs, necks ;
Iby k in books, breaks ; by cc in access, accident; by ct, in
octu, nction, &c. The English and French pronounce
lib cs or ks ; the Spaniards like c before a, viz. Alexan-
drOf is it were Alecandro. In numerals it expresses 10,
whene in old Roman manuscripts it is used for denarius ;
icand.s such seems to be made of two V’s placed one over
theither. When a dash is added over it, thus, X> it signi¬
fies p,ooo.
5|lTIVA, a government of Spain, in the kingdom of
^ aliicia, extending from the river Alcia to the shores of
the lediterranean Sea. It is now more commonly called
Stmlipe, its ancient name having been changed by law
(sincathe expulsion of the Moors. The capital of the par-
tidcnf the same name was founded by the Romans, and
call,! by them Setabis. It is situated on the declivity of
crareous mountain, overlooking a plain not very fruit-
djliough watered by the river Albayda, one of the tribu-
taMitreams of the Xucar. The city is surrounded with
anctnt walls, partly of Roman and partly of Moorish con-
stnii ion, on which are thirty towers. It has also double
ditfcs, and a strong citadel; but all have alike fallen into
dear. It is supplied with water by two ancient aqueducts,
belite the recent changes, this city contained four parish
chpthes, thirteen monasteries, nine chapels, and eight
poor houses or hospitals. The inhabitants are estimated at
14,w0 souls, some of whom are employed in making linen
aiifliiilk goods, and some writing paper. Near to it are
tweiy-two warm medicinal springs of various curative
'jpoifr. This place gave birth to a celebrated paintei
nand Ribero, but better known by the assumed name of
Spaiinoletto.
XiBEC or Zebec, a small three-masted vessel, navigat-
V1U XXI.
ed in the Mediterranean Sea, and on the coasts of Spain,
Portugal, and Barbary. See Ship-Building.
XENOCRATES, a celebrated ancient Grecian philoso¬
pher, was born at Chalcedon in the ninety-fifth Olympiad.
At first he attached himself to Aischines, but afterwards
became a disciple of Plato, who took much pains in culti¬
vating his genius, which was naturally heavy. His temper
was gloomy, his aspect severe, and his manners little tinc¬
tured with urbanity. These material defects his master
took great pains to correct, frequently advising him to sa¬
crifice to the Graces; and the pupil was patient of instruc¬
tion, and knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor.
As long as Plato lived, Xenocrates was one of his most
esteemed disciples; after his death he closely adhered to
his doctrine; and in the second year of the 110th Olym¬
piad, he took the chair in the academy, as the successor of
Speusippus. Xenocrates was celebrated among the Atheni¬
ans, not only for his wisdom, but likewise for his virtues.
So eminent was his reputation for integrity, that when he
was called upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction,
in which an oath was usually required, the judges unani¬
mously agreed that his simple asseveration should be taken,
as a public testimony to his merit. Even Philip of Mace-
don found it impossible to corrupt him. So abstemious was
he with respect to food, that his provision was frequently
spoiled before it was consumed. ■ His chastity was invin¬
cible. Phryne, a celebrated Athenian courtezan, attempt¬
ed without success to seduce him. Of his humanity the
following pathetic incident is a sufficient proof. A sparrow,
which was pursued by a hawk, flew into his bosom; he af¬
forded it protection till its enemy was out of sight, and then
let it go, saying that he would never betray a suppliant.
He was fond of retirement, and was seldom seen in the
city. He was discreet in the use of his time, and carefully
allotted a certain portion of each day to its proper business.
One of these he employed in silent meditation. He was
an admirer of the mathematical sciences; and was so fully
convinced of their utility, that when a young man, who
was unacquainted with geometry and astronomy, desired
admission into the academy, he refused his request, saying
that he was not yet possessed of the handles of philosophy.
In fine, Xenocrates was eminent both for the purity of his
6 E
954:
X E N
Xenophon.
Xenopha- morals and for his acquaintance with science, and supported
lies cre(jit 0f ^0 Platonic school by his lectures, his writings,
and his conduct. He lived to the first year of the 116th
Olympiad, or the eighty-second of his age, when he lost his
life by accidentally falling, in the dark, into a reservoir of
water.
XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleaic sect of phi¬
losophy among the Greeks, was born at Colophon, probably
about the sixty-fifth Olympiad. From some cause or other
he left his country early, and took refuge in Sicily, where
he supported himself by reciting, in the court of Hiero,
elegiac and iambic verses, which he had written in repre¬
hension of the theogonies of Hesiod and Homer. From
Sicily he passed over into Magna Graecia, where he took up
the profession of philosophy, and became a celebrated pre¬
ceptor in the Pythagorean school. Indulging, however, a
greater freedom of thought than was usual among the dis¬
ciples of Pythagoras, he ventured to introduce new opinions
of his own, and in many particulars to oppose the doctrines
of Epimenides, Thales, and Pythagoras. Xenophanes pos¬
sessed the Pythagorean chair of philosophy about seventy
years, and lived to the extreme age of 100 years, that is,
according to Eusebius, till the eighty-first Olympiad. The
doctrine of Xenophanes concerning nature is so imperfect¬
ly preserved, and obscurely expressed, that it is no wonder
that it has been differently represented by different writers.
Perhaps the truth is, that he held the universe to be one in
nature and substance, but distinguished in his conception
between the matter of which all things consist, and that la¬
tent divine force which, though not a distinct substance, but
an attribute, is necessarily inherent in the universe, and is
the cause of all its perfection.
XENOPHON, an illustrious philosopher, commander,
and historian, was the son of Gryllus, an Athenian, and is
supposed to have been born in the fourth year of the eighty-
third Olympiad, 445 b. c. When he was a youth, Socrates,
struck with his personal appearance, determined to admit
him into the number of his pupils. Meeting him by acci¬
dent in a narrow passage, the philosopher put his staff
across the path, and stopping him, asked where those
things were to be purchased which are necessary to human
life ? Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply to this un¬
expected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him where
honest and good men were to be found ? Xenophon still
hesitating, Socrates said to him, “ Follow me, and learn.”
From that time Xenophon became a disciple of Socrates,
and made a rapid progress in that moral wisdom for which
his master was so eminent. Xenophon accompanied So¬
crates in the Peloponnesian war, and fought courageously
in defence of his country. He afterwards entered into the
army of Cyrus as a volunteer in his expedition against his
brother. This enterprise proving unfortunate, Xenophon,
after the death of Cyrus, advised his fellow-soldiers to at¬
tempt a retreat into Greece. They listened to his advice;
and having had many proofs of his wisdom as well as cour¬
age, they gave him the command of the army, after the
death of their generals. In this command he acquired
great glory by the prudence and firmness with which he
conducted them back, through the midst of innumerable
dangers, into their own country. * The particulars of this
memorable service are related by Xenophon himself in his
Anabasis, frequently called the Retreat of the ten Thou¬
sand. After his return into Greece, he joined Agesilaus,
king of Sparta, and fought with him against the The¬
bans in the celebrated battle of Chaeronea. The Athe¬
nians, displeased at this alliance, brought a public accu¬
sation against him for his former conduct in engaging in
the service of Cyrus, and condemned him to exile. The
Spartans upon this took Xenophon, as an injured man,
urider their protection, and provided him a comfortable
fetreat at Scillus. Here, with his wife and two children,
X E R
he remained several years, and passed his time in tl. v
ciety of his friends, and in writing those historical >
which have rendered his name immortal. A war atC kUL
arose between the Spartans and Eleans; and Xenon?’
was obliged to retire to Lepreum, where his sons had
refuge. He afterwards removed, with his whole famil/t
Corinth, where he is supposed to have died, about the
of ninety; but the chronology of his life is involved in nf
scunties from which it cannot easily be extricated.
°f the works of Xenophon there are many edition,
I he editio pnneeps was printed by Junta, Florent Elfi
fob An edition more correct, and containing some work
omitted in the first, issued from the press of Aldus Vmw
1525, fob After several intervening impressions appeared
that of H. Stephanus, 1561, fob Another important edi
tion, several times reprinted, was that of Leunclavius Basil"
,69, fob After a long interval, this was followed by the
edition of Wells, Oxon. 1703, 5 tom. 8vo. The editor
wlm is not commended for his fidelity, has added Dod-
well’s Chronologia Xenophoniea. Th is edition of Dr Wells
was republished with considerable improvements by Thieme
Lipsiae, 1/63-4, 4 tom. 8vo. A valuable edition with a
commentary was afterwards published by Weiske Lins
1798-1804, 6 tom. 8vo. We shall only mention another
edition, that of J. G. Schneider, Lips. 1815, 6 tom. 8vo,
A very useful accompaniment of any edition must not be
overlooked, namely Sturz’s Lexicon Xenophonteum. Lips.
1801-4, 4 tom. 8vo. The materials had partly been col-
lected by Thieme. Of several works of Xenophon there I
are many separate editions, some of them very elaborate.
Several of them have likewise been translated into many
different languages. Gail published “ ffiuvres completes de
Xenophon, traduites en Francais, accompagnees du texte,
de la version Latine, et de notes critiques.” Paris, 1797-
1804, 6 tom. 4to. A supplementary volume, in three parts,
containing various appendages, was subsequently published.
I he French version is not entirely7 new. The translations
of the Cyropaedia, Anabasis, and Memorabilia, by Dacier,
Larcher, and Leveque, have been adopted with some slight
modifications, feome of his works have been repeatedly 1
translated into English ; but we shall only specify the ver- i
sion of the Cyropaedia by the Hon. Maurice Ashley Cooper, i
of the Anabasis by Edward Spelman, of the Memorabilia i
by Sarah Fielding, of the Symposium by Dr Wellwood, :
and of the History by Dr Smith, dean of Chester.
Xenophon, a native of Ephesus, is supposed to have
written towards the close of the second century. His ro¬
mance, “ De Anthia et Habrocome Ephesiacorum libriv."
was first edited by Cocchi, Lond. 1726, 4to. An Italian
translation had previously been published by Salvini, Lond.
1723, 8vo. Ihe original work appears in the collection of
Mitscherlich, Scriptores Erotici Greed. Biponti, 17924,
3 tom. 8vo. It was about the same time edited by Polyzoes,
Viennae Aust. 1793, 8vo. A much better edition was soon
afterwards published by Baron Locella, Vien. Aust. 1796,
4to. Another edition, regarded as the best, was published .
by Peerlkamp, liarlemi, 1818, 4to. This romance of Xeno¬
phon the Ephesian has repeatedly been translated into
French and German, as well as Italian; and an English
version was published by Rooke, Lond. 1727, 8vo.
XERES de la Frontera, so called to distinguish it
from a small town of the same name near Antequera. It is
the capital of a district of the province of Andalusia, in
Spain, about ten miles from the sea-shore at Puerto Santa
Maria. The early history of this place is obscure, and the
origin of its name a very disputable matter with Spanish
antiquaries. It was known to the Romans as Acta Regia
in the time of Pliny, but only the name is given. R1S
chiefly remarkable in history as the place where the great
battle between the Moors and the Goths was fought in 714
by which, after a contest of eight days, the former were
11F1 “
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X I M
onqurors of the whole of the peninsula. The river Gua-
alet, on whose banks the decisive action took place, is
snrl stream, about a mile and a half from the city,
diic.at some seasons of the year is nearly dry. It has
stop bridge, about four miles below which are a wharf
nd storehouses, from which wine and other goods are ship-
ied itr Port St Mary’s.
X*es is situated in the lap of two rounded hillocks,
rhic: shelter it to the east and the west; and it covers a
isiierable extent of ground. The city, properly so call-
d, isembraced by an old crenated Moorish wall, which,
hou||i enclosing a labyrinth of narrow, ill-built, and worse
raind streets, is of no great circuit, and is so intermixed
ith ie suburbs as to be visible only here and there. The
imitjof the old town are however well defined by the nu-
nercs antique gateways. Some of the buildings are of a
kind of architecture. It once had ten churches,
eve chapels, four hospitals, twenty-one monasteries and
lonvnts. It is doubtful how many of these institutions yet
urffc the convulsions to which Spain has been subjected
or t : last quarter of a century. The population is dense,
‘icing,estimated at 50,000 souls; but the amount is sub-
ect I great variations, dependent on the recent or remote
ccuience of the last endemic fever generated in its pesti-
ermii gutters and its uncleanly streets and lanes.
Tip environs of this city afford abundant supplies of
orn especially wheat, of oil, and of cattle. It was long
elelbted for its breed of horses, reared by a well-endow-
d clivent of Carthusian monks, now robbed and nearly
'leseifed; but the chief produce is the white wine so gene-
ally mown by the name of Sherry. This wine is collected
y tK merchants of the city from the neighbouring vine-
ardt. but some of them are also wine-growers. The quan-
ity anually produced is about 30,000 butts, of 120 gallons
aclu Of these, rather more than two thirds are sent to Eng-
ind The remainder is consumed at home, or sent to the
Jnilll States of America, to the Havannah, to Mexico, or
uet'S Ayres. There are not less than twenty-five great
nercntile houses, chiefly engaged in the trade with Eng-
and There is always on hand a large stock of old wines,
vhicj are mixed with the new in such a proportion as is
uitale for the various markets. The storehouses are
ibovitground, are vast piles of building, having lofty roofs
mppirted on arches, and their walls are pierced with
mtnrous windows, and thus admit a free circulation of
ir. Some of these storehouses are so large as to be capa-
n|)le # containing 4000 butts. The oldest wines are kept
a h;i;e casks, little inferior to the celebrated tun of Heidel-
Jergjfind some of them have wine nominally 120 years old ;
a)ut lie quantity withdrawn is every year supplied from casks
f a.iter growth ; and when wane is mixed for shipping, a
malbortion of the oldest is mingled with the new. Much
[jrariy is mixed with all the wine for exportation, and the
neriants are commonly the distillers.
XiCOCO, or Sikokf, an island, the smallest of the
hrekthat compose the empire of Japan. In length it is
1100miles, and sixty in breadth. It is only separated by
rianw straits from the island of Niphon on the one side,
i ind Jmo on the other. This island is almost entirely un-
]vn<rti to Europeans, as they are rigorously prohibited from
ill iu rcourse with the Japanese empire.
XMENA, a city of Spain, in the province of Andalu-
iaj [pout twenty-five miles from the British fortress of
Kibiltar. It is utterly inaccessible for any kind of wheel-
•artnges. It was once a place of importance, as it gave
be I tie of king to Abou Melic, the son of the emperor of
- ezl In more ancient times, it was a Roman station, as is
irJJti by the walls of the castle, and by numerous inscnp-
ioniwhich have been found in its vicinity. Ihe town
lea ’inder the shelter of a rocky ledge, which is detached
roithe mass of the lofty mountains, and is crowned with
X I M 955
tne ruined towers of an ancient castle, which forms a pic- Ximenes
turesque view from the surrounding country. Ximena isde Cisneros*
nearly a mile in length, and principally consists of two
long narrow streets, one extending from north to south, and
the other leading up to the castle: the alleys between them
are in steps up the steep side of the impending hill, and can
only be reached on foot. The old castle, of Roman foun¬
dation, but of Moorish superstructure, is accessible only
on the side of the town, and in former days must have
been impregnable. This citadel is 400 yards in length,
and varies in breadth from fifty to eighty yards. It is sur¬
rounded by a turreted wall, except where the scarped rock
has rendered it unnecessary. It has been provided with
vaulted tanks and magazines, but from neglect they are in
a dilapidated state. It was exposed to great injury in
1811, when it was partially blown up by General Ballasteros,
who abandoned it on the approach of the French, to seek
a more sure protection under the guns of Gibraltar. The
town at the present day is poor, containing about 8000
inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in agriculture; but
many are employed in the seductive but hazardous trade
of smuggling tobacco and other goods from Gibraltar into
the interior of Spain. The river Sogarganta runs at the
foot of the place, and has on its left bank the ruins of a
vast building, erected sixty years ago for the purpose of
casting cannon-balls for the'siege of the British fortress.
XIMENES DE CISNEROS, Francisco, a celebrated
cardinal, was born at Torrelaguna, in Old Castille, in 1437,
and studiedat Alcala and Salamanca. He then went to Rome;
and being robbed on the road, brought nothing back but a
bull for obtaining the first vacant prebend; but the archbishop
of Toledo refused to grant it, and threw him into prison.
Being at length restored to liberty, he obtained a benefice in
the diocese of Siguen^a, where Cardinal Gonzales de Men¬
doza, who was the bishop, made him his grand vicar. Ximenes
some time after entered among the Franciscans of Toledo;
but being there troubled with visits, he retired to a solitude
named Castanel, and applied himself to the study of divi¬
nity and the oriental tongues. At his return to Toledo,
Queen Isabella of Castille chose him for her confessor, and
in 1495 nominated him archbishop of Toledo, which, next
to the papacy, is the richest dignity in the church of Rome.
“ This honour,” says Dr Robertson, “ he declined with a
firmness which nothing but the authoritative injunction of
the pope was able to overcome. Nor did this height of
promotion change his manners. Though obliged to display
in public that magnificence which became his station, he
himself retained his monastic severity. Under his ponti¬
fical robes he constantly wore the coarse frock of St Fran¬
cis, the rents of which he used to patch with his own hands.
He at no time used linen, but was commonly clad in hair¬
cloth. He slept always in his habit, most frequently on
the floor or on boards, and rarely in a bed. He did not
taste any of the delicacies which appeared at his table, but
satisfied himself with that simple diet which the rule of his
order prescribed. Notwithstanding these peculiarities, so
opposite to the manner of the world, he possessed a
thorough knowledge of its affairs, and discovered talents
for business which rendered the fame of his wisdom equal
to that of his sanctity.”
His first care was to provide for the necessities of the
poor; to visit the churches and hospitals; to purge his
diocese of usurers and places of debauchery; to degrade
corrupt judges, and place in their room persons whom he
knew to be distinguished by their probity and disinterest¬
edness. He erected a famous university at Alcala; and in
1499 founded the College of St Ildephonso. Three years
afterwards he undertook the Polyglott Bible; and in order
to carry on this great work, invited many learned men to
Toledo, purchased seven copies of the Old Testament in
Hebrew for 4000 crowns, and gave a great price for Latin
956
X I M
^menes. and Greek manuscripts. Biblia Sacra Polyglotta, &c
Cornpluti 1514-7, 6 tom. fol. The edition was begun in
•nicoo a!though comP1eted in 1517, was not published
till lo22 ; the court of Rome having during that interval
remained in suspense whether it ought not to be entirely
suppressed. The cardinal himself was but a doubtful friend
i SJT>re,^ Jiterature 5 f°r when it was proposed to translate
the Bible into Spanish, in order to convert the Saracens, he
opposed it on the ground that men might become Chris-
tians without reading the Bible. The Complutensian or
Alcala Polyglott contains in the first four volumes the
Hebrew, Greek, and Vulgate texts of the Old Testament
in parallel columns; and the Chaldee paraphrase at the
bottom of the page, with a Latin translation. The fifth
volume contains the Greek text of the New Testament,
with the Vulgate version. The last contains a Hebrew and
Chaldee vocabulary, a Hebrew grammar, and a Greek dic-
tionary. In this Polyglott appeared the first edition of the
New Testament in Greek.
In 1507, Pope Julius II. gave Ximenes a cardinal’s hat,
and King Ferdinand the Catholic intrusted him with the
administration of affairs. He was from this moment the
soul of every thing that passed in Spain. He distinguished
himself at the beginning of his ministry by discharging the
people from the burdensome tax called acavale, which had
been continued on account of the war against Granada;
and laboured with such zeal and success in the conversion
of the Mahommedans, that he made 3000 converts, amono-
whom was a prince of the blood of the kings of Granada!
Jn loOJ Cardinal Ximenes extended the dominions of Fer¬
dinand, by taking the city of Oran, in the kingdom of Al-
gieis. He undertook this conquest at his own expense, and
marched in person at the head of the Spanish army, cloth¬
ed in his pontifical ornaments, and accompanied by a great
numbei of ecclesiastics and monks. Some time after, fore¬
seeing an extraordinary scarcity, he erected public grana¬
ries at loledo, Alcala, and Torrelaguna, and had them fill¬
ed with corn at his own expense ; which gained the people’s
hearts to such a degree, that to preserve the memory of
this noble action they had an eulogium upon it cut on mar¬
ble, in the hall of the senate-house at Toledo, and in the
market-place. King Ferdinand dying in 1516, left Cardi¬
nal Ximenes regent of his dominions; and the archduke
Charles, who was afterwards the emperor Charles V., con-
fumed that nomination. The cardinal immediately made a
reform of the officers of the supreme council and of the
court, and put a stop to the oppression of the grandees.
He vindicated the rights of the people against the nobility;
and as by the feudal constitution the military power was
lodged m the hands of the nobles, and men of inferior con¬
dition were called into the field only as their vassals, a kino-
with scanty revenues depended on them in all his opera¬
tions. from this state Ximenes resolved to deliver the
crown, and issued a proclamation, commanding every city
in Castille to inrol a certain number of its burgesses, and
teach them military discipline; he himself engaging to pro¬
vide officers to command them at the public expense. This
was vigorously opposed by the nobles ; but by his intrepi¬
dity and superior address he carried his point. He then
endeavoured to diminish the possessions of the nobility, by
reclaiming all the crown-lands, and putting a stop to the
pensions granted by the late King Ferdinand. This addi-
tion made to the revenues enabled him to discharge all the
debts of Ferdinand, and to establish magazines of warlike
stores. Ihe nobles, alarmed at these repeated attacks, ut¬
tered loud complaints; but before they proceeded to ex¬
tremities, appointed some grandees of the first rank to exa-
mine the powers in consequence of which he exercised acts
of such high authority. Ximenes received them with cold
civility; produced the testament of Ferdinand, by which
he was appointed regent, together with the ratification of
X U L
that deed by Charles. To both these they objected- j
he endeavoured tn estaKliok .—i: J . Jeueo, and
he endeavoured to establish their validity Y and V'
sation grew warm, he led them insensibly to a,
from wliieh tfie\r tiorl o _ i  , ; _a balcony, ^iilla1
. Islanfon
»''“W
from which they had a view of a large body o°f tro^ ■
der arms, and of a formidable train of artilWv « R ? o'
says he, pointing to these, and raising his voice « /
„Wl"f LI. laV^recf.ived Catholic 1 ‘!
powers   
with these I govern Castiile ; and" witrthete Tu-i]!1!?eSty 1
It, till the king, your master and mine, takes possesfion"!
his kingdom.” A declaration so bold and haughty s 1°,
them, and astonished their associates. They saw tW?
was prepared for his defence, and laid aside all th«ta
of a general confederacy against his administration A
length, from the repeated entreaties of Ximenes and ti
impatient murmurs of the Spanish ministry, Charles V nm
barked and landed in Spain, accompanied by his favourites
Ximenes was advancing to the coast to meet him, but at
Bos Eqmllos was seized with a violent disorder, which his
followers considered as the effects of poison. This accidJ
obliging Ximenes to stop, he wrote to the king, and with his
usual boldness advised him to dismiss all the strangers in
his train, whose number and credit already gave offeree to
the Spaniards; and earnestly desired to have an interview
with him, that he might inform him of the state of the na
tion, and the temper of his subjects. To prevent this, not
only the Flemings, but the Spanish grandees, employed all
their address to keep Charles at a distance from Aranda,
the place to which the cardinal had removed. His advice
was now slighted and despised. Ximenes, conscious of his
own integrity and merit, expected a more grateful return
from a prince to whom he delivered a kingdom more
nourishing than it had been in any former age, and a more
extensive authority than the most illustrious of his ances¬
tors had ever possessed; and lamented the fate of his
country, about to be ruined by the rapaciousness and in¬
solence of foreign favourites. While his mind was agitated
jy these passions, he received a letter from the king, in
w nch, after a few cold and formal expressions of regard,
le was allowed to retire to his diocese; and he expired a
few hours after reading it, on the 8th of November 1517,
and in the 81st year of his age.
• °-r ^,USIU’ an island of Japan, second in mag¬
nitude to Niphon, being upwards of 200 miles in length,
about 150 in breadth, and containing many excellent har-
oours and flourishing cities. Europeans are rigorously
excluded from all intercourse with this island, with the
exception of the Dutch, who are still allowed to send
their annual vessel to Nangasaki. Near the coast is the
city of Tirando, where the Portuguese at one time had
an establishment, but from which they are now entirely
banished. In other respects, Ximo is very little known to
Europeans.
. XIXONA, a city of Spain, the capital of the fertile par-
tido of that name, in the province of Valencia. It is to the
north-east of the port of Alicant, from which its chief pro¬
ductions are exported. The vicinity is covered with abun¬
dant woods of palm-trees; and mixed with them are exten¬
sive plantations of almonds, which form the greatest article
in its commerce. From almonds mixed with honey a con¬
serve is made, which is very delicious, and much in demand
in almost every part of Spain. The grapes are abundant,
and much brandy is distilled from them. The population
of the city is stated to be 5000 souls.
XULLA Islands, four islands in the Eastern Seas. The
most considerable of them is Xulla Bessey, which is about
eleven leagues in length, in good cultivation, and well in¬
habited. I his island abounds with wax and honey. There
is a village adjacent to the south-east point, where the
Dutch have a fort, and where ships may procure refresh¬
ments. These islands are situated to the south-east of the
Molucca passage. They are occasionally invaded by the
YAK
ms from New Guinea, though the distance is nearly
i jiles. A settlement was formed by the English on
'■},ne ( these islands; but they were induced to abandon it,
’r<Wie badness of the soil, and other circumstances, and
, retove to the coast of Borneo.
WLLABELLA, an island in the Eastern Seas, about
fr weir-five miles long and six broad. Long. 126. 12. E.
’Eat... 15. S.
^ ILLAMANGOLA, an island in the Eastern Seas,
ii .boulthirty miles long and ten broad. Long. 125. 42. E.
J|4|. 54. S.
XIN, a city of China, of the second rank, in the pro-
vinc«of Sechuen. Long. 103. 20. E. Lat. 30. 18. N.
■noecia, an anniversary feast observed by the
Athlians in honour of Minerva, upon the sixteenth of
YAM
957
Hecatombseon, to commemorate their leaving, by the per- Xystarcha
suasion of Theseus, their country seats, in which they lay II
dispersed here and there in Attica, and unitine together in 1:a™ypiet-
one body. . ^
XYSTARCHA, the master or director of the xystus.
In the Greek gymnasium, the xystarcha was the second
officer, and the gymnasiarcha the first. The former was
his lieutenant, and presided over the xysti, and all exercises
of the athletae therein.
XYSTUS, among the Greeks, was a long portico, open
or covered at the top, where the athletae practised wrest¬
ling and running. The gladiators who practised in it
were called xystici. Among the Romans, the xystus was
only an alley, or double row of trees, meeting like an ar¬
bour, and forming a shade to walk under.
I' s
I *'td t
i iadm
i A if
f Abies
lAB.
o Mm-ni
Eleast
AD
iGi
Iak
1 pbce
if Asii
l;bu
p
¥1 or y, the twenty-fourth letter of our alphabet. Its
• sound is formed by expressing the breath with a
sudon expansion of the lips from that configuration by
whi-i we express the vowel u. At the beginning of words,
it isiommonly taken for a consonant, being placed before
all tftvels, as in yard, yield, young, &c. but before no con¬
sort. At the end of words it is a vowel, and is substi¬
tute for the sound of *, as in try, descry, &c. In the middle
of Virds it is not used so frequently as i, unless in words
derfcd from the Greek, as in chyle, empyreal, &c. though
it kdmitted into the middle of some pure English words,
as i dying, jlying, &c. The Romans had no capital of
this- tier, but used the small one in the middle and last
yHides of words, as in coryambus, onyx, martyr. X is
nisei numeral, signifying 150, or, according to Baronius,
1511 and with a dash over it, as Y, it signified 150,000.
^[fV, a city of China, of the second rank, in Sechuen.
lift. 102. 39. E. Lat. 30. 9. N.
(t'\BARKULSKAIA, a village of Tobolsk, in Asiatic
Ruiia, on the Irtysch, 120 miles east of lobolsk.
HvCHT, a vessel rigged as a queen’s cutter, having a
boui-mainsaii, foresail, and jib. They are generally used
is jasure-boats. .
ADI, a river of Asiatic Russia, which falls into the Ob-
sksi Gulf. Long. 72. 38. E. Lat. 67. 25. N.
'AKOUTSK, one of the four districts into which the
pro nee of Irkoutsk, in Asiatic Russia, is divided. It ex-
tera as far as the Frozen Ocean, north from the boun-
dar of the provinces of Irkoutsk proper and of Nerts-
clfek. It is bounded on the east by the province of
01 itsk, which intervenes between the eastern extremity
of .sia. It is watered by the great river Lena, which
tratrses its whole extent from south to north. The c i-
mr is so severe as to prevent the ripening of grain to at -
va age; and even a crop of rye is extremely uncertain,
as June the ground in the vicinity of Yakoutsk is frozen
thnti feet deep. The inhabitants subsist chiefly by hunt-
in;; but this formerly lucrative branch of trade has consi-
de: lily fallen off, in consequence of the depredations mat c
omlie game by the activity of the hunters. T ie sa es
become extremely scarce ; but other amnia s s i
rind, and bring considerable gain.
fhe tribe that inhabits this dreary region bears the name
of "he Yacoutes. They formerly occupied the countries
t>r lie Angara and Upper Lena, and are supposet to iave
bt i originally a Tartar race; but being driven from ien
or inal abodes by the Mongols and Burats, they have taken
shelter in the frozen solitudes of the Lower Lena. They
occupy an extensive territory, extending eighteen degrees
from north to south, and nearly fifty from east to west.
This desolate country is but thinly peopled. The number
of males paying tribute amounts to 34,979, which, it is sup¬
posed, may be about the third of the entire number of both
sexes. Those who inhabit the southern districts of this
province are tolerably rich and industrious, and possess the
usual size, activity, and vigour: but those / farther to the
north live poorly; they are seldom able to procure bread,
and feed on onions, garlic, and other roots, with various
sorts of berries, both fresh and preserved, which form their
chief luxuries. They are remarkably ignorant and super¬
stitious, and live in the continual dread of evil spirits. I he
Shamans, a set of magical impostors, enjoy unbounded
influence among them. They are eager for spirits, and
m-eedily drink brandy when they can procure it, and use
as a substitute fermented mare’s milk, which forms the
chief luxury of their feasts. They now submit quietly to
the Russian yoke, though they long continued to view that
nation with hostility. They acknowledge their subjection
by an annual tribute, generally paid in furs.
Yakoutsk, the capital of the above province, is situated
on the western bank of the Lena, on a plain surrounded by
mountains, which enclose it at the distance of ten or twelve
miles. It is a place of some trade, notwithstanding the in¬
hospitable climate in which it is situated, being the empo¬
rium of the fur trade; all the furs which are collected in the
extensive regions of the north being brought to this place,
as are also all the Russian and Asiatic commodities which
are imported in exchange. It also forms a species of entre¬
pot for the Russian trade with Kamtschatka and the western
coast of America. The dreary winter is the greatest disad¬
vantage of this place. The cold is excessive; and the inha¬
bitants are almost entirely confined to their houses, the day¬
light continuing during the deadness of the season tor on y
a few hours. They consume their time, accordingly, be¬
tween drinking and sleeping; and they use ice as the most
effectual mode of stopping up every chink and crevice, be
ing applied, like double glass, to the outside of the windows.
Yakoutsk contains 500 or 600 houses, and about 3000 in¬
habitants, who for the most part are Cossacks or Yakoutes.
Long. 140. 8. E. Lat. 60. ~. N. ...
YAMSKOI, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the govern¬
ment of Okhotsk, at the mouth of the river Yama, about
KilO miles north of Okhotsk. . .
YAMYCHEFSKAIA, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, in
958
Y A R
Yang
Yard.
the government of Tomsk and district of Blisk, situated on
a high bank of the Irtysch. It was built in 1715 of wood,
^ and was rebuilt in 1765 of earth, with 200 well-built houses
attached to it, besides barracks for the garrison, maga¬
zines, and a stone church. The inhabitants are exposed to
inconvenience from the quantity of sand that is blown from
tne river when the wind comes from that quarter. Lone.
77. 50. E. Lat. 60. 12. N. H h
YANG, the name of two towns in China, of the third
rank, one in Chan-si, near the river Han, the other in Yu-
nam There is also a town of this name in Corea.
YANG-CHAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Quang-tong.
YANG-CON G, a river of China, which runs into the
Kincha.
YANG-HO, a river of China, which joins the San-cam-
ho. Long. 112. 49. E. Lat. 40. 23. N.
YANG KANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
1 che-kiang, twenty-two miles south-east of Kin-hoa.
YANG- rCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Kiang-nan, situated on the bank of the Royal Canal, where
it crosses the great river Yang-tse-kiang. It is a place of
great trade, and, besides dealing in all manner of Chinese
goods, is a great mart for salt, which is made on the sea-
coast, and which is distributed over the country by means
of small canals cut for this purpose, and ending in the great
canal. It is 485 miles south-south-east of Peking. Long
118. 54. E. Lat. 32. 26. N. & S
YANG-PSE-KIANG, the largest river in the Chinese
empire, and one of the greatest in the world. Its source,
which is unknown to Europeans, is laid down in the Chinese
maps as situated among the mountains of Tibet. It flows
during the fiist part of its course along the borders of
China; after which it enters the Chinese territory, and
passes, in a westerly course, through Sechuen, Houquang,
and Kiang-nan, the central provinces, diffusing, far and
wide, commerce and fertility, and facilitating the internal
intercourse of the empire. Increased in its progress by nu-
merous tributary streams, it becomes truly magnificent
when it passes the great city of Nanking, from the fleets
of trading craft with which it is covered; and there is
thence a continued succession of cities, towns, and villages,
diversified by the high cultivation of the intervening coun¬
try. It falls into the Gulf of Tsong-ming, in the Eastern
Seas, about 120 miles to the east of Nanking.
^-^■^CrUIN, Chainwah, a town of the Birman empire,
situated on the east bank of the Irrawuddy river. It is the
station of a custom-house. Long. 95. 45. E. Lat. 17. 7. N.
YANTCHIN or Wantchin, a city of China, of the
second rank, in Quangsee. Long. 106.51. E. Lat. 28.1. N.
YAO, a city of China, of the second rank, in Chan-si.
Long. 108. 31. E. Lat. 35. 54. N.
YAO-NGAN, a city of China, of the first rank, situated
on the frontier province of Yunan. Near it is a well pro¬
ducing a very white salt. Long. 101. E. Lat. 25. 33. N.
• a cRy of China, situated on thenorthern
side of the Poyang lake. It is a great emporium of the porce¬
lain manufactures, and supports a great population. Loner.
116. 14. E. Lat. 29. 0. N.
YARD of a Ship, a long piece of timber suspended
upon the masts, to extend the sails to the wind. All
yards are either square or lateen; the former of which are
suspended across the masts at right angles, and the latter
obliquely. The square yards are nearly of a cylindrical
surface. They taper from the middle, which is called the
slings, towards the extremities, which are termed the yard¬
arms ; and the distance between the slings and the yard¬
arms on each side is by the artificers divided into quarters,
which are distinguished into the first, second, third quarters,
and yard-arms. The middle quarters are formed into eight
squares, and each of the end parts is figured like the frus-
Y A R
°f » cone' Al> yards of a ship are Sq„,re
that of the mizen
excePt Y»*
Yards also denote places belonging to the naw
the^ships^of war, &c. are laid up in harbour. See Docks'
YARE, among sailors, implies ready or quick ■
thp hplm • tHof Kr.  j_ , A as> Oeyarg
lar*oi4
hit 'tV .™tjLbf ?nd FvA a .lie
helm. It is sometimes also used for bright by seamed
to kppn bio ormc ._t__ ° ^ KUnetl. as,
to keep his arms yare; that is, to keep them clean and bH,,i
Yare, a river of Norfolk, which runs from west to p i
through that county, passing by Norwich, and falling ?
the German Ocean at Yarmouth.
YARKUND, a city of Cashgar, in that part of Chinese
fartary which commonly goes by the name of Little B
chana. It is situated on a river of the same name nn ti
eastern side of that great range of mountains which extends
northwards from the Himalaya range, and divide ('h ’
ron, Independent Tartar,. Vhis ely', after e^o Lg 'S
degree of celebrity ,n that part of Asia, was dekL b
Meerza Abubekr, grandson of Timour, who however rea,?
wT? Pr0AT.t:5i.wh?1 its P°Pul“ion increased; ml*,
air being salubrious he rnade^ ,t his
Jl With snlpnflu] l'*—  ^ • . «
it with splendid edifices, bringing water into the streets'
and in other ways rendering it fit for a royal abode. Ik
walls are about 1200feet high; and numerous gardens, the
finest in the world were planted around it. It is at present
defended by a wall of stone cemented with mud, in which
there are five gates. The houses are mean, being built of
stone and mud, and have all balconies. The bazaar runs
from east to west, and is described as consisting of a range
of seats upon a platform, behind which there are handsome
s lops, cniefly occupied by Chinese. It contains more than
ten large colleges, for the support of which lands are as¬
signed, and plenty of caravanserais for the accommoda¬
tion of travellers.. The town is watered by canals from
the river, from which are filled certain reservoirs, of mud
and stone, which supply the inhabitants with water when
the canals are frozen and the river low. The water of the
livei is also employed in irrigating the surrounding cultiva¬
tion and gardens. Ihe inhabitants of this and the other
towns in this part of Asia are chiefly mechanics, merchants,
and teachers or priests. Many of them are afflicted with the
glandular swelling in the throat called goitre. The women
of the country, whether high or low, do not wear veils. The
Russians carry on a commercial intercourse with Yarkund,
which is a great emporium of inland trade. It is within
the dominion of the Chinese, under whose government it
has been for the last eighty years. Long. 78. 27.45. E.
Lat. 38. 19. N.
YARM, or Yarum, a market-town of the north riding
of Y orkshire, in the wapentake of Langbarough, 244 miles
from London. It stands on the river Tees, over which is
a handsome bridge, and consists of one long wide street.
It has a considerable trade by sea, and much corn and lead
are shipped for London. There were in ancient times two
monasteries, founded by the family of Bruce. It has a
good market on Thursday. The population amounted in
1821 to 1504, and in 1831 to 1636.
YARMOUTH, a seaport town and borough of the coun¬
ty of Norfolk and hundred of East Flegg, 124 miles from
London. I he old town is situated on the eastern bank of
the Yare, and is connected with the new town, called
Little Y armouth, by means of a bridge over that river.
The old town, which is still surrounded by walls, consists
of four principal lines of streets running nearly parallel
with the river, and of about 150 narrow lanes called rows,
which are impassable for wheel-carriages. The princi¬
pal streets are well built and wide, opening in some place*
to the spacious quay, market-places, and squares. The best
dwelling-houses are situated along the quay, which is con¬
sidered the finest in the kingdom, having in the centre a
noble promenade, planted on each side with trees, and re*
ding
It
llr^
Town
tht;
' ie;atl
[by
Aes i
jare
T1
luillii
lal
ishipt
|ive
tobi
I lent
l|ig) m
on
»otbe <L
i iportai
hitO"]
ley
sti
nof tli
Ipb
itherb
ispi
tbutb
mblg those on the banks of the Seine at Paris. The
irt t the town beyond the walls consists of extensive
arelfuse premises, and inferior dwelling-houses. The
twn principally consists of substantial private resi-
jncq; and the space between them and the river is oc-
ipie> by docks, timber-wharfs, building-yards, and other
■emrs connected with the trade of the port. The
reetiare well lighted with gas, and well supplied with
ater The town-hall, church, and theatre, are hand-
Jime uildings. In addition to the church, there are other
Vo capels connected with the establishment, and places
wahip for the various bodies of dissenters. There is an
nWnve manufactory for crapes and other silk goods, which
saiato be in a thriving condition, and which gives em-
t( oynmt to about 500 persons, principally women. Ship-
[uild;g, and the various trades connected with it, are also
irrie on to some extent in Yarmouth ; nevertheless it
nnc be considered as a manufacturing town, but derives
s inortance and prosperity from the trade and commerce
lich t owes to its situation and port. The rivers Yare,
’avijey, and Bure, which unite in Braydon Water, con-
guoi to the town, are navigable; the first to Norwich,
ie 9}:ond to Bungay, and the third to Aylsham ; and se-
Yarmouth an extensive inland trade in the expor-
! IB
) tries,
AJ
on
vessi
ieen
ieto'
irovii
TH
has
baa:
Grea
oftb
lort
wit
ie tow
Its, ai
fflnual b
Y A U
.tiomf the agricultural produce of the districts that are
avei-ed by these rivers, and in supplying them with coals
ad ccier heavy goods. The exportation of grain and malt
orn liis port is considerable ; but the principal business of
armuth is the herring and mackarel fisheries, and the
arinji and exportation of this staple commodity to foreign
Fount es, particularly to the states bordering the Mediter-
A mea. An extensive timber trade with the Baltic is also
arrii on ; and there are at present nearly 400 square-
gavessels belonging to the port. Yarmouth Roads have
)ng Seen the principal rendezvous for the collier trade;
'jnd tie town derives some advantages from the supply of
eahi revisions to the numerous shipping employed in this
ade The harbour of Yarmouth, formed by the river
amhas an awkward entrance, which, as is always the
se :i harbours of this description, is obstructed by a
arl Great attention, however, is bestowed on the reme-
yingpf these defects, and on the general improvement of
id yrt. Vessels drawing about twelve feet of water, or
abut 200 tons burden, can cross the bar, and proceed
o tl town at spring-tides. Yarmouth has two weekly
arks, and that held on Saturday is much frequented,
npnual fair is held on the Friday after Good Friday,
it iineither of importance to the town nor its neighbour-
oodl The town is divided into six wards, and is govern-
d br a mayor, twelve aldermen, and thirty-five council¬
ors. It returns two members to the House of Commons.
l!:e uties collected here in 1837 amounted to L.66,169,
.mFlii 1838 to L.70,775. The population amounted in
8411 o 18,040, and in 1831 to 21,448.
YiiMouTH, a small market-town of the Isle of Wight
;.nd jie county of Hants, a part of the parish of Medina, 100
jiiiledfrom London. It stands on a rising ground facing
j)ha si, and retains traces of having been much larger at
omtformer period than it is at present. In its present
t cot tap't consists of several well-built streets. I here is but
ittje rade carried on. The population amounted in 1821
opt, and in 1831 to 586.
Y|.RMUC, or Yarun, a village of Palestine, in the dis-
rict f Saphet, on a small river of the same name, which
aljshto the lake of Tiberias. It is twenty-four miles south
d’Sithet.
itumuc, a river of Syria, the ancient Marsyas, which
urfflnto the Orontes near Apamea.
Y ULY, a town of Hindustan, province of Berar, nme-
een dies south-west from Nagpoor. Long. /9.1. E. Lat.
M-n.
Y E L 959
YAWNING, an involuntary opening of the mouth, ge- Yawning
nerally produced by weariness or an inclination to sleep. II
Yawning, according to Boerhaave, is performed by expand- y®llow
ing at one and the same time all the muscles capable of. •1^er~ -
spontaneous motion, by greatly extending the lungs; by
drawing in gradually and slowly a large quantity of air, and
gradually and slowly breathing it out after it has been re¬
tained for some time and rarefied, and then restoring the
muscles to their natural state. Hence the effect of yawn¬
ing is to move, accelerate, and equally distribute all the
humours through all the vessels of the body, and conse¬
quently to qualify the muscles and organs of sensation for
their various functions. Sanctorius observes, that a great deal
is insensibly discharged, when nature endeavours to get rid
of the retained perspirable matter, by yawning and stretch¬
ing the limbs. To these a person is most inclined just after
sleep, because a greater quantity going off by the pores of
the skin than at other times, whenever a person wakes,
the increasing contraction that then happens closes a great
deal of the perspirable matter in the cutaneous passages,
which will continually give such irritations as excite yawn¬
ing and stretching; and such motions, by shaking the mem¬
branes of the whole body, and shifting the contact of their
fibres, and the enclosed matter, by degrees throw it off.
Hence we see the reason why healthful strong people are
most inclined to such motions, because they perspire most
in time of sleep, and therefore have more of the perspirable
matter to lodge in the pores, and greater irritations. The
advantages of some little exercise just after waking in a
morning are considerable, as it throws off all the perspirable
matter that is ready for its exit from the body. When
yawning is troublesome, Hippocrates says that it is cured
by long, deep respiration, or drawing in the air at long in¬
tervals.
YAYNANGHEOM, a town of the Birman empire, si¬
tuated on the eastern bank of the Irrawuddy river. It
carries on a very considerable traffic, and has a manufac¬
ture of earthen ware. Five miles east of the town are situ¬
ated the petroleum wells, which supply the whole kingdom
with this oil, which is used in lamps and for all other pur¬
poses of train or wood oil, and is sold very cheap. The
government farms out the ground that supplies this extra¬
ordinary oil, and the renter draws it out at his own expense.
The depth of the pits is about thirty-seven fathoms, and it
is drawn out by means of pots, which are let down to the
bottom by ropes. Long. 94. 35. E. Lat. 20. 28. N.
YEAR, in Astronomy and Chronology. See Astrono¬
my and Calendar.
YEAST, or Yest, a head or scum rising upon beer or
ale while working or fermenting in the vat. See Brewing.
YELCUNDEL, a district of Hindustan, province of Hy¬
derabad, situated between the eighteenth and nineteenth
degrees of north latitude, and bounded on the north by the
river Godavery.
YELL, one of the islands of Shetland, lying north-east
from the Mainland, and divided from it by an arm of the
sea, called Yell Sound. By some it is thought to have been
the Thule of the ancients. It is seventeen miles long and
from six to eight broad. It is very mountainous, and full
of moss; but there are considerable pastures, in which the
islanders feed a great many sheep; and it also affords plenty
of peat. It has eight large harbours. It is divided into
two parishes ; and its inhabitants are partly supported by
the cod, ling, and whale fisheries, and by agriculture. Their
number in 1831 amounted to 3492.
YELLOW, one of the original colours of light.
YELLOW River, or Hoangho, a great river of China,
which, along with the parallel stream of Yang-tse-kiang,
or Blue River, has its sources in the unknown clefts of
the Tibetian Mountains, probably the lofty central chain
of the Asiatic continent; and after a tortuous course of
960 Y E M YE T
Yellow Sea great length, estimated at about 1800 or 2000 miles, it falls of the British fleet against Syria, it will revert vv^
Yemen int° the .Yellow Sea by numerous channels, in about 33° country to the rule of the sultan.
north latitude. In the early part of its course it runs north- YEN, a river of China, which falls into the Hn i 1'ti 1
ward, and is carried beyond the limits of the Chinese em- seventeen miles south-east of Yen-tchang. n§tl0>oi<
pire, being turned aside by a lofty chain of mountains for YEN-KIANG, a city of China, of the second rani ' ’'i
500 or 600 miles. It afterwards turns into an opposite di- Pe-tche-lee. Long. 125, 30. E. Lat. 40. 30 N nK’in r
rection, and reaching the original line of its course, again YEN-NGAN, a city of China, of the first rank in Ch ^
enters the Chinese empire, and by its winding progress dif- si, situated in an agreeable plain surrounded by lofty m M l
fuses more widely the benefit of its waters. Though broad tains. The territory abounds in fens. Long. 108 49°T T
and rapid, it is in many places so shallow as to be unfavour- Lat. 36. 44. N. & • • L
able for navigation. It is also liable to overflow its banks, YEN-PING, a city of China, of the first rank, in Foki '
so that it has been necessary to raise dikes for the defence It is situated on the river Min-ho. It is not large b r f
of the surrounding country. considered a stirring commercial city. Lon«-. 117,’51 v
Yellow Sea, a large gulf, about 120 miles in length and Lat. 26. 40. N.
eighty in breadth, connected with the Gulf of Pe-tche-lee, YEN-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank in I
and extending along the coast of the province of the same Tchekiang, situated on a river near the sea, so that the tide 1
name in Chinese Tartary. approaches its walls. It contains beautiful buildin<rs In !
YELPOOKA, a small town of Northern India, province its vicinity are mines of copper, and trees which yield a var
of Canara, situated above the Ghaut Mountains, in the nish that is much esteemed for lackered work. In Shan
Soonda district. It is inhabited by Christians, Mahom- tung there is another city of this name, of the first rank It" 1
medans, and Hindus. Long. 74. 55. E. Lat. 14. 57. N. territory is plentifully watered by many streams, being en- '
YEMEN, a large province of Arabia, comprehending its closed between the Hoangho and another great river It
finest and most fertile portion, situated partly on the Red has also numerous dependent cities, nearly as large as itself
Sea and partly on the Indian Ocean. It is surrounded by The territory is celebrated as being the birth-place of Con- f
the provinces of Hadramaut, Nedjed, and Hedjaz. It was fucius. Long. 116. 36. E. Lat. 35. 44. N.
celebrated by the ancients under the title of Arabia Felix, YEOMAN, the first or highest degree among the pie- 1
but modern researches do not by any means justify this ap- beians of England, next in order to the gentry. °The veo-
pellation : some parts are no doubt fertile, but in general it men are properly freeholders, who having land of their own. 1
is barren and unproductive. It is divided into two parts, live on good husbandry.
differing greatly in soil and climate. The plain of the Te- Yeoman is also a title of office in the king’s household
hama, which forms a broad belt along the whole of the of a middle place or rank between an officer and a "room'
coast, consists almost entirely of a waste of dry and unpro- Yeomen of the Guard were anciently 250 men the ;
ductive sand. It is about two days’ journey in breadth, and best rank under gentry, and of larger stature than ordinary. '•
is scorched by torrid heats. The Djebal, or mountainous each being required to be six feet high. At present there
district, in the interior, presents in many parts a more agree- are but 100 yeomen in constant duty, and seventy more !
able aspect. The hills, though precipitous, are fertile in not in duty; and as any of the 100 dies, his place is supplied
many spots, and enjoy a more temperate air. The lower out of the seventy. They are dressed after the manner of 11
declivities are covered with trees and aromatic shrubs, and King Henry VIII.’s time. They formerly had diet as well j
the mountain chains are divided by fine valleys, which, being as wages when in waiting, but this was withdrawn in the
watered by numerous streams, can be advantageously culti- reign of Queen Anne.
vated. The natives are industrious agriculturists, though YEOVIL, a borough-town of the county of Somerset, in
their instruments are rude ; and in many districts the fields the hundred of Stone, 121 miles from London. It stands r
are cultivated like gardens. The grains chiefly raised are on the river Yeo or Ivel, which joins the Parret, and runs E
barley, millet, and dhourra: there is not an adequate supply to the Bristol Channel. It is a well-built town, and was I
of water for the cultivation of rice. The aromatic plants once famed for its woollen manufactures; but these have ]
which grow upon the sides of the hills are the most valuable been superseded by the making of gloves, which now forms
products of this region. The coffee produced in \ emen the chief occupation, and has augmented the population,
has always possessed a flavour which cannot be rivalled Besides the church, there are various places of worship for 'i
by that of any other country to which the shrub has been dissenters. There is a well-frequented market on Friday. ;
transplanted from this its native region; and Mocha coffee The inhabitants amounted in 1821 to 4655, and in 1831 to i
is in request all over the world. The balm of Mecca, and 5921.
the tree bearing incense, are also produced in Yemen, YEOWAH, a town of the Birman empire, on the west
though they are found in greater perfection on the opposite bank of the Irrawuddy river. Long. 94.30. E. Lat. 20.55. N. ’
coast of Africa. YERNAGOODUM, a town of Hindustan, province ot
Like the rest of Arabia, Yemen was formerly parcelled the Northern Circars, in the vicinity of which are fine forests
out among a number of different sovereigns in unequal of timber, which might be conveyed to the sea down the
portions; but it has been formed into a considerable mo- streams of the Wurda and Godavery. Long. 81. 39. E.
narchical state, subject to a sovereign who assumes the Lat. 16. 58. N.
modest title of Imam or doctor, but exercises over his sub- YETHOLM, a parish on the confines of England, in the
jects an authority nearly absolute. He is forced however county of Roxburgh, containing two villages of the same
to pay respect to the pride of the aristocracy, namely, the name. One of these, Town Yetholm, is the place where
schiechs or hereditary chiefs, who here, as over all Arabia, the largest colony of Gipsys in Scotland is to be found,
possess a high influence, and, seated in their strong castles The strolling habits and vagabond life which they lead are
in the interior, often set his mandates at defiance. The too well known to require any description here ; but it may
sovereigns of Yemen were formerly reduced under the Sa- be stated, that in consequence of the operation of the new
racen power, and afterwards under the soldans of Egypt, police act for Scotland and England, there is every probahi-
They were since menaced by the growing power of the lity of a change taking place in their erratic mode of life, by
Wahabees, who made themselves masters of all the sea- their being compelled to settle to steady occupations in a fix- „
ports except Mocha ; but their power and kingdom being ed place of abode, or otherwise being liable to be imprisoned
extinguished by Mehemet All, this country came under his as vagrants. Their number is at present about 100. lbe
dominion. In consequence of the late successful operations village is situate in a valley about one mile in length and
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YON
qui ter of a mile in breadth, through which the Bowmont
own The parish church is situated in Kirk Yetholm,
vhil; in Town Yetholm there are two dissenting places of
vorstip. The population of the parish in 1831 was 1289.
yizd, a city of Persia, in the province of Khorassan, on
be fbntier of Seistan. It is situated in a sandy desert, con-
;igu<*s to a range of lofty mountains. Being a great com-
tneffd emporium between Hindustan, Bokhara, and Persia,
t is place of considerable trade, is large and flourishing,
ljind re bazaar is supposed to contain 20,000 houses, besides
hosttof the Guebres or worshippers of fire, which are esti¬
mate at 4000. These Guebres are a persecuted remnant,
vho.ifter the extinction of the greater part of their race,
1 re *11 suffered to exist in a state of oppression, being sub-
lecte to a poll-tax of twenty piastres, besides the various
jxacons of the Persian government. There were formerly
man opulent Hindus in this place ; but, in order to escape
he ^actions of the governor, who intended to plunder
len they all fled in one night to Candahar, where they
laveestablished themselves, and since that period there
lavfhot been more than nine Hindus in Yezd. The city
ids corn from Ispahan. Cattle are scarce, and sell
hi The town is famous for the manufacture of silk
uff which are superior to any in Persia. The fort has
ut mean appearance, and the town is destitute of a
all It is about 300 miles east of Ispahan. Long. 55. 30.
lit. 32. 30. N.
Y’ZDIKHAST, a town of Persia, in the southern part
'bf tl! province of Irak. It is the first which occurs in the
lightoad to Ispahan, after passing the frontier of Laristan.
Y’ UISAN, a small island among the Philippines, near
c^heirth coast of Panay. Long. 122.32. E. Lat. 11.35.N.
CA. See Inca.
-YUEI, a city of China, of the second rank, in Yunan.
Loij 98. 24. E. Lat. 25. 58. N.
YOKE, in Agriculture, a frame of wood fitted over the
ech of the oxen, by which they are coupled together, and
latmsed to the plough.
YFke of Land is the space which a yoke of oxen, that
s, itr) oxen, may plough in one day.
YONG-NING, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Yimn, on the borders of Tibet, situated near a fine lake,
fljeaeighbouring country abounds in cows having those
i orlgails with which the great men of China are accus-
<»l)M to adorn themselves. 1095 miles south-west of
kg. Long. 100. 24. E. Lat. 27. 50. N. Of the same
anii there are several other cities, of the second and third
aijlis
Y'-NG -NGAO, a small island near the coast of China,
n pangtong, twenty miles south-south-east of Macao.
YKNG -PE, a city of China, of the first rank, in Y unan,
n a mountainous district, yet fertile, and watered by a fine
ike Long. 100. 34. E. Lat. 26. 42. N.
■NG-PING, a city of China, of the first rank, in Pe-
4ee, on a river which runs into the Gulf of Leao-tong.
It is nvironed by the sea, by rivers, and by mountains co-
■ eie for the most part with fine trees. From the sea it is
upped with great plenty of all the necessaries of life. Not
an ihm the city stands a fort named Chun-hai, which is
e ley of the Tartar province of Leao-tong. Ibis fort is
(Ueirthe eastern extremity of the great wall. 115 miles
;ast f Peking. Long. 118. 34. E. Lat. 39. 55. N.
Y 'NCt-TCHANG, a city of China, of the first rank, in
drin. It is large and populous, and is built in the midst
h ’h mountains, in the neighbourhood of a savage people.
HiBountry produces gold, honey, w'ax, amber, and a vast
uar ty of fine silk. 270 miles south-west of P eking. Long.
9| l E. Lat. 25. 6. N.
PNG-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in
ooquang, forming the most southerly city of the province,
t is • ti lated on a fine river, amid verdant and well-cultivat-
vo. xxr.
YOU 961
ed mountains, particularly abounding in bamboos. 882 miles Yonne
south-west of Peking. Long. 111. 15. E. Lat. 26. 10. N. II
YONNE, a department in the north-east of France, form- York.
ed out of Auxerois in the ancient Burgundy, and Sennois, a^ v ^
part of ancient Champagne. It extends in north latitude
from 47° 22; to 48° 37', and in east longitude from 2° 47'
to 4° 19k It is bounded on the north by the departments
of Seine-Marne and Aube, on the east by Aube and
Cote d’Or, on the south by Nievre, and on the west by
Loiret. It is 2846 square miles in extent, is divided into
five arrondissements, thirty-seven cantons, and 481 com¬
munes, containing 355,237 inhabitants in 1836, all of whom
adhere to the Roman Catholic church. The face of the
country is undulating, with valleys extending between hillsof
moderate height. In the western division, the soil chiefly
consists of clay, which is much covered with wood, and over¬
run with wet marshy pools and ditches. In the south and
east it is calcareous and stony, and in the north a produc¬
tive loam. It is on the whole tolerably fertile, yielding
more corn than is required for the consumption of the in¬
habitants. The climate is mild and peculiarly healthy.
The chief river, from which the department takes the name,
is navigable. It enters from Nievre, flowing from south to
north ; and after receiving the waters of the Vannes, the
Armoncon, the Seray, the Eure, the Voisin, and the Tholon,
it passes into the department of the Seine and Marne.
The canal of Burgundy terminates near to St Florentin, and
the canal of Briare touches a small part of this division of
the kingdom.
The chief occupation is agriculture, and the corn grown
here is of a good quality, especially in the northern part; but
in the east and the south the cultivation of the vine is found
a more beneficial pursuit. A large quantity of excellent
wine is made, especially in the district adjoining to Cote d’Or.
There is nothing remarkable in either their cows or sheep ;
and the cultivation of green crops is very rarely attended
to, the only good pasture being the natural meadows on the
banks of the Yonne. Fruit trees are very abundant, and
yield large annual crops, especially of plums ; and the nuts
and chestnuts are objects for export. The other articles ex¬
ported are wood, charcoal, wine, hay, and live cattle. There
are manufactures of cotton, linen, and woollen ; paper-mills,
tanneries, glass-houses, and potteries; but barely sufficient
lor the home demand, and all upon a contracted scale.
There are some small mines of iron, not yielding more than
300 tons of raw iron, which does not suffice for the supply.
This department elects three deputies to the representative
chamber.
YON-NIM-KIEN Hotun, a town of Chinese Tartary,
on the eastern coast of the Yellow Sea, 263 miles east of
Peking.
YOOL or Yowl Islands, a cluster of small islands in
the Pacific Ocean, so called by Captain Forest in 1774.
They were called, in 1788, Tattee Islands by Mr Meers.
They are situated off the north coast of Wagiou, about the
31st degree of E. long., and are surrounded by coral reefs.
YORK, an English county, by far the largest in the
kingdom. In extent it more than equals the two next
largest counties, viz. Devonshire and Lincoln. According
to the parliamentary returns of 1831, the whole surface
is 5836 square statute miles, or 3,730,040 acres, or nearly
one-ninth part of the southern division of the united king¬
dom. This county is bounded on the east by the German
Ocean ; on the north by the counties of Durham and YVest-
moreland; on the west by the latter county and Lancashire;
and on the south by Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham¬
shire, and Lincolnshire. The river Tees on the north, and
the Humber on the south, are boundaries marked by the
hand of nature, and so, in some degree, are the ranges of
hills on the western sides; but these last are indefinite, and,
like most other divisions of counties, those of Yorkshire
962
YORK.
York.
North
riding.
are mostly imaginary lines, whose position is chiefly ascer-
^ tained by local tradition.
This county is divided into three portions called Ridings,
designated from their positions as the East, the North, and
the West, and one smaller division called the Ainsty of
Y ork, comprehending the city of that name and a district
surrounding it. As the statistical account of the popula¬
tion may be more appropriately shewn under the heads of
the respective divisions, we need here only state the col¬
lective results of the several decennial enumerations that
have been made in the present century. They are as fol¬
lows. In 1801, 858,892; in 1811, 986,174; in 1821,
1,173,187; and in 1831, 1,371,359.
The members of the upper house of parliament taking
their titles from places in the county are the following, viz.
dukes of Richmond, Leeds, and Cleveland; marquis of
Normanby; earls of Doncaster (duke of Buccleuch in
Scotland), of Scarborough, of Pomfret, of Beverley, of
Harewood, and of Ripon; Barons Hawke, Bolton, Ribbles-
dale, Prudhoe, and Wharncliffe. The representatives of
Yorkshire in the House of Commons have been much
altered by the reform act of 1832. The three ridings re¬
turn two members each ; the boroughs of Aldborough,
Boroughbridge, and Hedon, which returned two members
each, have been disfranchised; and Thirsk and Northaller¬
ton, which returned two, now elect but one each. The
large towns of Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, and Halifax,
have been created boroughs, electing two members each,
as well as Wakefield, Whitby, and Huddersfield, which
have one each. The whole county thus returns five more
members than it did before the passing of the act in
question.
The wealth and fertility of Yorkshire are much promoted
by the rivers which in various directions pass through it, and
by the several navigable canals, which either unite the dif¬
ferent branches of those rivers, or draw from them a supply
of water for their immediate use. The Tees forms a boun¬
dary to Yorkshire on the side of Durham, but a very small
portion of its waters is collected from the former county.
In the west riding, the rivers Ribble and Wenning flow
towards the Irish Sea; but they are inconsiderable streams
till they enter Lancashire. All the others that have their
sources in Yorkshire empty themselves into the German
Ocean, in a river then denominated the Ouse, through the
great estuary the Humber. The Ouse is composed of two
small rivers, the Swale and the lire, which unite below
Boroughbridge, and, soon after receiving the waters of the
Nidd, passes by the city of York, to which place it is navi¬
gable. It is soon afterwards increased by the reception
of the Wharfe on its right bank, and of the Derwent on
its left. It then receives the river Aine, whose waters near
Snaith have been increased by those of the Calder and its
numerous tributary rivulets; and soon after, on the same
bank, the river Don, when its breadth is nearly equal to that
ot the Thames. The most important canal is the Leeds and
Liverpool, which connects together, by internal navigation,
the two important ports of Hull and Liverpool, and affords
to the manufacturers facilities of exporting their produc¬
tions from either of those places, as may be most suitable
for the various markets to which they are destined. There
are several shorter canals, which connect the towns with
the navigable rivers, or convey from the coal-mines their
important produce. Many projects for the construction of
railroads through this county have been formed, and some
of the works have been begun; others are yet waiting for
parliamentary or legal decisions; but a few years will pro¬
duce great changes in the modes and facilities of commu¬
nication.
The north riding of Yorkshire is divided into ten wapen¬
takes, two liberties, and the towns of Richmond, Scar¬
borough, and Whitby. The area of the riding is 1,315,200
acres, as measured on the best maps; while that result'
from the returns of each parish is only 1,275,820 a
crepancy that cannot be accounted for. Mr Tuke fo f
years ago estimated the area at 1,311,187 acres, of wJh
442,565 acres were then uncultivated. It is now*supposed
though not ascertained, that more than one half of what
was then classed as uncultivated has, within the last fort
years, been rendered more or less productive.
The population at the four decennial enumerations has
been found to be, in 1801, 158,225; in 1811, 169 391. •
1821, 187,452; and in 1831, 190,756. At the last of these
periods, the males were 93,203, and the females 97 553
The families were 40,760, of whom 17,964 were chiefly
employed in agriculture, 11,298 in trade or handicraft, and
11,498 were not comprised in either of the preceding classes.
The number of males at that time under twenty years of
age was 47,396 ; the occupiers of land employing labourers
was 4950, of those not employing labourers 4334; the
labourers employed in agriculture were 14,646; the persons
employed in manufactures, or in making manufacturing
machinery, were 1009; those employed in retail trade or
handicraft, as masters or workmen, 12,749; the capitalists,
bankers, professional or other educated men, 1870; the
labourers employed in labour not agricultural, 4391; other
males twenty years of age, excepting servants, 2836; male
servants twenty years of age, 615; and under twenty years,
229. The female servants were 9261.
The land on the sea-shore is generally lofty, and the
cliffs precipitous, varying in height from one hundred and
fifty to nine hundred feet. Within this narrow sea-boun¬
dary is a tract called the Eastern Moorlands, about thirty
miles from east to west, and fifteen from north to south.
It is apparently a barren country, penetrated with some
beautiful and fertile valleys, which are indeed narrow; but
the hills that rise on both sides of them are cultivated
nearly to the top. Rosebury-Topping, a mountain whose
summit is 1480 feet above the level of the sea, overlooks
the beautiful vale of Cleveland, and the other parts of the
western division of this riding, especially the rich and pic¬
turesque districts in the vicinity of Boroughbridge and
Richmond. The western moorlands are superior in ferti¬
lity to the eastern. Some of the dales in this district are
celebrated for their beauty and fertility, particularly Wens-
ley Dale, Swale Dale, and some of the smaller sheltered
hi :
''“Yv.
spots.
The cultivation varies so much that it is difficult to give
even an outline of the different practices. The greater
portion of the land is in pasture. In Cleveland and Rye
Dale the best wheats are grown ; and the average produce
is somewhat more than twenty-three bushels to an acre.
Barley is not much grown, nor rye, except on poor and
sandy soils. Oats are extensively cultivated, and great
crops are produced in Rye Dale and some other of the
vales. They are chiefly consumed in the manufacturing dis¬
tricts, where they form the food of the greater part of the
labourers. In many parts of this riding, a mixture of wheat
and rye is sown: this corn is commonly known by the name
of meslin, and is made into flour, of which the bread of al¬
most the whole district is composed. The breeding and fat¬
tening of cattle, and the operations of the dairy, are of more
importance to this riding than the growth of corn. The
J Jt-'V-’*■ 1 1 v.l 111 ^ lyi JCvll 1 -
cows are generally of the short-horned kind, and they are
- » • ’ • > 1 u.__ The
of small size, but clean made, and fine in the bone,
average weight of the oxen, when fat, is about forty stone-
r 1 '1— — —1~_  .*11 .1 /'•.T 111 — —
The sheep are still mostly of the old large coarse-
  i- . .- . J .i.— ^ual
race, but improvements are proceeding by the gra^"~
mixture of the Dishley and Northumberland breeds, t he
n ... In tbfi
mixture or tne uismey ana lyortnumDerianu oieeuo. ----
fine wool clipped in this district is mostly consumed in t e
J ^ ^ n 1 • • .1 1 -i***-'* of whicn
domestic manufactures of hosiery, in the knitting 1
the females are very generally occupied. .
The whole of Yorkshire has been long celebrated for 1s
YORK.
attr tion to the breeds of horses, but the chief seat for were 2398; the labourers employed in other than agricul-
reamg them is in the north riding. The horses of Cleve- tural work were 4663; other males twenty years of aee
lan i being clean made, strong, and active, are well calcu- /'* *  ~~ J *
]at(» for draft; those of the vale of York, by the introduc-
tioi of the racing blood, are fitter for the saddle. The
963
York.
vali of the eastern moorlands rear many horses of a smaller
butiseful breed.
(except servants) were 2627; the male servants twenty
years of age were 625, and those under that age 234; the
female servants were 6285.
This division of Yorkshire is not marked by any strong
. . . . or peculiarly striking features, though in some few parts
•tie mineral productions ot this division of Yorkshire are the scenery is good, and, including the sea-views, the pros-
notof great account. To the west of Richmond some lead pects near the coast are rather pleasing. The riding may
mii:s are advantageously worked. Iron and copper have be divided into three parts, as far as regards its productive
ben formerly raised. The former metal is still produced powers. The first is a tract of level land, extending from
ne. Whitby and Scarborough, but the mines of the latter the river Humber to nearly the northern boundary of the
ambandoned. Coal is found in various parts of the riding, district. This is in part a rich soil, and, including Holder-
butthe quantity is small and the quality bad; and hence
thi chief supply of fuel is obtained from Durham. The
me valuable mineral production is alum, which is collected
ans prepared in large quantities at different works on the
norhern shore of the riding.
his division of Yorkshire can scarcely be viewed as a
miiufaeturing district. The greatest portion of those
en loyed in making goods are weavers of linen, which is
a nd of domestic industry, in no one place employing
ness, contains some of the best feeding land in this island.
I he next division is the Wolds, running from north to
south, parallel to the former. They are a range of chalky
hills, elevated above the level country about 600 feet. The
soil is rather a light and chalky loam, in some places mixed
with gravel, in others with clay. The extent is from 300,000
to 400,000 acres. Thirty years ago, a very small portion of
these Wolds was cultivated; but of late years much of it has
been enclosed, and converted into corn-land. The want of
mtie than 120 persons, and the whole of them not exceed- good roads is still felt in this part of the country, though
infiiOO. Ship-building, and the attendant operations of the materials for making such roads are abundant and near
maing ropes, sail-cloth, and iron-work, employ many
basis in and near Whitby; and on that part of the coast,
atlhe proper season, the herring-fishery affords some oc-
cuntion.
he most striking remains of antiquity in the riding are
So’borough Castle, and the abbeys of Rievaulx, Byland,
an Whitby.
fllmong a vast number of seats of noblemen and gentle-
m i, some of the most conspicuous and celebrated are,
Bhopsthorpe, archbishop of York; Castle Howard, earl of
Cdisle; Buncombe Park, Lord Feversham; Hornby Castle,
diie of Leeds; Kirkleatham Hall, Sir Charles Turner,
Bit.; Marske Hall, Honourable L. Dundas; Mulgrave
Ctle, the marquis of Normanby; Newby Park, Earl de
G:y; Brompton, Sir George Cayley, Bart.; Rokeby, J.
Bi S. Morritt, Esq.; Gersham, duke of Cleveland; and
Ake, earl of Zetland
at hand. The third natural division of the east riding
extends from the western foot of the Wolds to the boun¬
daries of the north and west ridings. This tract, com¬
monly called the Levels, is everywhere flat and unpic-
turesque. The soil is various, but in general of a clayey
nature. From Gilberdike to Howden it is very heavy; and
though the country is well covered with villages and ham¬
lets, it is extremely dirty, disagreeable, and difficult to
travel over.
No part of England shews more proofs of recent agricultu¬
ral improvements than this riding of Yorkshire. The Wolds
have been, by paring and burning, changed from sheep
pasture into corn-bearing land. In the low lands great
improvements have also been made; extensive tracts, for¬
merly flooded a great part of the year, and scarcely pro¬
ducing any thing but rushes, have been drained, and are
covered with such crops of grain that the value of the land
[ lie largest towns in the riding, and the population of has been increased in a most extraordinary degree. 4 he
tlm in 1831, were these: Scarborough, 8369; Whitby, Wolds, in their former state, were very well adapted for
7li3; Malton, 4173; Richmond, 3900; Northallerton, breeding horses; but in their present improved state are
31)4; Thirsk, 2838; Pickering, 2555. The elections for more profitable as affording pasture for sheep and as grow-
tll riding are held at the city of York; and the other ing corn. The warrens for rabbits were formerly very nu-
ptling places are Malton, Scarborough, Whitby, Stokes- merous and extensive, but, lor the most part, are now more
14 Gaisborough, Romaldkirk, Richmond, Askrigg, Thirsk, productive by being covered with herbage of a better
ISrthallerton, and Kirby Moorside. quality. The farms especially on the M olds, and in the
The east riding of the county of York is divided into six southern parts of Holderness, are generally arge, renting
vnentakes, the borough of Beverley, and the town and from L 200 to L.2000 per annum The climate of the
trough of Kingston-upon-Hull. The area of this the east riding varies considerably. Near the coast, the air
smallest of the three ridings, as measured on the map, is is co d, and frequently charged with dense fogs. On the
74,160 acres, but the returns from parishes is only 711,360 Wolds the cold is more severe, and the snow lies onger ;
a es, the difference probably arising from roads and rivers but to the westward of the hills, the air is uarm and moist,
r being included in the computation. ten s to Proc uce aSues- a ‘
The population at the four decennial enumerations has riding, and no manufactures, except the s mmn^of flax
*1 ... v.. • iom i m ooo . ion 075 ; in which is performed by the ancient method, and is carried
V number of fambies w^'36,960, of whom 13,02^were Cy years as much as
oiefly employed in agriculture, 10,823 in trade, manuiac ,. _ nlirin<T thit nnrind its no-
fes, and handicraft, and 13,110 were noj “"LTon'll been more than doubled, and its mercantile
.her of these classes. The number of *‘and ^ppin? and other proper,y have been increased far beyond
jlenty years of age was 41,184.  — , . ,
jiiploying labourers were 3331, and those not employing 1 p^s'ive docks have been constructed for the reception
bourers were 1661 ; the labourers employed in ^ric l ‘ yes . and for affording facilities in the landing and
lire were 19.797 : the nersnns emnloved in manufactures, , * i .i,
964
YORK
York
West
^ trade of nu]1 consists in the importation from Russia, Swe-
W den’ and Denmark, of naval stores, and the other produc¬
tions of those countries, and in the exportation to them of
the manufactured goods produced in the counties of York,
Lancaster, Derby, Chester, and Nottingham, with which
the town is connected by means of canal and river-naviga¬
tion. The same description of trade is carried on between
Dull and the ports of Holland and Germany as exists be¬
twixt it and the towns on the Baltic Sea. Although these
are the most ancient and the most natural sources of the
commerce of Hull, yet to them it is by no means confined.
Considerable trade is carried on with the United States of
America, with the West Indies, with the ports of the Medi¬
terranean, with Spain and Portugal, and recently with South
America. I he building and equipping of ships is a source
of great employment, and some ships as large as those with
74 guns were built here during the war. Many vessels be¬
longing to Hull shipowners are to be hired for freight, and
may be found in almost every part of the globe. The whale-
fishery has, from the first years of the discovery of Green¬
land, been pursued by the inhabitants of Hull, but with
pre-eminent success ever since the year 1766, when an indi¬
vidual merchant of that town gave an impulse to that branch
of industry, by which its prosperity has been much pro¬
moted. In order to promote the internal trade of this divi¬
sion Oi the county, the town of Goole, on the river Ouse,
has, by a recent act of parliament, been made a custom-"
house and bonding port. Many ships now repair to it to
load and discharge cargoes, from its being near to the chief
seat of the manufacturing districts, where the population is
the most dense, and where is the greatest production as
well as consumption of various articles of merchandize.
I he trade with the interior, by the different rivers that
empty their waters into the Humber, and by the canals
that connect these rivers with each other, is of an extent
which has no parallel in any other part of Europe, where
their rivets have a course of navigation of much oreater
length. 0
The most interesting objects in this division of Yorkshire
are the natural caves at Flamborough Head, York Minster,
Howden Church, Kirkham Priory, Bridlington Priory, and
Trinity Church in Hull.
The most distinguished seats of noblemen and gentle¬
men are Wressle Castle, Colonel Wyndham; Birdsal, Lord
Middleton ; Boynton, Sir William Strickland ; Cave Castle,
H. L. Barnard, Esq.; Burton Constable, Francis Constable,
Esq.; Hotham, 11. C. Burton, Esq.; Ragwell, D. Sykes,
Esq.; Sledmere, Sir M. M. Sykes, Bart.; Woodhouse, Ro¬
bert Denison, Esq.; Melburn, Sir Henry Vavasour, Bart.;
and Scampson, Sir William St Quintin, Bart.
The election for members of parliament for the east rid-
ing is held at Beverley; and the other polling places are
Hull, Driffield, Pockhngton, Bridlington, Howden, Hedon,
and Settrington.
The principal towns and their inhabitants in 1831 were,
Hull town, 32,958, but including its very large suburb
Sculcoates with 13,468, and Sutton with 4383 inhabi¬
tants, the population of the port was 50,809; Beverley
SfiO5 BridIinSt0n’ 4792; Howden» 4531; and Driffield^
I he west riding of the county very far exceeds the other
two m extent, population, wealth, and activity. It is di¬
vided into nine wapentakes; and beside these, a small
district is, for election purposes, comprehended in this rid¬
ing, although some parts of it are situated in the other two
ridings. The division of this part, called the Ainsty ofthe
city of lork, comprehends the city itself and eighteen other
parishes, whose extent is 54,400 acres. Leaving out this
Ainsty, the west riding contains 2576 square statute miles,
or 1,648,640 acres. The population at the four decennial
enumerations was found to be, in 1801, 565,282; in 1811,
655,350; in 1821, 801,274; and in 1831, 976 3 50 Af v
last of these periods, the males were 485,812 amiiW ,e Yo!t
490,538; the families were 198.646. nfwK,™ ai , ®males^
490,538; the families were 198,646, of whom 31 ]rq
dnefly employed in agriculture, 118,733 were engageTin
trade and manufactures, and 48,725 not comprised iS"
of the other two classes. Th^ r,,,™!,™ . , n eit‘ler
The rmmber males a T
time under twenty years of age was 231,666; theorr,
filers of land employing labourers were 7096 • thP •
of land not employing labourers were 10,636; thelaboZ8
employed in agriculture were 24,502; those person Z
ployed in manufactures, or in making manufacturing m“'
thoS? emPloyed i" retail ,rK
’  “ —ui lerau trac
nancucratt, as masters or workmen, were 60 109 • thp
talists, bankers, professional and other educated men, 2e
16 l]abourt7s employed in labour not agricultural
33,685; other males twenty years of age fexcentimr c ’
vants) 10,366; male servants twenty years of a^e 2249
wnereU22>eir0t7TeD‘J'yearSOf aS°’ 1085 ‘ the fe“'e
1 he fare of the country furnishes scenes strikingly con
trasted. The eastern portion, stretched along the banks of
the Ouse, is generally a flat, moist, and marshy district in
®°me Parts fruitful, but in all uninteresting to the tourist.
e middle part, as far as Sheffield, Bradford, and Otlev
is an undulating country, finely varied, and rising gradually
till it reaches the most western portion, which is very rugged
and mountainous. Beyond Sheffield, black moors are the
only objects, till Blackstone Ledge is reached, on the con¬
fines of Lancashire. The western part of Craven presents
heaps of rocks and mountains in the most picturesque forms
and situations. Pennygant, Wharnside, and Ingleborough,
the most conspicuous of these, may be classed among
the loftiest mountains in England. According to the Tri¬
gonometrical Survey of Colonel Mudge, the height of
Wharnside is 2263 feet, of Pennygant, 2270, and ofingle-
borough, 2361. Amidst the hilly and mountainous tracts
or this riding are many romantic and some sequestered
valleys, presenting the most beautiful scenery. The most
extensive of these are Netherdale, watered by the Nid,
Vv haifdale, and the vale of Aire; but many of the smaller
vales vie with them in picturesque beauty, and, being
generally enclosed, well wooded, and thickly studded with
villages and houses, present, from the surrounding emi¬
nences, the most enchanting prospects, combining often in
the same view the most sublime and the most lively of
lural scenery. The roads from Knaresborough or Ripon
to Pateley Bridge, from Tadcaster to Otley and Skipton,
from Leeds by Bradford and Keighley to Skipton, from
Bradford to Halifax, and from Halifax by Dewsbury to
Wakefield, unfold some of the finest scenery that can be
seen in this island. The climate of this riding is very
much varied ; in the eastern part, near the Ouse, it is warm
and moist; in the middle district the air is sharp, clear,
and generally considered healthy; in the western parts the
climate is cold, tempestuous, and rainy. The mountains
of Craven and the moors near Blackstone Ledge are the
most foggy, rainy, and stormy districts in England, though
the climate is considered to be salubrious to those of sound
constitutions, and the inhabitants have a robust and healthy
appearance.
A very great portion of the land of this riding is pos¬
sessed by small proprietors, although some few- noblemen
have extensive tracts of land. Most of the occupancies are
rather small; none is large; the greater part are less than
fifty acres. A great part is kept exclusively in grass, and
used for the dairy or for fattening cattle. On the arable
lands a greater quantity of wheat is raised than of any other
grain. It is mostly of the red kind, and is sown after fallow
or turnips, but sometimes on a clover ley. Rye is not cul¬
tivated to any great extent. Barley is raised in much less
quantities than wheat. Oats are cultivated to a great ex-
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Y O R
;ent,,)ut little attention is paid to procuring the best seed,
u;i oatmeal forms the chief part of the food of the inha-
itaru, especially in the more western parts of the riding,
’easare not much raised, nor beans, except on the moorish
oils iear the Ouse. The turnip husbandry is not so exten-
iveljpractised as good farming requires; and where it is
mrstd, it is generally executed in a slovenly and imper-
ect nanner. Great crops of potatoes are raised in the
art if the riding below the junction of the river Aire with
he Gse. In the same part of the country much flax is
row, the preparation of the land for which employs the
ibou. of many hands, as does the dressing and preparing
lie aticle for market. Rape for making oil, and woad for
'betters, are both cultivated in this riding, but not to any
rcaflextent. The waste lands in the west riding were
jstirrted about twenty-five years ago at 400,000 acres, of
bid 250,000 were considered capable of profitable im-
rovaient, and the rest fit for no other purpose but that
pi iting. Since that period much marsh land has been
rafDjI, many commons enclosed, and some bleak hills
annl with Scotish firs and larches. Vast improvement has
eeojnade on some large tracts of land by the operation
call called warping, which is performed by permitting
rer, at the highest of the tide, to overflow the land,
ch mud with which the turbid rivers abound is depo-
cd n the surface, and each return of tide increases the
artbhus deposited, so that a depth of alluvial soil of four-
jenjiches has been raised by this means on a field which
reviiisly was of very little value. The lands thus im-
rove are so enriched that they will yield abundant crops
>r sf/eral successive years without any manure. The
ora# cattle, sheep, and horses of the west riding have no
stir uishing characteristics, but vary in kind, as in the
Ther wo ridings. The same care is not here exercised in
tnprting the breed of horses as in the other two divisions
Ydikshire. The agriculture of this division, if it has not
en o rapidly progressive as in some other parts of Eng-
Und,[las much improved within the last twenty years;
r»d bnce, though in that period the population has in-
caffil fifty per cent., yet the quantity of corn required
ona ither districts for its subsistence is scarcely greater
ianj; the first period.
In his division of Yorkshire the mines produce great
uanlies of coal, ironstone, and lead, and vast quarries of
mesme. The coal and limestone indeed appear to be
mo! inexhaustible. The limestone district commences
th tract between Doncaster and Tadcaster, and extends
th,western limits of the county. The coal-mines are
ostWmerous between Leeds and Wakefield, and in the
iglilourhood of Bradford, Barnsley, and Sheffield, al-
ouj; there are many in other parts of the riding. Iron
foiid in the greatest quantities near Bradford, and often
tb same mine with coal. The best strata of coals
thse found under the seams of iron, at a depth from
O|20 Jr 240 feet below the surface. The chief mines of
am e at Grassington, a manor belonging to the duke of
>evcqshire, about ten miles to the westward of Pateley
ridg. It is more owing to the abundant supply of fuel
mill any other single cause, that so much manufacturing
jilusty has been developed in this part of Yorkshire, as
t] ell ii in the neighbouring county of Lancaster.
. Tit great branches of industry which have so rapidly
(Sojid and so vastly enriched the west riding of \ork-
ir&ire the several manufactures that have been esta-
( islw in every part of it. Scarcely a hamlet, or even a
)ust,is to be found wherein some part of one or other of
ft’e
Tuke’s Agriculture of the North Riding; Rennie, Brown,
azefltr, by Hargrove; Topographical Dictionary of Yorkshire, by
)gl» and Wales.
Y O R
the occupations of manufacture, or of those subservient to
it, are not seen in different stages of progress. The iron
and other hardware goods are produced at Sheffield, Ro¬
therham, and all the villages in the vicinity of those towns.
A little to the northward, the large towns of Leeds, Hali¬
fax, Bradford, Huddersfield, Wakefield, and the overflow¬
ing villages of Almondbury, Kirk-Heaton, Birstall, Dews¬
bury, with many other places, are devoted to the production
of woollen, worsted, cotton, and some linen goods. The
progress of the two last fabrics, especially that of linen
goods, has been most remarkable since the introduction of
power-looms for weaving, and the improvements in machi¬
nery for spinning flax. To enumerate the various articles
produced by the manufacturers of this most industrious of
our districts, would be to copy a catalogue of almost every
thing adapted to the use of civilized life.
The most remarkable remains of antiquity in this riding
are Selby Abbey, Knaresborough Castle, Fountain’s Abbey,
Skipton Castle, Bolton Priory, Kirkstall Abbey, Conisbrough
Castle, and Roche Abbey.
In proportion to the great extent of the west riding of
Yorkshire, it contains more seats of noblemen and gentle¬
men of distinguished beauty than any other part of Great
Britain. Our limits do not allow of our even noticing one-
tenth part of them, but the most remarkable are the follow¬
ing : Wentworth House, Earl Fitzwilliam; Harewood,
earl of Harewood; Farnley Hall, Walter Fawkes, Esq.;
Ripley Castle, Sir William Ingilby; Metheley Park, Lord
Mexborough; Gisborne Park, Lord Ribblesdale; Sand-
beck, earl of Scarborough ; Studley Royal, Miss Lawrence ;
Ribstone Hall, Sir Henry Goodricke, Bart.; Copgrove,
Henry Duncombe, Esq.; Bramham Park, James Lane
Fox, Esq.; Wentworth Castle, Henry Vernon, Esq.; Cus-
worth Hall, William Wrightson, Esq.; Campsall, Bacon
Frank, Esq.; Wortley Hall,LordWharncliffe;and Topcliffe,
Earl de Grey.
The towns of the west riding whose population exceeded
10,000 persons in 1831 were, Leeds, 123,393; Halifax
(parish), 109,854; Sheffield, 91,692; Bradford, 23,223;
Dewsbury, 19,854; Huddersfield, 19,035; Saddleworth,
15,986; Wakefield, 12,232; Keighley, 11,176; Doncaster,
10,572; Rotherham, 10,417; Barnsley, 10,330.
The riding returns two members to parliament; and the
polls are taken at the following places, viz. Wakefield, Shef¬
field, Doncaster, Snaith, Huddersfield, Halifax, Bradford,
Barnsley, Leeds, Keighley, Settle, Knaresborough, Skip-
ton. Pateley Bridge, and Dent.1
York, a very ancient city, the capital of the county of
the same name. It is 198 miles from London, and 201 from
Edinburgh. This city ranks as the second in the kingdom,
and is said to have been founded by Ebrancus, 983 years
before the Christian era. In form it is very similar to
Rome, the river Jibor (now called the Ouse) running di¬
rectly through it. Little is known of its history till the
year of our Lord 150, when it was one of the greatest Ro¬
man stations in the province, having an imperial palace, a
tribunal, and a regular government within its walls, the
same as at Rome. In 207 the emperor Severus under¬
took an expedition to Britain, and lost 50,000 men in
defeating the Britons at York. He lived in the palace
three years, and died there. His body was burnt on
an elevated ground near the city, now called Severus’s
Hill, and his ashes were sent to Rome. He was succeeded
by his sons, Caracalla and Geta, the former of whom mur¬
dered the latter in York, and returned to Rome. About
a century after, Carausius landed in Britain, and was pro-
and Sheriff’s West Riding; and Latham’s East Riding; Yorkshire
Langdale ; Parliamentary Population Returns; Bigland’s Beauties of
965
York.
966
Y O R
York
claimed emperor at York. He was slain by his friend
A cctus, who in his turn was slain by the emperor Con-
stantius, father of Constantine the Great, the latter of
whom was born in York in 272, and left it in the fourth
century. Constantins died in the palace at York in 307.
In the twentieth year of the reign of Constantine, Octavius,
king of the Britons, rebelled, but was subdued. Being
afterwards joined by the Scots, he defeated the Romans.
ntain was then connected with Gaul, and Constantine
divided it into three parts, York remaining the metropo¬
lis. Constantine soon after this left Britain, and removed
the seat of government to Byzantium. The Piets and
Scots now rushed upon the Britons, and the latter engaged
the assistance of the Saxons. York was consequently the
scene of many a deadly conflict, Britons, Saxons, and
Danes struggling for dominion, till William the Conq ueror
came and took possession of the English crown. In all
the subsequent national troubles York has had her share,
and was particularly conspicuous during the civil wars of
Chailes the First. The walls, gates, and posterns are
to a considerable degree still remaining, and possess high
and gratifying interest to the passing stranger. The walls,
which are three miles in circumference, have a delightful
promenade on the top of them, which commands a beauti¬
ful prospect of the surrounding country.
The civil government of the city, under the municipal cor¬
poration act, which divides it into six wards, is vested in a
mayor (who still retains the title of lord mayor), twelve al-
dei men, and thirty-five councillors. There are also a re¬
corder, town clerk, and prothonotary. The city gives the
title of duke of York to the second son of the sovereign,
and returns two members to parliament. The aldermen
were formerly justices of the peace, but the magistrates
are now appointed by the crown. The situation of York is
on a pleasant and healthy plain, through which flow two
rivers, the Ouse and the Foss. They are both navigable;
but the former is the more important river, and, joining the
Humber at no great distance, has a direct communication
with the main ocean. There are two markets every week,
one on Thursday, the other on Saturday. The latter is the
principal, and is always plentifully supplied. There for¬
merly was a division in connection with York, entitled the
A in sty, or County of the City. It was formed by King Rich¬
ard in 1392. This division included thirty-five towns and
villages. In 1837, however, this county of the city being
joined to the west riding of Yorkshire, was parcelled into
the eastern or York division, and into the western or Tad-
caster division ; the townships of the former to attend spe¬
cial and petty sessions at the castle of York, those of the
latter at. Tadcaster. here is another distinct and impor¬
tant division of the city, connected with the cathedral or
church of St Peter, and called the Liberty of St Peter.
In this division district courts are held, and magistrates
preside, in connection with both ecclesiastical and common
law.
The minster or cathedral stands the foremost among
the public buildings of the city, and is worthy of the at¬
tention of every stranger. It is unquestionably the finest
Gothic building of the kind in Europe ; and in every respect
may be pronounced, both as regards the interior and the
exterior, truly imposing and magnificent. It was first found¬
ed in 626, by Edwin the Saxon king of Northumberland,
and through succeeding ages has been enlarged, repaired,
and improved, with great taste, and with a uniformity which
is highly creditable to all concerned. Our limits will not
allow of a minute description, but we may venture to give
a brief outline. The nave, from the west end to the door
of the choir, is 261 feet long, 109 feet wide, and ninety-
nine feet high. 1 he windows of the nave are long, narrow,
and pointed, containing representations of some of the
apostles, archbishops, &c. Near the south entrance 273
Y O R
winding steps lead to the summit of the princinal
from which there is a splendid view of the citv and I T’
hmirknnri ’Tn~ ^ _ c.iy ana neigh-
Ih.e>,d7-0f *?. comprises^eight
arches, the principal part of the western towers bpin^31
ported by columns. Over the arches runs a curious I
lery. On each side, and beyond the choir, are the ‘
ments, many of which are highly interesting. In 741
minster suffered much by fire. It was repaired, and in £
during the siege by the Northumbrians and Danes '
the victim of that unsparing element. Being’rebuih i!
remained the admiration of every beholder, till June 1 iW
when a tremendous fire in the city consumed it, St Man’’
Abbey, and thirty-nine parish churches. It was partly re
built in 1171, and was subsequently enlarged, h im I
choir was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a maniac, who hid
imself behind a tomb after the evening service, and effected
his purpose when all the vergers had departed. He was
apprehended, tried, found guilty, and sent for confineme
during life to the Criminal Lunatic Asylum, St GeorS
f ields, London, where he died in 1838. The choir was
repaired by subscription; and in May 1840, afire broke
out m the south tower of the western front. The flames
quickly spread, and the fire continued all night, leavine that
tower and the roof of the nave a complete wreck, the very
excellent peal of bells having also been destroyed. On
inquiry, it was discovered that a person from Leeds, who
had been engaged to repair the clock, had been careless
with his candle, and that it had communicated with a quan¬
tity of combustible matter on the floor, but that no inten-
tion to do mischief had ever been entertained. A sub¬
scription was again commenced, and the work of restora¬
tion is now rapidly advancing. We have already stated
that the minster was founded in 626. We may here ob¬
serve, that Paulinus was the first archbishop, having been
instituted the previous year, and that from that tfme to
the present there have been no fewer than eighty-three
archbishops; tne present being the Hon. Edward Vernon
Harcourt, who was translated to the see in 1808. The
archbishop of York is primate and metropolitan of England,
and has the honour of crowning the queen, and of preach¬
ing the sermon at the coronation of the king. There are
twenty-three churches in York, in addition to the cathe-
dial; four Methodist chapels ; three Independent chapels;
two Quakers’ meeting-houses; one Catholic chapel, and a
nunnery, with extensive premises occupied as a Catholic
ladies school; a Unitarian chapel; and a Primitive Metho¬
dist chapel.
Among the charitable institutions of the city, we may
mention the County Lunatic Asylum; the Retreat, for
the same purpose, established by the Society of Friends;
fourteen hospitals or alms-houses for poor widows, &c.;
the County Hospital for the sick ; the Eye Institution; the
School for the Blind ; the Blue-Coat Boys’ and Grey-Coat
Girls’ Schools, &c. &c. The other objects of public interest
are, the city-walls, the castle, the ruins of Clifford’s Tower,
the ruins of St Mary’s Abbey, the Yorkshire Museum and
Gardens, the Assembly Rooms, the public cemetery, &c.
York has also its railway stations, very splendidly built,
under the direction of George Hudson, Esq., the spirited
chairman of the York and North Midland Company. They
are connected both with the north, the west, and the
south ; and the city is altogether improving beyond what
has been known in former years. The population of York
and its suburbs, according to the census of 1831, amount¬
ed to 35,362, viz. 16,510 males, and 18,852 females; the
population of the city, exclusively of the suburbs, was
26,260, viz. 11,989 males, and 14,271 females. According
to the census of 1841, the population of the city alone is
nearly 30,000.
Y ork Cape, the north-eastern promontory of Newr Hol¬
land, consisting of a double point, one of which is situat-
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YOU
YOU
edh long. 141. 36. E. and lat. 10. 37. S.; the other in lat. tinction. This poem was inscribed to Queen Anne, but
1042. S. the dedication does not now appear. About the same time
'ork Islands, three small islands in the South Pacific he produced “ The Force of Religion, or Vanquished Love,” ^
Odin, near York Cape, on the north coast of New Hoi- founded on the history of Lady Jane Grey and Lord Guil-
lauf. ford- It was inscribed to the countess of Salisbury, but,
■ork, New. See New York. as usual, he denied a place to the dedication among his
'O-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in works. An entire poem on the death of the queen and
Hnquang, situated on the great river Yang-tse-kiang, the accession of George II. he also suppressed. In 1714
whre it connects with the large lake of Tong-ting. It is he took the degree of LL. B., and five years afterwards
on of the most populous and trading cities in the empire, that of LL. D. When the Codrington Library was found-
Th neighbourhood is fertile, and abounds in fruit. Long, ed in 1716, Young was appointed to deliver a Latin oration,
11, 35. E. Lat. 29. 23. N. which he dedicated to the ladies of the Codrington family.
OUGANE, a river of Asiatic Russia, in the govern- The selection of Young to compose this harangue speaks
m<,t of Tobolsk. It rises in the district of Narym, and favourably of his academical attainments; but it is said that
afti’ passing through a lake of the same name, falls into his moments of relaxation were passed in such a manner
th*Obi. that he reflected upon them afterwards with little compla-
OUGHAL, a town in the county of Cork, is situated cency. But whatever was the nature or amount of the
abut 140 statute miles from Dublin, and lies on the shore indiscretions into which he was betrayed, Dr Tindall, a
of harbour of the same name, into which, at spring-tides, fellow of All Souls, was unsuccessful in his attempts at
ve els of 400 or 500 tons burthen can enter. It is of great making him a convert to infidelity.
an quity, and was formerly a place of strength. The old Young’s next patron was the duke of Wharton, “ the
wt s in great part remain, and still form, on the summit of scorn and wonder of his days.” His grace was stained with
thihill to the westward, the boundary of the town. Owing every vice but that of avarice, which, however, in the eye
toihe very abrupt rise of this hill, the town is confined be- of Young, w^as probably the most heinous of all. From a
twen it and the water, and can only extend itself in the passage in his letter to Richardson on original composition,
diiction of its length from north to south; but in both it is conjectured that Young accompanied the duke to Ire-
tht,e directions it has outgrown its ancient limits, which land in 1717. Two years afterwards was brought upon
an there only to be traced by partial remains of the walls, the stage at Drury Lane the tragedy of Busiris. This, or
Y ighal, notwithstanding its vicinity to Cork, which will some other play of Young’s, is referred to in a number of
numbly prevent its ever rising into any great commercial the Englishman so far back as 1713. It probably lay for
ireortance, has yet a considerable trade with England, six years on the manager’s shelf, and was at last taken
pt icularly in the export of agricultural produce. It con- down in deference to the suggestion of Wharton, or some
taed, according to the census of 1831, about 9600 inhabi- other competent judge of dramatic writing, whose opinion
3, and 1200 houses, being, on an average, exactly eight on that or any other subject it might have been inexpedient
• - 1 • ■ :  to controvert. The first edition of Busiris contains a dedi¬
cation to the duke of Newcastle, which is only to be found
in the copies of that impression.
About this time, Young entered the family of the earl
of Exeter as tutor to Lord Burleigh. This employment
967
Young,
Edward.
tc house. The increase of population in ten years is sup¬
ped to have been about 1000, but is not very accurately
kn wn. When the census was taken, there were only six
h« ses building. The greater part of the town belongs to
til duke of Devonshire
f OUNG, Edward, born at Upham in Hampshire, in he quitted at the solicitation of Wharton, wdio, among other
J ie 1681, was the son of Dr Edward Young, who after- unequivocal tokens of his favour, paid him the compliment
wds became dean of Salisbury. The son was educated of accompanying him to Oxford, where, at his recommen-
o the foundation at Winchester, but he did not succeed dation, he defrayed the expense of a range of buildings
ten fellowship at New College, Oxford. In 1703, he was then unfinished at All Souls College. In 17H was acted
inti ted by thewarden of that college, a friend of his father’s, “ The Revenge,” the most successful of Young s three tra-
tolive at his lodge until he should be qualified to stand gedies, and the only one that retains possession of the stage,
fna fellowship at All Souls. He had scarcely availed him- The Revenge is dedicated to the duke of Wharton, w 10m
sf'of this acceptable offer, when death deprived Mm ^
b'hopCTennison1^iiei708ntto a^aw-fehowsh^Mrf’ AU Souls, tales, already suffictently mvotvea, were tnreaieneu w.u.
oinop lenmson, in wuo, io “-y1 e arlrlitinnal nernlexitv bv some unsatisfied claims of Young.
Bother had n°w been dead for three yea^. ^ ^ ^ X'crKsuLitted i, to the decision of iJd
In 1712, Young commenced hs p , TJarf]wirke whether the arrears of two annuities of one
ibllSat3,“ “ew Htfi“poPen, was hundred pounds each, granted to Young by the duke,
jpru j-'ansaowne ; one ul uic   —
iuie raised in one day to the dignity of the peerage. *. ^"Y^roanUof which were for money advanced to the de
h lordship had half of the talent and virtue ascribed o niands, many^^ t0 his <;ath, Dr Young swore
hn by the poet, the nation ought to have been reconc ^ ^ ^ one hundred p0unds for life as the tutor of
con the catholic principle of supererogation, to >e Burleigh, at the pressing entreaty of the duke, who
tpeh ; but Young became ashamed of this lavish paneg} , mised t0 provide more amply for him. It also appeared
auhe did of many succeeding ones, and suppressed . I Wharton had given him a bond for six hundred
. • same year appeared “ The Last Day,” !« °f wh.cl himgfor the espense8 „f a contested
1,1 been previously printed m the Taller. Although he pounj, ^ &r wMch place he had stood candi-
Cntemplated a period when human grandeur anu e unsuccessfully, at the duke’s request, and in consi-
fance must meet on equal terms, he had no apprehension f ” take orders and accept of two liv-
<uhe speedy consummation of all things, and drew nt • • ti 0f All Souls College. Lord Hardwicke’s deci-
wh becoming reverence to the fountain of sublunary dis- mgs in the gut ot mi o
968
rdwiln’ •SI°n. WaS ^atal .t0 tb5 bond’ as every man must be supposed,
- c jl1 f le estimation of the law, to endeavour to get into par¬
liament with the sole view of serving his country. As to
the livings, they were not actually held, and no man can
be said to relinquish what he never possessed. But the
abandonment of the pecuniary advantages enjoyed by Young
in the Exeter family at the time the grant was made by the
duke, was pronounced to be a consideration as legal as if
money had been paid down. The chancellor therefore
directed the arrears of his annuities to be paid out of the
funds remaining in the hands of the trustees.
In 1719, he published “ A Paraphrase on a part of the
llook of Job. Of his seven satires, entitled “ Love of Fame,
t ie Universal Passion,” we have not seen the original edi¬
tions, but they probably appeared between the years 1725
and 1728. The satires were followed by “ Ocean, an Ode,”
occasioned by the new king’s speech, which recommends
the encouragement of seamen to enter the service volun¬
tarily. This production he wisely excluded from the col¬
lection of his works. In 1728, he entered into holy orders,
and was soon afterwards appointed chaplain to George II.
His ode was preceded by some stanzas addressed to the
king ; and this preferment was probably the reward of his
loyalty. If his lyrical poetry improved his fortune, it
added nothing to his reputation, for Young’s dithyrambics
are the worst of all his writings. He now thought it
suitable to his new character to withdraw from the players
a tragedy entitled “ The Brothers,” which was already in
relieaisal. This play he suffered to be performed many
years afterwards, for the benefit of the Society for Pro¬
pagating Christianity in Foreign Parts ; but it met with
little success, and he made up the profit to a thousand
pounds. Soon after he assumed the character of a clergy¬
man, he published a prose work entitled “ A true Esti¬
mate of Human Life,” and a sermon preached before the
House of Commons on the anniversary of King Charles’s
martyrdom. The title of this discourse is “ An Apology
rvCeS’ °r the Reverence due to Government.” In
U30, Young produced “ Imperium Pelagi, a naval Lyric,
written in imitation of Pindar’s spirit.” He did not escape
t ie fate of Icarus; and this nautical Pindaric, one of the
many pioductions which the author refused to acknowledge
hlSi° Hing’ was Justly ridiculed by Fielding in Tom
iimmb. During this year he was presented by his college
to the rectory of Welwyn in Hertfordshire, "in 1731, he
married Lady Elizabeth Lee, daughter of the earl of Lich¬
field, and widow of Colonel Lee. If he received any for¬
tune with this lady, which is probable, he must have been
rendered very easy in his circumstances ; for, in addition to
the emoluments of his living, it is inferred from the followino-
couplet in Swift’s Rhapsody on Poetry, which was written
soon after this period, that he had an allowance from the
court.
Where Young must torture his invention
To flatter knaves, or lose his pension.
Wycherley and Addison found little felicity in splendid
a.uance; but Young was more fortunate in that respect if
we are to estimate the value of his wife by the vehemence
°\ h's lamentations for her loss. That mournful event
winch happened after ten years’ cohabitation, and some
other family afflictions that befell him, gave rise to the
Night Thoughts, the occasion of which poem, he says in
his preface, “ was real, not fictitious.” Of this work the
different portions were published from 1742 to 1744.
‘‘ 1 be Centaur not Fabulous, in six letters to a friend on
tne life m vogue,” appeared in 1754. This performance
is very rhapsodical and declamatory, and there appears in
it a prose Lorenzo, who is called Altamont; a proceedino-
v. mch, to use an illustration of Jeremy Collier, seems like
cutting a diamond in two in order to double its value. The
Centaur was followed, in 1759, by “ Conjectures on Origi-
young.
nal Composition,” in a letter addressed to p- u ,
which are disnlavpH all c  i r. Ihehardson, in You,
Whieh are displayed all the fireTndlncv
It61, he was appointed clerk of the close/to th th’ In^d5.
dowager of Wales; and in the year followinl h P,nncess^
a collection of what he considered the best of Ms fhed
four volumes duodecimo. I„ the same 1” the!^1
past fourscore. annparpH « P aV. wtlen he wa
past fourscore, appeared “ Resignation.” ^Whlih ^ WaS
Dart of this nnpm ,,roo .1 ° , .. vuen tne
part of this poem was going through the press hp r ^ l
the intelligence of the death of Richardson wL Ce‘Ved
mg it, and with whom he lived on terms ofaffL?"^ Pnnt'
macy Resignation was written to coLo e^T'"6’
for the death of the admiral, but he has dedirl^ en
stanzas to the memory of the novelist It L
hear the veteran poe,’ complain, in the PosUcS
faUme This power ™sCf„d“meUf raided„hi'” "ith ,h'
unjust, for Resignation has Cany stanL? thtt “K
the vigour and originality of his earliest production, n
commendation and reproach were soon to be alike indilT*
r:,d°r ^as thc dying ta'd
One who writes Finis to our works
Was knocking at the gate.
This dreadful summons Dr Young obeyed in April 1765
having reached the eighty-fourth year of his age. Heim
Wef4rde'' the “““““'““-table of the8 churcl*
a Iwie oTiT^v'0 .C.°nSider You“S in eharacter of
a lyric poet, as, in his attempts to rise to the level of Pindar
he has simk beneath his own. His fame as a tragedian rests
on the Revenge. Thinking a fair eomp!exio„ fess
malitrnitv Vn”1 ' if" '0 the ■'ffnca" 110110,15 of diabolical
O h lh, Y S ,h?S re1vorsed Shakspeare’s arrangement
not? a ’ byl“ak,n8 the v,hain a blackamoor and the
noble dupe a White man. Young however has taken J.
wfheeff S “k?p.ea7 bllt ,he gonoral idea of exemplify.
nfSnrPtP ^eClVf J? °USy’ stimulated by the machinations
of pretended friendship. There is much passion in this
ageoy, but there is also much rant and hyperbole. The
c laracter of Zanga is a favourite with those performers who
are better provided with lungs than brains, and with those
spectators who have a keener relish for “ sound and fury”
than for nice touches of art and masterly strokes of character.
Ridicule itself can scarcely heighten some of the extrava-
bancies of this play. Zanga demands an eclipse of the sun
on every future anniversary of the day on which he has
receive! coipoial punishment from Alonzo; a request
Vd T I?U?t 0Wn is somewhat more modest than that
° om aidiman in Carey’s Chrononhotonthologos, who
roars or t le immediate dissolution of nature, to testify the
(iv me ispieasure at a box on the ear lent him by the king.
It is remarkable that Young’s three tragedies all end with
the obvious expedient of suicide. In the Night Thoughts,
au ts and beauties are scattered with almost equal prodi-
gaity. lie is perhaps more deficient in judgment than
aay !'d!0 bas atta,med to the same degree of eminence.
I his deficiency appears in the Night Thoughts, by the per-
petua blending of sublimity and epigrammatic point; an
enoi into which few poets are in danger of falling, but
vv uch we could wish that Young had avoided. There is
a so a palpable straining after effect in this poem; much
labour without art, and much smoke without fire. But if
ie often offends us by turgid exaggeration and mean con¬
ceits, he as often makes us amends by passage* of true
beauty and grandeur. Next to the Night Thoughts, the
Universal Passion is Young’s greatest performance. But
the effect of these satires is almost neutralized by the lavish
applause bestowed upon those to whom they are dedicated.
he coarse fondness of Churchill for his pot-companions,
and his ruffian swagger to all the world besides, are more
eddying, because more disinterested, than the mean pat'
tyof
If-acK
Pri
|h is
IR1
eithe
l|tli of ^
ual
sM0?
) jckelsl
are inf
miainer
tlitorn
th(
YOUNG.
tialty of the satirist, who pockets his scourge, and is all
ovftacted grimace, at the approach of every titled knave
ors npleton. It must however be admitted that if Young
oft; praised the worthless, he never abused the virtuous,
whii i is too often a kindred propensity. Though every
lint:«f the Universal Passion sparkles w'ith wit or anti-
the s the reader must regret with Swift that the poet was
not;;ither more angry or more merry. The greater part
boti of Young’s rhyme and blank verse, for he is the most
unt:ual of all poets, is of a structure more peculiar than
plening to the ear.
|oBN( j)UNG, Thomas, one of the most distinguished men of
the resent age, was born at Milverton in Somersetshire on
the13th of June 1773. Both his parents were Quakers,
«Peff andhe was the youngest of ten children. His father bore
same ^ame name with himself; his mother was a niece of Dr
Brckelsby, an eminent physician in London. His parents,
wei e informed, were among “ the strictest of a sect, whose
funamental principle it is, that the perception of what is
rigM or wrong, to its minutest ramifications, is to be looked
forii the immediate influence of a Supreme intelligence,
andthat therefore the individual is to act upon this, lead
iseit wh*e it may, and compromise nothing. To the bent of
:Jeearltiie. early impressions he was accustomed in after-life to
ihite, attnmte, in some degree, the power he so eminently pos-
'Mot sesed of an imperturbable resolution to effect any object
which onnhich he was engaged, which he brought to bear on
81) thii eve/ thing he undertook, and by which he was enabled to
[Tout won out his own education almost from infancy, with little
'Uparati roniarative assistance or direction from others.”
taw 1 a very early period, he became an inmate in the fa-
1 ofh miSjof his maternal grandfather, Robert Davies of Mine-
hea; who, although engaged in mercantile avocations, had
collated a taste for classical literature, and, without being
'trylie a vhy deep or accurate scholar himself, was anxious to in-
• this| spin his grandson with the love of scholarship. Here he
ti leaned to read with fluency when he was only two years
He ol4 He was afterwards placed under the tuition of a vil-
tsschoi lajpschoolmistress ; and, during the intervalsofhisattend-
"81 he iana he was occupied with the task of committing to me-
nyvari mor various English, and even some Latin poems. It is
>til thi staJi.1 that he easily retained the words, although unac-
e inted 1 quanted with their meaning ; but this mode of exercising
memo hig aemory can scarcely be regarded as very judicious,
tfore h( Bdke he had completed his sixth year, he attended the
harv seahary of a dissenting minister. He was next sent to a
schiol at Bristol, where he remained about a year and a
(Sandv hatyjand where, as his biographer remarks, “ the deficiency
he ins of fie instructor appears to have advanced the studies of
the upil, as he here first became his own teacher, and had
by itmself studied the last pages of the books used, before
relheliid reached the middle under the eye of the master.”
ling th Dang the holidays he appears to have derived no small
(Ullage adyntage from his acquaintance with one of his father’s
hboui]neifibours, a land-surveyor and land-steward; in whose
ofSf he was indulged with the use of mathematical and
Isophi philsophical instruments, and, what was then of more im-
l^nce, por nee, with the perusal of three volumes of a Dictionary
a° ifrts and Sciences. New sources of knowledge were
thuopened to him, and the delight which they afforded
|edto|se|*ed to be inexhaustible.
I.i the year 1782 he was sent to the school of a Mr
ipsoi] Thompson at Compton in Dorsetshire. Of this preceptor
as ac he fas accustomed to speak with great respect, as a man
enla °^1 enlarged and liberal mind ; and under his tuition, he
k preceded through the ordinary course of Greek and La,tin
iics,t( c^cs, together with the elementary parts of mathematics,
mast 1 h'master possessed a miscellaneous library of moderate
t; a e^h't; and of this he encouraged his pupils to make a free
usf. illowing them a certain degree of discretion in the em¬
inent P‘°ment of their time. This method of proceeding was
v*u xxi.
969
peculiarly adapted to the taste and exigencies of such a Young,
pupil as Thomas Young, whose prematurity of judgment, Thomas,
accompanied with an insatiable thirst of knowledge, quali- ^ v -1-'
fled him to act as his own preceptor. He rose earlier and
went to bed later than his companions, and was thus en¬
abled to devote himself to a surprising variety of pursuits.
By the aid of a school-fellow, who had some French and
Italian books, he rendered himself tolerably familiar with
those languages. “ The next study he undertook was bo¬
tany ; and for the sake of examining the plants which he
gathered, he attempted the construction of a microscope
from the descriptions of Benjamin Martin. This led him
to optics; but in order to make his microscope, he found
it necessary to procure a lathe. Every thing then gave
way to a passion for turning, and science was forgotten for
the acquirement of manual dexterity; until, falling upon a
demonstration in Martin, which exhibited some fluxional
symbols, he was never satisfied till he had read and mas¬
tered a short introduction to the doctrine of fluxions. Mr
Thompson had left in his way a Hebrew Bible. He began
by enabling himself to read a few chapters, and was soon
absorbed in the study of the principal oriental languages.
At the age of fourteen, when he quitted Mr Thompson’s
school, he was thus more or less versed in Greek, Latin,
French, Italian, Hebrew, Persic, and Arabic ; and in form¬
ing the characters of those languages, he had already ac¬
quired much of the beauty and accuracy of penmanship
which was afterwards so remarkable in his copies of Greek
compositions, as well as of those subjects connected with
the literature of ancient Egypt.” Such a statement as this
might appear scarcely credible, if we were not possessed
of the most unexceptionable evidence that, in every stage
of his intellectual career, Young was a very remarkable
person.
After he had completed the fourteenth year of his age,
he went to reside in the family of Mr David Barclay of
Youngsbury in Hertfordshire. Through the intervention
of Sir William Watson, it had been arranged that Young
and a grandson of Mr Barclay should pursue their studies
under a private tutor; but in the mean time the person
who had been engaged, found a situation which appeared
more advantageous ; and Young, who was only about a
year and a half older than his companion, began to act as
his preceptor. They were afterwards joined by another
youth, named Hodgkin, who wqs of an age somewhat more
advanced, and who in 1794 published a work entitled “ Cal-
ligraphia Grasca.” Young did not however relinquish his
office of tutor, and he found himself capable of directing
the studies of both his companions. About this early pe¬
riod of his life, he exhibited symptoms of what was supposed
to be incipient consumption ; but under the care and skill
of Dr Brockelsby and Baron Dimsdale, he recovered his
health without suffering any ultimate inconvenience. Nor
did his studies experience any material interruption ; for
we are informed that he was enabled to pursue his labours
through nearly the whole duration of his indisposition, and that
he merely relieved his attention by what to him answered
the purpose of repose, namely, a course of reading in such
Greek authors as amused the weariness of his confinement.
From 1787 to 1792, he resided during summer in Hertford¬
shire, and during winter in London. With only the occa¬
sional assistance of some masters in the metropolis, he ren¬
dered himself perfectly familiar with the great poets and
philosophers of antiquity. Of his daily studies he preserved
ample notes. “ Of the various and conflicting opinions of
the ancient philosophers,” says Mr Gurney, “ he had drawn
up a most admirable analysis ; and as his reading was not
merely the gaining words and phrases, and the minuter dis¬
tinctions of dialects, but w^as invariably also directed to
wffiat was the end and object of the works he laboured
through, it is probable that the train of thought into w hich
6 G
9'0 YOUNG.
Young, he was led in this analysis, was not without its efFect in
ihomas. Somewhat mitigating his attachment to the peculiar views
of the sect amongst whom he had been born. He had ac¬
quired a great facility in writing Latin. He composed
Greek verses which stood the test of the criticism of the
first scholars of the day, and read a good deal of the higher
mathematics. His amusements were the studies of botany
and zoology, and to entomology in particular he at that
time gave great attention....During the whole term of these
five years, he never was seen by any one, on any occasion,
to be ruffled in his temper. Whatever he determined on,
he did. He had little faith in any peculiar aptitude being
implanted by nature for any given pursuits. His favourite
maxim was, that whatever one man had done, another might
do; that the original difference between human intellects
was much less than it was generally supposed to be ; that
strenuous and persevering attention would accomplish al¬
most any thing; and at this season, in the confidence of
youth and consciousness of his own powers, he considered
nothing which had been compassed by others beyond his
reach to achieve, nor was there any thing which he thought
worthy to be attempted, which he was not resolved to
master.”
It was the wish of Dr Brockelsby that he should devote
himself to the medical profession; and having prepared
himself by previous reading, he attended Dr Higgins’s lec¬
tures on chemistry during the winters of 1790 and 1791.
He began to perform some simple experiments; but at no
period of his life was he much disposed to spend his time,
either in devising original experiments, or in repeating
those of others. His first appearance as an author is sup¬
posed to have been in the Monthly Review for 1791, to
which he communicated a short note on gum ladanum,
with a verbal criticism on Longinus. The criticism, we
are informed, was admitted by Dr Burney to be correct.
The critic had only attained the age of eighteen. To¬
wards the close of 1792, he took lodgings at Westminster,
where he resided about two years, and pursued his medical
studies. He attended the lectures of Baillie and Cruik-
shank in the Hunterian school of anatomy; and during
that period was among the most diligent of the pupils
who frequented St Bartholomew’s Hospital. He likewise
attended courses of lectures on the practice of physic
by Dr Crichton and Dr Latham, on midwifery by Dr
Clarke and Dr Osborn, and on botany by Sir James Ed¬
ward Smith.
In 1793 he varied his pursuits by making a tour in the
west of England, chiefly with the view of studying the
mineralogy of Cornwall. About this period he had been
introduced to the duke of Richmond, to whom his uncle
was well known; and the duke, then master-general of the
ordnance, offered to retain him as his private secretary.
Such an appointment might have conducted a young man
of his talents to much higher preferment, but he was re¬
luctant to quit the onward path of science. Mr Burke and
Mr Windham, to whom he had likewise been introduced
by Dr Brockelsby, recommended the plan of entering him¬
self at Cambridge, as a preparation for the study of the law.
Burke, it has been stated, “ was so greatly struck with the
reach of his talents and the extent of his acquirements,
more particularly by his great and accurate knowledge of
the Greek language, that Dr Young may be considered as
in no small degree indebted to the good offices of that emi¬
nent statesman, for the extent of interest which his uncle
took from this period in his future settlement in life.” Ad¬
hering to his previous choice of the medical profession, he
proceeded to Edinburgh in the autumn of 1794, and there
attended the lectures of Black, Monro, and Gregory. He
cultivated the acquaintance of the Greek professor, Mr
Dalzel, to whom he communicated some notes, as well as
a Greek epigram, which were inserted in the second vo¬
lume of the Collectanea Grseca. “ He pursued every branch
of study in that university with his accustomed intensitv v ‘
but made the physical sciences more peculiarly the objects & '
ot his research. He now separated himself from the societ »
of Quakers ; and amidst his medical, scientific, and classical *
labours, he determined on cultivating some of those arts i
which he considered that his early education had left him
deficient. But every thing, be its nature what it might
was with him a science ; whatever he followed, he followed
scientifically. He was extremely fond of music, and of the
science of music he rendered himself a master. He had at
all times great personal activity, and in youth he delighted
in its exercise. But perhaps it may provoke a smile, though
too characteristic an anecdote to omit, that in instructincr
himself in the figure of a minuet, he made it the subject ol1
a mathematical diagram.”
Towards the close of the year 1795, he removed to the
university of Gottingen. Here he attended lectures on
civil and natural history, as well as on different branches of
medical science. Of the very extensive and well-arranged
library belonging to that university, he did not fail-to make
an assiduous use. As he was entirely exempted from those
dissipations into which so many young men fall, he had suf¬
ficient leisure for recreation as well as study; and at Got¬
tingen, as well as at Edinburgh, he diversified his occupa¬
tions by engaging in various bodily exercises. “ He took
lessons in horsemanship, in which he always had great
pleasure, and practised under various masters all sorts of
feats of persona] agility, in which he excelled to an extra¬
ordinary degree.” On the 10th of July 1796 he took the
degree of M. D. His inaugural dissertation was printed
under the title, “ De Corporis Humani Viribus con-
servatricibus Dissertatio.” Getting. 1796, 8vo. He
easily obtained a dispensation from the oath which, in
this and other German universities, is very absurdly ten¬
dered to candidates, that they wall not take the same
degree in any other university. Having visited Dresden
and Berlin, he now directed his course to England. As he
could not be admitted to immediate practice as a licentiate
of the College of Physicians, he entered himself as a fellow-
commoner of Emanuel College, Cambridge. Dr Farmer,
the master, wTas his uncle’s intimate friend. Here he re¬
sided three years, and afterwards kept his terms, so as in
due time to take his degrees in physic. He did not attend
any of the public lectures; nor is it to be supposed that a
graduate who had studied at Edinburgh and Gottingen
could derive much advantage from an elementary course a
Cambridge.
Dr Brockelsby died in the month of December 1797,
having bequeathed the larger part of his fortune to his
nephew Mr Beeby. The remainder, including his house,
library, and pictures, fell to the share of his grand-nephew
Dr Young. At the age of twenty-four, he was thus placed
in a state of comfortable independence ; and after he had
completed his necessary residence at college, he establish¬
ed himself in Welbeck-street, and commenced the practice
of physic. In 1802 his reputation as a man of science
procured him the appointment of professor of natural phi¬
losophy in the Royal Institution, where for two years he
was associated with Davy. Of the Journals of the Royal
Institution, the first volume and a part of the second were
edited and chiefly written by Young. During this year he
published “ A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Natu¬
ral and Experimental Philosophy,” containing mathemati¬
cal demonstrations of the most important theorems in bio-
chanics and optics. Here he announced bis great dis¬
covery of the general law- of the interference of light; tha
“ wherever two portions of the same light arrive at thee)e
by different routes, either exactly or very nearly in the
same direction, the light becomes most intense when t e
difference of the routes is any multiple of a certain lengti,
and least intense in the intermediate state of the intederin°
portions; and this length is different for light ot differen
I'll tilt
Hat
-Gve
jSeel
'1‘etti,
18vo.
3 Youn
ll'Th,
YOUNG.
971
c0 iirs.”1 His lectures were too scientific and too profound
to .3 intelligible to any considerable proportion of his au-
Jit.-s; and the matter was so abundant and the style so
conensed, that students of a more academical training
raitit frequently have found it extremely difficult to ac-
coioany him in his masterly discussions.
luring the summer of 1802, he accompanied, in a me¬
dic capacity, the present duke of Richmond and his
bn«her Lord George Lennox, in an excursion to France.
H<nttended some of the meetings of the National Insti-
tuli and formed an acquaintance with several members of
thalearned body. On his return to London, he was elected
fpngn secretary of the Royal Society, of which he had been
admitted a fellow at the age of twenty-one. This office he re-
taicd during the remainder of his life, and was always one
of ic most leading and most efficient members of the coun¬
cil! In the year 1804 he married Eliza the daughter of
Jams Primrose Maxwell, Esq. of Cavendish-square; and
thiunion is said to have been attended with uninterrupted
haoiness. His wife, who still survives him, had no children.
H<i scientific attainments have not been overlooked by Ara-
tq After his marriage, he thought it expedient to resign his
prressorship, in order to present the appearance of a more
emre devotion to the practice of physic; but it was impos-
sib: for such a man to withdraw himself from the pursuits
of cience and literature. He now occupied himself in
prnaring for the press a most elaborate and valuable work,
“ Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the
Mihhanical Arts.” Lond. 1807, 2 vols. 4to. This work
wa the result of assiduous and energetic labour for the
spce of five years; two of which were devoted to the pre-
pa,tion of the lectures as delivered, and three more to the
esnination and arrangement of the great body of refer-
erres contained in the second volume, as well as to the im¬
plement of the texture of the work, particularly where
no materials, or new experiments, or repeated investiga¬
tes, seemed to render it necessary. In a commercial
pcjit of view, the book was by no means successful. The
bflksellers became insolvent soon after its appearance, nor
wi the sale sufficient to defray the expense of the publi-
caon. Of the merits of a work so truly scientific, very
f'e readers were competent to form an opinion ; and, ac¬
ceding to the author’s own impression, his labours first
b«an to be generally appreciated by the philosophers ol
tb continent.
n 1808 Dr Young was admitted a fellow of the College
olPhysicians; and in 1810 he was elected physician to St
Gorge’s Hospital. For fourteen successive years from the
p»!od of his marriage, he passed his winters in the metro-
DWs and his summers at Worthing. We are informed that
hiipractice, though respectable, was never very extensive,
at that he was averse to some of the ordinary methods
bvvhich practice is acquired. “ He was not,” says Dr Petti-
gntv, “ a popular physician. He wanted that confidence or
as .ranee which is so necessary to the successful exercise
oiois profession. He was perhaps too deeply informed,
at' therefore too sensible of the difficulty ot arriving at true
krwledge in the profession of medicine, hastily to form a
jiiigment; and his great love of and adherence to truth
nwle him often hesitate where others felt no difficulty
w. itever in the expression of their opinion. He is there¬
ami
fore not celebrated as a medical practitioner, nor did he Young,
ever enjoy an extensive practice; but in information upon ^Thomas,
the subjects of his profession, in depth of research into the v
history of diseases, and the opinions of all who have pre¬
ceded him, it would be difficult to find his equal.”2 Dr
Young was likewise connected with the Middlesex Llospi-
tal, where for two seasons he delivered a course of lectures,
which, according to his own statement, “ were little fre¬
quented, on account of the usual miscalculation of the lec¬
turer, who gave his audience more information in a given
time, than it was in their power to follow'.” He printed
“ A Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on the Elements of
the Medical Sciences.” Lond. 1809, 8vo. This was fol¬
lowed by a more elaborate publication, “ An Introduction
to Medical literature, including a System of Practical
Nosology.” Lond. 1813, 8vo. A second edition appeared
in 1823. This volume is another monument of his inde¬
fatigable research, as well as of the sagacity and judgment
wdiich he exerted in all his investigations. After an inter¬
val of two years, he produced another professional work,
wffiich greatly extended his reputation, “ A practical and
historical Treatise on Consumptive Diseases.” Lond. 1815,
8vo.
His separate publications exhibit but a small portion of
his literary labours. His contributions to periodical works,
and to the transactions of various societies, were very nu¬
merous, and not a few of them were very elaborate. At
the suggestion of his intimate friend George Ellis, he was
induced to lend his powerful aid to the Quarterly Review.
His first undertaking was merely to furnish notices of me¬
dical publications; but he immediately began to include
other branches of science, nor did he overlook some of his
favourite branches of literature. His review of Adelung’s
Mithridates, inserted in the tenth volume, would alone have
been sufficient, had he left no other monument of his inge¬
nuity and learning, to procure him the character of an un¬
common man. To the Imperial Review, which ran a shorter
course, he likewise contributed a variety of articles. Dr
Young was one of the many distinguished individuals who
appeared as contributors to the Supplement to the Ency¬
clopaedia Britannica. His articles, or portions of articles,
sixty-three in number, relate to subjects not a little dissi¬
milar in their nature. Most of them are reprinted in the
present work, and, unless where his name is expressly men¬
tioned, they are generally distinguished by the signature
L. L. He supplied several biographical notices, not only
of scientific men, but likewise of classical scholars, among
whom are Bryant, Person, and Wakefield. In his excellent
notice of Porson (vol. xviii. p. 452, a.) we must here request
the reader to correct a Greek quotation, which is printed
in such a manner as to be altogether unintelligible. It
ought to stand thus ; gugfo ftergouacc d-jooev cro^vpi^ AlaZwv
iie'Aov. He had previously written several papers on the
very difficult and obscure subject of hieroglyphics ; and in
the article Egypt he now presented the result of his inves-
thuitions. In this bewildering field of literature, the only
ancient guide is Horapollo, whose work Dr Young de¬
scribes as puerile, and “ much more like a collection of
conceits and enigmas than an explanation of a real system
of serious literature.”3 The labours of many different
scholars had left the subject of hieroglyphics almost as ob-
Surgeons, e.c ,o,. Lon,. ,840, 4
Young’s Account of same recent Discoveries in 'TsaS XT'^Orus, HorusMIo^Apoflo, or Horapollo, is said to have been
onpollion’s Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, p. *4. • > ’. e which bears his name is professedly a translation from the
icient Egyptian, and to have written in na.tive f ' therwise unknown. It was first printed by Aldus, in a volume containing
gptian into the Greek tongue by a certain I hlhPl^sr> ^ ° ' e subsequent impressions are not numerous. An elaborate edition has re-
iwal other rehques of Greek literature. Venet. H Kihdit. diversorum codicum recenter collatorum, priorumque edi¬
fy been published by Leemans : “ Horapollims ISl.1°1 ^ ;tem bieroglyphicorum imagines, et indices adjecit Conradus Leemans,
a n varias lectiones, et versionem Latinam subjunxit, a , ’ flccom„anied with an English version, has still more recently ap-
Pfa. Theor. Mag. Lit. Hum. Doct.” Amst. 1835, 8vo.
972
Young,
Thomas
young.
scure as they found it, when Young and Champollion,1
nearly at the same time, commenced their more fortunate
enquiries. Dr Young afterwards published a separate work,
under the title of “ An Account of some recent Discove¬
ries in Hieroglyphical Literature, and Egyptian Antiqui-
J!68™ m^iUC,mg t.he aut.hor’s original Alphabet, as extended
)y Mr Champollion, with a Translation of five unpublished
Greek and Egyptian Manuscripts.” Lond. 1823, 8vo. He
was likewise the editor of “ Hieroglyphics, collected by
the Egyptian Society.” Lond. 1823, fol. This is a col¬
lection of lithographic plates, executed at the expense of
the society; but the subscriptions being insufficient to de¬
fray it, the work was transferred to the Royal Society of
Literature, and he still continued his superintendence.
His unrivalled merits in this difficult province have been so
fully estimated in the article Hieroglyphics, that it would
here be superfluous to resume the subject.
Early in the year 1817, Dr Young had been’called to
I ans for the purpose of attending a patient; and he was
much gratified by the reception which he there experienced
from the most distinguished men of science. With Alexan¬
der von Humboldt, Cuvier, Arago, Biot, and Gay-Lussac, he
had previously become acquainted in England. With such
individuals as these it was a great pleasure to renew his
personal intercourse ; and in the summer of the same year
he again revisited Paris, and resided there for a few weeks.
In 1818 he was appointed one of the commissioners for
taking into consideration the state of the weights and mea¬
sures employed in Great Britain. In this commission, is¬
sued under the privy seal, he was associated with Dr Wol¬
laston, Captain Kater, Mr Davies Gilbert, Sir Joseph
j anks, and Sir George Clerk. He acted as secretary to
the board, of which he appears to have been the most effi¬
cient member; for to the three Reports presented to par¬
liament, he furnished both the scientific calculations, and
t ie account of the various weights and measures in common
use. Before the close of this year, he was appointed secre¬
tary to the Board of Longitude, with the charge of the su¬
pervision of the Nautical Almanac. In the act of parlia¬
ment under which this appointment took place, he was no¬
minated one of the commissioners. “ This appointment
was to him a very desirable one, though the labour in
winch it involved him was great, as his anxiety to increase
his medical practice henceforth ceased, and it made that the
business of his life which had always been his inclination.”
ter a period often years, the board was suppressed ; but
the Admiralty was permitted to retain the officer entrusted
with the calculations of the almanac. The assistance of
men of science was soon found to be necessary in other
departments connected with the Admiralty; and a new
council of three members, consisting of Dr Young, Captain
oabme, and Mr Faraday, was entrusted with those ser¬
vices which had previously been performed by the board.
• . appointment to the office of secretary, he discon¬
tinued his summer residence at Worthing. During the sum¬
mer of 181J he proceeded to Italy, where he spent about five
months, and visited all the most remarkable cities. One ob¬
ject of peculiar interest was the examination of the Egyp¬
tian monuments preserved in that country. He returned
homeward by Switzerland and the Rhine. He afterwards
published a work entitled “ Elementary Illustration of the
Celestial Mechanics of La Place ; with some additions re¬
lating to the Motion of Waves and of Sound, and to the
Cohesion of Fluids.” Lond. 1821, 8vo. This volume, and
the article Tides reprinted in the present work, he was
disposed to regard as containing the most fortunate of the
results of his mathematical investigations. Durino- the en¬
suing year he paid another visit to Paris; and in iso,
fie made an excursion to Spa and to Holland On I/ '* H,
turn, he undertook the scientific direction ofacnmn f Jhon#l
life-insurance. The rage for joint-stock schemes iS^ ^
this period attained its utmost height; but he declinJl
participation in the commercial part of the speculation a
restricted himself to his own mathematical depart f
He was thus induced to deviate into a new path ofVZf
and, in 1826, he contributed to the Philosophical VP''
actions “ A Formula for expressing the Decreme ^
Human Life;” and to Brande’s Philosophical Jonm»
“ 1 ractical Application of the Doctrine of Chances” W*
had the satisfaction of witnessing the prosneritv of T
company with which he had formed this connexion ™
, In Jhe course of the preceding year, he had removed
from Welbeck-street to a house which he had built in pT
square; “ where he continued to reside during the remain
der of his life, and where, in a situation to which he wr
extremely attached, he led the life of a philosopher sun
rounaed by every domestic comfort, and enjoying the plea¬
sures of an extensive and cultivated society, who knew how
to appreciate him. He expressed himself as having now
attained all the main objects which he had looked forward to
fooiu the Subj'ect either of his hoPes or his wishes.” In
1827 he was elected one of the eight foreign members of
the Royal Institute of France. But the life which had
thus been so prosperous and so honourable, was not destin-
ed to be long With the exception of the consumptive
tendency which he had exhibited at an early period, his
health had not been impaired by serious illness a single day
In the summer of 1828 he made an excursion to Geneva-
and on his return, his friends began to perceive symptoms
of decaying strength. The business entrusted to the
Board of Longitude having about this time been transfer¬
red to the new council, he was subjected to the labour of
drawing up various reports, when the state of his health
rendered this an exertion to which he was no longer equal.
From the month of February ensuing, he had repeated at¬
tacks of what he supposed to be asthma. In the beginning
of April, he experienced great difficulty of breathing; and
this symptom was accompanied with a habitual though not
copious discharge of blood from the lungs. “ Though thus
under the pressure of severe illness,”" says Mr Gurney,
nothing could be more striking than the entire calmness
and composure of his mind, or could surpass the kindness
or his affections to all around him. He said that he had
completed all the works on which he was engaged, with the
exception of the Rudiments of an Egyptian Dictionary,
which he had brought near to its completion, and which he
was extremely anxious to be able to finish. It was then
in the hands of the lithographers, and he not only conti¬
nued to give directions concerning it, but laboured at it with
a pencil when, confined to his bed, he was unable to hold a
pen. To a friend who expostulated with him on the danger
of fatiguing himself, he replied it was no fatigue, but a great
amusement to him; that it was a work which, if he should
live, it would be a satisfaction to him to have finished, but
that if it were otherwise, which seemed most probable, as
he had never witnessed a complaint which appeared to make
more rapid progress, it would still be a great satisfaction to
him never to have spent an idle day in his life....In the very
last stage of his complaint, in the last lengthened interview
with the writer of the present memoir, his perfect self-pos¬
session was displayed in the most remarkable manner. After
some information concerning his affairs, and some instruc¬
tions concerning the hieroglyphical papers in his hands, he
said that, perfectly aware of his situation, he had taken the
Lon^lsTcf.lvo!6 tlUe °f The IIleroSlyPblcs of Horapolfo Nilous, by Alexander Turner Cory, Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.”
4 See the work of Klaproth, Examen critique des Travaux de feu M. Champoliion sur les Hieroglyphes. Paris, 1832, 8vo.
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saaiments of the church on the day preceding; that whether
lie «ould ever partially recover, or whether he were rapidly
tak# off, he could patiently and contentedly await the issue.”1
Wi some slight variations, his illness continued till the
mating of the tenth of May 1829, when his strength hav¬
ing'een gradually exhausted, he expired without a struggle,
bef«e he had completed the fifty-sixth year of his age. The
fattidisease was ascertained to be an ossification of the
abrti, exhibiting the appearance of having been in progress
fortany years. His intellectual labours had been so great
audio incessant as to produce the indications of an age
rnuti more advanced. His mortal remains were deposited
inferault belonging to his wife’s family, in the church of
Farborough in Kent.
lie work which had engaged his attention during the last
day'of his life, was published under the title of “ Rudi-
mfliis of an Egyptian Dictionary in the Ancient Enchorial
Cfecter; containing all the Words of which the sense
hafoeen ascertained. Intended as an Appendix to Mr
Tatum’s Coptic Grammar.” Lond. 1830, 8vo. It appears
inIfe same volume with the work of Mr Tattam, “A
coroendious Grammar of the Egyptian Language, as con¬
tain'd in the Coptic and Sahidic Dialects.” This learned
fell v-labourer, it may not be improper to add, has con¬
tinu’d to prosecute his researches in the same department,
andhas subsequently produced a “ Lexicon Algyptiaco-
Laimm.” Oxonii, 1835, 8vo.
imong other advantages, Dr Young possessed that of a
harrsome person and prepossessing appearance. His man¬
ner were polished and even elegant, though perhaps exhi-
bitig a very slight tendency to a scholar-like preciseness.
Sad at least was the impression received by the writer of
theuresent imperfect notice. By his friend and biographer
hei described as “a man in all the relations of life, up-
rigl, kind-hearted, blameless. His domestic virtues were
as templary as his talents were great. He was entirely
freurom either envy or jealousy ; and the assistance which
heiiive to others engaged in the same lines of research
win; himself, was constant and unbounded. His morality
1 thnigh life had been pure, though unostentatious. His
reliious sentiments were by himself stated to be liberal,
thagh orthodox. He had extensively studied the Scrip-
tur , of which the precepts were deeply impressed upon
his find from his earliest years; and he evidenced the faith
wlili he professed, in an unbending course of usefulness
aiuf ectitude.” Of his merits as a man of science, it may
hen be sufficient to state that a very high estimate has been
foiled by Arago.2 His literary attainments were equally
solii and extensive; nor would it be easy to mention an-
r indil othf individual of the present age worthy in all respects
of Ting compared with Thomas Young. (x.)
OUlJ 'DUNG NICK’S HEAD, a cape on the east coast of
’ Zea Np Zealand, so called from the boy Nicholas Young, on
dthe hold the Endeavour, who discovered it in 1769. It forms
thejouth-west point of Poverty Bay.
IDWRY, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near the
non coast of New Guinea. Long. 130. 45. E. Lat. 0.
il.
iPRES, a circle of the province of West Flanders, in
the Netherlands, extending over 330 square miles, divided
inpseven cantons, and those into forty-six communes, with
Y U N
96,800 inhabitants. The capital is the city of the same
name. It stands on the river Yperle, by which it has a
communication with the sea at Nieuport. It is in a fruit-,
ful district, is fortified and well built, with a fine market-'
place and most magnificent town-house. There is a col¬
lege, a cathedral, four other churches, and several convents.
There was formerly much more trade than at present, con¬
sisting chiefly in linens. It now contains 16,500 inhabi¬
tants. Long. 2. 47. E. Lat. 50. 51. 10. N.
YU, two rivers of China; one rises in Honan, twelve
miles north of Pi-yang, and joins the Hoai, twenty miles
east-south-east of Sin-tsai. The other rises about twenty-
six miles west from Ngan-fou, in Kiang-see, and runs into
the Kan-kiang, seven miles north-north-east of Lin-kiang.
It is also the name of several cities of the second rank.
YUCATAN. See Mexico. Since that article was
written, the state of Yucatan has separated itself from
the Mexican confederation, and having declared itself in¬
dependent, has established a constitution on the most libe¬
ral principles, religious, political, and commercial.
YUEN, a city of China, of the second rank, in Hoo-
quang. Long. 109. E. Lat. 27. 23. N.
YUEN-KIANG, a city of China, of the first rank, in Yu-
nan, on the Hoti river, in a mountainous but fertile country,
abounding with silk. Long. 101. 44. E. Lat. 23. 37. N.
YUEN-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, in
Kiang-see, on the borders of an agreeable little lake.
Alum and vitriol are produced in the neighbourhood.
Long. 114. E. Lat. 27. 50. N.
YUEN-YANG, a city of China, of the first rank, in Hoo-
quang, on the river Han, and on a plain encompassed by
mountains, where tin is found. It is 517 miles south-south¬
west of Peking. Long. 110. 29. E. Lat. 32. 50. N.
YUNAN, a province of China, situated on its south-west¬
ern frontier, bounded on the north by Sechuen and Tibet,
on the east by Quang-see and Koei-tchoo, on the south by
Laos, and on the west by Ava and Pegu. It is about 300
miles in length by 250 in breadth, and though mountain¬
ous, it is one of the most fertile and opulent in China, being
well watered both by rivers and lakes. Its produce is
gold, copper, and tin, amber, rubies, sapphires, agates,
pearls, precious stones, marble, musk, silk, elephants, horses,
gums, medicinal plants, and linen. It has a vast commerce,
contains twenty-one cities of the first class, and fifty-five of
the second and third. The population is estimated by Sir
George Staunton at eight millions. *
YUN-HING, a city of China, of the first rank, in Honan,
watered by a river called Yuho. The country within its
district is large, and is watered by several rivers, which ren¬
der the soil very fruitful. Long. 113. 52. E. Lat. 33. N.
YUN-LEAN-HO, a canal of China, formed of the river
Pey-ho, or rather the river itself made navigable from Hiam-
ho to Tien-tsin, in the province of Pe-tche-lee, for the pur¬
pose of conveying corn towards Tong-tcheou and Peking.
YUNSHAN, the territory lying between the eastern li¬
mits of the Birman empire and China, of which very little
is known, even to the Birmans.
YUNTAI, an island near the coast of China, in the East¬
ern Seas, thirty miles in circumference, about two miles and
a half from the continent. Long. 119. 19. E. Lat. 34.
35. N.
Lond. 1831. 8vo. To this Memoir he has subjoined “ A Catalogue
deiofEly.
973
Yu
II
Yuntai.
974
Zama.
Z A M
rj the twenty-fifth and last letter, and the nineteenth
9 consonant, ol our alphabet; the sound of which
18 formed by a motion of the tongue from the palate down¬
wards and upwards to it again, with a shutting and open¬
ing of the teeth at the same time. This letter has been
reputed a double consonant, having the sound ds ; but,
some think, with very little reason ; and, as if we thought
otherwise, we orten double it, as in puzzle, muzzle, &c.
Among the ancients, Z was a numeral letter, signifying
2000 ; and with a dash over it thus, 2, signified 2000 times
2000, or 4,000,000.
In abbreviations this letter formerly stood as a mark for
several sorts of weights: sometimes it signified an ounce
and a half, and very frequently it stood for half an ounce ;
sometimes foi the eighth part of an ounce, or a dram troy
weight; and it has in earlier times been used to express
the third part of an ounce, or eight scruples. ZZ were used
by some of the ancient physicians to express myrrh, and at
present they are often used to signify zinziber or ginger.
ZAARA, Zahara, or the Desert. See Sahara. &
ZAB, a river of Kurdistan, which rises in the mountain¬
ous country to the east of the Tigris. It falls into the Al-
tun Su, or Golden Water, about 150 miles north of Bagdad,
on the road to Mosul, and the united streams afterwards
reach the Tigris.
ZABULON, one of the twelve tribes of Israel; bounded
on the north by the tribes of Asher and Naphthali; on the
east by the Sea of Galilee ; on the south by the tribe of Is-
sachar or the brook Cison, which ran between both ; on the
west by the Mediterranean ; so that it touched two seas, or
was bimarous.
ZAFRA, a small town of Asiatic Turkey, in the govern¬
ment of Marasch, fifteen miles west of Tarsus. .There is
another town of the same name in the government of Tre-
bisond, fifty miles north-west of Trebisond.
ZAIRE, a river of Southern Africa, likewise called
Congo. See Congo.
ZALRUCCS, a famous legislator of the Locrians, and
the disciple of Pythagoras, flourished 500 years b. c. He
made a law, by which he punished adulterers with the loss
ot both their eyes ; and his son offending, was not absolved
from this punishment; yet, to shew the father as well as the
just lawgiver, he put out his own right, and his son’s left
eye. Ihis example of justice and severity made so strong
an impression on the minds of his subjects, that no instance
v as found of the commission of that crime during the reign
of the legislator. It is added, that Zaleucus forbade any
wine being given to the sick, on pain of death, unless it was
prescribed by the physicians; and that he was so jealous of
his laws, that he ordered, that whoever was desirous of
changing them, should be obliged, when he made the pro¬
posal, to have a cord about his neck, in order that he might
be immediately strangled if those alterations were esteemed
no better than the laws already established. Diodorus Si¬
culus attributes the same thing to Charondas, legislator of
the Sybarites.
ZAMA, an ancient town of Chamane, a district of Cap¬
padocia, of unknown situation. Another Zama, of Meso¬
potamia, on the Saocoras, to the south of Nisibis. A third,
of Numidia, distant five days’ journey to the west of Car¬
thage. It was the other royal residence of the kings of Nu¬
midia, hence called Zama Regia. It stood in a plain, was
stronger by art than nature, richly supplied with every
z A R
of defence and annoyance. This town i, 'rema'rSfcT
the decisive battle fought between the two greatest col !>v»
manders ,n the ancient world, Hannibal the Carthal*'^
and Scipio Afncanus. ° n an>
ZANGUEBAR, a region of Africa, lying on the east
ern coast, between three degrees of north latitude and
eighteen south. It includes several petty kingdoms, in*!
the Portuguese have various settlements. The inhabitanh
except those converted by the Portuguese, are all Mahoml
medans or idolaters ; and the latter much the more nume¬
rous. I he names of the principal territories are, Mombayi"
Lamon, Melinda, Quiola, and Mozambique. The Portu
guese built several forts in Mombaza and Mozambique ami
there settled several colonies.
ZANTE. , See Ionian Islands.
ZAPATA, a kind offcast or ceremony held in Italy in
the courts of certain princes, on St Nicholas’s day. People
hide presents in the shoes or slippers of those to whom
taey would do honour, in such a manner as may surprise
them on the morrow when they come to dress. This is done
in imitation of the practice of St Nicholas, who used in the
night-time to throw purses of money in at the windows to
furnish marriage-portions to poor maidens.
ZARAGOZA, a city of Spain, in the corregimiento of that
name, and the capital of the ancient kingdom of Aragon.
It was built by the Roman colonists, and bore the name of
Csesar Augusta. It is about 175 miles from Madrid, and
the same distance from Valencia. It stands on the right
bank of the Ebro, over which are two bridges connecting
the city with the suburbs. 1 he streets are narrow, except
one, the Cozo or Cosso, which runs the whole length of the
town; and the houses are old, and, though not lofty, are high¬
ly ornamented. Zaragoza is the seat of an archbishop, and,
besides a cathedral, had seventeen churches, and forty re¬
ligious houses of different orders, for males and for females.
One of the churches, called Our Lady of the Pillar, was the
most celebrated in Spain, and, except that of Loretto, in
Europe, from the number of pilgrims that every year re¬
sorted to it for devotional purposes. On a lofty pillar of
jasper is an image ot the holy virgin, the great object of
adoration, and excitement to delusive feelings of devotion.
In the rich and highly cultivated plain that surrounds the
city, stand the ancient palace of the Alguferia, the resi¬
dence of the kings of Aragon, and several monasteries.
A little below the city, that magnificent work the Canal
of Aragon joins the river Ebro, which runs about 100 miles
parallel to that river, and connects the provinces of Ara¬
gon and Navarre with the Mediterranean Sea. It is designed
to assist commerce as a means of conveyance, and to sup¬
ply to agriculture water for irrigating the fields. This ca¬
nal has been constructed by the eminent civil engineer
Don Ramon Pignatelli, and 3,250,000 livres had been ex¬
pended when it was stopped. Had it been continued to Bis¬
cay, it would have brought the Mediterranean and the At¬
lantic Seas into commercial contact.
I he great celebrity of this city arises from the firo1 ^e*
fences made during two sieges, in the years 1808 and 1809,
when the courageous and enduring spirit of an undisciplin^
and ill-armed population was assailed by two successive
French armies, furnished wuth all that science could con¬
tribute to the art of wTar, and commanded by some of the
most distinguished officers belonging to the armies ofFrane6,
w
| scan
()leo:
|al
pom the latest accounts of this city, the actual popula-
tiomscarceiy amounts to 40,000 persons, though it is
le of housing 150,000.
_ALAND, one of the provinces of the kingdom of
IDebark. It comprehends the large island of that name,
‘in wich is Copenhagen, the capital of the kingdom, and
'"the mailer islands of Amak, Saltholm, Syeroe, Omoe, tmd
\ggrsoe, near to it, and also the more extensive ones of
Moe), Samsoe, and Bornholm. The island is 2790 square
mile in extent, and the whole province 3140.
Te island is generally a level plain, with few eleva-
tiont but is deeply penetrated by arms of the sea, called
fiorts, which in appearance are lakes, and, where their
shors are clothed with woods, present pleasing prospects.
TluHoil is evidently composed of coral and mussel-shells,
whin the course of ages has converted into calcareous
subtnnces. This is mixed with sand, pebbles, clay, and
velable matter, and thus is highly fertile in many parts,
esp#ially on the south and south-east coasts. It yields
moarate crops of wheat and rye, but better of barley and
puli. Flax, rape, and some tobacco, are cultivated ; but
neifler these plants nor the grain is sufficient for the con-
surrction. Butter and cheese, with swine’s flesh, are more
abuiiant, and indeed the dairy is an important branch of
ruM application. The fishery on the coasts is, next to
agrhulture, the chief occupation. The chief trade is in
thefapital, Copenhagen ; and the other towns are inconsi-
derrole, except Roskilda, Elsineur, and Kioge, in the for-
meraf which, in the cathedral, is the burial-place of the
royi family. The climate of the island is very variable,
esaually in winter, and not generally favourable to lon¬
ger,y. The population in 1834 amounted to 464,607,
heii^ an increase since 1801 of 28 per cent.
Sialand, a province of the kingdom of Holland, which,
beles the group of islands formed in the river Scheldt,
incudes a section of the continental dominions. The
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piMnce extends in north latitude from 51° 14' to 51°
45ftind in east longitude from 3° 8' to 4° 2'. The whole
exlilt is 667 square miles. The surface is flat and low,
beig but a few feet higher than the water at half-flood
tidi As the shore in this province is not, as in some
othrs, protected against the sea by sand-hills or downs,
it Hs been found necessary to defend it by artificial walls,
Z E A
which are from fourteen to sixteen feet in height, with a gen¬
tle declivity towards the sea, and nearly perpendicular on
the land side. In front they have placed stakes, which, by s
dividing the waves, in some measure break their force.
d he soil of the island is uniformly rich; being clayey,
with a fruitful loam, which requires but little manure, and
scarcely ever disappoints the hopes of the husbandman. All
kinds of corn and green crops come to perfection in these
soils. As agriculture is thus productive, there is every
year a surplus of food. The wheat, especially in South
Beveland, is considered the best in the kingdom ; besides
which, much rye is cultivated, and likewise barley, which is
of peculiar excellence for malting. Beans and pease are
raised in great quantities, chiefly for export; and flax is raised
to a great extent both for home use and for foreign trade.
Madder is a valuable article of cultivation, and that of the
island Schouwen is in the highest estimation. The annual
export of this dye amounts to more than 20,000 quintals.
The dairies yield large portions of good cheese and butter,
and fatten swine, whose flesh, when pickled, furnishes pro¬
vision for the shipping. The sheep are small, and their
wool indifferently fine. The horses are a heavy breed, but
strong and tolerably hardy.
The climate is heavy, moist, and variable, and for stran¬
gers very unhealthy, but much less so for the natives. It
snows and freezes much less on the islands than on the
mainland.
The inhabitants consisted in 1833 of 67,059 males, and
70,203 females ; thus making together 137,262, of whom
43,145 were found in the cities, and 94,117 in the villages.
The divisions of religion shew 100,747 Protestants, 36,060
Roman Catholics, and 455 Jews. The population had in¬
creased in 1837 to 145,542; and, on the whole, they are
supposed to be in as easy circumstances as any in the
kingdom. They adhere to their ancient customs, manners,
and dress, and speak a peculiar dialect of Dutch, nearly
approaching to that of the Flemings. Many of them are
engaged in fishing and other marine pursuits. Their
manufacturing industry is chiefly applied to spinning fine
linen yarn; and there are many distilleries, breweries, oil-
mills, limekilns, salt-refineries, and establishments for ship¬
building. The capital is the city of Middelburg, in the
island of Walcheren, containing 14,700 inhabitants.
975
ZEALAND, NEW.
jl the article Australasia (vol. iv. p. 215) we have
alrrady given a general description of New Zealand, suffi-
cietly comprehensive for the degree of importance which
the belonged to the subject. But within the last two
ytis the New Zealand group has been made the theatre
olio extraordinary a movement in colonization, that we
afe nduced to devote to the subject a greater space than
id otherwise have been justifiable ; and we avail our-
fcs of a license which the name furnishes, to give in this
a brief history of the recent proceedings tor the eo¬
lation of these interesting islands,
may, in the first place, be proper to describe the corn-
revolution which' of late years has taken place, both
ic practice of colonization, and in the state ot public
pi ion respecting it.
ntil within a very recent period, it was the custom o
thkBritish government to give away the waste lands in our
nies to all applicants. System there was none; but
[ral hundred different modes of granting land have at
Irent times been recognised by the government, a o
however agreeing in rendering land as cheap as pos
Every labouring man who applied for lane oai a
Zealand,
New.
certain number of acres allotted to him: although condi¬
tions were sometimes imposed, they were easily evaded ;
and, in practice, land may be said to have been given un¬
conditionally away- 1 he effect of this upon men ot the
labouring class may easily be conceived. In the country
which they had just quitted, to own land was to be great
and powerful. The idea of wealth was inseparably unit¬
ed with that of land; and the prevailing desire of nearly
every emigrant is to become an independent freeholder.
The consequence of this very natural desire was, that no
man would labour for hire, but would rather content him¬
self with scratching up the soil by the aid of some rude
help to labour, which scarcely deserved the name of capital.
Now, where labour cannot be obtained, capital is not
very prone to establish itself; and even if it did perchance
find its way into such a country, a considerable portion of
it must have remained unproductive, and must frequently
have rotted for want of hands to use it. In a country, in
short where the temptation to take land is very great, the
capitalist can offer to the labourer no inducement to labour
for hire, equal in force to the inducement to occupy land.
On the other hand, the land-owning labourer cannot pre-
976
ZEALAND, NEW.
Zealand, sent to the capitalist's mind any motive to induce him to
, ^VV _ Par^ his capital. Thus that degree of co-operation
between the capitalist and labourer, which effects such
wonders in this country, cannot exist in a country where
land is excessively cheap ; and production, wanting that
co-operation, is reduced to the minimum. The labourer
certainly gets the whole produce of the soil; he has no¬
thing to pay to a capitalist for the use of his implements ;
but then it is a very small whole that he secures. In
like manner, the capitalist may perhaps felicitate himself
on having nothing to pay for labour. In his turn he se¬
cures all the produce of his fields, but that all is extremely
scanty.
Another evil of the excessive cheapness of land is, that
there can be no combination of labour wherever it exists.
There may be some degree of skill, together with many
other valuable qualities, generated by the labourer’s habit
of independent exertion; but that exertion is isolated, and
results which require the combined exertion of numbers
can never be attained.
It must be further evident, that where each individual
possesses a considerable breadth of land, only a small por¬
tion can generally be brought under cultivation. The cul¬
tivated spots are therefore scattered over a vast extent of
country ; dispersion of population necessarily exists; and
barbarism prevails throughout the country. In a country
so circumstanced, a man scarcely knows his neighbour;
schools cannot be maintained ; and the very rudiments of
the social state become extinguished, if indeed they ever
appeared.
Into a country in such a condition, capital would speedily
cease to flow, because there wrould be nothing to attract it;
and the country would soon exhibit the phenomenon of a po¬
pulation of pauper land-owners. There would be no colo¬
nization, properly so called; there would simply be the emi¬
gration of masses.
The last colony deliberately established on the principle,
if such it can be called, of rendering land as cheap as pos¬
sible, was that of the Swan River in 1829. Mr Peel was
the first grantee. He took five hundred thousand acres,
and marked out his land around the port. This, says Mr
Wakefield, in his evidence before the Waste-Land Com¬
mittee in 1836, was as much as to say, “ this is a desert;
no man shall come here; no man shall cultivate this land.”
Other persons took large blocks; and so complete was the
dispersion, that the settlers could not find each other.
“ That,” continues Mr Wakefield, “ was why some people
died of hunger; for though there was an ample supply of
food at the governor’s house, the settlers did not know
where the governor was, and the governor did not know
where the settlers were. Then, besides the evils resulting
from dispersion, there occurred what I consider almost a
greater one, which is the separation of the people, and the
want of combinable labour. The labourers, on finding out
that land could be obtained wdth the greatest facility, the
labourers taken out under contracts, under engagements
which assured them of very high wages if they would la¬
bour during a certain time for wages, immediately laughed
at their masters. Mr Peel carried altogether about three
hundred persons, men, women, and children. Of these,
about sixty were able labouring men. In six months after
his arrival, he had nobody even to make his bed for him, or
to fetch him water from the river. He was obliged to make
his own bed, and to fetch water for himself, and to light his
owm fire. All the labourers had left him. The capital
therefore which he took out, viz. implements of husbandry,
seeds, and stock, especially stock, immediately perished.
Without shepherds to take care of the sheep, the sheep
wandered and were lost; eaten by the native dno-c fit ,
bv the natives an6 A , ^ Zeal^
by the natives and by some of the other coloniS, 01
hkely by his own workmen ; but they were destroyed’ T? J
seeds nerisheH nr, 1 “^oyed. His ""
Nut.
seeds perished on the beach; his houses were ofniuse-
his wooden houses were there in frame, in pieces
not be put together, and were quite useless, and’rotted^J
the beach. This was the case with the capitalists gene
rally. I he labourers, obtaining land very readily, and run
nmg about to fix upon locations for themselves and?
establish themselves independently, very soon senaraJ
themselves into isolated families, into what may be ternW
cottiers, with a very large extent of land, somethin, like
Irish cottiers, but having, instead of a very small piece nf
land, a large extent of land. Every one was separated and
very soon fell into the greatest distress. Falling into the
greatest distress, they returned to their masters, and in-
sisted upon the fulfilment of the agreements on which they
had gone out; but then Mr Peel said, ‘ all my capital is
gone; you have ruined me by deserting me, by breaking
your engagements, and you now insist upon my observing
the engagements when you yourselves have deprived me of
the means of doing so.’ They wanted to hang him, and he
ran away to a distance, where he secreted himself for a
time, till they were carried off to Van Diemen’s Land,
where they obtained food, and where, by the way, land was
not obtainable by any means with so great facility as at the
Swan River.” (Report, &c. 53-4.)
That the semi-barbarous state of what are called new
countries arises from the extreme facility of acquiring land,
was first shown by Mr Wakefield, in a little work called a
Letter from Sydney, published in 1829 ;' but his views had
been communicated to government, we believe, before
the departure of the Swan River settlers. The remedies
which he proposed have since been substantially adopted,
and wherever they have been applied, they have been at¬
tended with singular success.
Facility of acquisition being the evil, the remedy con¬
sisted in removing it by placing a price upon the waste
lands in our colonies, and by stopping all alienation except
in consideration of a price.
I he first consequence of requiring a price for land is,
that the labourer is compelled to labour a while for hire,
until he shall have saved a sufficient sum to enable him to
become a purchaser; and by devoting the proceeds, or a
considerable portion of the proceeds, to defray the cost of
removing people from the country in which people are
abundant to the country in which they are deficient, a
continual supply of labour is kept up. The supply being
thus guaranteed, the colony becomes at once attractive to
the capitalist; capital flows readily into such a country;
and combination of labour, with perfect co-operation be¬
tween the capitalist and labourer, being secured, produc¬
tion is facilitated and accelerated.
The mode of expending the labour-fund is another point
of importance which requires explanation. The object is
to relieve the population of the old country, and to increase
to the utmost that of the new country, at the smallest pos¬
sible cost. How is this to be done ? Evidently by select¬
ing the emigrants as to age and sex. By confining the ex¬
penditure of the emigration-fund derived from the land,
to equal proportions of both sexes between certain ages,
say eighteen and thirty-five, we give the greatest relief
to the old country, and provide for the rapid peopling of
the new. In other words, we remove from the country
where people are in excess, to the country where they are
deficient, the greatest germ of future increase at the small¬
est cost.
“ By removing the selected class,” says Mr Wakefield,
1 Edited by R. Gouger, Cross, Holborn, 1829.
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’°1.. X
ZEALAND, NEW.
« ot only would you remove the greatest seeds of increase
ir ;he smallest number of people, but you would remove
'tf greatest quantity of labour (using the term labour to
erress saleable muscular exertion) at the least cost. If
tl "e were a pressure upon the labour-market at home, by
ro ioving that class which was then commencing to work,
ai? which had before it a long period of health and strength
fa labour, you would give the greatest relief to the labour-
nrket with the least expenditure ; and, in the next place,
y<.r object in the colony being the greatest possible la-
bur at the least expense, by bringing to the colony a
yong man who had just arrived at his strength, but who
hi, the prospect of a long life, you would give to the co¬
lony the greatest benefit at the least expenditure. Thirdly,
tire is in emigration the same sort of evil as there is in
st: ms and floods. Emigration per se is an evil. It is the
gmatest evil to remove from the country of one’s birth and
on’s affections. Now, by the proposed selection, since the
gnatest amount of emigration would really take place with
tl removal of the least number of people, you would ob-
tg i the maximum of good to be obtained by emigration,
w :i the minimum of evil, whatever that evil may be. In
tb fourth place, there are great objections to any but
yong people ; I will not say any but the narrow class to
wi'ch I have adverted. Children suffer immensely in he¬
ir removed. They suffer on board ship ; they suffer from
tl confinement; and when they arrive in the colony, they
an either neglected, or are a great encumbrance. Old
p«ple suffer much more from being removed from the
Maes to which they are attached, and they are also less
alb to bear the fatigues which necessarily attend upon a
Idg voyage. Lastly, almost every young couple no
saner marry in this country, or wherever they may be,
tWn they look out for a new home. At the moment
w ni they contemplate marriage, or at least when they
an, about to marry7, they may be said to be on the move.
Yi would catch them moving. You do not tear them
frn a place where they are fixed, but you would enable
977
repugnant, now readily embrace a favourable opportunity Zealand,
of emigrating. Among the educated portion of the middle New-
class, whose families are numerous, it is now not unusual
to find some one or more of the sons seeking fortune in our
distant possessions, and carrying to the antipodes those
energetic habits which have made this country what she is.
Coslum, non animum, mutant, qui trans mare currunt
Women of refinement, too, no longer object to emigra¬
tion, if circumstances favour the step; and New Zealand
affords many instances of the emigration of whole families
who have been accustomed to a species of society of which
the older colonies were destitute, but which in our newer
colonies they themselves help to form.
In the article Australasia, to which we have already
referred, and irirthe life of the great navigator Cook, are
stated the geographical position and extent of the New Zea¬
land group, together with the circumstances of its discovery.
As early as the year 1814, the northern part of the north¬
ern island began to be the resort of ships engaged in the
whale-fishery, and men would occasionally desert from their
ships and take up their residence among the natives. About
the same time, some few of the natives of New Zealand
occasionally made their appearance at Port Jackson, and
being seen and conversed with by the Rev. Samuel Mars-
den, he conceived the idea of establishing a mission in the
islands, which he accordingly visited for the purpose 51 and
although not immediately successful, the ultimate estab¬
lishment of a mission was the result. Since that period,
the Wesleyan Methodists and the Catholics have establish¬
ed missions, all of which have of late years extended their
influence, bringing the natives into familiar intercourse
with the Europeans, and generally promoting their civiliza¬
tion, in spite of certain questionable practices on the part
of the church missionaries, which have brought them into
some disrepute.
But the missionaries are not the only white men to whose
influence the New Zealanders have been subjected. Up
tlrm to move to that place where their labour would be of to the date of the commencement of the present move
tit greatest possible value to them.”
inch are the principles of colonization, which have been
sucessful wherever they have been applied, and the ef-
ffia of which, in the colonization of New Zealand, we
VI presently shew. They embrace a combination of the
ns which are requisite, not only for conveying masses,
for permanently establishing society in a new settle-
mot. They perform their peculiar functions with the
le:,t possible disturbance of previous habits. They are the
vny opposite, the antagonist principles, as it were, of that
p/nless practice which seems to have proceeded on the as¬
sumption, that to convey people to the new colony was the
on thing needful. The example of Virginia has shewn,
tk the conveyance of mere masses alone to the fertile
lads of new countries, is not sufficient to establish a colony.
In Virginia, after twenty years of perseverance in colo-
nji ng, and after conveying 20,000 people, not above 2000
we to be found at the end of the period. There were
pa pie, there was wealth, there was intelligence, but all was
illlirected. There was no system, and combined exertion
w unknown. All our early efforts at colonization were
diitstrous. Under the new system, the causes ol such
dlister have been investigated and guarded against, with
wfat success the following pages will shew.
Jnder the impulse of these principles, a complete revolu-
tiu has taken place in the state of opinion on the subject
okolonization. Persons to whom the bare idea ol sever-
iij. themselves from their native country was insuperably
4
ment, namely, 1839, the only colonizers of New Zealand
were the very outcasts of an outcast population. Escaped
convicts from the penal settlements ; runaway sailors from
whaling ships; needy adventurers, whose improvident ha¬
bits and evil courses have made them men of no country ;
these, with a small admixture of worthy and energetic men,
such as will find their way into all eligible fields, but who
at that time formed too inconsiderable a minority to cure
the vicious propensities and neutralize the evil passions of
the majority, formed the bulk of the European population
of New Zealand in 1839.
Dr Lang, principal of the Australian College at Syd¬
ney, who visited New Zealand during that year, thus de¬
scribes the mass of the European population.2 “ Of the
character of the European population, now permanently
settled in New Zealand, it is scarcely necessary to inform
your lordship. With a few honourable exceptions, it con¬
sists of the veriest refuse of civilized society ; of runaway
sailors, of runaway convicts, of convicts who have served
out their term of bondage in one or other of the two pe¬
nal colonies, of fraudulent debtors who have escaped from
their creditors in Sydney or Hobart Town, and of needy ad¬
venturers from the two colonies, almost equally unprin¬
cipled. In conjunction with the whalers who occasionally
visit the coast, the influence of these individuals on the na¬
tives is demoralizing in the extreme. Their usual articles
of barter are either muskets and gunpowder, or tobacco and
rum. Most of them live in open concubinage or adultery
i ... , x- ion -rwi ifil'i in comnanv with the Rev. Samuel Marsden, by John Liddiard
['Narrative of a Voyage to New Zealand in the Years 1814 and 1810, m company
Nilolas, 1817. ^ r, 11 T rr
*New Zealand in 1839 ; Four Letters to Lord Durham, by the Rev. Dr L,an0.
pi., xxi.
Smith and Elder, Cornhill.
6 H
T
978
ZEALAND, NEW.
Zealand, with native women; and the scenes of outrageous licen-
^ew' tiousness and debauchery that are ever and anon occurring
'“"“■V"*-' on their premises, are often sufficiently revolting to excite
the reprobation and, disgust of the natives themselves.
“ 01 the character and practices of a considerable portion
of the European population of New Zealand, the following
may perhaps serve as a specimen. There is an individual
at present at the Bay of Islands, who is known among the
Europeans by the respectable soubriquet of the ‘rat-catcher.’
He had been a dealer in slop clothing, and a notorious gam-
bler, in New South Wales; but having been obliged, when
his affairs became desperate in Sydney, to leave that co¬
lony altogether, he embarked for the usual refuge of the
destitute, New Zealand, and commenced his old practices
as a general dealer and gambler at the Bay of Islands. On
one occasion, when he had gambled away4ll his property
at the Bay but a single box of spermaceti candles, he took
a boat at Kororarika, and embarking with the box, rowed
over to Paihia, one of the stations of the Church Missionary
Society on the opposite shore, where he offered the candles
to the missionaries at sixpence per lb., telling them he
could procure them sixty pounds worth at the same price,
trom a vessel which had just arrived in the port, provided
he could only advance the ready money for them. The
missionaries of course advanced the money, which the
rat-catcher of course pocketed, and applied to his own
purposes; thereby teaching the missionaries not to deal in
future with disreputable persons, and especially not to at¬
tempt to purchase articles of property from such persons at
one fourth of their market price.”
Such was the character of the European population at
the time when the present movement for the systematic
colonization commenced, and indeed until it was in a man¬
ner neutralized by a large infusion of a sounder population.
This movement had its origin in a conversation which
took place in a committee-room of the House of Commons,
on the occasion of the inquiry into the mode of disposing
of the waste lands in the colonies in 1836. In the course
ol" the evidence, New Zealand had been mentioned as one
of the many eligible fields for colonization open to Great
Britain. Mr Francis Baring’s attention was thus excited ;
and the result was, that the New Zealand Association was
formed, of which Mr Baring was chairman, for the express
purpose of promoting the colonization of the islands.1
1 he New Zealand Association consisted of two classes
of members ; first, heads of families who intended to estab¬
lish themselves in the proposed settlement; and, secondly,
public men, who, on public grounds alone, were willing to
undertake tlm responsible task of carrying the measure into
operation. Ihe sole aim of the association was to induce
the legislature to apply to New Zealand the peculiar system
of colonization which we have briefly described, and at the
same time to make provision for guarding the natives from
the evils to which they had been exposed by their inter¬
course with a lawless European population.
In 183/, this philanthropic body of men entered into
communication with government on the subject, and at
first tnere seemed some degree of willingness to promote
the association’s views; but at length a strange objection
was iaised, namely, that the association was not a company
trading for profit. A charter was offered, on condition of
its becoming such; but with this condition the association
wras not able to comply, having expressly excluded all pur¬
poses of private profit from its object. Having thus failed
in its negotiation with the government, the association
addressed itself to parliament. A bill was introduce
“ to establish a provisional government of British settle¬
ments of New Zealandbut as ministers opposed the
bill, it was of course lost. But although the association
did not succeed in its object, it certainly did much to
instruct the public on the subject. Through its exer¬
tions a committee was moved for in the House of Lords
by the earl of Devon, and a large mass of valuable evi¬
dence was collected ;2 besides which, several publications
issued from the press, either published by the association
or at their instance.3 By these the public were undoubt¬
edly prepared for the proceedings which have since taken
place.
On the failure of its objects, the New Zealand Asso¬
ciation became virtually dissolved; but some of its co¬
lonizing members attempted the formation of a joint-stock
company, to meet the views of the government. After
some difficulties and disappointments, the plan was attended
with success. A company, with adequate capital, was estab¬
lished ; and early in 1839 it had become possessed, by pur¬
chase from individuals and from the company of 1825, of
some extensive tracts on the northern island. The pro¬
ceedings of the New Zealand Company for the years
1839 and 1840 constitute a somewhat remarkable history;
the history of British colonization from first to last does
not furnish a more striking instance of vigorous action.
Seldom has so much been effected in so short a period of
time, and that too not merely without the sanction of the
government, but in the face of opposition from it. That
opposition, as we shall presently see, has been entirely ob¬
viated ; and at this moment (August 1841) we find the New
Zealand Company an efficient instrument for the coloniza¬
tion of New Zealand, under the superintendence of govern¬
ment.
Before the New Zealand Company made its plan of ope¬
rations known to the public, it had purchased a fine bark
of 400 tons, called the Tory. This vessel was fully equip¬
ped and ready for sea, when, on the 2d of May 1839, the
company deemed itself in a situation to announce its plan
of operations to the public. “ The attention and business
of the company,” says the Prospectus, “ will be confined to
the purchase of tracts of land, the promotion of emigration
to those tracts directly from the united kingdom, the lay¬
ing out of settlements and towns in the most favourable si¬
tuations, and the gradual resale of such lands according to
the value bestowed upon them by emigration and settle¬
ment. It is also proposed, that to facilitate the transmission
of capital between England and New Zealand, the company
shall act as agents for that purpose only.”
The Tory sailed from Plymouth on the first of May; and
in a very able body of instructions given to Colonel Wake¬
field, the company’s chief agent, the objects of the com¬
pany are explicitly stated under three heads: 1st, the pur¬
chase of lands for the company, including the mode of
dealing with the natives; 2d, the acquisition of general in¬
formation respecting the country; and, 3d, preparations
for the formation of settlements under the auspices of the
company.
In these instructions, a strong leaning was exhibited to-
wards Cook’s Straits, as an eligible site for the first settle¬
ment, as being the great highway, so to speak, between the
^erIZeala-nd SeeraS.,at.a11 times to ba,v.e be6" considered an eligible field for the formation of a settlement. Beniamin Franklin propo*
an tor oopnino* a rM 4. ^   • . 1 XT r» i 1 • - W    — J ^ , . T *
Herd
i c — • ^ ^ t-o u<*ve ueen considered an eligible held tor tl _ _ _
T.nder thl with ^evv Zealalul ^^L In i825.'a commercTal company^was formed in'bond
i i .. —--.ct .,..u x.cvv ^.caituiu in 1820. a commercial company was tormeo in j
Point and at tPhCeS f ^ L)urbam- rwo vessels were despatched to New Zealand, and land was acquired at Hokianga,
tion ho. Keen 6 fiSt .k the T.hames ’ but tbe '^ssels returned without forming a settlement. From that period until 1839, the colom
tion nas been confined to the species described in the above extracts. ^
2 House of Commons Paper, 8th August 1838. No. 680.
tion^Parke^Iss?6 Colouization of New Zealand i being an Account of the principal Objects and Plans of the New Zealand Asso<
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ZEALAND, NEW.
979
Antralian and eastern colonies and Great Britain. These
irejilections were shared by most of those who formed the
timcolony. Indeed as a commercial locality it is probably
no (Surpassed in any one of our Australian possessions,
rica abounds with animals which either serve as food for Zealand,
the natives, or furnish them with the means of procuring New.
by barter such objects as are suited to their wants. New •
Zealand, on the contrary, has no aboriginal animals. This
Tl. Tory made an extremely short passage of ninety-six may have made them cannibals; but it has also of neces-
da- ; and Colonel Wakefield being thus in the field be- -:i— —  i.- . 1 1 ’ ’ •
for any competitors, was enabled to fulfil the wishes of the
cor mny in every particular. He acquired for the company
tha»vhole of the territory on both shores of Cook’s Straits,
molding Port Nicholson, one of the finest harbours in the
wad, where the principal settlement has since been suc-
cBfully formed, and now numbers about four thousand
pcjle.
ilut the most gratifying feature in the company’s instruc-
tias relates to the mode of dealing with the native tribes.
sity made them cultivators, and has thus advanced them
one step in civilization. It has rendered them prone to
labour, and they now adopt with great readiness the im¬
provements of civilized life. Among hunters, such as
the American Indians are at this day, no circumstance
could give value to a small quantity of land, so as to make
it provide for the subsistence of the natives; but with
a race of cultivators, a great breadth of land is valueless.
They cannot use much land; and they may therefore
be deemed well provided for, in proportion as they are
Unappilv, the whole history of European colonization is taught to use a comparatively small quantity of land with
bira continuous record of barbarity and injustice towards effect.
thi aboriginal races. Civilization having often been found
dii ult, extermination has been openly practised. Even
ve: recently, in New South Wales, a small body of the
naives was hemmed in and shot down in cold blood by a
fe Europeans; and when the government took some steps
toiring the monsters who perpetrated the act to justice,
thipress raised an outcry against punishing mew for shoot-
inn monkeys; and an intimation was held out, that if this
cerse were persevered in, it would be necessary to find
sae more secure method of getting rid of the “ vermin;”
an the mode recommended was, to dose wheaten cakes,
ofkhich the natives were very fond, with arsenic! This,
reler, is no exaggeration ; for in a letter from a brother-
All modern accounts which deserve credit agree in de¬
scribing the habits of the New Zealanders as exceedingly
favourable to their elevation. They learn the use of me¬
chanics’ tools with great readiness, and even become good
ship-carpenters. Many of the first settlers at Port Nichol¬
son found the houses built by the natives, called warrees,
much more comfortable than any others. They become
excellent boatmen and sailors; and there are instances of
small vessels built and navigated by New Zealanders. Dr
Lang states, that Toki, a New Zealander, was the best
helmsman on board the ship in which he made a passage;
and in the evidence before the Lords’ Committee, many
instances are given of natives capable of taking charge of
ireaw of the present writer, a member of the English bar, a ship as master, were it not that, as foreigners, they were
tllsd Port Philip, December 3, the practice is mentioned as incapacitated by law from so doing.1
oikommon occurrence. “ Some of the white people here The views of the company touching the aborigines have
trut the natives most shamefully. For the slightest offence up to this time been admirably seconded in the colony, not
tUy kill them, and drop their bodies into some creek; and merely by their own officers, but by the settlers at large,
ne have been known to leave about what are called In the very first instance, by the uniform fairness of his
dhipers, a species of bread baked in the bush, in which
ai mic has been previously put, for the very purpose of
dltroying the blacks.”
lut the New Zealand Company inherited the higher
v \vs of the association of 1837. The elevation of the na-
ti s in every possible way is an object never lost sight of,
ad it is in their contracts with the natives respecting land
tit this object is especially conspicuous. In the first
pice, as regards the original purchase-money of the land,
ilvas much more considerable than had been paid by any
pevious purchaser. This however was not the real consi-
c ation. The substantial advantage secured to the na¬
tes is, a reserve of one tenth of the whole of the lands
settlement proceeds,
dealings, and especially by the temper displayed in all his
negotiations, Colonel Wakefield succeeded in gaining their
confidence, and in establishing the most friendly relations ;
and the settlers, on their arrival, found them predisposed
to receive them with friendship, and perform for them such
services as they immediately needed. In the various let¬
ters from the first settlers which have been published2 from
time to time during the last twelvemonths, both the ca¬
pacity and disposition of the natives are well spoken of,
and it is quite evident that mutual feelings of kindness
and good will have grown up between the settlers and the
natives.
Soon after the departure of the Tory, the company
made preparations for disposing of a limited portion of their
trehased which tenth must, as settlement proceeas, maae preparations mi uispusmg ^ 7 "“r
Dome of far greater value in consequence of coloniza- lands already acquired or hereafter to be acquired, for the
im and will confer much more substantial comfort on the purpose of forming the first colony. The quantity as-
Ktive population than the whole of the land could possi- signed for this purpose was eleven bundled acres for the
Jtive population, tnan me w sion. Of town, and one hundred and ten thousand acres to form the
L do, so long as it remained in their own possession, yi LUVV,,» TIipsp Ends
«■ .100 town acre,, with ^ weT XS’ ilTevtt^secTot. cad, section
st,tute the first co ony, one tenth was so rese,tea t e hundred rural acres and one town acre.
flinpany sold these lands at 20s. per acre, consequently
ii native reserves were worth at the time L.11,110, ut
sieh has been their rise since, that they are woith up-
1,.rds of L.35,000 in the London market; a value which
wll place the natives of Port Nicholson in a most advan-
Igeous position in relation to the colonists.
! The plan is indeed admirably suited to promote t ie ci-
vization of the natives. They do not require an enoi-
limis breadth of land, for they are, and always have been,
jiltivators, not hunters like the American Indians. nie
to comprise one hundred
Deducting the reserved land for the aborigines, the re¬
mainder was offered for sale at L.l per acre, or L.101 per
section. On paying down this sum, the purchaser re¬
ceived a land-order on the company’s local officer, en¬
titling the holder to select his section according to priority
of choice, afterwards determined by lot at the company’s
offices. _ „
The quantity of land thus disposed of in the first in¬
stance, was taken in a few weeks. The total sum realized,
j u t i uw Parker, 1840. The New Zealanders (Library of Entertaining Knowledge>
11 Information relative to New Zealand, by John a ,
fat, 1830. . Zealand Journal, a paper published in London once a fortnight, and devoted
12 A great number of such letters has appeared in the New Zealand J ourna ’ r e r
8the colonization of New Zealand.
980
Zealand,
New.
after deducting the native reserves, was L.99,990. Of this
sum 75 per cent, or L.74,992. 10s. was set apart to form
the emigration fund for the purpose of defraying the
cost of conveying emigrants to the colony, and so impart
value to the lands already sold. By the conditions of sale,
the purchasers of land-orders were entitled to claim 75 of
their purchase-money, either in the shape of free passages
tor themselves and families, or for their servants and "la¬
bourers ; and where no claim was made, the benefit was
equally conferred on the landowner, as the whole of the
emigration fund would be devoted to the conveyance of
labour to the colony. J
It should be observed, that the buyers of these lands
knew not at the time where the first colony would be
located. They knew that the company had some land to
fall back upon, but the general impression was, that the
first colony would be established on the lands about to be
acquired, and Port Nicholson was looked to by some of
the piincipal colonists as likely to form an eligible site.
Phis has since been accomplished. Port Nicholson was
found to be in every way fitted to become a great com¬
mercial emporium, and the satisfaction which the settlers
express with the selection is universal.
Immediately after the realization of the land-fund in
July, active preparations were made for the departure of
the first colony. A surveyor, with what was then deemed
an adequate staff; but which subsequent experience has
shewn to have been too small, was despatched in the Cuba.
She sailed two months in advance of the settlers, but,
unfortunately, she made a long passage, and at the time
the first emigrant ship reached Port Nicholson, not a step
had been taken towards the laying out of the town. This
inconvenience was however obviated by Colonel Wake¬
field’s arrangements ; and by assigning small allotments of
iand to the settlers, on which they might erect their tents
and houses, discontent was entirely avoided.
The ships chartered by the company to take out the
first colony were five in number, namely, the Adelaide, the
Aurora, the Oriental, the Duke of Roxburghe, and the
Bengal Merchant. It afterwards became necessary to take
up the Glenbervie to take out stores, and the Bolton to
take about 232 passengers, who had been disappointed in
obtaining passages by the first ships. The first sailed on
the first of October, and the last in the middle of Novem¬
ber, and, with the Coromandel, a private ship, conveyed
1125 persons to the colony.
The distinguishing feature of this first colony is its com¬
pleteness. No colony was ever established under more
favourable prospects. The labouring emigrants, the bone
and muscle of the colony, formed the finest body of peo-
p.e we ever saw congregated together for such a purpose,
albeit our experience in such matters is not small. Selec¬
tion was observed not merely to the extent which the princi-
p es lequire, but also as to the moral and physical qualifi¬
cations of the people. They were for the most part in the
prime of life, in full health, and of approved moral charac¬
ter ; and it was impossible to look upon them without a
conviction that they were the very people to carve fortune
out of the wilderness.
Among the wealthier classes were several persons of
birth, education, and refinement, who, in planting a new
colony, will not be content with a mere rude abundance,
nor with their new home, unless it bear distinct marks of a
high degree of civilization. They went out impressed
with the value of a system of which they themselves form
a part; they believe that system to be efficient for the crea¬
tion of a society complete in all its parts ; and believing so,
ZEALAND, NEW.
all their energies will be directed to the verifirat!™ ....
principles to which they are attached. The var c ZeaH
form in which the capital was conveyed to the colonv If ^
show how efficient that capital is likely to beeom? ^
means of contributing to the satisfaction of the TjL)
the colonists. Houses and other buildings in fr„ f
ready to be put up like a bedstead in the course of aTi
or two; nnll-machinery of all kinds, both for sawW2
grinding; steam-engines ; agricultural implements of 1
most improved kind; mechanics’ tools, especially all £
might be necessary to the builder, were among t e a
tides carried out. But this was not all. In addit IT
triat in which the idea of immediate profit was nmlo °
nant, the moral and intellectual wants of the people t
not been forgotten. Even before the departure of the firs
colony, a literary and scientific institution was established
°T>a lbl'ary formed’ t0 which the archbishoo
of Dublin, the Rev. Dr Hinds, and several other friendsof
the colony, contributed. The press also was not forgotten
I he first number of a newspaper, called the New Zealand
Gazette, was published in London in August 1839 with
the intention of publishing the second and succeeding
numbers in the colony. The types and presses, the editor
foreman, and compositors, went out in the Adelaide. She
reacned Port Nicholson on the 7th of March, and on the
, 1 ot APri‘ t!le second number was printed at Port Ni-
cfiolson. We have now before us a file to the 5th of De¬
cember, and its contents bear remarkable testimony to the
completeness of the system, and the extraordinary rapidity
with which the settlement has increased. A newspaper
. exclusively devoted to New Zealand,” is also published
in London. It is called the New Zealand Journal; it ap¬
pears once a fortnight, and has a considerable and steadily
increasing sale ; a proof that what has very aptly been
called the “ New Zealand public” in this country is also
large and increasing.
We have already seen that neither the New Zealand
Association of 1837, nor the New Zealand Company of
1839, could win the sympathy or even the countenance of
the government. By the energetic operations of the lat¬
ter body, however, the government were forced into action;
and just as the first colony was ready to start, Captain
obson of the navy was sent to New Zealand for the pur¬
pose of ultimately erecting it into a British colony. Un-
oitunately, New Zealand, or rather the northern portion of
the northern island, had been treated in 1831 as a sovereign
independent state, and Captain Hobson was instructed to
begin by calling himself consul. He was then to obtain
a cession of the sovereignty from the chiefs, and declare
so much of the country as should be ceded to him, and
also such part thereof as should be in possession of British
subjects, a dependency of New South Wales. Of this
poi b°n be was to cease to call himself consul, and was
to become lieutenant-governor under Sir George Gipps,
the governor of New South Wales. In other words,
New Zealand was treated as a foreign country, over
which her majesty could have no authority, until it
should be obtained by formal cession, from the date of
which, sovereignty with all its consequences would com¬
mence.
Prom this course of policy much difficulty has since
arisen, and more will yet arise. It is a well-understood
principle of international lawT, that discovery and occupa¬
tion give to the discovering nation a right of sovereignty
as against all civilized powers. The relations which the
powers, a ne relations which ujc
discovering country may establish with the native tribes
fin nnf iowxt Tirnvy xEr . • Xh9
do not in any way affect this right of sovereignty.
two days. It was madTbTMaLiHgof Ho^boJ^'irwTtXT out^nTrf^ PUt UP ^ Fr0Prietor and 3 C0UFle°f meD 1
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ZEALAND, NEW.
Ancidcans, for instance, recognise a certain modified sove-
reigty as continuing in the Cherokees and other aborigi¬
nal 'ibes, but they nevertheless assert the sovereignty°of
the Jnion as against all European nations. Of our origi¬
nal overeignty over New Zealand no one ever doubted,
unti it was lately repudiated or renounced by the colonial
dep tment. Acts of sovereignty had frequently been ex-
erciid. Magistrates had been appointed; criminals had
man years since been arrested, sent to Sydney, tried, and
putlhed; and yet it was determined that Captain Hobson
sfioi d take a new lease of sovereignty, dating from a first
cedon or successive cessions from the natives.
Cie of the consequences of this was, that New Zealand,
whil) had all along been respected by foreign powers, was
imi^diately thrown open to colonization by any European
pofr r. France at once took the hint, and sent out the
Conte de Paris transport with about sixty settlers, to
fettl'd a French colony there. This expedition was only
twgty days too late to take possession of the southern
islad in the name of France. Twenty days before, Cap-
taiii Hobson had declared the queen’s sovereignty over
bott islands, otherwise we must either have submitted to
halt, a French colony on the southern island, or have
retried to our ancient seisin, declared a species of retro-
spetive sovereignty, and stultified the recent proceedings
of lie government in that behalf. And in point of ^ct
thilhas been done. Captain Hobson at first pursued
thqilan of cession. The chiefs of a small portion of the
noriern island north of the estuary of the Thames were
assmbled to barter sovereignty for a blanket. Captain
Hd*,on thereafter proclaimed the queen’s authority. With
thebroclamation of sovereignty a second proclamation was
issuid, appointing a commission to inquire into the titles to
land to confirm such as might have been obtained by fair
meliis, and to disallow such as might have been obtained
for.: fraudulent or inadequate consideration, or where the
extol of territory claimed was unreasonably large. This
seqnd proclamation has since been carried into effect by an
acfif the council of New South Wales. Now this act, toge-
t lie with the second proclamation respecting titles, is utterly
inoosistent with the first proclamation, which makes her
malty’s sovereignty commence with the date of the ces¬
sion in January 1840. Proclamation No. 1 denies her
m apty any jurisdiction previously to 1840. Proclamation
No*2 asserts jurisdiction for an indefinite period before
thaipate. In other words, our “ancient seisin” is reverted
tojgier majesty, to use the language of our ancient legal
wri rs, is “ in of her old estateand the whole ceremony
ofllie formal cession is treated as a solemn farce. Indeed
a jain Hobson himself found it necessary to cut the gor-
diaaknot, and renounce the scheme of obtaining the seve¬
re igty bit by bit by means of cession ; for in May he
issind a proclamation, declaring her majesty’s sovereignty
ovejjboth islands, and so anticipated the French expedi-
tiotby twenty days.
fithout reverting to our ancient sovereignty, so as to
giw her majesty jurisdiction antecedently to January
184, not merely could no title be questioned previously
to Ifeit date, but many crimes must go unpunished, if they
wer not crimes according to the customs of New Zea-
latii What we call murder was undoubtedly sanctioned
bvljie “ sovereign chiefs of New Zealand” in 1839; and a
mei tyro in pleading would have no difficulty in framing a
plesin abatement of the indictment, provided the doctrine
of tie proclamation was to be maintained.
lit to return to the proceedings in this country. After
thileparture of the first colony in the autumn of 1839,
nofjhrther emigration took place for some time. In the
ffiiljh of February 1840, two vessels, the Brougham and
the ’latina, were despatched, the former with provisions
lome colony, and the latter with one of Manning’s houses
1C
981
for Captain Hobson ; but in the state of uncertainty which Zealand,
then existed, the company did not deem it expedient to ^ew
promote emigration. Nothing had been heard of the Torv, v "" ^
all was doubt respecting Captain Hobson’s proceedings,
the government continued hostile, or at least withheld its
sanction, and rumours of French rivalry, greatly exagge¬
rated and over-estimated, conspired with the unsatisfactory
state of our relations with France to render delay pru¬
dent. The friends of New Zealand felt that any one fa¬
vourable piece of intelligence would renew public interest
in the question, and create a spirit M’hich M'ould dash aside
all other difficulties; but when all M’as uncertainty and
doubt, it would be unudse to attempt to carry public opi¬
nion by storm. This state of uncertainty did not long
continue. Early in March, news of the arrival of the Tory
reached this country. The expedition had been in every
way successful, and Colonel Wakefield’s despatch, pub¬
lished in the New Zealand Journal of the 10th of March,
shewed that all the expectations of the company and the
public would be abundantly fulfilled.
The very favourable accounts which were received from
New Zealand at the very mspent that the rumours were
current respecting the designs of the French in that quar¬
ter, aroused the great commercial interests of the city. On
the 15th of April, a numerous and very respectable meet¬
ing took place in Guildhall. It had been convened by a
requisition signed by one hundred and fourteen “ of the
higher classes of bankers, merchants, shipowners,” as they
were described by the Times newspaper, and it wras attend¬
ed by a numerous assemblage of persons, by some of whom
all the great interests in the city were represented. As if
in anticipation of this meeting, a series of papers was
laid on the table of the House of Commons the evening
before the meeting, entitled “ Correspondence with the
Secretary of State relative to New Zealand,” where, in the
shape of a “ memorandum,” dated 18th March, “ the pre
tensions made in behalf of her majesty” respecting the
sovereignty of New Zealand were “ repelled,” and New
Zealand declared “ a substantive and independent state.”
A meeting of this character was not to be put down, how¬
ever, by a mere declaration of the opinion, for it really
amounted to no more, of one of the under secretaries of
state. It merely seemed to stimulate both speakers and
listeners, and a petition to her majesty and both houses
of parliament, praying that the subject might be taken
into immediate consideration, “ to preserve these va¬
luable islands to her majesty’s dominions,’’ was nume¬
rously signed in the hall. The petition was afterwards
brought before the house by Lord Eliot, who, with great
industry, had completely mastered the subject. A com¬
mittee was appointed, and a body of evidence collect¬
ed, which completely showed that the government could
no longer lag behind the active colonizers of New Zea¬
land.
From the period of Lord Eliot’s successful motion, the
colonization of New Zealand, and every thing connected
with it, have prospered in every way. From Lord John
Russell’s speech, although in the first place he opposed
Lord Eliot, it was evident that he was actuated by no vin¬
dictive feeling, and the friends of New Zealand wrere soon
made anare that the fostering aid of government would no
longer be denied them. Immediately after the city meet¬
ing, the arrival of a second favourable despatch from Colo¬
nel Wakefield justified the company in recommencing emi-
<’•ration. The Martha Ridgway was taken up, and sailed
on the 9th of July, taking out the report of the debate on
Lord Eliot’s motion, since which time a shipload of emi¬
grants, selected on the principle we have described, has
sailed every month; so that up to the end of June 1841,
3469 emigrants had been sent out by the company alone,
besides about four hundred by the Plymouth Company,
ZEALAND, NEW.
982
Zealand, and perhaps about three hundred others independently of
New‘ either company.1
The relations between the company and the govern¬
ment for some time previous to the close of the year 1840
had been on a most satisfactory footing. Though the state
of quasi hostility which had existed might have created
feelings of acrimony, Lord John Russell, in the negotia¬
tions which took place after the committee of July, display¬
ed great magnanimity; and towards the end of October
the New Zealand Company were enabled to announce that
the differences which had existed between the govern¬
ment and the company had been finally adjusted. On the
5th of December the terms were published, by which it
appeared that New Zealand was to cease to be a depen¬
dency of New South Wales, as Captain Hobson, according
to his instructions, had declared it, but was to become an
independent colony. A charter was to be granted to the
company, which was to cede its land to the government,
receiving, in return for its outlay, an ample consideration in
land. These arrangements have since been carried into
effect. The charter has been granted, and the company
has become a most efficieqj^ instrument in the hands of
government for the colonization of the country.
Great discontent prevailed, both at Port Nicholson and
the Bay of Islands, respecting their state of dependency on
New South Wales, and the numerous inconveniences to
which that relation gave birth. To quiet the minds of the
colonists without delay, a fast-sailing vessel was taken up to
carry the despatches containing the terms of the final ar¬
rangement, which, it was calculated, would reach Port Ni¬
cholson by the end of March.
From this time forward, therefore, nothing will be wanting
to the rapid colonization of the islands. All the settlers’
letters agree in describing the country as rich and fertile,
and the climate as salubrious. The country is abundantly
watered, and the droughts which prevail in Australia are
utterly unknown. The only complaint is the scarcity of
flat clear land. But the wooded character of the land is no
evil. In America it is deemed the test of a good soil, and
no man will take land which does not require the labour
and expense of clearing. The opinion in favour of clear
land is an Australian prejudice, justifiable if confined to
pasture land, but not so if extended to land destined for til¬
lage. New Zealand, in fact, is destined to become a wheat
country, the granary of the Australian colonies. As a
sheep country, it must yield to the dry and arid wastes of
Australia. The vine and the olive flourish already almost
without the aid of man; and there is no doubt that New
Zealand is adapted to all the productions of southern Europe.
The natives, instead of being an encumbrance, are an
acquisition. It is gratifying to read in the settlers’ letters
the affectionate terms in which their intercourse is carried
on. Mutual kindness to each other’s children is one of the
most striking features. We have already stated the aptness
of the natives to imitate the arts and contrivances of Euro¬
peans. In this respect they are improving rapidly. Their
physical superiority is greatly in their favour. The women
are comely, and some beautiful; they are gentle in their
manners, and are said to make good and attached wives.
Several are united to Europeans; and there seems no im¬
pediment to more extensive amalgamation, which the prin¬
ciples of the company, now adopted by the government, by
investing the natives with property, will greatly encourage.
The geographical character of both the islands seems to
point out the peculiar mode of settling which the comn
have put in practice. The islands being long and narro? K*
present an immense line of sea-coast in proportion to th’xL
extent of surface. This line of coast is broken into nunT ^
rous splendid harbours, on many of which Europeans had
established themselves; but as far as our present informatio
goes, there are no large rivers extensively navigable for
large ships, though many of them are well adapted for in.
ternal navigation. The best mode of colonization therefore"
is to establish distinct settlements on all to the nrinr>;™i
harbours of both islands. ^
Port Nicholson, the site of the first colony, is one of the
finest harbours in the world. Its situation will make Wei-
lington the great commercial metropolis, not merely of New
Zealand, but of the whole of our Australasian possessions.
The Bay of Islands, another admirable commercial station
is already settled to a considerable extent. A branch of
the New Zealand Company, called the Plymouth Company
of New Zealand, has sent out a surveying expedition, and a
body of settlers to establish a colony on some eligible spot,
to be determined by their agent, in conjunction with Colonel
Wakefield. An eligible site for the New Plymouth settle¬
ment has been found on the banks of the Waitera river, at
Teranaki, twelve miles from the Sugar-Loaf Islands. The
town is to be called Port Eliot, after an estate of Lord St
G<f mains, and in honour of Lord Eliot, to whose exertions
the New Zealand colonists are so much indebted.
Acting on this plan, the company are now about to form
a second settlement (or reckoning the New Plymouth set¬
tlement as one, a third), to be called Nelson. The preli¬
minary expedition, consisting of two vessels, the Whitby
and Will Watch, and having on board the company’s agent,
Captain Wakefield, R. N., the agent for the New Ply¬
mouth settlement, Captain Liardet, R.N., who was Commo¬
dore Napier’s commander on board the Powerful at Acre,
together with a surveying staff, consisting of a chief sur¬
veyor, six assistants, twelve improvers or apprentices, and
eighty men, sailed on the 27th April; and a large body of
colonists are now (August) preparing to depart.
The extent of land allotted for the second colony is two
hundred and one thousand acres, divided into one thousand
allotments of one hundred and fifty rural acres, fifty suburban
acres, and one town acre. The price of each allotment is
L.300, so that the total sum placed at the disposal of the com¬
pany will be L.300,000. Out of the thousand allotments,
only about three hundred remained to be disposed of at the
end of June. The L.300,000 will be thus distributed:
L. 150,000 for the emigration of young couples to this particu¬
lar settlement; L.50,000 to defray the cost of surveys, estab¬
lishments, &c., any surplus to go to the next head; L.50,000
for public purposes, as, for instance, the encouragement of
steam navigation (L.20,000), the establishment of a college
(L.15,000), religious endowments (L.15,000); L.50,000 to
the company for its expenses, and profit on the use of its ca¬
pital. The body of the colonists will sail in September.
Emigration to Port Nicholson will still be continued. The
company has just increased its capital from L.l00,000 to
L.200,000, in compliance with a condition in the charter,
and emigrants will be conveyed to the first settlement in
anticipation of the land-sales which will take place in the
colony so soon as the “ final arrangement” already alluded
to shall have been made known in the colony.
One subject of great importance to New Zealand, indeed
to all the Australian colonies, remains to be mentioned,
1 The following is an estimate of the white population of New Zealand at this time, including the emigration from this country during
1840, but exclusive of that of the present year.
Wellington and Port Nicholson 3177
Other parts ofNew Zealand   2350
5527
i An'S
»ni|)a i
fstagfBl
jarriv 1(
Z E B
\aW, communication with those colonies by way of the
strains of Panama and the Pacific Ocean.
Tl West India Steam Navigation Company have a con-
ract o carry the mails by steam for a certain number of
ajg The steam-ships for this purpose are now building
. Ndthfleet near Gravesend, and we believe will commence
unnlg in the autumn of the present year (1841). From
.ms-a to Chagres or Puerto Bello, on the Atlantic side of
e Jthmus of Panama, is only 550 miles, which will also
ie airomplished by steam by the above-named company,
t ill ow proved beyond all doubt that the isthmus offers
iculty, in the way of a railroad or a ship-canal, which
’, and even a moderate sum of money, will not accom-
isix See Panama.
im Panama, on the Pacific side of the isthmus of that
am; steam is already established to Lima, and occasion-
illy > Valparaiso. All, then, that will remain to be done
ifterhe vessels of the W'est India Steam Navigation Com-
larlfchall have commenced running, will be to establish
Aionraregular communication between the western coast of
-tail America and New Zealand. This can be done month-
w*h four fast-sailing vessels; and it is understood that
lie wmpany is prepared to give a remunerating charter to
iny uilder or merchant who will undertake to provide the
hip. It should be observed, that there is every prospect
»1' aiemunerating trade for such vessels, as, even at this
larllrstage of the settlement, two vessels from Valparaiso
lavaarrived at Port Nicholson, and at the date of the last
idvibs one was preparing to sail for that port. Callao in
Pan is mentioned in the Report of the Directors of the New
Zeiamd Company as a port favourable for the establishment
•(of Br:h communication.
TJe time at present occupied by the voyage to New
eaLmd is one hundred and twenty days. By the way of
itheilthmus it may be calculated as follows:
To Jamaica  21 days.
Thence to Puerto Bello  3
Across the isthmus  3
Aom Panama to Valparaiso  10
Thence to New Zealand  43
80
Ifonly remains to mention that Captain Hobson has
nfixelupon the harbour of Waitemata, in the estuary of the
Tlia,.es, as the seat of his government. He has made pre-
fyiarfBons for the establishment of a town, to be called Auck-
which is in latitude 30° 5F 36" south, and longitude
43' east. At present it only contains about 200 inha-
a bitans ; and although under the fostering influence of the
i^ovmment it will doubtless increase, it must ever remain
nsi;|iificant compared with the commercial capital, Wel-
linim. To that and the other settlements separate muni-
ties will be given. Judicial and other officers have
|)ee(|appointed and sent out; so that before the end of the
t year the government of New Zealand will be com-
Z E I 983
pletely organized, and the country will be in a fair way to Zeitz.
become one of the most prosperous, as it is now one of
the most attractive, of our colonial possessions.
Foi the use of such of our readers as may wish for full
information on the subject, the following is a chronological
list of works relating to New Zealand, which, with the ex¬
ception of a few controversial pamphlets, is believed to be
complete.
1770-80. Cook’s second and third Voyages.
180/. Some Account of New Zealand, by John Savage,
Esq. Surgeon.
1817. Narrative of a Voyage to New Zealand, by J. Lid-
diard Nicholas, Esq., 2 vols.
1824. Journal of a ten Months’ Residence in New Zealand,
by R. A. Cruise, Esq., Major in the 84th Regiment
of Foot.
1830. The New Zealanders (Library of Entertaining Know¬
ledge).
1832. Authentic Information relative to New South Wales
and New Zealand, by James Busby, Esq.
1832. A Narrative of a nine Months’ Residence in New
Zealand in 1827, by Augustus Earle, Draftsman
to H. M. surveying ship Beagle.
1835. An Account of New Zealand, by the Rev. W. Yate,
Missionary of the Church Missionary Society.
1836. Polynesian Researches, by the Rev. William Ellis.
1837. The British Colonization of New Zealand ; published
for the New Zealand Association.
1838. The latest Official Documents relating to New
Zealand, with introductory Observations, by the
Rev. Samuel Hinds, D. D.
1838. Report of the Lords’ Committee on the present State
of the Islands of New Zealand.
1838. Journal of a Residence in New Zealand, by J. S.
Polack, 2 vols.
1839. New Zealand in 1839, or four Letters to the Earl of
Durham, by John Dunmore Lang, D. D.
1840. Information relative to New Zealand, compiled for
the use of Colonists, by John Ward, Esq.
1840. Supplementary Information, published by Parker,
West Strand.
1840. An earnest Address to New Zealand Colonists, with
reference to their Intercourse with the Native In¬
habitants, by the Rev. Montague Hawtrey.
1840. Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders, by J.
S. Polack, 2 vols.
1840. Correspondence relative to New Zealand. Par.
Paper.
1840. Report on New Zealand, Lord Eliot’s Committee.
Par. Paper, No. 582.
1840-41. The New Zealand Journal, published every other
Saturday. London.
1841. Parliamentary Paper, No. 311, 11th May; with an
excellent Map. (d. l.)
ALOTS, an ancient sect of the Jews, so called from
tli(l|bretended zeal for God’s law and the honour of religion.
21,BID, a city of Arabia, once the capital of Yemen ; but
its | rt having fallen into a state of decay, the principal city
of tie province is now Mocha. The old mosques and mina-
till give to the place a magnificent appearance from a
istluce, and it is still distinguished by an academy, much
ed to by the youth of Yemen. But it is gradually
; into ruins, so that it has become an employment for
ople to carry off the stones, which are sold to be else-
applied to the purposes of building. Zebid is 52
, north of Mocha.
IBU, one of the Philippine Islands, situated about the
123d and 124th degrees of east longitude. It is 108 miles in
length by 24 in breadth. It is remarkable as the place
where Magellan fell in a skirmish with the natives in 1521.
ZEITZ, a city of Prussia, the capital of a circle of the
same name, in the province of Saxony and government of
Merseburg. It stands on a height above the river Alster,
over which is a stone bridge. It is surrounded with walls,
has three good market-places, a palace in which is a library of
12,000 volumes, four churches, a free grammar-school, two
hospitals, and 8929 inhabitants in 1834. Zeitz is a place of
considerable industry, applied to fabrics of woollen goods,
calico-printing, brewing, and distilling. It is celebrated for
the productions of its gardens and nurseries.
984 Z E M ZEN
Zeleh ZELEH, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the government
v I' of Sivas, twenty-one miles west-south-west of Tocat.
. ar‘J ZELENIN, a small island in the Frozen Ocean, near the
south-west coast of Nova Zernbla. Long. 50. 24<. E. Lat.
70. 50. N.
ZELENOIKOLOK, as fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the
government of the Caucasus, on the Oural.
ZELEZENSKAIA, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, in the
government of Kolivan, on the eastern side of the Irtysch.
ZELLE, a city of the kingdom of Hanover, in the pro¬
vince of Liineburg, in Germany. It stands on the river Aller,
at the point where the Fuse falls into that stream. It is sur¬
rounded with walls and ditches, is the seat of the supreme
courts of law, and of the Lutheran superintendent general.
It has a gymnasium, and several other establishments for
education, and contains three Lutheran, one reformed, and
one catholic church, 1460 houses, and 10,300 inhabitants,
including those of the suburb. There are various manu¬
factures, but mostly on a small scale; but a considerable
trade arises from the city being the great thoroughfare for
the goods conveyed by waggons between Hamburg, Bremen,
and the middle and south of Germany. Adjoining to the
city is the ancient palace of the dukes of Zelle. It is not in
very good condition, none of the royal family having lived
in it since the death of the unfortunate queen of Denmark,
Caroline Matilda, who held her court in it till her death.
Long. 9. 57. 4. E. Lat. 52. 37. 3. N.
Z EM AN I AH, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Allahabad and district of Benares, situated a short distance
from Ghazipore, on the Ganges.
ZEMBLA, Nova, a large island in the Arctic Ocean,
belonging to Russia, lying between 55° and 77° E. long,
and 70° and 78° N. lat. It is about 700 miles in length,
with an average breadth of seventy-five miles. No part of
this dreary region has any permanent inhabitants, but some
districts on the west and south coasts are occasionally visited
by fishermen and hunters. The island is intersected in
two places by narrow straits, and a prolongation of the
Uralian Mountains runs along it from south to north. It
chiefly consists of a marshy moss-clad plain, the undisturbed
possession of bears, white foxes, and other wild beasts.
ZEMINDAR, in its original meaning, signifies a great
landholder of Bengal; but it is now more strictly applicable
to those who have their title constituted or confirmed by a
patent or charter from government, by which they hold
their lands or zemindaries upon certain conditions. It ap¬
pears from history, that in times prior to the irruption of the
Mahommedans, the rajahs who held their residence at Delhi,
and possessed the sovereignty of Hindustan, deputed officers
to collect their revenues. The word zemindar is Persian,
and that language could have had no currency in the coun¬
tries of India, until it was introduced by the people of
Persia. When the emperor Shehab-ul-Dien Ghory con¬
quered the empire of Hindustan at the end of the 12th cen¬
tury, he left Sultan Cutub-ul-Dien to be his viceroy at
Delhi, and administer the government of Hindustan. From
that time the customs and practices of the Mahommedans
began gradually to be established in India: their armies
were sent into the countries of the reduced rajahs, under the
command of omrahs, in order to preserve the conquest; and
lands were allotted to them to defray the expense. From
hence arose the system of jaghiredary in Hindustan. But
when these omrah jaghiredars had established their own
strength, several of them rebelled against the imperial
authority, and aspired to the crown. Thus circumstanced,
the emperors, in order to obviate these mischiefs, thought
it would be more politic to commit the management of the
country to the native Hindus, who had most distinguished
themselves by the readiness and constancy of their obedi¬
ence to the sovereign power.
In pursuance of this plan, districts were allotted to num¬
bers of them under a reasonable revenue (JummahMonasiM 7
which they were required to pay in money to the governor » <
of the provinces, deputed from the emperor; and in case i '
any one of the omrahs or provincial governors should swen -s
from his allegiance, the zemindars of that country were to
exert themselves in such a manner as should check rebel
lion, and restore good government. For this purpose"
grants of zemindary were severally conferred upon such of
the Hindus as were obedient, describing their apportion¬
ment of the country; and every person who had received a
grant under the authority of the crown, was thereby fully
invested with the functions of zemindar.
The functions of a zemindar are, 1st, the preservation and
defence of their respective boundaries from traitors and in¬
surgents; 2dly, the tranquillity of the subjects, the abundance
of cultivators, and increase of his revenue ; 3dly, the punish¬
ment of thieves and robbers, the prevention of crimes, and
the destruction of highwaymen. The accomplishment of
these objects is considered in the royal grant as the dis¬
charge of office to the sovereign; and on that account the
word office (khidmut) is employed in the Dewanny Sunnud
for a zemindary. See Hindustan.
ZEMPLIN, a circle of Hungary, in the province of the
Hither Theiss. It is bounded on the north by Gallicia;
on the east by Unghvar and Garasch ; on the west by Bor-
sod, Abouigvar, and Saroch ; and on the south by Szabolts.
It extends over 2244 square miles, and contains twenty-
four market-towns and 428 villages, with 27,199 houses,
and 233,604 inhabitants, of whom four fifths are catholics,
and the remainder of the protestant church. The northern
part includes a portion of the Carpathian Mountains, and is
sterile; but in the south the soil is good, yielding, among
other products, some of the best wine. The capital is the
town of the same name, on the river Bodrog. It has an
ancient castle, a catholic and a protestant church, and 2800
inhabitants, whose chief trade is in wine. Long. 21.43. E.
Lat. 48. 25. N.
ZEND, or Zendavesta, a book ascribed to Zoroaster,
and containing his pretended revelations, which the ancient
Magians and modern Parsees, called also Gaurs, observe
and reverence in the same manner as the Christians do the
Bible and the Mahommedans the Koran, making it the sole
rule both of their faith and manners. The word, it is said,
originally signified any instrument for kindling fire, and it is
applied to this book to denote its aptitude for kindling the
flame of religion in the hearts of those who read it.
The Zend contains a reformed system of Magianism,
teaching that there is a Supreme Being, eternal, self-existent,
and independent, who created both light and darkness, out
of which he made all other things; that these are in a state
of conflict, which will continue till the end of the world;
that then there shall be a general resurrection and judg¬
ment, and that just retribution shall be rendered unto men
according to their works ; that the angel of darkness with
his followers shall be consigned to a place of everlasting
darkness and punishment, and the angel of light with his
disciples introduced into a state of everlasting light and
happiness; after whiclq light and darkness shall no more
interfere with each other. The Zend also enjoins the con¬
stant maintenance of sacred fires and fire-temples for reli¬
gious worship ; the distinction of clean and unclean beasts;
the payment of tithes to priests, which are to be of one
family or tribe; a multitude of washings and purifications,
resembling those of the Jewish law ; and a variety of rules
and exhortations for the exercise of benevolence and charity.
In this book there are many passages evidently taken out
of the Scriptures of the Old Testament, particularly out o
the Psalms of David. The author represents Adam an
Eve as the first parents of all mankind, gives in substance
the same account of the creation and deluge with Moses,
differing indeed with regard to the former, by converting
EZ
es so
ITE
leave
0
Eleali
end
ind si
oft
inai;
le in
beclt]
,perst
;dei
neroi
its of
withi
Un
nt:
in-n,
denii
e
■ifxtn
Ubtilt°
accof
tbe
of ex
hi
me %
ads
ZEN
siijdays of the Mosaic account into six times, compre-
ndir in the whole 365 days ; and speaks also of Abra-
m, Jseph, Moses, and Solomon. Dr Baumgarten more-
er fserts, that this work contains doctrines, opinions,
d fa. s, actually borrowed from the Jews, Christians, and
ihoi; nedans; whence, and from other circumstances, he
nellies that both the history and writings of this pro-
et Ire probably invented in the later ages, when the fire-
rslipers under the Mahommedan government thought
to a. idicate their religion from the suspicion of idolatry.
Atfehatever period the Zend may have been written, we
i a*red by Dr Hyde that it is in the pure old Persian
giBHC, and in the character called Peplavi. Some parts
it Entain the original text, and others Zoroaster’s se-
idtoughts subjoined, for explaining more fully his doc-
neJ These were occasioned by the opposition of adver-
•>,, nd unforeseen circumstances which occurred dur-
Prot th. progress of the imposture. About 300 years ago,
lerl'ie old Persian language had become antiquated and
tie mderstood, one of the destours or high priests among
e Msecs composed the Sadda, which is a compendium,
thHulgar or modern Persic tongue, of those parts of the
niMat relate to religion, or a kind of code of canons and
»cJb, drawn from the theological writings of Zoroaster,
>al -vin, as an authoritative rule of faith and practice for his
lows. This Sadda is written in a low kind of Persic
rsJjjjtnd, as Dr Hyde informs us, it is bonorwn et malorum
rai{, having many good and pious things, and others
ryfcerstitious and trifling.
Zlj DEROOD, a river of Persia, which rises in a moun-
s n tothe east of Ispahan, and passes through that city,
h'eeieilfchree handsome bridges are built across it.
GHIZOGHI, a river of Armenia, which falls into the Aras,
i mbs south ofErivan.
ZflITH, in Astronomy, the vertical point, or a point
tliedieavens directly over our heads.
O Eleates, an eminent Grecian philosopher, was
mij Elea about 504. years before Christ. He was a zea-
oujind successful opposition to tyrants ; but the incon-
tew of the stories related by different writers concern-
l llu in a great measure destroys their credit. He chose
reale in his small native city of Elea rather than at
h(m because it afforded freer scope to his independent
ts of authority. It is related that he vindicated the
with which he resented reproach, by saying, “ If I
differ'reliilifferent to censure, I should also be indifferent to
ThisB The invention of the dialectic art has been im-
fascJpliil' ascribed to Zeno; but there can be no doubt that
s ||losopher, and other metaphysical disputants of the
sect, eati:sect, employed much ingenuity and subtilty in ex-
exaffdr examples of most of the logical arts, which were
rdsrierwds reduced to rule by Aristotle and others,
fdinc Ailrding to Aristotle, he taught that nothing can be
ideipdild either from that which is similar or dissimilar;
ere iqt Mere is only one being, God ; who is eternal, homo-
(nelji, and spherical, neither finite nor infinite, neither
iesr it nor moveable; that there are many worlds ; that
sreJS, in nature no vacuum ; that all bodies are composed
folvdements, heat and moisture, cold and dryness ; and
it tfe body of man is from the earth, and his soul an
ualiiixture of these four elements. He argued with
atjjubtilty against the possibility of motion. If Se-
-a’pl iccount of this philosopher deserves credit, he
icljc: the highest point of scepticism, and denied the ex-
en|pf nal objects. The truth is, that after all that
ben advanced by different writers, it is impossible to
teitme her Zeno understood the term one meta-
uj,],ysiply, logically, or physically; or whether he admitted
eda detrd a nature properly divine.
Ui.PBtxi.
Z E N 985
Zeno, the founder of the sect of the Stoics, was born Zeno.
about 300 years before Christ, at Citium, in the island of'  
Cyprus, i his place having been originally peopled by a
colony of Phoenicians, Zeno is sometimes called a Phoeni¬
cian. His father was by profession a merchant, but disco¬
vering in the youth a strong propensity towards learning,
he early devoted him to philosophy. In his mercantile
capacity he had frequent occasion to visit Athens, where
he purchased for his son several of the writings of the most
eminent Socratic philosophers. These he read with great
avidity; and when he was about thirty years of age, he
determined to take a voyage to a city which was so cele¬
brated both as a mart of trade and of science. If it be true,
as some writers relate, that he brought with him a valuable
cargo of Phoenician purple, which was lost by shipwreck
upon the coast of Piraeus, this circumstance will account
for the facility with which he at first attached himself to a
sect whose leading principle was the contempt of riches.
Upon his first arrival in Athens, going accidentally into the
shop of a bookseller, he took up a volume of the commen¬
taries of Xenophon ; and after reading a few passages, was
so much delighted with the work, and formed so high an
idea of the author, that he asked the bookseller where he
might meet with such men. Crates, the Cynic philosopher,
happening at that instant to be passing by, the bookseller
pointed to him, and said, “ Follow that man.” Zeno at¬
tended upon the instructions of Crates, and was so well
pleased with his doctrine that he became one of his disci¬
ples. But though he admired the general principles of the
Cynic school, he could not easily reconcile himself to their
peculiar manners. Besides, his inquisitive turn of mind
would not allow him to adopt that indifference to every
scientific inquiry which was one of the characteristic dis¬
tinctions of the sect. He therefore attended upon other
masters, who professed to instruct their disciples in the na¬
ture and causes of things. When Crates, displeased at his
following other philosophers, attempted to drag him by force
out of the school of Stilpo, Zeno said to him, “ You may
seize my body, but Stilpo has laid hold of my mind.” Af¬
ter continuing to attend upon the lectures of Stilpo several
years, he resorted to other schools, particularly to those of
Xenocrates and Diodorus Cronus. By the latter he was
instructed in dialectics. He was so much delighted with
this branch of study, that he presented to his master a
large pecuniary gratuity, in return for his free communica¬
tion of some of his ingenious subtilties. At last, after at¬
tending almost every other master, he offered himself as a
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher appears to have been
aware that Zeno’s intention, in thus removing from one school
to another, was to collect materials from various quarters
for a new system of his own ; for when he came into Pole-
mo’s school, he said to him, “ I am no stranger, Zeno, to
your Phoenician arts ; I perceive that your design is to
creep slyly into my garden, and steal away my fruit.”
Polemo was not mistaken in his opinion. Having made
himself master of the tenets of others, Zeno determined
to become the founder of a new sect. The place which
he made choice of for his school was a public portico,
adorned with the pictures of Polygnotus, and other eminent
painters. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and
called, by way of eminence, 2roa, “ the Porch.” It was
from this circumstance that the followers of Zeno were
called Stoics.
In his person Zeno was tall and slender; his aspect was
severe, and his brow contracted. His constitution was
feeble, but he preserved his health by great abstemious¬
ness. The supplies of his table consisted of figs, bread,
and honey; notwithstanding which, he was frequently ho¬
noured with the company of great men. In public com¬
pany, to avoid every appearance of an assuming temper,
he commonly took the lowest place. Indeed so great was
986
Z E T
Z E T
Zephyrus his modesty, that he seldom chose to mingle with a crowd,
Zetland 0r w^et^ ^or t^ie company of more than two or three
^ - friends at once. He paid more attention to neatness and
decorum in external appearance than the Cynic philoso¬
phers. In his dress indeed he was plain, and in all his ex¬
penses frugal; but this is not to be imputed to avarice,
but a contempt of external magnificence. Zeno lived to
the extreme age of ninety-eight; and at last, in conse¬
quence of an accident, voluntarily put an end to his life.
As he was walking out of his school he fell down, and in
the fall broke one of his fingers; upon which he was so
affected with a consciousness of infirmity, that, striking the
earth, he said, “ Why am I thus importuned ? I obey thy
summons and immediately went home and strangled
himself. He died in the first year of the 129th Olympiad.
I he Athenians, at the request of Antigonus, erected a mo¬
nument to his memory in the Ceramicum.
ZEPHYRUS, one of the Pagan deities, was represented
as the son of Aurora, and the lover of the nymph Chloris
according to the Greeks, or of Flora according to the Ro¬
mans ; and as presiding over the growth of fruits and
flowers. He is described as giving a refreshing coolness
to the air by his soft and agreeable breath, and as mode¬
rating the heat of summer by fanning the air with his
silken wings. He is depicted under the form of a youth,
with a very tender air, with wings resembling those of the
butterfly, and with his head crowned with a variety of
flowTers. As the poets of Greece and Rome lived in a
warm climate, they are lavish of their praise of this bene¬
ficent deity, and under his name describe the pleasure and
advantage which they received from the western breezes.
ZERBST, a city, the capital ofabailivvick of the same name,
in the duchy of Anhalt Dessau, in Germany. It stands on
the river Ruthe, is surrounded with walls, and is the seat
of a superintendent of the superior court of law. It con¬
tains two Lutheran, and one reformed church, twm hospi¬
tals, a gymnasium, 1600 houses, and 8440 inhabitants. It
was the residence of the court of the now mediatized prince
of Anhalt-Zerbst, and was the birth-place of the empress
Catherine II. of Russia. The city has declined since the
removal of the court, but has still some manufactures, and
four large annual fairs, where the chief commodities are the
products of the soil.
ZEST, the woody thick skin quartering the kernel of a
walnut; prescribed by some physicians, when dried and
taken with white wine, as a remedy against the gravel.
ZETLAND, or Shetland Islands. The appellation
of Zetland, given to this northern cluster of islands, is a cor¬
ruption of their ancient name. In the oldest northern
chronicles, as the Orkneyinga Saga, their denomination is
Hialtland, the Land of the Hilt, either from some fancied
resemblance in the form of the whole group to the hilt of
a sword, or from the warlike propensities of the inhabitants.
I his name wras corrupted by Scotish writers of later times
into Yetland or Zetland; the letters Z and Y having in
the Scotish dialect the same sound, as is wrell known, in pro¬
per names like Menzies, Monzie, Cockenzie, and the like.
The Zetland Islands, along with those of Orkney, form one
of the counties of Scotland. Exclusively of the small island
called Fair Isle, which lies midway between Orkney and
Zetland, and is about twenty miles distant from either clus¬
ter, they are situated in the North Sea, between the paral¬
lels 59° 52' and 60° 50' north latitude. The meridian of
Greenwich passes through them almost at their extreme
east, and they stretch to 2° 11' west. They are distant
from Norway forty-four leagues, from Aberdeenshire forty-
seven, and from Leith ninety-six. In number they are more
than one hundred, but of these only thirty-four are inha¬
bited. The population of the islands, by the last census
(1831), amounted to 29,392. “ The climate of the Zetland
islands,” we quote from the work of Dr Edmonstone, a na¬
tive of the county, “ is very variable and damp althn k
by no means generally unwholesome to their inhuM* ^
Spring can scarcely be said to commence umfi April130'8! ^
there is but little general warmth before the middle of J
TllP finmmpr fprminnfoc Em*    URG.
The summer terminates for the most part with Au ^
though sometimes it continues, through September §ASt’
tumn is a very uncertain period, and winter commenpU'
with the middle of October, and occupies the remain!
months of the year.” In§
Referring our readers to the article Orkney for the v
neral history and present political state of the county w"
shall notice what appears most interesting in the princim'l
islands. ^ P81
The largest island, Mainland, is about sixty miles W
and varies in breadth from twenty-five miles to onehun’
dred yards ; the former is the distance from Sandness to the"
Noup of Nesting, and the latter is the breadth of the isth¬
mus called Mavis-Grind. The bold and precipitous capes
called Fitful Head and Sumburgh Head (both celebrated
by Sir Walter Scott in his Pirate), the castle of Scalloway.
the green vale of Tingwall, the remains of the chapel of the
barons of Burgh, Ronas Hill in the parish of Northmavine,
and the town of Lerwick with its harbour, fort, and shipping
(See Lerwick), are the most remarkable objects on the
Mainland. The small islet of Moussa, on the eastern coast
of the Mainland, contains the most perfect remaining speci¬
men of those circular towers, with gracefully curved walls
perforated by low galleries, which Scotland can boast. This
is undoubtedly Scandinavian, and affords a fair presumption
that the similar structures in Glenbeg, Dundornadilla in
Sutherland, and other Highland districts, belong to the same
people. To the north of the Mainland lies Yell, eight miles
in breadth and twenty in length. It is a flat island, with
much good sheep-pasture, and some arable land, lying along
the shores and coasts of the voes, or ocean inlets. In Yell
are the remains of no less than twenty chapels or religious
houses, small unadorned buildings, in all probability erect¬
ed long centuries ago, as votive offerings by tempest-tossed
mariners, who barely escaped with life.
Still farther north, and somewhat to the east, is Unst, the
most northerly of the British islands, ten miles long and
four broad. In this island the law-tings or judicial assem¬
blies of Zetland were once held. They were afterwards
removed to Tingwall, on the south-west side of the Main¬
land. In Unst there is much good grazing, and very valuable
arable land. At Burness, near Balta Sound, in this island,
Biot, and afterwards Captain Kater, in the years 1817 and
1818, instituted a series of experiments in order to determine
the variation in the length of the seconds pendulum. Chro¬
mate of iron has lately been found, and in considerable
quantity, in Unst, and is indeed its chief treasure. South
of Unst, and east from Yell, lies the small fertile island of
Fetlar. Eight miles south of Fetlar, and distant from the
Mainland two or three miles, is Whalsey. The arable land
in this island has been cultivated at considerable expense,
and admirably improved; and the results shew what care
and a judicious expenditure will accomplish, even in this
hyperborean region. Whalsey is surrounded by holms or
small islands, on one of which, about sixty years ago, a Rus¬
sian frigate was wrecked, and almost all on board perish¬
ed. Bressay, five or six miles long by three broad, lies to
the east of the Mainland, and the channel between the
islands forms Lerwick harbour, or Bressay Sound, one of the
safest and most commodious havens in Britain. The prin¬
cipal entrance is a mile wide, and the anchorage is about
three miles long. Within the harbour, towards the north,
is the sunk rock called the Unicorn, from the vessel of Ene
caldy of Grange, which was dashed to pieces on it when
in pursuit of the infamous Bothwell. To the east of Bres¬
say is the small island of Noss; and on the south-east si e
of this island lies the holm of Noss, a rock rising almost per-
t^i]
the p
teer
lirra,
tack
Z E T
endicularly to the height of 200 feet, and having its sum-
,it dvered with short rich pasture. The holm is thirty
ardsiistant from the island, and a communication has been
ffeclll and is continued in the following w'ay. A daring
lanir climbed the perpendicular face of the holm, and
rovetwo strong posts into the ground near the edge of
es:e next to Noss, and a rope having been conveyed
•ora he larger islet, was fastened to these posts, and the
hasKwas passed. The craigsman scorned to take advan-
i<r31' his success, and attempting to return by the rocks,
jst Is footing and was dashed to pieces. The rope is an-
ualli removed before winter, and the communication is
e-opned generally in July. The following is the mode
f domg it. A stone is fastened to the double or bight of a
mallhord, the ends of which are secured, the stone is flung
tH thrower succeeds in getting the attached string be-
ondlhe posts on the holm. When this is accomplished,
str«ger line is substituted, and a still stronger one, and
he p)cess of substitution is repeated, till a rope of the de-
inditrength has been drawn round the posts, and secured
o ciresponding stakes on Noss. A wooden box called
thderadle of Noss” is then slung upon the rope, and a
>erse getting into this, easily pushes himself backwards
1 tirwards. Dangerous as all this seems, accidents, it is
s4ffirn:d, seldom happen. Immense numbers of wild fowl
reqiunt the holm, and their eggs, feathers, and young ones,
ind lie pasture afforded to about a dozen sheep, are deem-
>d aiecompense sufficient for the trouble and risk encoun-
erealin annually erecting this aerial bridge. Almost op-
josii) o Bressay, on the west side of the Mainland, lie the
Hollands of Burra, separated by a narrow channel, which
n ot place is so contracted that a wooden bridge is thrown
icra< it to facilitate communication. The soil of these
slams is in general of the finest quality, and they produce
vliatin Zetland is regarded as a large quantity of grain.
\bcp the middle of the seventeenth century a Dutch
"iquaron was driven by stress of weather on the west side
jf hJ ra. Two vessels were lost, but the rest of the fleet
iiicceded in making a harbour. To the north and west
jf l ira, and separated from the Mainland by a narrow
ut roubled strait, lies Papa Stour, an island two miles
in higth. There are several large caves in this island,
erto the sea, which are frequented by numerous seals,
ictof these caves is lighted from above, by an aperture
Ififtyjeet long by twenty broad. Here too may be seen,
risirt perpendicularly to a great height from its ocean bed,
the tack of Snalaa, a magnificent rock, on the summit of
whiti, from time immemorial, the eagle has had his eyrie.
In t p bay of St Magnus, tower up the magnificent Drongs,
he [erforated rocks so finely delineated by Dr Hibbert.
Plaid far amid the melancholy main is I'oula, the most
weatjrly of the Zetland Islands, and with every probability
supised to be the Thule of the Romans. At a distance
it p^sents the appearance of five conical hills, the loftiest
of j’iiich reaches a height of 1300 feet, an immense eleva-
I tiorjm appearance, there being no gradual rise, as in inland
mountains. “ On reaching the highest ridges of the rocks,
saysOr Hibbert, “ the prospect presented on every side is
of t| sublimest description. The spectator looks down from
a poiDendicular height of 1100 or 1200 feet, and sees below
the ide Atlantic roll its tide. Dense columns of biros
hovi through the air, consisting of mews, kitty wakes,
lyre: sea-parrots or guillemots: the cormorants occupy
the lawest portions of the cliffs, the kittywakes whiten the
ledji s of one distant cliff, gulls are found on another, and
lyraion a third. The welkin is tlarkened with their flight;
nor| s the sea less covered with them as they search the
watffs in quest of food. But when the winter appears the
coloy is fled, and the rude harmony produced by their
varlis screams is succeeded by a desert stillness. From
the )rink of this awful precipice the adventurous fowler
Z E T
987
is, by means of a rope tied round his body, let down many Zetland,
fathoms; he then lands on the ledges where the various
sea-birds nestle, being still as regardless as his ancestors of
the destruction that awaits the falling of some loose stones
from a crag, or the untwisting of a cord. It was formerly
said of a Foula-man, £ his gutcher (grandfather) gaid be¬
fore, his father gaid before, and he must expect to go
over the sneug too.’” Twenty miles S.S.W.from Sumburgh
Head, the southern extremity of the Mainland, lies the Fair
Isle, two miles in length, and about three-fourths of a mile
in breadth. On this island the duke of Medina Sidonia, the
admiral of the armada, was wrecked while attempting to
reach home after his disastrous expedition had failed. The
crews of his ship reached the shore, but the islanders are
said to have murdered them almost to a man, from a con¬
viction that a famine could not otherwise be warded off.
The duke was spared, and having wintered in Zetland, he
afterwards reached Spain by way of France.
The natural history of Zetland differs little from that of
Orkney, to which we refer. The plants in both clusters of
islands are, generally speaking, the same ; and a similar re¬
mark applies to the zoology.
The geology of Zetland has been discussed at great
length both by Professor Jameson and Dr Hibbert; and
appended to Neill’s Tour in these islands is a valuable paper
on the subject by Professor Traill. Owing to the variety
of the rocks, and the easy access to them which the ocean
has thrown open, Zetland presents an interesting field to
the mineralogist. Primitive clay-slate, intermixed with a
few quartz and hornblende beds, abounds in the southern
parts of the Mainland. Ilonas Hill, and the greater portion of
Northmavine, consist of a hard red granite. In Foula the
rocks are all micaceous schistus. Bressay and Ness are
composed of sandstone, and much of the shores of Yell and
Unst are of serpentine.
It is difficult to give any thing at all approaching to an
estimate of the trade of Zetland. Its exports are princi¬
pally salted fish, oil, tallowy butter, skins, stockings, cattle,
sheep, and ponies. The imports are of a very miscella¬
neous description ; and as Zetland produces about one third
less grain than its inhabitants require, large quantities of
meal and flour are annually introduced.
The fisheries, namely, the whale-fishing at Greenland
and Davis Straits, and the herring and haaf or deep-sea fish¬
ings at home, employ many hands, and bring much wealth
into the country.
Of the state of agriculture in these islands it is impossible
to speak in very favourable terms. Shirreff in his Survey
says, there is reason to believe that the undivided and con¬
sequently uncultivated waste lands amount to more than
400,000 acres. This immense tract is pastured in common
by the tenants of the adjoining arable lands, which do not
exceed 25,000 acres; and in many places the arable land is
runrig or interrupted. Little improvement can in such
circumstances be expected. Still a few spirited individuals
have set an example. The results of their exertions have
been most favourable, and are visible; and it is to be hoped
that others will be prompted to imitate them. I ill the era of
the reform bill, Zetland had no representative in parliament,
the landholders having no vote for the county-member.
This anomaly is now happily removed; and though unwill¬
ing to attach undue importance to mere political changes,
the writer of these remarks cannot but think, that the alter¬
ation produced on the relations ot landlord and tenant
sequent on the passing of the bill, the inducements now held
out to the former to grant leases of some duration, and the
more frequent intercourse among themselves and with stran-
o-ers which an extension(in this case a creation) of the fran¬
chise invariably produces ; all this will operate favourably
both on the commerce and the agriculture of the islands.
Owing to their remote situation and their poverty, the lower
988
Z I E
Zeugma
orders are more dependent on the mere will of those above
Zies-enham t'iem t^an *s desirable; but the great change on their politi-
— ^ , cal state to which we have already alluded, and other causes
now in operation, will, we trust, diminish, if they do not re¬
move, many of the hardships under which they have hither¬
to laboured. By all who have visited them, the Zetlanders
are found to be a warm-hearted, affectionate, honest, and
most hospitable people. (d. n.)
ZEUGMA, a figure in Grammar, by which an adjective
or verb that agrees with a nearer word, is also, by way of
supplement, referred to another more remote.
ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter, flourished about 400 years
before the Christian era. He was born at Heraclea; but
as there have been many cities of that name, it cannot
be certainly determined which of them had the honour of
his birth. Some learned men however conjecture that it was
the Heraclea near Crotona in Italy. He carried painting
to a much higher degree of perfection than Apollodorus had
left it; discovered the art of properly disposing lights and
shades, and particularly excelled in colouring. He amas¬
sed immense riches, and then resolved to sell no more of
his pictures, but gave them away ; saying very frankly,
that he could not set a price on them equal to their value.
Before this time he made people pay for seeing them; and
nobody was admitted to see his Helena without ready
money, which occasioned the wags calling his picture Helen
the Courtezan. It is not known whether this Helen of
Zeuxis w^as the same with that which was at Rome in
Pliny’s time, or that which he painted for the inhabitants
of Crotona, to be hung up in the temple of Juno. This last
he painted from five beautiful girls of that city, copying
from each her greatest excellencies. Pliny observes, that
this admirable painter, disputing for the prize of painting
with Parrhasius, painted some grapes so naturally that the
birds flew down to peck them. Parrhasius, on the other
hand, painted a curtain so very artfully, that Zeuxis, mis¬
taking it for a real one that hid his rival’s work, ordered the
curtain to be drawn aside, to show what Parrhasius had
done ; but having found his mistake, he ingenuously con¬
fessed himself vanquished, since he had imposed only upon
birds, while Parrhasius had deceived even a master of the
art. Another time he painted a boy loaded with grapes;
when the birds also flew to this picture, at which "he was
vexed, and confessed that his wrork was not sufficiently
finished, since, had he painted the boy as perfectly as the
grapes, the birds would have been afraid of him. Arche-
laus king of Macedon made use of Zeuxis’s pencil for the
embellishment of his palace. One of this painter’s finest
pieces was a Hercules strangling some serpents in his
cradle, in the presence of his affrighted mother; but he
himself chiefly esteemed his Athleta, or Champion, under
which he placed a Greek verse that afterwards became
very famous, and in which he says, “ that it was easier to cri¬
ticise than to imitate the picture.” He made a present of
his Alcmena to the Agrigentines. Zeuxis did not value him¬
self on speedily finishing his pictures ; but knowing that
Agatharchus gloried in his being able to paint with ease
and in a little time, he said, “ that for his part he, on the
contrary, gloried in his slowness ; and if he was long in
painting, it was because he painted for eternity.” Verrius
Flaccus says that Zeuxis having painted an old woman, he
laughed so very heartily at the sight of this picture that he
died ; but as no other of the ancients has mentioned this
particular, there is the greatest reason to believe it fabu¬
lous. Carlo Dati has composed in Italian the Life of
Zeuxis, with those of Parrhasius, Apelles, and Protogenes.
This work was printed at Florence in 1667.
ZIEGENHAM, a province of the principality ofHesse-
Cassel, in Germany, formerly a sovereign state, which came
under the Hessian family in 1540. It is bounded on the
north and the north-east by Lower Hesse, on the south-
z i o
east by Hersfeld, on the south by Great Hesse
south-west by Fritzlar, and on the west by Upper HP°n t
extends over 218 square miles, and contains six cit lV.!
towns, seventy-three villages, and twenty-two hamlJr,31!?
32,400 inhabitants. The capital is the city of the h
name, in a marshy situation. It is surrounded with
dated walls, has a castle, in which the archives of the H
si- are preserved ; but only contains 260 houses'
with 1280 inhabitants. ses’
ZINC, a metallic substance, formerly considered asonpnf
the brittle metals; or, according to the distinction of thl
older chemists, a semi-metal, or an imperfect metal, because it
was found to be destitute of some of the properties of oth
metals which were considered as perfect. See Chemist^
ZINZENDORF, Nicholas Lewis, Count o*7Jm
ed founder of the German religious sect called Moravians
or Herrnhutters, or, as they pretend, the restorer of that
society, was born in the year 1700. From his own narra¬
tive it appears, that when he came of age in 1721 his
thoughts were wholly bent on gathering together a little
society of believers, among whom he might live, and who
should entirely employ themselves in exercises of devotion
under him. He accordingly purchased an estate at Ber-
tholsdorf in Upper Lusatia, where, being joined by some
followers, he gave the cure of the village to a person of his
own complexion; and Bertholsdorf soon became conspi¬
cuous for a new mode of piety. One Christian David, a
carpenter, brought a few proselytes from Moravia: they be¬
gan a new town about half a league from the village, where
Count Zinzendorf fixed his residence among them, and
whither great numbers of Moravians flocked and established
themselves under his protection ; so that in 1732 their
number amounted to 600. An adjacent hill, called the
Huthberg, gave occasion to these colonists to call their new
settlement liuth des Herrn, and afterwards Herrnhuth;
which may be interpreted “ The guard or protection of
the Lordand from this the whole sect have taken their
name. The count spared neither pains nor money to propa¬
gate his opinions : he went himself over all Europe, and at
least twice to America; and sent missionaries throughout
the world. He died at Herrnhutt on the 9th of May 1760.
ZION, or Sion, a very famous mountain, standing on
the north side of the city of Jerusalem (Psalm xlviii. 2),
containing the upper city, built by King David, where
stood the royal palace (Josephus. Psalm xlviii. 2). A part
of Zion, situated at its extremity, was called Millo, of or in
the city of David (2 Chron. xxxii. 5). Modern travellers
who have examined the spot say that Zion is the whole
of the mountain on which Jerusalem stands at this day,
though not to the extent in which it anciently stood on the
same mountain, as appears Psal. ix. 12, 15; Ixv. 1; Ixxxvii.
2, 3; Is. Ixii. 1. It is swelled into several eminences or
tops, as Moriah, Acra Bezetha, and Zion, a particular emi¬
nence or mount, and Zion proper, &c., encompassed on
three sides, east, west, and south, with one continued deep
and steep valley ; by means of which it was impregnable
on these three sides, and always attacked and taken, ac¬
cording to Josephus, by the enemy on the north side,
wdiere Mount Zion became level, and the vales of Gihon
and Jehoshaphat gradually lose themselves. This deep
and steep valley incontestably constitutes the compass ol
the old Jerusalem on those three sides, as plainly appears
to any person who has been upon the spot. In opposition to
the opinion of former travellers, Dr Clarke thinks that the
proper Mount Zion is an eminence entirely without the
city, on the south side; and in the valley between this and
the city he places the holy sepulchre. That part of the
valley which lay to the east was called Jehoshaphals, hav¬
ing Mount Olivet lying beyond it; that to the south Gehin-
non, and that to the west Gihon, from cognominal moun¬
tains lying beyond them. At the wrest end of Gihon,
f'li:
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Z O D
ZOO
989
Zoology.
wkout the city, stood Golgotha oi Calvary. The same the same in substance with that of the Greeks, and yet Zombiir
traeller thinks that very little credit is due to the names 1 ‘ ’ ’ ' '
ri n to the different places and objects by the monks,
lire is another Zion, the same with Hermon.
ISKA, John, a famous general of the forces of the
H isites, was born in Bohemia about the year 1380. His
that it has not been borrowed either from the Greeks or
the Arabians. The identity, or at least striking similarity,
of the division, is universally known; and Montucla has
endeavoured to prove that the Brahmins received it from
the Arabs. His opinion, we believe, was very generally
pner name was Trocznow; but he entered very young admitted; but Sir William Jones has adduced a variety of
in: the army, and after distinguishing himself on several arguments which seem to prove that neither of those na-
ocasions, lost an eye in a battle, whence he was called tions borrowed that division from the other; that it has
Z''(a, or One-eyed. At length the reformation, begun by been known among the Hindus from time immemorial; and
Jen Huss, spreading throughout almost all Bohemia, Ziska that it was probably invented by the first progenitors of
p]!:ed himself at the head of the Hussites, and had soon that race, whom he considers, before their dispersion, as the
uner his command a body of 40,000 men. With this most ancient of mankind. See Asiatic Researches, vol. ii.
ly he gained several victories over those of the Romish
region, who carried on a kind of crusade against them; and
btft a town in an advantageous situation, to which he gave
tl name of Tabor, whence the Hussites were afterwards
caed Taborites. Ziska lost his other eye by an arrow at
tli siege of the city of Rubi; but this did not prevent his
ci tinning the war, his fighting battles, and gaining several
giat victories, among which was that of Ausig on the Elbe,
itj.vhich 9000 of the enemy were left dead on the field.
ZOMBAR, or Sombor, a city of the Austrian kingdom
of Hungary, the capital of a circle of the same name, in the
province of Lower Danube. It stands on the navigable
canal Francis, and contains a Catholic, a Greek, and a Lu¬
theran church, with a free school of some celebrity. It
numbers 2961 houses, with 15,106 inhabitants, chiefly of
German origin, who carry on extensive trade in corn and
cattle. Long, 21.9. 48. E. Lat. 48. 8. 32. N.
ZONARAS, Joannes, a miscellaneous Greek w-riter of
Ik' emperor Sigismund, alarmed at his progress, caused considerable note, flourished at Constantinople about the
vi'y advantageous proposals to be made to him, which he beginning of the twelfth century. Under the emperor
wlily accepted, and set out to meet Sigismund, but died Alexius Comnenus, who died in 1118, he rose to the dis-
oii the road, on the 11th of October 1424. He ordered tinction of being nominated great drungarius,1 and chief
tit his body should be left a prey to the birds and wild secretary ; but after the death of his wife, he retired to a
bic.sts, and that a drum should be made of his skin, being monastery, and there closed his earthly career. His prin-
■suaded that the enemy would fly as soon as they heard cipal work is his Xgowxto, or Annals, deduced from the crea¬
te sound. It is added that the Hussites executed his tion of the world to the death of his imperial patron. The
wl; and that the news of this order made such an impres- earlier portion of it we cannot easily suppose to be very im-
sii on the disturbed imaginations of the German papists, portant; but that which relates to the history of the Greek
tit in many battles thev actually fled at the beat of the empire is not without a considerable share of historical
*m with the utmost precipitation, leaving their baggage nnhhshprf hv Wolhus. Ba-
ail artillery behind them.
EITTAU, a city of the kingdom of Saxony, in the pro-
wee of Lausitz. It stands on the river Mandau, near
t where that stream falls into the Neisse. It is on an cle¬
wed spot, 763 feet above the level of the sea, is surround-
e with double walls, contains eight churches, a hospital, an
c han-house, 1140 houses, and in 1834 had 8508 inhabi-
tiits. The town is well built, has several institutions for
c .cation, and some extensive manufactures of linen and
bev^•«jo.z».
ll a, bounded on the north and north-east by Russia, on
R south-east by Tarnapol, on the south by Brezazari, and
e the west by Lemberg. It extends over 2024 square
value. The editioprinceps was published by Wolfius, Ba¬
sil. 1557, 3 tom. fol. This was succeeded by the valuable
edition of Du Cange, Paris. 1686, 2 tom. fol.; which was
reprinted in the Venice edition of the Byzantine historians.
Zonaras is well known to canonists by his work, “ In Ca-
nones S. S. Apostolorum et sacrorum Concihorum Com-
mentarii.” Lut. Paris. 1618, fol. These commentaries
are inserted in Bishop Beveridge’s Pandectax Some of
his works, one in verse, may be found in other collections.
See particularly Cotelerii “ Ecclesiae Grsecae Monumenta,”
tom. ii. p. 483, tom. iii. p. 465. A publication more m-
i les, comprehends six cities, nineteen market-towns, and
h!) villages, with 208,950 inhabitants. It is a level and
inderately fertile district, watered by the river Bug and its
iimerous tributary streams. The capital, likewise called
flbczow, is situated between woods and marshes. It con-
lllns a Catholic and two Greek churches, an ancient castle,
07 houses, and 6440 inhabitants. Long. 24. 47. 40. E.
it. 49. 49. 45. N.
ZNAYM, a circle of the Austrian province of Moravia,
■tending over 1320 square miles, comprehending eight
narae et Photii Lexica, ex codicibus manuscriptis nunc pri-
mum edita, observationibus illustrata, et indicibus instruc-
ta.” Lipsiae, 1808, 3 tom. 4to. The first two volumes
contain the lexicon of Zonaras edited by Tittmann ; the
third volume contains that of Photius edited by Hermann.
In the article Photius, this and another important publi¬
cation have both been overlooked. “ <Pairiou roO Ilarg/^ou
As^smv Suvaywyjj. E codice Galeano descripsit Kicaidus
Porsonus.” Lond. 1822, 2 part. 8vo.
ZONE, a division of the terraqueous globe with re¬
spect to the different degrees of heat found in its differ¬
ent parts. The zones are denominated torrid, frigid, and
temperate. The torrid zone is a band surrounding the
E vi i a. ! V»tt 4-V»/-v ♦ txm fi*r*rnr»c
, , rnles, comprenenuuig ^ terraqueous globe, and terminated by the two tropics. Its
fries, thirty-six market-towns, and 369 villages, , ?th is 4gGo 58^ The equator, running through the
■Lies, iiiii ty-six iiicukui-luwijo, , vi
117,980 inhabitants. The capital is the city of the same breadth^
me, on the river Taya. It is surrounded with walls, has '
.. ancient fortress, and contains 512 houses, with o43 in-
fubitants, who make considerable quantities of woo en
loths. Long. 15. 57. 46. E. Lat. 48. 51. 15. N.
• ZODIAC, a broad circle, whose middle is the ecliptic,
id its extremes two circles parallel thereto, at such a c is-
I nee from it as to bound or comprehend the excursions o
jie sun and planets. See Astronomy. It is a curious
i lough fact, that the solar division of the Indian zodiac i&
ipital is the city or tne sa ^ of divides it int0 two equal parts, each contain-
ime, on the river Taya. It is surrounded with walls^ ^ 23Q 29, jhe ancients imagined the torrid zone un¬
inhabitable.' The temperate zones are contained between
the tropics and the polar circles. The breadth of each is
43° 2' The frigid zones are segments of the surface of the
earth,'terminated, one by the antarctic, and the other by
the arctic circle. The breadth of each is 46 08 .
ZOOLOGY is that part of natural history which relates
to animals. See Animal Kingdom.
‘ See Du 334’ ^
990
ZOOPHYTES.
Zoophytes. \\ hen the word Zoophyte began to be used by natural-
v“*-v ists, it designated a miscellaneous class of beings, which
were believed to occupy the space between the animal and
vegetable kingdoms, and in which the characteristics of
the subjects of each met and were intermingled. They
were of a “ middle nature,” not because of their outward
resemblance to plants, but because they were deficient in
the more obvious qualities of animals, and were apparently
more influenced by exterior forces than by any volitions
springing up within. Almost insensible and immotive, their
weak and obscure life was merely regarded as one of ve¬
getation, engendered in them by putrefaction or fermenta¬
tion, and unsusceptible of the volitions and passions which
move and agitate higher entities. Thus the term indicated
a mingled life or constitution, and had no reference to figure;
but some time after it had been allowed on all hands that
the productions in question were “ better than mere vege-
tives,” another class of objects, hitherto supposed to be al¬
together vegetable, was ascertained to be of animal origin;
and as their similitude to mosses and lichens, to sea-weeds
and mushrooms, was undeniable, and indeed so remarkable
as to have long veiled their nature from us, so the term
Zoophyte was transferred to this newly-discovered order,
and has since been applied by the majority of English
authors to it alone. With continental naturalists, how¬
ever, the word has still its widest application, embracing, in
their nomenclature, not merely those polypiferous beings
which cover the bottom of the ocean with a singularly exact
mimickry of vegetation, but also the star-fishes and sea-
urchins, the sea-figs and sea-nettles or jelly-fish, and even
the intestinal worms. It is in this wide acceptation that
the word is employed by Cuvier and Blainville; and we use
it here with the same latitude, agreeably to the plan indi¬
cated in our article Animal Kingdom.
The Zoophytes, then, as defined by Cuvier, form a sub¬
kingdom co-equal with the two divisions in the animal king¬
dom named Radhlta and Acrita by Macleay. The classes
included in it have less of a common resemblance than the
classes of any other sub-kingdom, so that in the great variety
of structures which they present to our study, we seek in
vain for any one character that shall connect them together.
The most general character is that which has conferred upon
them the synonyme of “ Radiated Animals,” given because
the organs of locomotion, and even the internal viscera, are
arranged very often in a circular disposition round a centre,
so as to give a sort of radiant appearance to the whole body,
or to some part of it. The nervous system is at the best
only rudimentary, and is demonstrable only in a few genera
of three of the classes. Thus its existence has been shewn
in several species of intestinal worms, where it consists of
one or two ganglions placed near the mouth, and from which
diverge a few filaments, and one or two longer chords that
follow down the length of the body. In the more normal
Zoophytes, the nervous system forms a circle round the oral
aperture, whence slender filaments radiate towards the cir¬
cumference, rarely dividing into a few branchlets, and losing
themselves in the parenchyma long before they reach the
periphery. But in the larger number of this sub-kingdom
no trace of such a system is discoverable, unless, with Mac¬
leay, we find it in the “ minute granulations” which bespeck
their homogeneous, mobile, and irritable pulp, and “ which
may be considered as the nervous molecules dispersed over,
or, as it were, confounded with, the substance of these ani¬
mals, so as to impregnate the whole with sensibility.” This
property of animal life they accordingly enjoy in a high 7 *
degree of development, while their instincts are reduced w"1, 3
almost to a nullity; and in regard to the external senses it
may with truth be said of most of them, that they are “ sans
teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans every thing.”1 They are
almost, without exception, indolent and slow of movement
some advancing by the writhings and contractions of a soli
body; some by the play of invisible cilia, which garnish in
set rows, their appendages; and others by the aid of hollow
extensible tentacular suckers; while many among them are
rooted, and as fixed as the plants whose graceful forms they
seem to envy, and strive to emulate.
There is, according to Cuvier, no true system of a circu-
lation in any Zoophyte; but Nordmann has delineated a
very beautiful system of vessels, apparently sanguiferous, in
some intestinal worms; and a similar one has been shewn
to exist in the Planarice, and in some external parasites, as
in the genus Phylline. Among the more regular Zoophytes,
we find very generally a system of aqueducts, which per¬
meate and ramify through the body, but which are distin¬
guished from any circulatory vessels by having a direct
communication with the water in which the animal floats.
This system is mainly subservient to locomotion ; but to a
certain extent it must supply the purposes of a circulation
in higher organisms, for the fresh currents of water which
it leads within the body will oxygenate, and render fit for as¬
similation the nutritive materials that come within their reach
and influence. The Holothuriae afford a good illustration of
this double function, for they have two aquiferous systems;
one connected with the intestines, and in correspondency
w ith the organs of respiration ; the other subservient only to
the turgescency and relaxation of the organs that perform
the offices of feet. This latter system only, it is said, can
be discovered in the star-fishes and sea-urchins; while the
vascular canals that ramify like veins through the clear gela¬
tinous bodies of the sea-jellies, originating in the alimentary
cavities, and running in divergent lines to the circumference,
seem to constitute a system accessory principally to respira¬
tion and nutrition. In many fixed polypiferous Zoophytes,
there are also found ducts for introducing water within the
body; and in others, where these aquiferous ducts have no
existence, the surface or appendages of the little creature
are clothed with minute vibratile cilia, that constitute a real
breathing apparatus.
Some families, such as the holothuriae, the sea-urchins,
and several intestinal worms, as well as some polypiferous
Zoophytes, have a mouth, an alimentary canal, and an excre-
mentitious or anal orifice; others have a kind of stomach
with only one orifice, which is by turns a mouth and a vent;
in a great number there is merely a digestive cavity, exca¬
vated in the substance of the body, for the reception of the
food, which enters sometimes by one and sometimes by
several orifices; and in other Zoophytes of abnormal character
there is no mouth, and we suppose that these must imbibe
their nutritive matter by pores on the general surface.
The individuals of some species of intestinal worms are
male and female, but in general the Zoophytes are henna-
phroditical and oviparous. Some are propagated by a sort
of gemmation, or by self-division. Many of them are com¬
pound animals ; a kind of monster, in which often hundreds
of individuals consociate, and are organically connected to¬
gether, so as to make one living mass or commonwealth,
that possesses all things in common, and usually shoots up
in an arborescent form.
1 “ Imperfecta veteribus, nec inepte, dicta animantia, destituuntur capita, auribus, naso, oculis, pleraque pedibus; ab insectis itaque diver*
sissima, a quibus dudum removi naturaa cryptogama.”—Linnaei Systema Naturce, 1069.
isub-t
wlli
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MI
tures
ces c
stev
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'stem
heep
liver
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does
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I'int; t
ZOOPHYTES.
991
living premised these few remarks, \ye proceed to treat of sickly; that youth is favourable to the evolution of some, Intestinal
thisiub-kingdom under the following divisions or classes:— and maturity to that of others; and females may be more ^ orms.
verminous than males; but the contraries are numerous, ''
and the lovers of statistics have not yet balanced the pro¬
portions. A crude farinaceous diet has been much blamed,
and we should suppose justly ; yet the poor of Scotland, who
subsist much on such a diet, are not more wormy than the
better fed poor of England. Rich moist pastures are said
to be favourable to the generation of the fluke in our sheep
and cattle; but this is only the case with some pastures,
1 affords a striking illustration of the wide diffusion of which, in every district, have acquired this bad pre-emi-
life to have ascertained the fact, that almost every nence, and on which certainly our herds cannot be fed
specs of the vertebrated orders, and very many of the many days without the certainty of being tainted. Salt
inlior classes, afford, either within or on the surface of the pastures are, on the contrary, unfavourable or destructive
b<», a place of nativity and domicile to one or more living to the fluke and worms in general; nor in man does any
cr|tures, framed with especial adaptation to the circum- cause apparently more certainly predispose the body to
I. "he Intestinal Worms; II. The Echinodermataor
Se#stars ; III. The Acalephje or Sea-jellies ; IV.
Thi'Polypes or Zoophytes properly so called; V. The
SiIiges ; and VI. The Lithophytes.
L—INTESTINAL WORMS.1
stjfces of their destined abodes. They do not however
inf it every animal indiscriminately; for, on the contrary,
tliiparasites of almost every species are peculiar to itself,
omiev are confined to a few of analogous habits and struc-
ti|. There are some partial exceptions. Thus, the fluke
their visitation than an unsalted innutritive diet. “ Salt,”
says Dr Paris, “ when taken in moderate quantities, pro¬
motes, while in excessive ones it prevents, digestion: it is
therefore tonic and anthelmintic, correcting that disordered
state of the bowels which favours the propagation of worms.'
(Qstoma hepaticum), so common in the liver and gall-ducts And as an instance of the results of its want, Lord Somer-
offneep and other domestic cattle, is found occasionally in ville adduces a punishment which formerly existed in Hol-
thuliver of man, but comparatively so small as to have been land. “ The ancient laws of that country ordained men to
saletimes looked upon as a distinct species. The Ascaris be kept on bread alone, unmixed with salt, as the severest
Iwbricoides of man is identical w ith that found in the horse, punishment that could be inflicted upon them in their moist
tpiox, and the sow; his Trichocephalus occurs in the ape; climate ; the effect was horrible : these wretched criminals
tbi Cysticercus of the cellular tissue is common to him are said to have been devoured by worms, engendered in
air the ape and pig ; and the Strongylus giganteus has a their own stomachs.”5
wie range, not fearing man, and rioting in the kidney of The extrinsic causes which give a predisposition to worms
iliiy of the inferior animals. Frcelich took from a tropical are as little known as those which act immediately on the
pfrot an Ascaris, which was apparently identical with a body. Very few avertebrated animals are vermiparous,
wvm that Rudolphi found in our domestic pigeon; and while there is probably no species of vertebrate that is ex-
siiilar examples, more especially from among the parasites empted from parasites. Of the latter class, such species as
ofishes, might be instanced.2 But there is no example of have been reduced to domesticity, or are retained captive,
ijorm being common to a warm and a cold-blooded animal; are more subject to worms than the wild and untamed; and
nl does the same worm ever occur in the mammalia and fishes appear to be pre-eminently infested with them. It
iniirds, nor in amphibia and in fishes; nor, indeed, in the is not yet determined that the same parasites infest the
ilcies of any two well-distinguished classes ; and so also it same animals in different and remote countries, although
isscertained that the parasites of the carnivorous animals this is probably the case; but a few facts, relating pnnci-
(4th the sole exception of the renal parasites) are in every pally to the human species, seem to prove that climate ms
ifflance different in kind from those of the vegetable feeders, a certain influence over their generatmn The «
lit must not however be concluded, that of the animals medinensis, or Guinea-worm, is only found undei the torrid
to the attacks of intestinal worms, every individual is zone, in Asia and Africa; and
9 numerous On the contrary, the Entozoa in general cuhar to Lapland.6 Ascandes prevail to such an extent
l comparatively of rare occurrence, and many are so rare in Abyssinia as to regulate ^ some degree ^ movemen s
fit few helmintholomst* of however wide research, have of the inhabitants; and in the West India island., intesti
ilrtt S mV Lar„Vce has seen a female ^ to ^ml
S|o from time to time has voided many hundreds of small m Europe. e now, . , calves of Italy •
Inns (S^roptera hominis) from the urinary bladder;5 that Ascandes are ^
It, so far as known, no o'ther human being was ever so while those born HaSS tells us
licted. Goeze found in the boar a Trichocephalus phi, are rare!y mfes ed w^
v ich Rudolphi has sought for in vain both in wild and that when m Cairo he was told ^
Anestic swine ; and he tells us he had dissected innumer- in a i an s we friend Dr Knox” says Dr
e mice in a fruitless search after ^Moc^lus “en,," ^ 7„.£" and
lien bed also by the first-named naturalist. _ Tlie new die Cape were generally infested by these animals.”7
udoubtedly extreme cases, but they place in a stron0 1 - then perhaps be considered as the
Uht the partial and accidental diffusion of these crea- hYP f i ■ p t],:s Tgenia which however has spread,
tires. What circumstances determine them to select one fd%°tnf"Xrnumbers avS
fl ividualin preference to another, are unknown, though In the latter ,country) it OCCUrS, but not simulta-
jt'nsons enough have been stated, of all which it max n(,nn( iv in the same individual, with the Ttenia lata, Linn—
hi -d that the facts adverse to their admission are a - in’the English, Dutch, and Ger-
f .)st as many as those in their favour. I here is n0 * , common in the natives of Switzerland and
Imp- that worms in general often infest the delicate and mans, but very common
Synonymes: Entelmintha; Vermes; Intestina; Yermes intest^ different animals.
* Of upwards of 200 species examined by Dr Bellingham, several occurred m s'x,
I 3 Medico-Chirurg. Trans, ii. p. 382. Cyclop, of Anat. and Physiology, n. p. 1-4. & Pharmncologia, p. 517. Lend. 1820, 8vo.
1 4 Ent. Hist. Nat. ii. part ii. p. 96, 97. - <r of :ts ex;stence we have to add to the testimony of Linnaeus and .o-
I 6 Rudolphi considers the Furia an apocryphal animal, but m favour ot t 7 Lectures on Morbid Anatomy, vol. i. p. 200.
ihder that of Dr E. D. Clarke. Travels in Scandinavia, part i. p. ~uo-
992
ZOOPHYTES.
Intestinal Russia.1 If any evidence can be drawn from the silence of
^Worms. Otho Fabricius, it would seem that the Greenlanders are
Y not subjected to the tape-worm, but they breed the Ascari-
des abundantly.
Intestinal worms, as their name implies, are found prin¬
cipally in the alimentary canal, and the viscera subservient
to its functions. There are species, however, which have
their appropriated seats in the cellular and adipose and
serous tissues, and in the parenchyma of the most secret
organs. „ One species peoples in myriads the voluntary
muscles, and more than one has penetrated the heart;
several develope themselves in the lungs and air-passages,
in the liver, the kidneys, and the brain ; one or more have
entered the blood-vessels or aneurismal tumours connected
with them;2 some float in the humours of the eye; and
more than one loathly worm bathes unharmed in the acrid
excretion of the urinary organs. If indeed we except the
bones, the cartilages, and ligaments, no organ seems ex¬
empted from the occasional attacks of worms, unless it be
the spleen, in which, according to Rudolphi, no worm has
yet been discovered ever to take up its abode. These
parasites may in one sense be considered as accidental,
since they are found in certain individuals only of the spe¬
cies they infest; and there can be no doubt, although their
evil deeds have been frequently much exaggerated, that
they become not seldom the cause of serious or fatal dis¬
ease. And here we may cursorily notice an opinion which
has found its advocates in every period of the history of
medicine, that most contagious diseases, fevers, and plagues
originate from animalcules introduced into the body, and
are propagated by their communication to other bodies
through the medium of the atmosphere. Linnaeus was a
believer in this hypothesis, which has recently been sup¬
ported, with much ingenuity, by Dr Holland, who however
• properly remarks, that “ though the course of discovery has
recently been approaching, in some points, nearer to the
hypothesis in question, it still furnishes nothing beyond
stronger presumptions and more numerous analogies” in its
favour.
If animalcules can be so pernicious, and we admit that
no more probable cause of many pestilences, and especially
of cholera, has been assigned, their influence is, according to
physiologists, more than counterpoised by the share which
another class of them has in the continuance and propaga¬
tion of the species. This class is by naturalists named the
Spermatozoa, of constant and invariable presence in the se¬
minal fluid of every animal capable of propagating its kind ;
but they are absent in that of the mule, and of other animals
which may be sterile from age or the season of the year.
Like the accidental Entozoa, the Spermatozoa of every
animal has its peculiar characteristics, but the differences
between them are comparatively slight. “ They all agree
in having slightly oblong and flattened heads, with length¬
ened tails, tapering so as to become nearly or quite invisible
with the best glasses; they possess active powers of motion,
and are evidently endowed with sensation. No trace of
organization has yet been discovered in them, probably on
account of their extreme minuteness. Whether essential
to generation or not, they may be regarded as the parasites
of the tubuli semeniferi.”3
The origin of the Entozoa within animal bodies, and
their viscera, has for long been the subject of much debate
and curious speculation. It was a hasty disposal of the
question to say that they were no other than the worms of
stagnant waters, of marshes, and of vegetable roots, intro¬
duced within the body, either in their perfect or ess state r
but altered in their appearance and character bv the i w!8^
heat and other novel circumstances by which the/w & '-vL
now surrounded. Though this explanation had the support
of Linnaeus, and has lately found a strenuous advocate in
one of the most learned men that ever graced the medical
profession, it has been long known to be quite untenable-
for no fact is better ascertained than that intestinal worms
are found solely in animal bodies, where only they can live
and propagate. The instances to the contrary which have
been alleged, of tape-worms and flukes living in marshes
and of earth-worms in our bowels, are known to rest on
fiction or incorrect observation; so that, in the discussion
of the question, it must be assumed as a fact, that the
worms are born in, and peculiar to, the places where we find
them. This assumption presented no difficulty to the
earlier naturalists, who were unanimous in the belief that
all worms were the results of a putrefactive process;
putrefaction into life ferments,
And breathes destructive myriads ;
or of spontaneous generation ; the spawn of a superabun-
dant phlegm, vivified by the heat and fermentation of the
belly. But to this ancient doctrine the experiments of Redi
on the generation of insects gave the death-blow.4
To explain the beginning of these worms within the
body on the common doctrine that all created beings pro¬
ceed from their likes, or a primordial egg, is indeed so diffi¬
cult, that the moderns have been driven to speculate, as our
fathers did, on their spontaneous birth; but they have
revived the hypothesis with some modification. Thus it is
not from putrefaction or fermentation that the Entozoa are
born, for both of these processes are rather fatal to their
existence, but from the aggregation and fit apposition of
matter u'hich is already organized, or has been thrown from
organized surfaces. Ihus Buffbn applied his doctrine con¬
cerning organic molecules to account for their genesis.
Milk, he tells us, “ consists entirely of organic and prolific
matter, which, wdien not properly digested by the stomach,
and applied to the nourishment and growth of the body,
assumes, by its natural activity, other forms, and produces
animated beings, or wormshence their commonness in
the bowels of children ; and their origin in the most hidden
organs has the same source, for the “ living organic parti¬
cles” may, from various causes, be forced too abundantly to
any part of the frame, and living creatures in that part are
the result of their union. Rudolphi has adopted an opinion
very similar to that of Buffbn; for it appears to him that
the objections which their history furnishes to a belief in
their sexual propagation are insurmountable, and that we
must of necessity believe in their spontaneous appearance,
or rather in their production from the fit apposition of
organic particles that have not been assimilated with the
parent body, or from the separation from it of organized
particles, which, retaining their proper life, become the
germs of an entozoan in situations and under circumstances
favourable for their development and metamorphosis.
I heir origin in this manner is not more wonderful, or
more inexplicable, than that of many of the inferior animals
from sections of themselves. The Nais, the Planaria, and
the Hydra, furnish examples of animals of as perfect orga¬
nization as worms being thus propagated ; for if a small por¬
tion is cut away from any species of these genera, and
placed in a suitable position, it will continue to live and grow,
and develope new organs, until it has acquired in every re¬
spect the form and structure and habits of the animal from
3 StS ^ I1'- P!lrtJhP- 'r C?mp- P-.162- . 2 “ 0n AnimaIs in th® Blood,” see the Lancet for August 1840, p. 778.
logic 573 &c* LectureS V° ‘ 1- p‘ 213- 0n these animated bodies, the reader will find ample information in Blainville’s Manuel d’Actino-
^Pothes®s ^the eari!er writers, Le Clerc has given an excellent account in his chapter xiv., “ on the origin of Worms in ani¬
mal bodies.” History of Worms, trans. p.329, &c.
3fce)
IgesC
rhed t(
jrs
1 like ^
alined i
circt
■ *
so ab
jlaoiorp
jpont t;
^33
• ing th(
3!H'i
J ted fro
i j in it
itacbf
i sting ^
i ssite fi
e it was separated. Now particles of matter fitted worms of the different cavities and textures are usually dis- Intestinal
jyidgestion, and their transmission through a living body, similar, as might have been expected from the dissimilarity ^^orins-
;0r nmediate assimilation with it, or flakes of lymph in the structures from which their unformed and unsemi- v '
detedied from surfaces already organized, seem neither to nated embryos are separated.4
exC«d nor fall below that simplicity of structure which The variety in the exterior forms of intestinal worms is
favoks this wonderful development; and the supposition sufficiently great to form the basis of their classification into
thafclike the morsels of a Planaria, they may also, when subordinate divisions. Thus we have the round or cylin-
retaiied in contact with living parts, and in other favour- drical worms (Nemaloidea) •, the sacciform with prickly pro-
able circumstances, continue to live and be gradually boscides (Acanthocephala); the flat or fluke worms (Tre-
chfced into creatures of analogous conformation, is surely rnatoda); the tape-worms (Cesloidea); and the cystic or
not o absurd as to be brought into comparison with the hydatids {Cystica). In very few of them are there any
metnorphoses of Ovid.1 It is a speculation fairly open external appendages, either to diffuse or heighten their sen-
to iquiry; and indeed one main argument in favour of sibilities and perceptions, or to assist in locomotion ;5 but
the pontaneous generation of Entozoa, is the admitted we can distinguish in all of them a head, a body, and an anal
inafquacy of all other hypotheses to explain the facts. Is extremity ; in some there is a neck ; in the Trematodes,
^ 1 one or two ventral suckers; and in some the organs of
genei'ation are protruded. The skin is commonly white,
smooth, thin, and moist, but coriaceous in many of the
Acanthocephala, and sometimes roughened with reverted
prickles. Minute black points, suspected to be visual
il ty
)ut
a gin of
t,liket
I tinner
tiiio]
it Tin
•fek
■eeb;
j jiured
“tnen
great r
i|e liver,
evoli
eprodi
that 1
i iicus ir
i istenci
i) ciinki
nneons
( unity
i ore dif
«| thee
tistenc
ant
11 we
naria
jtectit
■lie. Tl
Mol.
Q/»fi
ustam
|e fact
’oliavali
m
‘The
‘The
3 Hie
c l
gen
taoii
Heap!
K ft
sofoji
'OL, j
ZOOPHYTES.
993
it ftesible to believe of a worm which has been found,
dur g the nineteen centuries of the world’s age, in one or
a fee individuals only, that its eggs can have been trans¬
mit!, d from generation to generation, and be thus so very
rariin its perfect state ? But we have one proof at least
thafi change of condition in an animal is capable of ge- organs, bespeckle the anterior extremity of some non-para-
nering a worm, for a good authority assures us that a sitical genera {Planarice) often classified with the flukes;
i unite found in the flesh of the domestic swine is not to and similar specks have been discovered on a few true
be: und in the wild race ;2 and Dr Jenner ascertained that Entozoa at certain stages of their development. Thus
be .mid produce hydatids and fluke-worms at will in rab- they are of a brilliant lustre in the Phanoglenc and En-
bitc by feeding them solely on green succulent food.3 chelidium; and traces of them are visible in the Gyrodac-
Hcc but from innate workings are we to explain the first tylus auriculatus, in several Cercariai, in the Polystoma
orkn of worms that have neither sexual organs nor ova, integerrimum, in the young of many Distomce, Monostomm,
buijlike the hydatid, increase from buds that pullulate from and Amphistomce, and in the Scolex polymorphus?
thinner surface of the vesicle that contains them? And The internal structure of the Entozoa is as various as
Riplphi has even seen what he believed to be young nas- their outward form, and in some degree of harmony w it i
cen Taeniae germinating from the villous surface of the
botels. We think the hypothesis is supported also in some
degee by the fact, that the origin of Entozoa in general is
lavjured by all causes which tend to disturb the equality
be men the secerning and absorbent systems. Thus there
it, as will be proved when we come to explain the charac¬
ters of their classification. It ranges from a homogeneous
structureless tissue, such as composes the whole of a zoo¬
sperm, to that of an animal with organs of defined limits
and function, such as we find them in a nematoid worm,
is teat reason to believe that some inflammatory action of where there are distinct muscles, a perfected apparatus of
theiver, of the eye, and of other wormed viscus, precedes digestion, and a system of generation on male and female
theevolution of parasites in them ; and it is well known individuals. In a very few intestinal worms, anatomists
ths a morbid state of the alimentary canal, especially an have recently demonstrated the existence of a slightly de-
ahndant secretion of unhealthy mucus, is connected with veloped nervous system. In others, there exists a system
thmroduction and increase of all intestinal worms, so much of vessels, in which an obscure circulation of a colourless
so hat Broussais believes an inflammatory state of the fluid has been seen ; but in none of the class is there any
rmi us membrane to be even an essential condition to their trace of a distinct respiratory organ,' the functions of whic i
SS? ItTs obv.Wy necessary to suppose that there are performed by the skin or surface The genera whose
“Swn conditions l laws reg'ulating^this, the spon- habitat is the f “tb^Tt rfch ts it In S
tai.'ous growth of worms within us, so that a certain uni- genated atmosphere to breathe , but such as ^ ^
fotmitv in the products is the result; but it seems not muse es, in e u ’ r()rce(j to conciude
m.e difficult to admit the existence of such laws, overrul- uncomb.ned air can reach , and we
m,tl,e destiny of unappropriated organre dal „ the“Xough Ihe fluids they feed on, or from the
Si", bodyl^That thetare^ such lawslof^elpila- blood as it
ti«, we infer from the fact that the detached portions of a cont.guous, or from the ™ ‘n "hlfh that l
and f^SoTtiZ^ ^ly r^inS^i^re fltrnished
T ~ I c , >* Dr Drummond in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. i. p.
11 See an Essay “ on the Equivocal Generation of Entozoa, by aro.ument’ 3S handled by Ur Drummond, does not satisfy us ; and
10-108 ; and Dr Good’s Study oj Medicine, vol. 1. p. 2J-, &.C. « „ , geem far fetched, and some of his alleged facts are not
tin malogies adduced to invalidate the doctrine of equivocal gener J , stated See the article “ Hydatids” in Cyclop. Pract. Medi-
trj. The remarks of Andral in favour of their spontaneous origin are strongly stated. See the article y
ci» vol. ii. p. 440. , . , • i has domesticated and not in the wild race, appears to furnish
, 'Cysticercus cellulose: “ The fact of its being found in the swine w creat;on „ Blumenbach’s Elem. of Nat. History, trans. p. 243.
arinstance of organized bodies which have been formed long a ” • , ies furnishes us with many similar, so that the argument is
T fact has been contradicted : but the history of insects and infusory animalcules iurmshes us wit y
niinvalidated.
\]Cyclop. of Pract. Medicine, vol. ii. p. 438. . , T, ,, , , • ;n caI) xviii. 0f his Historia Nat. Entozoonnn, vol. i. p. 370-416.
The reader will find the subject discussed at great length by Rudolphi p^ , j like antennac ; and Diesing has described
The Phanoglene, which lives in the larval of some neuropterous insects^ has ^
■e genera (Ancyracanthus, Heterochoilus) with heads furnished with filaments of various to
Lamarck’s Anita, sans Vert. iii. p. 546, note 1, 2d come of the nematoid worms, but erroneously. See Rudolphi
Jllespiratory trachem, similar to those of insects, have been ascribed to some
Eoz. Synopsis, p. 579, &c. . f • , the smau or great intestines of three different subjects. See Bostocks
M. Chevreul, however, found no oxygen in the 0as o
Plsiology, vol. ii. p. 490. b K
OL. XXI.
994
ZOOPHYTES.
Wo™?1 ^ *ef X” a,bomd“ they live an(f their food, consist- The ovules of the oviparous species are of two f a
having no oral aperture, seem to imbibe all their nutri- embryo. ^ ^ ° ’ C°ntain a moveable
^SSfpSSESsila aSSSrHS**
this is never armed with cutting or triturating instruments, niqrovenosa according tn y ousands» dimrij
i„e zT^ht: ±^cTSSi ^
mentitious; and the same inference maybe made from evefv of„™% A„? r d“ln less than twenty-five mfc,
species of similar structure. The Treltoda or flute ha,' or «e™oftlie pro^",^^^””"'0'’ t0Jfin<' *
no anus, and their mouth is certainly ill defined, but they this fertility w? mkdit rnnHnrk tl K°0r ^ From
sS=S~H=iSSS S?^"SS'S“
?S’rrarlhfoXedarr: ^
its nourishment from cutaneous absorption, a mode of means and enVk^nTetall t^^lection?*'"
in‘t h^halr Zt'Z* fT" "f - eC=
^SiSiS'aSS:
|i||IS?§S|| IffHiHili
SlTcLTetnd ulitn^ ^ ^ VeSSdS P01018’ °f ^ in'the bo^
The nematoid and npantlmrmryi i i j- aC wh° esome c leck on the Pnde and vanity of man>as
tinct sexes but the Trema Z,P. ] "“T j6 d‘S' ,nals °f his l>atience and other virtues. “<• “ fi""11)1 *»*•
androgvnmrs thlt is each i^id , Ti eS'0‘dea are CUre '? him an enlra,’ce »" immutable and eternal
sessesTeTkns nem.ikr h bmb J SpeC'? .p?; s,ate of felicity “h6" 'h" of probation is at an end, so that
fecundate its ova ahhonob sexe,s’,and may »f :tsdf ‘he of death may be to him the gates of peace and
hhas be™ sunn^ op tl;em’ restNow it may be commendable to look forgoodin
IteceC as KeC wi* .be”?" T ,ndlv‘duala 13 fve7 ‘hing! but this, we think, is looking rather foo fa,
worms the female or renrndnctiv/U^an sn.a''. ln otlter looking also into a sort of kaleidoscope, in which we see all
in the cvstic Entozna 0lgans ex^c a one ’ and beautiful though unstable pictures patterned out of worth-
. m a no generative apparatus has been pro- less things.
have the renrodiwtive^nnveJr rlhfbe .^emmiParous> and “> . The relationship of the Entozoa with other animals is
at least in the Acenhalocvst ’ in 16 " !° C C^St’ *nvo^ved *n much obscurity, but w^e cannot therefore con-
developed from anv ^ f F"^ ^ cur with Baer in hi* proposal to excludd them from ana-
Cuiar part of the cLT 8 °r a"y par“' tUral o'ossifioation of the animal kingdom; nor do we e«-
The creat mflinriHr'of fEo E- u t? • acdy understand Rudolphi’s notion when he says they con-
but we have several Entf0SlJre 0VIPar0usj stitute a Peculiar fauna, rather than any order or class pa-
one atlertamlmtlmE^^^ among the Nematoids, and rail el with the ordinary divisions of systematists. If the
The distinction is hr i-> - orms, w uc are viviparous, zoosperms are to be reckoned distinct beings, they must
the oS es n s r s ir"ma eria1’ fo5 !n both kinds probably go to throng the chaos of infusory animalcules;
mulate in Tm in tht c St;U,C^re’ aTnd ?e e?§S aCCU" and Dujardin has ^covered in the earth-worm and in the
the v vinarous CuculLni Tnf th uCtS i°f slugS a parasite (Alhertia) that combines with the structure
there irfoundthe slmn hnd f the.c?v!ParoasEchinorh}nchi, and habits of an entozoon many of the peculiarities of the
to be cotvh donsb nr lEHrh f c«ajectures rotatory animalcules. The hydatids may represent the
are fixed"so tint .up ' Pacen 065 ^t0 which the ovules hydraform polypes; the tape-worm the cesium Veneris of
are fixed, so that even m this respect no difference exists, the gelatinous medusa; the Acanthocephak have someen-
34.
”0!te p,0,e ^
ZOOPHYTES.
995
rese
Itoto
ylieT'
erici resemblance to the sipunculidous genera of the radi- Echinococcus. The primary or maternal vesicle is lined Intestinal
ted .nimals; the fsematoids a nearer one to the Annelides; with an extremely delicate epithelium, to which there ad- " orms-
indfce Trematoda have, with a very general yet erroneous
1SS8B, been made members of a family that embraces the
^aiwiae—leech-like natives of fresh and salt waters—which
ix vainson errs no less in arranging with the mollusca.
affinities being thus so remote and uncertain, we are
iot grprised to find the classification of the intestina un-
here some limpid, mostly oblong, corpuscules, analogous to
those primary buds met with in the neck of the Caenuri.
The liquid of the vesicle contains some free Echinococci,
within whose bodies, when their coronet of hooks and suckers
is everted, nothing more is to be distinguished than some
scattered limpid corpuscules. These Echinococci evident-
etl 1; but from among the many that have been pro- ly derive their origin from the primary vesicle. On ex-
we only select two for exposition here ; that, name-
Rudolphi, which has been most generally approved;
lat of Cuvier, for this, from its wider scope, will afford
opportunity of noticing some tribes, remotely perhaps
to the true worms, but which only now come within
an originally laid down for our guidance.
„ . _dolphi confines himself to the proper parasites of ani-
fpi^nal odies (Entozoa), which, following Zecler and Goeze,
ides into five orders :l 1. Nematoidea ; 2. Acantho-
3. Trematoda; 4. Cestoidea ; and, 5. Cystica. In
juAcposition of their characters and genera, we shall re-
fera Rudolphi’s plan, and begin with those of simplest or-
ii raiiiition.
ORDER I—CYSTICA.
fracter Body flattened or roundish, continued posteriorly
'^ntoy vesicle peculiar to one or common to several individuals,
furnished with two or four hothria,2 or with four suckers,
icircle of hooked prickles, or with four prickly proboscides.3
!ius Echinococcus—An external simple or double vesicle,
inner surface of which many entozoa adhere, like grains of
Of these the body is obovate, and the head armed with a
of hooked prickles and suckers. The species infest the vis-
nfiera f man, of apes, and of domestic cattle.
Gums CiENORUS Vesicle simple, containing many adherent
4ntto|>a. Of these the body is elongate and flattish, rugose ; the
dheafiirmed with a prickly beak and with four suckers. The only
novi species (C. ccrebraks, Plate DII. fig. 8) is found in the brain
| nestle of djnestic animals, especially of sheep, and it is the cause of a dis-
nthweasai them known by the name of the sturdy. It is curable by
dicioi tliej dicious use of the trephine.
* ius ( GtWs Cysticercus Plate DII. fig. 7—External vesicle
p i, con simp, containing a solitary entozoon, whose roundish or depress-
) ly paed My passes insensibly into a caudal vesicle. Head furnished
■our siwithbur suckers and a prickly beak. The species are found in
the nature of a yolk, whence the heads derive the nourish-
quadupeds, principally in their abdominal viscera. One occa- ment necessary for their development by means of the
siolly makes good its habitat in the cellular substance between s]encjer COrds already mentioned. Siebold thinks it doubt-
amining the inner surface of it, we notice here and there
some minute vesicles, enclosing a mass of delicate granula¬
tions, whence the heads of the Echinococci pullulate, either
solitary or in groups of from two to seven or more. In
fact one portion of the granulous mass forms a small round¬
ish body, which is manifestly continuous with the rest of
the mass by one of its extremities. This rounded mass
soon acquires insensibly a pear-shape, whence it passes to
an oval, while at the same time its attachment to the mass
whence it issued becomes more slender and frail. We
now begin to discern, in the interior of this body, the circlet
of hooked prickles and the limpid corpuscules ; and now
also the heads of the Echinococci commence to protrude
and retract these parts, in doing which the entire body is
alternately elongated and shortened. Arrived at this stage
of development, the thin envelope that enclosed them is
torn, but the young Echinococci do not immediately escape,
for they are held to its inner surface by a slender cord pro¬
ceeding from the envelope, and penetrating within their
own bodies at a dimple indented in the posterior extre¬
mity. This dimple has nearly the appearance of a sphincter
muscle grasping this cord of the envelope. After a short
period the cords and the Echinococci separate. On being
torn up, the envelope of the young Echinococci shrivels
upon itself, the Echinococci are ejected, and in this manner
they form a rounded mass, in the centre of which the
shrivelled envelope is hidden, and upon which the worms
repose, as the polypes do upon their stem. These masses
sometimes remain for a space hanging from the inner sur¬
face of the maternal vesicle, and sometimes they are de
tached even before the Echinococci have themselves sepa¬
rated. The granulous mass contained in the vesicle is ol
3 upedi
| lyma
mscletha]buscles, and even in the eye and brain, of man; and the
isversaralis very common in the muscles of swine, whose flesh is then
;o be saiS o be measled. Blumenbach, as we have before mentioned,
i sthatassejs that the wild swine are not subject to this disease; but
<fsertkthajsertion seems unfounded. “In suis domestici cerebro et
)us pomjgius partibus musculosis vulgatissimus occurrit, neque/ero
dews.” Rud. Ent. Syn. p. 180, c. p. 547-
nus .4
I iniiw
l oon.
la.
atura!
■s seei
I ities1
ful whether all the vesicles, large and small, that contain
heads of Echinococci, and which float at freedom in the
maternal vesicle among the freed heads, are detached from
the inner surface of the vesicle, or whether some of them
do not come direct from the freed heads, these having pro-
 r , j . . duced germs of Echinococci in their interior, and become
GUms ANTHocEPHALus—External distended by them into vesicles. Hanging from the free
ntmng a more delicate one, within which there is a solitary / • • „ bo has often seen
51 ^ Body elongate, depressed, passing into a large caudal vesicles containing l eads of Echinococci, he has often seen
Head armed with two or four bothria and four prickled hooked spinules, which were perhaps the remains of a
former circle of them; nay, he believes that he has even
seen the remains of suckers in these vesicles. Still how¬
ever there remains much obscurity on this strange trans¬
mutation ; and even a greater darkness covers the origin
and the propagation of the maternal vesicle. Since the
conraiung
entefcon. Body elongate, depressed, passing
vesbe. Head armed with two or four bothri
’jrostia. This genus was previously named Floriceps by Cuvier.
,]andfhturalists in general have preferred that designation. The
|Specj|s seem to be almost peculiar to the fishes of southern ch¬
it Mats, nestling in the abdominal membranes and viscera 4
In the Crcnurus,
i,of tie vesicle, where heads and their necks have been hydatids enclosed withm each other exte_
rte hvdatidTs'fhe'primordial vesicle, within which the
te^riitniSrili nnd graduallyevolve Se^heen^^y ~
kifthis formless condition into their perfect state. Sie- no more answe of ^ imordiai vesicle itself.”5
boiihas also traced the evolution of the young in the accour
They appear at first like minute tu- rior hydatid
J LI . ill  1 ^ l'»*Y\7'£s
'lifozot
'Othrii
>11 this
)r> this
I Vl
‘mntnzoorum Synopsis, See. Berolini, 1819, 8vo. .
^lothria are small pits or excavations, with a thickened rim, placed room or near leinnu • 184-197
this order the reader will consult with advantage Dr Hodgkm’s Lectures on 184 197
.1.:     Ev Hr Drummond in the Magazine of Aatural History, n. s. voi. u
3 In this order the reader will consult with advantage Dr Hod^ms ^ of Natural History, n. s. vol. ii. p. 655, &e. and vol.
.. Serlus see 60me interesting observations by Dr Burdacffs Trait* de Thysiologie, vol. iii. p. 32-4. Paris, 1838.
996
ZOOPHYTES.
Intestinal
Worms.
ORDER II.—CESTOIDEA.
Character—Body elongate, flattened, soft, continuous, or joint-
ed. Head very rarely simply lipped, usually furnished with two
or four bothria or suckers. Androgynous.
Genus T^nia—Body elongate, flattened, jointed. Head
with four suckers. The Taeniae inhabit the alimentary canal, and
principally the small intestines, but they have been found very
rarely in the liver and gall-bladder. They occur only in verte-
brated animals, some of th£m nourishing two or three species.
Of those species which Rudolphi has described without a mark of
doubt as to their reality, we find that one infests man, thirty-
two the mammalia, sixty-five the birds, six the fishes, and two
the reptiles. These numerous species he divides into two sections;
first, those with an unarmed, and, secondly, those with a prickled
head; but Mehlis has recently shown that many species which
are furnished with hooked prickles when young, lose them when
they arrive at maturity.
Genus Bothriocephalus.—Body elongate, flattened, jointed.
Head subtetragonal, with two or four opposed bothria. Nearly
allied to Taenia. Of twenty-four species described by Rudolphi,
one is peculiar to man, three to aquatic birds, and twenty to
fishes. The genus has been subdivided into several others by
De Blainville. The individuals of one of these subgenera, Di-
bothriorhynchus, were affixed by the prickles of their probosces to
masses of Ascarides, which again were the parasites of a butter-
fly.
Genus Tri^inophohus—Body elongate, flattened, subarti¬
culated. Mouth two-lipped, armed on each side with two tricus-
pidate spines. There is but one species, a native both of fresh
and salt water fishes.
Genus Ligula.-
rhynckus epistocotyle, Nordmann did not find any spy i
gans ; and the four retractile spinigerous proboscS n w^1
by four canals to as many oblong transparent mull ^
reservoirs winch, he conjectures, ought consequentll m f ^
considered stomachs. In the posterior part of the h 1 be
these animals, the same distinguished naturalist disco°v y a
■ >
*tl
a vascular system, composed of several longitudinal
and ramified bv anastomoses t W ™ ™  . canals>
and ramified by anastomoses; but no movement n*
liquid could be perceived in it. On the posterior ! any
of the hnrlv the™ ic Q J -l P0S erior margin
-In its state before evolution the body is flat¬
tened, continuous, very long, grooved down the middle with a
furrow; and neither head nor genital organs are visible. In its
developed state the body is also flattened, unjointed, and very
long ; the head armed on each side with a very simple bothrium ;
and ovaries are seen on the medial line in a single or double
series, with threadlike filaments (lemnisci). The species are prin¬
cipally the intestinal parasites of birds; two or three kinds are
found in fish ; and one has occurred in the common seal.
Genus Tetrarhynchus—Plate DII. fig 6 Body flattened,
unjointed. Head furnished with two bipartite bothria, and pro¬
truding four retractile prickly proboscides. The species are all pis¬
civorous, although one has been also found in the stomach of a
tortoise, and another in some cuttle-fish. They adhere to the ab¬
dominal viscera, to the gills and fins, and even infest the muscles.
Bremser is of opinion that the species are Bothriocephali in an
imperfect stage of development; and Nordmann believes this opi¬
nion to be correct, at least in regard to certain species. On the
genus see Drummond in Mag. Nat. Hist. n. s. vol. ii. p. 571, &c.;
and Leblond in Ann. des Sc. Nat. tom. vi. n. s. p. 293. The latter
took a species from the interior of a fluke-worm or Distoma, a
true entozoon, the parasite of another of not superior organiza¬
tion and scarcely of greater bulk. Helminthology is indeed full of
miracles. Lib. cit. tom. vii. n. s. p. 249-253.
Genus Gymnorhynchus—Body flattened, unjointed, very
long, with a subglobular receptacle for the neck. Head furnished
with two bipartite bothria, and emitting four naked retractile
proboscides. Found immersed in the flesh of some giltheads
(Bramce) and rays or skates (Raji).
Genus Scolex—Body flattened, unjointed. Head furnished
with four bothria. The only species described (S. polymorphus) is
common in the intestines of many fish and of the Cephalopoda.
There exists a suspicion that other Scoleces may be metamorphos¬
ed into Bothriocephali.
Genus Caryophyll^eus—Body flattened, unjointed. Head
enlarged, scalloped, two-lipped, the lips superior and inferior.
The species is common in the intestines of the carps {Cyprino.
rum).
In the preceding order there were no appropriated or¬
gans of digestion, which begin now to be developed. In the
majority of the Taeniae there are two or four canals which run
through all the articulations of the long tape-like body, and
which, underneath the cephalic knob, are connected together
by numerous anastomoses, forming there a sort of net-work.
It is remarkable that no one yet has succeeded in proving
any direct communication to exist between these canals
and the proboscis. In all the Taeniae, the Bothriocephali,
the Schistocephalus, and in the Triaenophorus, the genera¬
tive apparatus, both fecundating and reproductive, is multi-
plicate, while it is simple in Caryophyllaeus. The orifices of
both apparatus are, it seems, always separate. In Tetra*
dmchedMiy there iS a thick frinse of ciila’Which ^il,
The eggs of the Cestoidea are multiform, and varv r
markabJy in size. According to Siebold, some havet
single envelope, and others not fewer than three. The eV
of Tania stylosa, when found in the intestines of Comf
glandanus, are quite peculiar in their structure • for thev
have four envelopes, of which the two external’ones are
round, the inner one oval, and that which lies between the
second and the fourth is very narrow and drawn crosswise
having at the same time two very long twisted diverticula’
The eggs of Tania cucumerina deserve also to be parti
cularized, from ten to twenty of them being always placed
in a common envelope. The vesicle of Purkinje appears
to be wanting in the eggs of the Cestoidea. ‘
The embryo, while yet in the egg, is endowed with cer-
tain motions; and Dujardin discovered that the Trenise
have then six hooked spinules, or horny falciform teeth
disposed symmetrically in pairs. These spinules have no
relation, as one is at first disposed to conclude, with the
spinules that arm the interior of the extrusile proboscis, or
the circumference of the oval aperture ; for they exist in
the embryos of unarmed Taeniae, as well as in those which
are so provided; nor are the shape and disposition of the two
kinds at all analogous.
I he articulations of the body are not formed until some
time after the embryo has quitted the envelope of the egg,
but the first traces of the suckers surrounding the beak are
sooner recognisable. It is probable that the little worm
fiom the tench, described under the name of Gryporhyn-
chus pusillus by Nordmann, is only the young of one of
the Cestoidea, perhaps of a Taenia.
ORDER III.—TREMATODA.
Character—Body flattened or roundish, soft, furnished with
suctorial pores. Androgynous.
Genus Monostoma—Body soft, roundish, or flattened. The
sucker anterior and solitary. The Monostomse live in the abdo¬
men and intestines, and have been found in the muscles, of verte.
brated animals. Of the species described in Rudolphi’s Synopsis,
one is from a mammal, nine from birds, ten from fishes, and three
from reptiles.
Genus Amphistoma.—Body soft, roundish; an anterior and
posterior pore or sucker. Of eighteen species, twelve belong to
birds, three to the mammalia, and three to reptiles. The genus
has been recently subdivided, or its definition will at least em¬
brace the Holostomum of Nitzsch, the Amphistoma and Diplothscus
ot Diesing; and the beautiful Diplostomum of Nordmann, found
in the eyes of fishes, is nearly related.
Genus Distoma—Body soft, flattened, or roundish. Suckers
solitary, one anterior, the other ventral. A genus better known
by the name of Fasciola. The species are the parasites of every
order of vertebrated animals, and are exceedingly numerous,
nearly 200 having been described. Of these, the most notorious
is the Fluke (Plate DII. fig. 9), generally believed to be the
cause of the rot in sheep, by which disease numerous flocks are
annually destroyed. Another species (Fasciola trachea, Montagu
in Wem. Mem. i. p. 197, pi- 7, fig- 4) breeds in the wind-pipe
of poultry, and produces the fatal distemper usually termed the
gapes.
The three preceding genera are the heads of a large fa¬
mily, extremely variable in the degree of organization, but,
amici this diversity, always marked by having from one to
three suckers of more or less perfect formation. It is frorn
the number, the form, and the position of these organs that
ill!
" y:
eot
obe
ttejJPts have anew been made to subdivide the family in- or flattened ; six suckers in front, a ventral and posterior one soli- Intestinal
3 gaups and genera; for many new and extraordinary tary- This genus is the type of a family named Polycotyla by Worms.
)rn||have been discovered since the publication of Ru- l^ainville. It contains many genera, and among them the Tris-
olpjfcs work. Our space forbids us to characterize these ^ Whic • have fe" beentclas9ifi'd wlth ^he Leech?f•
* . , . 1 4.1 r i. Ihe bulk or the species prefer the exterior of animals, especiallv
ovales, but we may mention the of Dufour, hv- the gills of fish, to which they adhere by means of the prehensile
groups in the alimentary canal of tardigrade insects ; organs or suckers on the hinder part of the body. All of them are
iplostomum, which peoples the humours of the eyes hermaphrodites. The orifices of the genital organs are in front,
; the Cercaria of fluviatile mollusca, so remarkable not ^ar ^rom ^ie moi|th. On each side of this there is an ohlong
anomalous mode of propagation ; and the Diplozoon, f1 rou,rld ?uck?r ’ 111 tlie oesophagus a body resembling a tongue has
. . , , i • i • i t ii , ■ . been distinguished; the alimentary canal is dendritic, without an
ily animal known which is truly double, having two anus, and all the body is permeated with a double vascular thread,
in which there is obviously a circulation of blood, attended with a
vibratile motion. Some species are furnished with eyes, or eye-like
specks; and the surface of the body is variegated with spots, or
tinctured of a deep colour.
mi\\
icopith,
;9 316);
ley l|)
suall
eare
esof
edit
hoses a
hape
Ink
nd twm bodies united at their middle, and in organic
tion, and, unlike the Siamese twin, no monstrous
tion, but a normal species after its kind.1
le of the species in the family are without sex, and
eetfo be composed of granules lying in a fluid gelatinous
at :, held together by a thin skin, which gives the ani-
al nrm and consistency. On the contrary, in the greater
mn 2r of the species there is a digestive apparatus, con-
istit of a mouth, an oesophagus or pharynx, and an in-
esti ; forked or sometimes ramified ; but there is no anus,
ascription of this name to the posterior sucker is
d in error. In several genera we find subservient
peci
; of
arise,
will
!), un
ately
uus
e me!
ing
11s of
md ha
nusP
ngali
aret
of the
the
atoide
berei
Lai
ZOOPHYTES.
997
ORDER IV.—ACANTHOCEPHALA.
Character.—Body roundish, utricular, elastic; proboscis retrac¬
tile, armed with spinules arranged in rows; sexes separate.
Genus Echinorhynchus.—The only genus of its order, but a
very numerous one, for not less than 100 species have been discri¬
minated. They are found in the intestines and other viscera of
vertehrated animals, retaining themselves in their position by
means of the prickly proboscis,3 which is not the organ for taking
digestive organs a double system of vessels, one their food, for its extremity is not perforated. The sexual organs
. ,P  ^ ^ , nr#* vprv nnmn pv. I Hp nvanps nrp nnr. atraf*
the other (furnished with a reservoir, named by are velT comP1.ex-
The ovaries are not attached, but float free in
. . , ... . . the cavity of the sac-like body. The ova resemble spicula, and
iruhelminthologists the cisterna chyli) has a commumca- appear to be discharged posteriorly through a minute pore.4 It
pith the exterior by means of a caudal aperture, the seems that the species undergo a considerable change in figure in
?eut)f some secretion. These more complex species are their progress from the embryo to the adult state; and some lose
lirmaphrodites, some fecundating themselves, while the prickles ot their proboscis,
i copulate after the fashion of the snail. The sexual
rgas are often very complicated and much interwoven, ORDER V—NEMATOIDEA.
ut.iey have distinct orifices. Ihe eggs are diversiform, CViaracZer.—Body cylindrical, elastic, the intestinal tube termi-
ind'sually laid anterior to the formation of the embryo, nated at one end by the mouth, at the other by an anus; sexes
3 are some exceptions, however, and at least one separate.
es of Monostoma is viviparous. When the embryo is Genus LioRHYNCHUs._Body elastic, round ; head evalvular ;
ii . c .u u n i? 4-n onrl mouth with a smooth protrusile tube. Of the three species men-
red, the upper part of the shell of the egs buists £ tioned in Rudolphi, one infests the badger, one the seal, and one
)pea like an operculum, allowing the embryo to pass out; tjie conger ggi. Diesing has lately characterised several allied
mdmen it swims about vivaciously in the circumfluent genera.
- medim by means of cilia that cover the body. We know Genus Ophiostoma—Body round, elastic, attenuated towards
Oofhat may be the number and the nature of the meta- each extremity; head with an inferior and superior lip. The
I t ill'll, i o Fissula of I.amarck. The species are intestinal, and occur in quad-
oses through which the young passes before assuming r dg and occupyin>g the swimming bladder of the hitter.
thflJlpape of the parent. Ihe young ot the Monostoma It is probably in the neighbourhood of Ophiostoma that we should
rite, observed by Siebold, contained all of them a worm p]ace the genus Tetrastoma of E. Forbes, a strange parasite,
peculiar fio-ure, having no correspondency with the « fixing itself by means of four suckers or mouths to the walls of
of the mother but resembling the cyst of some the stomach, and of the vessels of the Cydippe, after interrupting
• \ l •J 1 oa Knrdmann to helipvp that this the circulation of the fluids.” Mr Forbes first described it as a
CeBtnae. Analogy induces Noidmann to beheve that tins to ae.sh d existing in the stomach of the crystalline me-
witlnn the young is in fact changed into a cyst, tiom dus|ng> but its parasitiCal nature was discovered by Major Playfair
whiji, under favouring circumstances, the Monostoma is 0fst Andrews. See Sept. 26, 1840, p. 74h.
ultimately developed.^ Genus Ascaris.—Body round, elastic, attenuated at both ex-
™ n 7 liner Bndv flattened- two tremities; head trivalvular; spiculum of the male double. The
Trxsxoma. -Capsala of So^c.-Body aUened two ^ ^ numerous, and difficult of discrimination. The most
-kers m front and a radiated one behind, the mouth exarnple 0f the genus is A. lumbricoides, found in the small
P - . . intestines of man, of the swine, ot the ox, horse, and ass. See
Plate DII. fig. 3.
Genus Stronqyeus Body round, elastic, attenuated at bolu
ends; mouth circular or angulated ; apex of the tail in the male
terminated with a purse-like sheath, whence the penis is protruded.
The S. gigas (Plate DII. fig. 4) may be considered the type of
I me viscera ox me quauiupeua.   the genus. It attains the length sometimes of two or three feet,
in tl fbJJ in the frontal sinus of the dog and of the horse, growing to ^ ^ as a mEm’s little finger; and it makes one shud-
thi length of six inches. The sexes are distinct. Ihe name ‘ think that this monstrous worm is occasionally the canker-
Li yiatula has been preferred for the genus, ot which Diesing n inhabitant of the kidneys of man, where it lies rolled up,
pu fehed a monograph, with descriptions of eleven species. lie- . th • flesh and producing unspeakable torture. It
i L r..iv5pr o-ives it a nlace among the oaiieniug un , e , =
ms
simt suckers
ng a proboscis ? between the former.
thAls of various fish. It is occasionally found at freedom in the
seujnd has occurred on the British coast.
C^ius Pentastoma.—Body roundish or flattened ; mouth pro-
tnmig a little hook, placed between the anterior suckers, of which
theiiare two on each side, arranged in a lunated manner. 1aia"
sit pf the viscera of the quadrupeds. The best-known species is
caub the sexes are separate, Cuvier gives it a place among tne ‘',‘11 animals, as the dog and wolf, and is not confined to
_ ; ;• •; r0*rr,sSXhe“™« ‘seta
hotheca; and Miram expresses an opinion the same
Neaatoidea, while Diesing thinks its
it tibe reckoned the type of a separate order, which he names ndoubte^y on t,he blood it has sucked from its victims. Of worms
Amhotheca; and Miram expresses an opinion the same as Die- , d witb tyie urine, see cases very interesting to the c< greedy
Recherchcs mr I'Anatome du Pentastoma Tcenio%des,m Ann. dcs after monsterS;” in Le Clerc’s History, p. 264 et seq. Also
Sdirai. n. s. tom. vi. p. 135. (Plate DII. fig. 5-) , rvclornedia of Practical Medicine, vol. iv. p. 516.
inus Polystoma.—Plate DII. fig- 10, 11.-Body roundish the Lycup* j    
U h.. b«„ Educed » »..her **
lie; but Siebold afterwards discovered that he had been deceived in this description.
IlLamarck, Anim. sans Vert. vol. iii. p. G17, 2de eciit. ^ ^ . rr- . 520 : and some most interesting observations on
Inf this organ Dr Drummond has given a good description m M g. ■ ■ - « gee Drummond in loc. cit. p. 523.
leconomy in vol. iii. p. 63—71.
998
ZOOPHYTES.
Intestinal Genus Physaloftera—Body round, elastic, attenuated at
Worms, both extremities; mouth circular; tail of the male deflexed, wing-
'v—<?d on each side, ending in an inferior vesicle; penis protruded
from a tubercle. The species are few and intestinal.
Genus Spiroptera—Body round, elastic, attenuated at both
extremities; mouth circular; penis emerging from between the
wings of the spirally involute tail. The species are numerous.
One has been said to occur in the urinary bladder of man.
Genus Cucullanus—Body round, elastic, attenuated behind;
mouth circular, placed under a striated hood; the male organ a
double spiculum. The species infest the stomach and intestines
of various fish.
Genus Oxyuris—Body round, elastic, the posterior part of the
female subulate; mouth circular; penis sheathed. The species are
few, and confined to quadrupeds. One is very troublesome to the
horse; and the worm which perhaps annoys man more than any
other (Ascaris vermicularis) has lately been removed to this genus.
Genus Tricocephaeus—Body round, elastic, the anterior
capillary extremity suddenly succeeded by a thicker portion;
mouth circular ; male organ simple and sheathed. “ The species
inhabit the large intestines, particularly the coecum of the mam¬
malia ; they do not occur in either birds or fish.’’ Bellingham.
The T. dispar (Plate DII. fig. 2) is said by liudolphi to be very
common in the large intestines of man. “ It is about two inches
in length, only one third of which is taken up by the thick
part of the animal. This portion has a spiral form in the male,
which is furnished with a small penis, protruding from near
the tail. In the female, which is oviparous, the thick portion
is straighter, and is simply pierced at the extremity. On the con¬
tinent it would seem that this is the worm which'is met with the
most frequently in the human intestines. Indeed some of the
most distinguished helminthologists state that they scarcely ever
fail to find them. The large intestines are their principal seat, but
more especially the appendix vermiformis of the coecum. Though
I have frequently and carefully sought for this worm, I have only
once been able to find it. In this instance it was lodged in the
mucus filling the appendix of an emaciated and cachetic girl, who
had been much exposed to want and hardship.” Dr Hodgkin’s
Lectures, &c. vol. i. p. 207. Hr Bellingham’s experience is”very
different; he finds it very commonly in the Irish. See his Cata¬
logue of the Entozoa indigenous to Ireland, in the Mag. of Nat.
Hist. n. s. vol. iv. p 343, &c.
Genus Trichosoma.—Body round, elastic, very slender, grow¬
ing insensibly larger to the posterior extremity ; mouth a mere
point; male organ a simple sheathed thread. Named Capillaria
by Zeder. The species are found principally in birds, next in the
mammalia, and very rarely in reptiles and fish.
Genus Filaria—Body round, elastic, linear, elongate ; mouth
circular; male organ a simple spiculum. The species are nume¬
rous, and infest many avertebrated1 * as well as vertebrated animals.
They are principally intestinal, but a species has been found in the
eye of the horse, another in the eye of man, and another in the
bronchial glands. The most celebrated species {F. medinensis, or
Guinea-worm, Plate HII. fig. 1) burrows in the cellular tissue under
the skin. It was well known to the ancients; and a portion of the his¬
tory of it given by Paulus ^Egineta may be quoted : “ In India and
the countries above Egypt, there are bred little dragons, animals
like worms,in the muscular parts, as the arms, thighs, and legs, and
in children they are in the sides, and plainly move under the skin.
But after some time a place nigh the end of the worm suppurates,
the skin breaks, and the head of the little dragon comes out.
While it is drawn out it causes pains, and especially when it is
broke. Wherefore some say that a leaden weight should be hung
to the dragon, that the falling out should not be in heaps, but in
pieces. Others condemning these, because by the weight of the
lead the worm is broken, and causes cruel pains, order the part to
be put in warm water, by the fomentation of which the worm comes
out, and is drawn out piecemeal by the fingers.” Le Clerc’s Hist,
of Worms, p. 242. Freind’s Hist, of Physick, vol. i. p. 49, &c. Mr
Hutcheson gives an account of his having extracted one that mea¬
sured three yards and a half in length. Good’s Study of Medicine,
vol. vi. p. 653.-
The eggs of the Nematoidea, with a very few exceptions,
are of an oval shape when mature. The changes which
they undergo in the process of hatching have been rninm i r
described by S.ebold, but we can on#mention one S W '
particulars. 1 he covering or shell is colourless and sincdP ^
but frequently double. The vitelline mass is whitish and
contains, in unripened eggs, a well-marked proliferous
vesicle with a proligerous spot. When these immature
eggs have passed into the uterus, remarkable changes begin
in the yolk, which at this period is a mass of delicate o-ranu
lations, set in a uniform manner, and completely fillinv the
envelope of the egg. The proligerous vesicle, deeply’hid
den in the vitelline mass, is obscurely seen, and soon after
wards disappears. On its disappearance, the physiologist
is surprised to observe on the vitelline mass those remark
able grooves, the existence of which he had never suspected
in any invertebrated animal, and least of all in the Entozoa
and which had been seen only in the eggs of the Frogs
(Bactracians) by Prevost and Dumas, and some other
observers.3
The Intestinaux constitute the second class of zoophytes in
Cuvier’s arrangement.4 He divides them into two orders so dif
ferent in their organization, that they seem rather to deserve the'
rank of classes. The first order, the Intestinaux cavitaires. have
an alimentary canal floating in a distinct abdominal cavity, with a
mouth and an anus; but the body of the constituents of the second
order, the Int. parenchymateux, contains within its parenchyma
only ill-defined viscera, having the resemblance mostly of vascular
ramifications; and sometimes even these traces of organism are
imperceptible. We shall here present a brief sketch of Baron Cu
vier’s system.
ORDER I.—THE CAVITAIRES, Cuv.
This nearly corresponds with the order Nematoidea of Rudol-
phi, embracing also the genus Linguatula or Pentastoma, and the
Prionoderma, which liudolphi has placed among his fictitious or
obscure species. Cuvier believes that at the end of this order we
ought to classify, as a distinct family, the Lern-sze of Linnaeus, or
Epizoaires of Lamarck; but it is now proved that these are
really crustaceans, which, in their infancy, do not differ from the
new-born Cyclopes, and are equally capable of swimming about;
but assuming the character of adhesive parasites, they suffer a
deformity that increases with their growth, and conceals their
nobler alliances,5 for they never acquire all the members with
which the more normal crustaceans are provided. Of all the para¬
doxical creatures which the naturalist meets with in his researches,
there is none that surpasses or equals these in eccentricity, none
more at variance with our notions of animal conformation, and exhi¬
biting less ot that decent proportion between a body and its mem¬
bers, which constitutes what we choose to call symmetry or beautv.
Of these monsters we shall attempt no description; but the figures
of a few of them, given in Plate DII. figs. 13—17, will convey some
idea of their shapes and variety. They are all external parasites,
living on the skin and on the gills offish, to which they adhere by
hooked grasps or claws; and it is presumed that thev injure the
fish by sucking out their blood. Burmeister, who places them
among the Siphonostomous Crustacea of Latreille, gives the fol¬
lowing synopsis of their genera.
I. Family Peneelina.
BODY WITHOUT TENTACULA OR ARTICULATED MEMBERS.
Body more or less twisted in an angular manner, unequally
thick, and furnished anteriorly with bifurcated arms.
+ Three long corneous arms placed around the mouth ;
the two anterior, or all the three, forked : the ovife-
rous sac resembling a spirally twisted cord. Ler-
NjEA, Oken.
tf Four soft and fleshy appendages placed around the
mouth ; the anterior forked ; oviferous sac cylindri¬
cal. Lerneocera, Blainv.
1 On the Entozoa of insects consult Leon Dufour, in Ann. des Sc. Nat. n. s. tom. vii. p. 5.
3 Its exterior figure might induce us to place after Filaria the genus Trichina of Owen, found in myriads in the voluntary
but its simplicity of structure scarcely raises it from among the Infusoria, more especially from above the eels of vinegar
this interesting worm, seethe elaborate essay of Owen in Trans, of the Zoological Society, vol. i. p. 315 ; and in Cyclop, of Anal
“• P‘ 11i,; Hodgkin’s Lectures, vol. i. p. 211 ; and several essays in recent volumes of the Lancet and Medical Gazette.
8 See Burdach’s Traiie de Physiologic, vol. iii. p. 59-64. 4 ptegne Animal,
4 The males however retain their freedom and powers of locomotion at all ages. See Cuvier, Reg. Anim. iii. p. 255, note 2
Traite de Physiologic, tom. iii. p. 130.
muscles of man,
and paste. On
. and Physiology,
iii. p. 245-274.
; and Burdach’s
>' itesti);
' iVonri
ZOOPHYTES.
999
Body straight and of equal thickness ; four pairs of cutaneous
prominences toward the anterior part, which is prolonged into
the form of a neck.
-j- Without arms ; nor is the tail penniform. Pennicu-
la, Nordm.
-j-(- With arms, and a penniform tail. Penella, Oken.
II. Family Lern^eoda.
boDy with two pincers, or prehensile appendages, situated
behind the proboscis, and without swimming feet, which are
SOMETIMES REPRESENTED BY SIMPLE CUTANEOUS PROLONGATIONS.
* Prehensile apparatus simple, situated at the point of union
between the trunk and the neck. Anchorelea, Nordm.
** Prehensile apparatus elongated, composed of appendages which
have the shape of arms, and which are united together near
their extremity.
+ Cephalothorax prolonged into a neck.
§ Pincers with booklets placed on the lower part of
the neck, between the arms. Tracheliaste,
Nordm. Lebnantoma, Blainv.
§§ Pincers with booklets placed at the upper part of
the neck, almost behind the head. Branchi-
eela, Nordm.
-j-f Cephalothorax short, rounded or heart-shaped ; pincers,
with booklets, placed immediately in front of the
arms.
§ Arms very long and thin : the abdomen elongated,
and not jointed. Lerneopoda, Blainv.
§§ Arms very long and thin : the abdomen circular
and jointed. Achthere, Nordm.
§§§ Arms short and thick : abdomen not jointed, and
verrucose. Basaniste, Nordm.
*** No prehensile organs in the shape of arms.
+ Tentacula of two or three joints not formed of articu¬
lated feet, armed with booklets; a pair of jaws and
two palpi. Chondrocanthus, Cud.
++ Tentacula with six joints ; an eye on the top of the
head; three pairs of jointed pincers behind the
mouth, which is conical. Lernanthrope, Blainv.
After this family there follow, in the system of Cuvier, some
genera of marine worms, which are not parasitical, and are un¬
doubtedly members of the family Planariae. The Nemertes had
been previously characterized by Sowerby, and by him named
Lineus. It is remarkable for the extraordinary length to which
it grows. We have been informed that specimens of thirty feet
long have been seen, and have had some in our possession which,
when extended, could not be less than fifteen or twenty. 1S
to be found under stones, coiled up in an intricate mass of a purplish-
brown or claret colour, smooth and glossy, of nearly uniform cali¬
bre throughout, and free of wrinkles or joints. The head is dis¬
tinct enough; and underneath it there is a long slit, which is
mouth. The intestine runs the entire length of the body; and,
what is very curious, we have a specimen which has swallowed a
periwinkle, the shell forming a knob near the middle of the body,
reminding us of the appearance of a gorged snake. er 1 s
merles, savs Cuvier, we ought probably to place e u
iua; of Itenieri, which are equally large and very much elongated,
but which have a small mouth pierced under the anterior ext j-
mity ; and the Ophiocephales ofQuoy and Garmard,distinguish¬
ed by having tire apex of the snout cleft; andthe ereb . "
of Renieri, which differ from these merely in the comparative
shortness of the body.
ORDER II.—THE PARENCHYMATEUX, Cuv. parous
itself in the flesh of the sea-polypus (Octopus), is four or five inch-Echinoder-
es long, and has 104 suckers ; another of smaller size, and with mata.
seventy suckers, is the parasite of the Argonauta. The Aspido- ^
gaster of Baer is a minute parasite of the mussel, distinguished
by having under the belly a lamina, hollowed with four rows of lit¬
tle pits. In this family also Cuvier arranged a multitude of animals
which were formerly comprised in the genus Planaria of Mul¬
ler.1 They are little worm or leech-like animals, with a soft, com¬
pressed, or foliaceous body, found both in the sea and in fresh
waters. There is no abdominal cavity. The mouth, placed in
the belly near its middle, is furnished, in many, with a protrusile
proboscis, which leads into an intestine of a dendritic character, and
whose ramifications permeate the whole body. A vascular net¬
work occupies the sides; and there is, posterior to the oral aper¬
ture, a double system of generative organs. The species are an¬
drogynous like the snails, and oviparous. The head is ornamented
in most with black specks, which are probably eyes. They are
voracious creatures, feeding on animal matter; but, above all,
they are remarkable for the facility with which they reproduce
any part of the body that may have been lost by accident, or cut
away by the curious experimenter. In this wonderful power they
equal the Hydra. The species and races are extremely numerous,
and admit of much complicated classification.2 Duges distin¬
guishes them into the typical Planaria;, with a ventral aperture ;
the Prostoma, which have one orifice at the anterior, and another
at the posterior extremity ; and the Derostomes, in which the oral
aperture is beneath, but placed considerably forwards.3
The third family of the intestinal Parenchymateux is named
the TjEnioides. It conjoins the orders Cestoidea and Cystica of
Rudolphi. The fourth family is the Cestoides, and embraces
only the genus Ligula of Bloch, parasitical worms found in the in¬
testines of some birds, and of various fresh-water fish. They
appear the simplest of all the Entozoa. The body is like a long
ribbon, obtuse in front, marked with a longitudinal stria, and
finely scored crosswise. There is apparently no external organ ;
and in the interior we see nothing but the ova scattered in the
parenchyma. The species which infests the bream grows to five
feet in length ; and Cuvier says that the worms are considered in
some parts of Italy an agreeable food.
In the bowels of some seals, and birds which live upon fish,
there are found certain worms very like the Ligulie, but in which
genital organs have been developed, and even a head similar to
that of the Bothryoeephalus or tape-worm. Rudolphi hazards the
coniecture that these worms of birds are identical with the Li-
gulse of the fish, which have acquired their fuller organization by¬
passing from the intestines of the cold-blooded animal into those
of a warm-blooded one. There are some facts in the history ot
other tape-worms which give a colour to this conjecture ; and we
may just call attention to its bearing upon the question of their
equivocal generation.4
II.—ECHINODERMATA.5
The Echinoderaiata have been defined to be radiated
animals, with a coriaceous or crustaceous skin, commonly
tuberculated, or even spiny, and perforated with holes ar¬
ranged in regular series, whence issue contractile tentacular
suckers. The month is either inferior or lateral, and mostly
armed with certain osseous pieces that form a circle of teeth
within the lip; the stomach is a loose bag, with distinct
parietes, and with an intestine or ccecal appendages; the
respiratory apparatus is vascular; and the species are ovi-
narous. This definition however must not be too nicely
This order is divided into four families. The ^.rs^ ^
with the Acamnocephala of Rudolphi; the secon t i...
Trcmatoda of the same author, with some additions. One ot tt e
most extraordinary is the Hectocotyles of Cuvie > ” . • ^ ^
compressed and enlarged at the anterior extrenn y, l eroug
the mouth, whose inferior surface is garnished w ^
suckers, arranged in pairs; and at the posterior ex c - hides
a sac, filled with folds of the oviduct. One species, which hides
examined, otherwise several animals, which offer but a
feeble and partial adumbration of its characters, might be
excluded from a class to which they properly belong. 1 he
stellated disposition of the organs is generally so remark¬
able, that fancy will dream the Echinodermata to be tie
children of night, which have drawn their figures from the
stars that presided over their birth ; but there are among
    " • , Phenomena in Animal Physiology, exhibited by several
■ The best history of the Planariie is entitled Judging from the infrequency with which this interesting vo ume
2 The; constitute the class Turbellakia of Ehrenberg, > , „ , , • p 5o9 4 F„toz. Syn. p- 596-
t of BriuA specio. b, £***? ,<**4^**>
5 From a hedgehog, and the skin. Synonyme..
1000
ZOOPHYTES.
Ecliinoder. them some vermiform families which have resisted the
v , planetary influence, excepting only in certain parts around
the mouth. Their next most general character is derived
from the tentacular tubes which the animals push out from
pores drilled in rows between the vertical segments of the
thick integument of the body, and withdraw again in part
at pleasure: but the character becomes abnormal in some
Holothuridae, which have these suckers pullulating irregu¬
larly from the surface; and it fails us altogether in Sipunculus
and its allies. Ihe organs in question much resemble the
tentacula of the snail, but they are really very dissimilar
both in the use and mechanism of their movements: they
may be compared to the glass of a thermometer, for they
are closed tubes, with a vesicular bulb placed within the
body, and they are protruded by forcing the fluid, with
which the bulb is filled, up the cylindrical portion. It is
not through them, as Lamarck imagined, that the circum¬
fluent water gains access within the body, although it is
very true that almost all the Echinodermata contain a large
but variable quantity of it, partly flowing through a special
apparatus, and partly effused, if we may so speak, into the
visceral cavity, bathing the surface of every viscus which
may be said to float in it; and since the quantity of this
water can be increased or lessened at pleasure, so we find
that the contour of all the flexible species is liable to alter¬
ation of figure, according to circumstances. When
Batt’ning in ease, and slumb’ring life away,
the skin is rotund and swollen, and the organs are distended
and displayed; but if alarmed or removed from their sites,
the fluid escapes from them, and collapsion and retraction
follows. Other purposes which this water must serve, are
its aid in rendering the crude nutritive fluids of digestion
fit for assimilation, and its purifying influence over the
blood; for we learn from Delle Chiaje, that in all the
Echinodermata there is a blood of a yellowish or orange
colour, composed of a large proportion of lymph, and a
certain number of globules endowed with a self-rotatory
motion.1 In what course this blood circulates, has not been
determined. I iedemann, who may be regarded as our best
authority on such a point, says that it “ moves in a circle,
but which is confined to the alimentary sac and ovaria alone.
In the Asterias, numerous thin-coated veins, coming from
the stomach, the ccecal appendages, and ovaries, unite into
a single trunk. 'Ihis produces a dilatation analogous to a
heart, and then ramifies like an artery. In sea-hedgehogs
are found, on both sides of the circumvolutions of the intes¬
tinal canal, two vascular trunks, the external of which seems
to be a vein, and the internal an artery. These two trunks
communicate by a dilatation similar to a heart, or by their
minutest ramifications, dhe intestinal canal of Holothuria
likewise exhibits an arterial and venous trunk, connected
with each other by their smallest ramifications, as well as
by a large vascular net-work spread over one branch of the
respiratory organ.”- Delle Chiaje’s description of the same
system differs considerably ;3 and it is difficult to define the
limits between it and the system of vessels for conveying
currents of water through the body. Blainville, of distin¬
guished excellence as a comparative anatomist, felt this dif¬
ficulty. He has concluded that there is no real circulation,
and that the sanguineous system of the Asterias, and per¬
haps even of the Echinides, is nothing else than a system
of ramose aqueducts, like the tracheae of insects; and in¬
deed it appears certain that these vessels communicate with
the exterior by orifices more or less conspicuous. But, he
adds, it is difficult to say as much of the vessels whioh u-Qv r
find in the Holothuridte, for no anatomist has sus tw tS
their direct communication either with the arbuscular ten- 'WV''
tacula, or with the real aquiferous vessels, or with the desi
droidal branchiae; so that in these animals there may be an
oscillatory movement of the blood in its special system, but
certainly no circulation of it, returning and going to* and
from a font of pulsion.4
The aquiferous system alluded to must not be confounded
with the aquiferous cutaneous tubes that jut out from be¬
tween the tubercles on the dorsal surface of the star-fishes
but is an internal ramose set of vessels for leading water
from the general cavity of the viscera, more especially into
the locomotive organs of the animal, and its buccal tenta¬
cula. “ It is composed of vessels,” says Tiedemann, “ which
commence from a canal placed around the mouth, and
spread in rays over the internal surface of the skin, as in
Holothuria, or proceed to the chalky covering, as in sea-
hedgehogs and asterias. These vessels open in the hollow
tentacula,5 and their vesicular dilatations. They contain
a limpid fluid, which is shed over the tentacula during the
animal’s motions, and causes their increase or shrinking.
When the animal draws in his tentacula, the contraction
of their muscular coats forces the liquid again into the ves¬
sels. The fluid contained in this vascular system is not
therefore agitated by a circular movement, but only flows
outwards from within, and vice versa. This liquid, which
is probably derived from the blood, seems at the same time
to serve for the nutrition of the skin, of the chalky cover¬
ing, and the locomotive organs.”6
With this system, that of respiration is most intimately
associated; nor indeed are there any separated branchim,
either in the star-fish or sea-eggs, whose fluids are aerated
by a flow of pure water over their surfaces, and around and
within their viscera, driven over them in currents deter¬
mined by the regulated action of vibratile cilia, which clothe
them almost everywhere, as the researches of Dr Sharpey
have more especially proved? In the Holothuridm, anato¬
mists have generally considered as pulmonic certain organs
which lie between the long curves of the intestine, and
closely connected with it. They are very much branched
in a dendroidal fashion in some species, their branches re¬
uniting successively backwards, until they form at last two
trunks, or one only, that opens with the intestine into the
cloacum; but it seems to shew how readily their presumed
function can be transferred to the general cavities, when
we find other species of the family in which these organs
are slightly sketched, and some in which their existence is
not to be demonstrated.
With Lamarck, we shall further pursue the history of
this class under its three sections or ordei’s, which are
named and defined as follows.
I. Fistulides. Body elongate, cylindraceous; the skin
leathery, soft, and irritable; intestine with an oral
and anal orifice, the former encircled with retractile
tentacula.
Echinides. Body more or less rotund or angular,
covered with a shell of immoveable testaceous pieces
without projecting arms; anus distinct from the
mouth.
Stellekides. Body depressed, circular or angulated,
and divided into arms or rays; the skin creto-coria-
ceous, tubercular; intestine in some families only,
with an orifice distinct from the mouth.
II
III
1 Blainville’s Man. cf Actinologie, p. 65. 2 t t n • i . •
,61- ,Dr f-n ■H- *h-
° ’ Q,c4>. ./At. aJ™;,. ’ Cilt”rp eiT J ‘n With ■>»■* *%*• ii- P-41-
ZOOPHYTES.
1001
ORDER I._FISTULIDES,' Lamarck.
The radiant character of the class is faintly impressed
upon this family, being marked with decision only in those
parts which encircle the mouth. The form of the body is
in general that of an elongated cylinder or pentagon, rather
unseemly, and invested with a thick coriaceous tunic, which
is sometimes scaly, like the skin of a fish, more frequently
of a uniform earthy colour, or white painted with bright
red or orange spots. If placed in a vessel of sea-water, we
soon observe, issuing from perforations in the skin, a num¬
ber of papillary tubes, which the animal has the power of
extending at will. These are scattered over the body, or
more usually arranged in rows, limited sometimes in ex¬
tent, at other times running uninterruptedly from one extre¬
mity to the other. The creature gives perhaps little other
evidence of life than what we infer from the protrusion of
these organs, and from continual changes in the figure of
its body. A species of Holothuria, which we watched for
some time, was as changeable in this particular as its native
ocean. From a long vermiform cylinder, it would become
gradually shortened, and swollen in the centre; then it
would relax itself, and again become cylindrical; next one
part would be blown out, and another drawn in, with a
deep stricture, as if a thread had been tied round; or the
contraction would begin near the head, which is then made
very narrow, and would spread backwards, the anterior por¬
tion recovering its original diameter as the wave of constric¬
tion passed aw ay ; and sometimes the contraction will spread
in the opposite direction. This mutability in form is de¬
pendent on the action of the muscles which enter into the
composition of the skin, and which are of two kinds: one
set forms a series of transverse parallel fibres, lining its inner
surface completely with an even muscular coat, while the
other set is collected into five or ten strong cord-like ten¬
dinous bands, which stretch from the oral to the anal aper¬
ture, usually in pairs, but where five only, they are at equal
distances. .
In this state, it is not always easy to say which is the
anterior and which the posterior extremity, for the tenta-
cula and foreskin containing the oral apparatus are retiac-
tile, and then wholly concealed. When displayed, the ten-
tacula form a circle, in which all the beauty of the creature
centres. They are all alike in some species; in others two
of them are smaller and less divided than the rest, which
for the most part are sufficiently branched to be called
plumose or arborescent. Whether their functions aie tic
same, has iiot been questioned; but we may observe, that
the less are often alternately pushed out and in wdien the
larger are kept steadily extended. They fringe, ar>d are
the continuation of a ligamentous neck ; and in their middle
we find the mouth, a round aperture, often limited by an
interior ring of bony pieces, bound together by a strong
muscular ligament, and giving insertion to one ha o
the longitudinal muscles. The pieces of the ring are ten
in number, a large one placed in regular alternation with a
smaller, all of them of a fibro-cretaceous consistence, so
that, acted upon by the muscles attached to them, they
must prove bruising instruments of considerable power.
Exterior to, and between them, there is a circle °f hve 01
more vesicular glands of a linear oblong shape an
nature, the use of which is undetermined; for while Do-
hadsch and Cuvier regard them in the light of saivary
glands, Blainville is tempted to refer them rather to the
aquiferous system. The intestine is very long. 1 he superior
portion, or that immediately under the osseous ring, iom
being thicker in texture and a little wider, may be consi- Ejhinoder-
dered the proper stomach, for the remainder is of a cylin- mats-
drical form and nearly equal calibre throughout. It is tied ^ v ^J
to the side by a vascular mesentery; and after making a
large bend upon itself within the belly, terminates in a
cloacum or passage common to it and the respiratory ap¬
paratus, and which leads outwards by an aperture opposite
the mouth. The only chylopoetic organ attached to the
intestine, the salivary glands excepted, is what is presumed
to be a liver, under the guise of some penicillate structures,
which occupy the space formed by the sinous bend just
mentioned. From this structure, and from the great length
of the alimentary canal, we may infer with probability that
the food of the Fistulides is of sparingly nutritious quality,
while their organization otherwise fits them to be little
better than the recipients of that chance fare which cur¬
rents or accident may bring almost wuthin contact. Bo-
hadsch found the intestine of a large Holothuria, of which
he has written an excellent description, filled with sea-sand
and the fragments of corallines and fuci ;3 and from mat¬
ter like this, and the water gulped with it, the necessary
nourishment is extracted during its long and lingering
course.
The ovaries consist of a bundle of filaments attached to
a determinate spot on the side near the middle of the vis¬
ceral cavity, and notwithstanding their numbers, they have
only a single exterior orifice placed in the median line near
the head, which it is often difficult to discover from its mi¬
nuteness. Each ovary contains many ova, of a roundish
figure, and apparently immotive, being unclothed with the
cilia which move about the eggs of polypes. At the period
of their maturation, there occurs a simultaneous develop¬
ment of certain very extensible filaments, which originate
from near the anus, and are supposed by some anatomists
to be the male organs. How and under what form the
ova escape, is not known. They are occasionally retained
in the abdomen and developed there, which has given rise
to a belief in their viviparous generation. Thus Bose af¬
firms, on the evidence of personal observation, that the
common species of Holothuria are viviparous and the
same assertion had been made long before by Otho Fabri-
cius in regard to his H. pentactes.5 But the most singular
notion has been broached, that these animals do, at their
full time, evacuate the entire mass of pregnant ovaries, with
the other viscera, through the mouth or anus ; do, in fact, vo¬
luntarily, and from a law of their nature, eviscerate them¬
selves.6 The fact on which this seemingly absurd conjec¬
ture is based is most singular, perhaps unexampled in any
other animals. When a Holothuria is placed in a basin oi
sea-water, it has been seen to emit jets of water from the
posterior aperture at regular intervals, the jets succeeding
each other at not more than about a minute’s interval.
This water is undoubtedly what has been rendered inju¬
rious by its stay and use in respiration, mixed probably with
a considerable proportion from the intestine. But when
the water in the basin has become impure, these jets be¬
come also less regular ; and after evidence of uneasiness,
and some unusual motions, the worm will at length vomit
up its tentacula, its oral apparatus, its intestine entire and
with its appendages, and a large cluster, if not the whole,
of the ovaries. And after this complete embowellmg, the
animal lives for at least six or seven hours ; for the empty
skin shews, by its motions, that nearly all its irritability re¬
mains, and even its pow er of locomotion is not lost. L>e-
nioue, quod magis mirum est, omnia Hydra individua,
postquam intestina sua dejecere, septem et ultra boras su-
Pallas,
» Synonymes: Fistulida ; Fistulidans ; Holothunda ; Holothundea l ibus ea in Echinis armata reper.tur.
* “ Quafque lantern* in Echinis quasi analoga est, nm quod amphor sit, afi
Msc. Zoot. p. 156. 4 ^ . rr t n 150 * Faun. Groenlandica, p. 353. 6 Bohadsch de AmnuMar. p. 88.
» De Anim. Marin, p. 86. 4 Hist. Fat. des Vers, n. p. 150. 6 L
VOL. XXI.
1002
ZOOPHYTES.
Echinoder-pervivunt, motu non duntaxat elastico, seel progressive gau-
mata. dentia.1” Sir John G. Dalyell has even proved, by actual
Y " experiment, that if this poor embowelled worm is sup¬
plied with fresh sea-water at proper intervals, it will live
to replace all its viscera with new growths, reproduce new
tentacula, new teeth, a new stomach and intestine, and all
its complicated aquiferous system, so as to be in every re¬
spect as it was previous to its wonderful evomition. It is
by such miracles that we are brought to exclaim with
Pliny, “ mihi contuenti sese persuasit rerum natura, nihil
incredibile existimare de ea.”
The Fistulides are natives of every sea. Blainville be¬
lieves them to be more numerous on the coasts of cold or
temperate countries, than under or within the tropics; but
the data for such an opinion are unsatisfactory.2 They
abound in the Mediterranean, and are scattered over the
German Ocean. The more remarkable species live at con¬
siderable depths, and come rarely under the notice of the
zoologist; but some are littoral, lurking among sea-weed
and in the crevices of rocks, while others burrow in the
sand. They appear to be gregarious, and are evidently
by their organization very limited in their powers of loco¬
motion. When they reluctantly remove from their sites, it
is by the aid of their tentacular suckers; thrusting these
forward to the utmost, they fix them to the ground, and
drag the body on at a pace slower than the shadow on the
dial. By the same organs they retain themselves in their
natural positions, and effect a safe anchorage when the sea
is agitated to the bottom. Otho Fabricius says of Holo-
thuria pentactes, that it can swim,3 a sort of exercise which
the structure of the creature would not lead us to predi¬
cate ; but the fact appears to be confirmed by Bose, who
tells us that the Holothuriae swim slowly, as much by a kind
of vermicular motion as by that of their tentacula, and the
faculty which they possess of inflating the body at will.'1
We learn from Delle Chiaje, that some of the Holothuriae
are eaten by the poor inhabitants of the rich shores of
Naples; and the Sipunculus edulis (Lumbricus edulis,
Pallas) serves as food for the Chinese who inhabit Jav^,
and who search for it in the sand, with little bamboo sticks
prepared for the purpose.5 Their appearance is to us
loathly, and they breathe no Sabaean odour; yet the ce¬
lebrity of the Trepang, a species of Holothuria,6 must res¬
cue the family from contempt in the eye of every liberal
epicure, who, rising above national prejudices, allows his
Chinese brothers to extol unchecked their treasures of the
stormy seas. “ This animal,” says Professor Jameson, “ is
used very extensively by the Chinese for culinary purposes.
They make of it a very rich and palatable soup, and dress
it in different kinds of stews. There are various modes of
curing it. It is first gutted and the water pressed out of
it, and then laid in dry lime, called by the natives chunam ;
afterwards, according to the circumstances of the fishing
station, dried in the sun, or on stages by means of fires of
wood under them. It is a most important article of com¬
merce, and is the most considerable article of the exports
of the Indian islands to China, unless perhaps pepper.
I here are fisheries, as they are called, of trepang, in every
country of the Indian Archipelago, from Sumatra to New
Guinea. It has also within these last few years been dis¬
covered abundantly on the coasts of Ceylon and the Isle of
France, and is no doubt general throughout those seas. ItEchi
has, as we are informed, already been sent from thence to m*?
China, where it finds a ready market, although, from its be- ^“Y>
ing unskilfully prepared, it is classed with the lowest qUa!
lities of the archipelago. When the Chinese can be em¬
ployed in fishing and preparing it, there is little doubt that
it will form an important article in the commerce of those
countries with China, as it can be got in any quantities.”
After some farther details relative to the mode of fishing
and curing it, the professor adds, “ the whole quantity sent
to China from Macassar, and other parts of India, may be
estimated at 14,000 piculs. Taking this quantity at the
low average of forty dollars a picul, and valuing the dollar
at 4s. 3d., its entire value, in a commercial view, is
L. 119,000. Notwithstanding this enormous export' to
China, we do not understand that its value in the market
has ever been materially affected by the quantity imported;
an evident proof that the demand of the market still ex¬
ceeds the supply. When we reflect that the opium, pep¬
per, birds’ nests, sharks’ fins, trepang, and various other ar¬
ticles, the products of the countries under our control, which
are fully as indispensable to the Chinese as the teas of China
are to Europe, the fear so much entertained of the Chinese
interdicting our trade with that empire is quite preposte¬
rous. In short, these few articles of luxury give us the
command of the Chinese tea market. The celestial em¬
pire cannot exist without its trepang and birds’ nests.”?
The systematic arrangement of the order has kept increasing in
complexity with the discovery of new species, and their minuter
examination. Einnseus found two genera sufficient in his time,
viz. “ Sipunculus—corpus teres, rostro cylindrico angustato;”
and “ Holothuhia—corpus ore antico, tentaculis carnosis antice
cinctum.”15 Pallas referred the latter to Actinia, of which they
formed a section, distinguished by having two apertures to the
alimentary canal; for it was the opinion of this great naturalist,
that differences of structure, which, in higher grades of animals,
were justly reckoned to be of generic value, were in worms to
be deemed not more than specific.9 The family, nearly as we
view it, was first defined by Lamarck, who made it embrace five
genera, that stood in three separate sections, thus:
* 1. Actinia :
* * 2. Holothuria; 3, Fistularia:
* • * 4. Priapulus; 5. Sipunculus.10
In the Regne Animal, the Echinodermata form two orders,
the pedaneous and the apodous. The Holothuries are one of
the families of the first, while the species which Lamarck would
have referred to his third section constitute the entire second
order. Cuvier throws the Holothuries into unnamed groups,
from peculiarities in the distribution of the tentacular suckers;
and his apodous genera are Molpadia, Minyas, Priapalus, Litho-
dermes, Siponculus, Bonellia, and Thalassema.11 The latter is now
generally allowed to belong of right to the class Vermes.
Latreille’s arrangement is little other than the reduction of
Cuvier’s to named divisions, as will appear from the following out¬
line of it.
Class—HOLOTHURIDA.
Order I—Apoda.
Fam. 1. Loiribriciformia. Mouth unarmed. Genera—Bonellia,
Siponculus, Miniada.
2. Veretriformia. Mouth armed with osseous pieces.—Pria¬
pulus, Molpadia.
* supra at. p. 86. Also Edin. New Phil. Journ. viii. p. 47. 2 Man. d'Actinologie, p. 189.
Alias etiam m libero mari trans littora natare conspicitur, tentacula sua extendendo et complectendo.” Faun. Groenl. p. 353.
e 1^L Nat: des Vers> ik P- 148- _ 5 Griffith’s Cuvier, Moll, and Rad. p. 455, pi. 12, fig. 3.
1 he species does not seem to have been ascertained. Mr Collier and Professor Jameson refer it to Ilolothuria tubulosa: Professor Grant
says t iat it is^ the H. ananas (Outl. of Comp. Anat. p. 332) ; while Lesson calls it II. edulis, which is the type of a new genus named Trepang.
from Colliers figure, it appears to be apodous, and also destitute of tentacula, so as much to resemble an Ascidia (See Edin. New Phil.
Journ. vm. p. 47, pi. 1, fig. 1) ; but his description corrects these iconographical defects.
' Edin" £ew F>ul Journ- viii- PP- 50-2. 9 Miscall. Zoolog. p. 72. 11 Regne Anim. iii. p. 238 and p. 241
aysf. jYu^. echul2, p. 1072« 10 Aram, sans Vertebresy ii. p. 528.
ZOOPHYTES.
Order II—Polypoda.
Fam. 1- Vagipcdes. Feet scattered over the whole body. Genera
 Holothuria, Actinopoda, Fistularia.
2. Inferipedes. Feet ventral only—Phantapus, Phalloide.1
Blainville’s method of classifying the proper or pedaneous Ho-
jothuriche is exhibited in this neat synoptical table :
The suckers in three rows 
The suckers in five rows
1003
 0. Stichopus, Brandt. Echinoder-
10. Diplopehideris, Brandt. mata.
flattened, with suckers underneath Cuvieria.^
subprismatic, with inferior suckers Holothuria.
Body fusiform, with scattered suckers Thyone.
vermiform, with pinnate tentacula Fistularia.
subpentagonal, with suckers in ambulacra...Cwcimaria-
But the host of species discovered within these few years, dur¬
ing the voyages undertaken for the promotion of the natural
sciences, has proved the inadequacy of these systems; and al¬
though the researches of Joeger and Brandt, with ample mate¬
rials at their disposal, have brought into operation characters ot a
higher value on which to found a better arrangement, that good
work has not yet been satisfactorily accomplished. The charac¬
ters on which the naturalists mentioned have proposed to proceed,
are derived from the absence or presence of the tentacular suck¬
ers their homologous structure or dissimilarity, the existence
or not of the aquiferous branchial apparatus, the pattern after
which the suckers are disposed, the floating character or adhesion
of the respiratory organ, and, lastly, the variations in the ten¬
tacula which guard the mouth. Guided by these characters,
whose importance is in the order stated, Brandt has worked out a
genealogy of the family, perplexing from its numerous subdivi¬
sions ; but it is confessedly the basis of that lately offered to us by
Blainville, and which we now analyse ; for, however dry and bar¬
ren such tables may seem to be, it is really from their careful
study that the student obtains his clearest view of the forms and
general structure of the species. “ The use of synoptical tables
in every branch of science,” says Mr Duncan, is obvious. I hey
afford great aid to memory ; but also, on frequent review, t ey
suggest continually to the inquiring mind new traces of umbsco-
vered relations.”3 Blainville’s new method of distnbuting the
species, then, is as follows ;4
A. H : VERMIFORMES.
Body elongate, soft, vermiform ; the feet small or none.
No suckers ; tentacula pinnate 1. Synapta,
No suckers; tentacula pinnatifid 2. Chirodota, Eschscholtz.
Suckers small, in five bands 3. Oxcinolabes, Brandt.
These species are closely connected with the apodous Entol"°'
zoa bv the Siponculus, the Priapulus, and perhaps evtri th
Molpadia. The first species, instead of feet or suckers, have t
body covered with small crotchets, by which they an^° ,, •
selves to submarine rocks, &c. Their tentacula are contmually m
motion, moving towards the mouth. There is no doacunq the
anus being strictly terminal; and there is no aquiferous respira
tory dendroidal apparatus.
B. H : ASC1DIFORMES.
Body short, coriaceous, convex above, flattened below, with
the orifices superior rather than terminal.
The skin scaly   Cuvieria, Pc/om.
The skin rugose but soft 5. Psolus,
C. H : VERETIELIFORMES.
Body considerably elongated, softish,, r ^re^the
throughout with tentacular suckers, of whic i
longest.
, fi. Hoeothuria.
The anus widely patulous 7 RohaDSChia, Jcegcr.
jl: ^
E. H : CUCUMIFORMES.
Body but little elongated, more or less fusiform, pentagonal,
with the tentacular feet forming five ambulacra, one along each
angle.
The feet small or obsolete 11* Liosoma, Brandt.
The feet very obvious,
and tentacula pinnate 12. Cladodactylus, Braradf.
and tentacula pinnatifid 13. Dactylota, Brandt.
The species in this section connect the family with the Echinides.
f. h: siponculiformes.
Body more or less suddenly narrowed behind, the pentagonal
figure indistinct, without ambulacra, and perhaps without tenta¬
cular feet: tentacula simple, short, and cylindrical, as in Actinia.
Embraces only the genus H- Molpadia, Cuvier.
Still more recently the order has been reviewed by Agassiz, and
because of the influence which his views will probably have with
naturalists, we deem it necessary to give the names of his genera,
to which we shall add their synonymes, and the number of species
he enumerates as belonging to each. Agassiz rejects from the
order all echinoderms which are not strictly referable to the Ein-
naean genus Holothuria, a genus of family rank, and divisible
into,5
Species.
1. Synapta, Esch. = Fistu¬
laria, Bl. = Tiedeman-
nia, Leuck.  3
2. Chirodota, Esch  4
3. Thyone, Oken. = Mulle-
ria, Fleming  7
4. Trepano, Joeg •;••• 2
5. HoLOTHDRiA,Z,im.=Fis-
tularia, Lam 23
Species.
6. Mulleria, Jceg.  2
7. Bohadschia, Jirg’  5
8. Cuvieria, Peron  2
9. Psolus, Oken  3
10. Pentacta, Goldf. =
Cucumaria, Cuv  9
11. Minyas, Cav  1
CO*
ORDER II—ECHINIDES,7 Lamarck.
The Echinides are popularly known by the name of sea-
urchins or sea-hedgehogs, given to them from their she s
being covered with moveable prickles like the skin of those
duadrupeds ; “ Horret capillis ut marinus aspens Echinus ;
but when the prickles have fallen olf, the shells are more
commonly called sea-eggs, partly from a conformity in the
figure between the objects compared, and more so from a
similarity in their calcareous composition and textue.
From their forms, certain genera have been also called
turbans, diadems, mermaids’ skulls or hearts, or fany-
ctones ; a nomenclature more pleasing to us than the Gree '
compounds of science, and not more poetical than useful,
since it aptly conveys a portraiture of those varieties in
which nature has, with her usual sportiveness, moulded
these productions. It is from this variety ^at a genera
description of the shell becomes impossible ; and to form a
correct idea of its beautiful and complicated mechanism, it
is neces ary to select one as a type or standard for compa¬
rison and further description. For this purpose we shall
take the shell of the common Echinus (E. esculentus).
The shell is of a globular figure, with a flattened base,
formed often conformable plates, alternately b™ad “nd nar-
row and ten annectant ones dissimilar in character. A
"rr^^^rSTwbenee
m0Uu .1 ' mKo fir si series of plates is called area: by Lm-
Body more or less elongated ;
than the superior, and disposed in a deternu
tudinal rows.
scribed. The firet series of plates U called
■ and those by which they are joined together,
Xh are all n^ro Jand of the" same size, he named the
     ' ~ . j d • . n IQ ^ -4nn. des Sc. Nat. n. s. vii. p. 2/2.
. . „9- 3 Anal, of Organized Beings, p. l».
1 Fam. Nat. du Regne Anim. p. 529. Pans, 182j. 4 Man'g;Actinol. Supp. p. 650. Lamarck’s Amm. sons Vert. tom.
1 of .H the
ii. ; and the British species will be figiwed and described
7 Synonymes: Echinida; Ecbinina; Echmidam.
1004 ZOOPHYTES.
Echinoder- ambulacra, from a resemblance his rich fancy traced in succession of genera, approaches the margin, which in F v
. nm .them to the walks between the parterres of a garden laid some it occupies; the vent being subjected in its position 5?'
out after the olden fashion. The arece are thickly studded to the like variations, and drawing with these, alterations of
with tubercles of different sizes; and when more narrowly equal extent in the other exterior apertures. Nor in shape
examined, it will be seen that each area is divided down and armature does the mouth vary less. It is circular in
the middle, by a zigzag line, into two equal halves, com- the true Echinus, and armed within with a most complex
posed of numerous small pentagons set in cross rows, and apparatus of calcareous jaws, arches, and teeth, consistinir
dove-tailed into each other with the most perfect adapta- of twenty-five separate pieces; while other genera, nearly
tion, the projecting angle of one series being fitted into the allied, present the strange contrast of having no trace of
concave angles of the other. Their tubercles support the these parts, being wholly toothless, with the outer aperture
spines, which move on a pearly globular pivot that sinks transformed into a narrow transverse labiated slit. To fill
into a corresponding cup in the base of the spine, and up the interval between these extremes, there are genera
where they are retained by the soft epidermis or skin that which have an oral apparatus less complicated than that of
covers the entire shell in its fresh condition. The spines the Echinus; for in natural orders or families there are no
are calcareous, columnar, very often large in proportion to abrupt transitions in structural organization. Amid all
the shell; but with these primary spines smaller ones of their varieties there reigns an evident connection and
three kinds are numerously intermixed, viz. one of the harmony, indicating a design or plan after which they have
same form, differing only in size ; another slender as a been called into existence ; and in contemplating that
hair, but dilated into a club at each end ; and another on unity of purpose, and the beauty and intricacy of the work-
a flexible stalk supporting three moveable prongs placed manship bestowed on the individuals created to fulfil that
in a triangle, not very unlike the trident of Neptune, purpose, we endow them with our superior intelligence, and
These Muller mistook for parasitical polypes; and we still give utterance to their evidence of the existence and attri-
find them in many systems forming the genus Pedicellaria butes of the Deity.
among these animals. Their function is unknown ; for From the differences just indicated in the structure of
Monro’s conjecture that they supply the place of the or- the mouth, we naturally and correctly infer that there
gans of the senses in the more perfect animals, is a very will be a corresponding diversity of the food on which
loose one, and improbable.1 The ambulacra are joined to the Echinides subsist. The jawless Spatangi burrow in
the areae by a plain or even suture, and instead of being tu- the sand, and, swallowing the earth around them, extract
herded, they are perforated from top to bottom with holes, a hard nutriment from the decayed animal and vegetable
always disposed aftera regular pattern, which probably varies matter intermixed; but the Echini live amid rocks near
in every species. These holes give exit to numerous fleshy low water, trace their crevices, and there seek the small
tubular pedicles, whose apex forms a circular testaceous crustaceous and testaceous Mollusca, whose shells they are
shield, serrulated round the rim, concave and perforated in enabled to break by the power and hardness of their teeth,
the centre, and formed of six distinct pieces, united by a plain Cavolini indeed asserts that the Echini live upon sea-weed;
elevated suture. If we now examine the top of the shell, but the testimony of Dr Monro to the contrary is equally po-
we find it occupied by a small circular tuberculated plate, sitive, and more consistent with the anatomical structure,
with a hole in its centre (the vent), and the plate surround- That great anatomist tells us that they prey upon living
ed by five triangular scales, and five less ones of a lunate Buccini, “as I had found particles of shells in their alimen-
figure placed exterior to and between them. Ihe trian- tary canal;” and they seize and secure their prey by means
gular scales, called the ovarial by Mr Gray, are each of of the suctorial tubes which garnish the ambulacra. “ I
them perforated with a hole leading to the ovaries, and they therefore directed the fishermen to bring me, along with
stand opposite the large arece, into an emargination of the Echini, some living Buccina; to which, as I had supposed
which the point of the triangle dips, while the lunate they would do, they attached themselves so effectually,
scales, the interovarial pieces of Mr Gray, embrace the that when I lifted the Echinus out of the water, I found
points of the small arece and the ambulacra, and are like- it could support w ith ease a Buccinum which weighed
wise perforated with a hole scarcely visible to the unaided nearly a quarter of a pound.”3 “ The Echinidans,” says Mr
eye, and the use of which is quite unknown. “ One of the Kirby, “ whose station appears to be often near the shore,
ovarial plates is considerably larger than the rest, convex upon submerged ledges of rocks, feed upon whatever ani-
externally, and perforated like a sieve with numerous mi- mal they can seize. We have seen that they sometimes
nute foramina, and internally thick and rugose. This plate turn upon their back and sides, as well as move horizon-
is somewhat similar, both in form and perhaps in use, to tally. This enables them more readily to secure their
the orbicular spot on the back of the Stellerida, called cor- food, with the aid of the numerous suckers in the vicinity
pus spongiosum by Spix.”2 of their mouth, which, when once they are fixed, never
This description of the crust or shell of the Echinides, it let go their hold till the animal is brought w ithin the
will be remembered, is in a great degree specifical, and will action of their powerful jaws. Lamarck thinks they do
not apply universally even to the globose species, from which not masticate, but only lacerate their food; but as two
it is especially drawn ; and it must less accurately apply to faces of each of their pyramidal organs answer those of the
those which are greatly depressed, or oval, or heart-shaped, two adjoining ones, and these faces are finely and trans-
or cranial, or which rise up in the form of a conical penta- versely furrowed, this looks like masticating surfaces. Bose,
gon. In all these the ambulacra are often only half of the who appears to have seen them take their food, says it
typical number, and often only partial in their extent; consists principally of young shell-fish and small crusta-
while the arece become coalescent, amalgamating more or ceous animals. As the latter are very alert in their mo-
less completely, with a consequent loss in the distinctness tions, it is difficult for the sea-urchins to lay hold of them;
of their radiation. In many of these, also, the oral aper- but when once one of these animals suffers itself to be
ture loses its central position, and gradually, through a touched by one or two of the tentacles of its enemy, it is
1 It has been recently stated, that the animal uses them as grapnels to attach itself to sea-weeds. Our native species covers itself, when
residing bet«etn tide marks, with fragments of sea-weeds, evidently as a means of concealment ; and we believe they are held on the shell
by means of these organs, which are a sort of self-acting forceps.
2 Gray in Annals of Philosophy, n. s. x. p. 425. On the structure of the shell, see also Grant’s Outl. of Comp, Anatomy, p, 18-21.
3 The Struct, and Physiol, of l ishes, p. 71.
ZOOPHYTES.
1005
won seized by a great number of others, and immediately
carried towards the mouth, the apparatus of which develop-
ng itself, soon reduces it to a pulp.”1
The intestinal canal which this food has to traverse is,
like that of the Fistulides, long, cylindrical, and tortuous,
with a vent separate from the mouth. There is no chylo-
poetic viscus; but Blainville deems to be hepatic some
glandular spots which he has detected in the parietes of
that portion which may be regarded as stomach.2 The
intestine is fringed throughout with a mesentery, on the
under edge of which Monro found two vessels without
valves, nearly equal in size and parallel to each other,
which he injected with quicksilver, and from them filled a
beautiful net-work of vessels, not only on the intestines, but
dispersed on fine membranes, which tie the intestine to the
inner side of the shell. “ I could not however,” he conti¬
nues, “ observe that these two vessels communicated with
each other directly, nor by the medium of any organ like
to our heart; nor could I observe in the living animal any
beating organ like to the heart; yet near to the anus, and
connected to the rectum, which is the place of the heart
in many other worms, I found a small organ, which seems
to be hollow. It appears to be highly probable that one of
these vessels is the principal artery or aorta, and the other
analogous to our vena c^tva; and that they communicate by
invisible branches, and circulate the blood by the muscular
action of their coats, without the intervention of a heart,
nearly in the way the vessels in fishes carry the blood from
the gills back to their heart.”3 Blainville however, with a
full knowledge of Monro’s opinions, and of subsequent dis¬
coveries, aided too by his own dissections, acknowledges
that he cannot tell which vessels are arterial and which
venous, and thinks it very possible that there is no such
distinction in animals so low in organization as the Echi-
nides, the vessels being at one and the same time both
arteries and veins.11 How the blood circulates is therefore
a subject of conjecture; but we know more precisely the
manner in which it is aerated. Lying along the inner sur¬
face of each of the ambulacra, there is a branchial leaf or
doubled membrane, “ not unlike the processes or subdivi¬
sions of the gills of a skate,” and having a direct communi¬
cation with the external tubular suckers, already described
as pullulating from the ambulacral pores. I he water suck¬
ed in by these tubes gains access within the shell by two of
the pores (for there is a pair to each sucker), and by their
divergence is carried into the opposite folds of the bran¬
chiae. Here one portion of the sea-water is supposed to
be exuded into the general cavity of the shell, between its
inner covering and the intestine; while another portion is
again collected, by anastomosing vessels, into five large
ducts, that terminate, each by two branches, in large sacs
or receptacles over the sockets of the teeth, communi¬
cating with each other; and from these the liquor passes
down the sockets of the teeth, and is discharged into the
sea, on each side of the tooth, between the socket ot the
tooth and beginning of the oesophagus.5 Such is the course
of the fluid as described by Monro; but later anatomists
maintain that the current has in fact exactly the reverse
direction ; and they inform us that the sea-water which tills
the interior cavity is introduced through certain membra¬
nous tubes, arranged in ten small groups round t ie ora
aperture in the base of the shell. Be the fact as it may,
there remains a provision of aqueducts most curious y con¬
trived for conducting the medium of respiration an assi
milation through the body; and very probably the current
is propelled and directed in its way by the action of vibra-Echinoder-
tile cilia, which, in these animals, as in most others, clothe mata.
all the serous surfaces of the internal viscera, keeping the
fluid in contact with them in perpetual change and renewal,
and not allowing it to stagnate even on the outer shell.6
The ovary or roe occupies much space within the shell,
being very large in proportion to the animal and its other
viscera. It is divided into five or four lobes, disposed radi¬
antly, each lobe having a distinct exterior aperture, as well
as a communication with each other. The apertures are
placed round the anal when this is central, but otherwise
their relationship is not so regular and constant. It is pro¬
bable the ova, after their extrusion, undergo no change
analogous to a metamorphosis.7 We have examined the
young of Echinus esculentus when it did not exceed one-
eighth of an inch in diameter, and then it had the form
and armature of adultness; but the prickles were toothed
along their sides, and the forcipated organs appeared to
have only two prongs. The pieces of which the shell was
built were few in number, and the spines round its base
were most developed, but the globular form was as perfect
as when full grown. It is enlarged in its growth, partly by
the deposition of new matter on the edges of the pentagons
of which the arese are constructed, and partly by the for¬
mation of additional pieces intercalated among the others.
These new pentagons are formed principally near the dorsal
summit, where the connection between the areae and ambu¬
lacra remains loosest. “ If, carrying the examination still
farther, we remove the spines, we shall then observe that
amongst the oviducal and interoviducal plates, and the inter-
ambulacral plates that bear spines, there are some less fully
developed, irregular in form, wanting even the mammellae and
the spines, and taking their place among the mammellated
plates only in proportion as they gradually attain to a larger
size. The new plates are at first very small, and may be
compared to points of ossification, which at first grow simul¬
taneously in all directions, though their lower side completes
its formation sooner than the upper, and the upper side is
sometimes yet incomplete, even when an incipient mam-
mella is observable in the middle of it. In the region oi
the body where this increase takes place, the membrane
which unites all the plates, and spreads itself over their
surface, forming an articular capsule about the base of the
spines, is softer and more spongy than it is in the inferior
part, where the plates are consolidated and immoveable.
It is in fact this spongy mass that deposits the calcareous
matter of which the plates are composed; and the spines
shoot out in the centre almost in the same manner as the
horns of a stag. They do not become moveable until they
have attained a certain stage of development; and there
is a period in their growth after which their size does not
increase. Those however which drop off accidentally are
replaced by others, formed, as those had been, by the tume¬
faction of the membrane which covers the plates. We may
always observe, in a single specimen of the Cidaris, all the
gradations of increase, from that of the plates which have
completed their growth, and bear spines several inches long,
down to the smallest points of ossification of the plates yet
unfurnished with spines. These facts I have ascertained
by examining several individual specimens, which exhibit¬
ed all the intermediate stages of development through
which the pieces in question must pass; and indeed, when
we have no direct means of observing the growth of an
animal in one individual, the only resource left us is to
compare a great number of individuals, representing a
2 31<in. d'Actinologie, p. 72.
3 The Struct, and Phys. of Fishes, p. 67.
Bridgew. Treatise, i. p. 210. 2 v- • - 5 Monro>s struct, and Phys. of Fishes, p. 69.
* Man. O’Actinologie, P. 76 Ehrenberg says that the prickles of Echinus saxatilis are covered with these aha.
« See Sharpey in Cyclop, of Anat. and Fhys.i.p.W- Etireno g ) j .w
Ann. des Sc. Nat. n. s. iv. p. 304. Wmaohrodites, hut M. Edwards and Dr Peters are said to have discovered .at
^ It has been usually believed that the Ecb.nides were ^rtnaphrodUes,
they are of separate sexes. Ann, and Mag, of ]S at. Hist, v . •
1006
ZOOPHYTES.
Echinoder-complete series of all the stages through which the species
. , to which they belong has to pass before their growth is
completed. The only difference between this process
and the direct observation of any development is, that in
the one case we observe in one and the same individual
that succession of changes which, in the other, we trace
through a series, as complete as possible, of several indivi¬
duals. Such is the course that I have taken with respect
to the Echinodermata. The young Echini have a small
number of plates in each of their vertical series; they ap¬
pear to be slowly increased in size by the deposition of
calcareous matter at their circumference, until those which
surround the mouth have completed their growth, and are
entirely consolidated. The superior plates continuing to
grow, increase, from the top downwards, the periphery of
the body, which remains depressed so long as the inferior
are the only plates consolidated; but in proportion as a
greater number of plates becomes immoveable, and as there
is formed, in the upper region, a greater number of plates
reaching down to the circumference of the spheroid, the
testa becomes rounded, and finally assumes a spherical
form. It is to this cause that we are to ascribe the diffe¬
rences of contour exhibited by the Echini at different ages.
In some species there are found individuals presenting even
a pyramidal shape, and this takes place when there is still
formed a great number of plates subsequently to the con¬
solidation of those occupying the greater diameter of the
animal’s body. These facts sufficiently explain the gradual
growth of beings which approximate more or less nearly to
the spherical form ; and shew how carefully we should guard
against the introduction of nominal species in consequence
of a mere difference of form resulting from age only.
“ 11 would be interesting to trace the development of
these animals ab ovo. But no naturalist has yet observed
the state of the Echini on their first issuing from the egg.
As to the spines, it is evident, especially in the Cidarites,
that those surrounding the mouth are the first that attain
their full growth, while the largest are those in the upper
tier of the disc; and those which have not yet completed
their growth are found around the oviducal plates on the
outside. The correctness of these observations will be de¬
monstrated by comparing the differences of development
exhibited in this region by the spines that stand nearest to
each other. We should be mistaken however as to the
growth of the Echinodermata, did we think that there is a
generic connection between the plates, on account of their
forming vertical series from the mouth to the summit of
the disc. It has been already remarked, that the plates of
each space are alternately a little more elevated than each
other; but no attention has been paid to the manner in
which the plates of all the spaces succeed each other in
the same Echinus; and yet, if we consider it closely, we
shall see that the new plates are developed in spiral lines,
passing without interruption from one series to another,
through all the spaces from the circumference of the mouth
to the dorsal summit, so that those which rest on each other
in a vertical line do not make their appearance in immediate
succession. It appears to me well worthy of remark, that
in these animals, holding so low a rank among organized
beings, we should find the succession of the solid parts
composing the integument so strikingly analogous to the
arrangement of the leaves around the stems of plants; an
arrangement the law's of which have been recently disco¬
vered by M. Schimper, and explained, so far as regards the
Conifera, in a memoir of M. Braun on the arrangement of
the scales of their cones.
“ The small plates surrounding the mouth, and thn^F.v
around the anus, are arranged in a peculiar manner Thp
are easily moved, and thus facilitate the deglutition of
food, and the voiding of the excrements. In general the ^
testa of the Echini is not so immoveable as one who had
not observed them in a fresh state might be led to suppose
All the plates forming the upper part of the disc are often
set m motion; sometimes they sink, sometimes they rise
and, in the oblong species, the longitudinal diameter is often
extended beyond its ordinary length.”1
The Echinides are in general littoral animals. The
species with a thin brittle shell, covered with small hairs
like bristles, as the Spatangi, burrow in the sand, covering
themselves up by the aid of their spines ; but those with a
stronger prickly crust hide themselves in rocky places
Looking at their rotund limbless forms, we might imagine
that they must constantly be fixed to one spot, or, if move-
able, that, from the difficulty in bringing members so nume¬
rous and opposite to co-operate, or from hesitation in what
tract to move, seeing that they are all alike and look to all
sides, still a perpetual sedentariness would be their choice.
But it is not so, and their motions are neither less regu-
lated nor slower than those of the majority of avertebrated
animals. They usually advance on their flat basis, but
when an individual chooses, it can move forward by turning
on itself like the wheel of a coach. From the nature of
their localities, they are much exposed to bruises, and worse
foes in the shape of fish and worm. The latter they
repel by their spinous panoply, which they can erect and
stiffen, presenting a thousand spears on every side, and no
point unguarded ;2 the bruises they bear with impunity,
and it must be a wound only short of total disorganization
from which they cannot recover. Monro has even seen
the pieces of a broken shell walk off in different directions.
By what organs the Echinides exercise their locomotive
powers has been disputed. Most authors assign this duty
to the spines of the arese and the ambulacral suckers con¬
jointly. Baster tells us, that the latter are the principal
organs ;3 and, according to Blumenbach, they are the only
ones,4 the prickles being merely organs of offence and de¬
fence. Now, says M. Agassiz, this is a very erroneous
opinion,—vox et praeterea nihil,—for ii owes its birth and
continuance to a mere verbal influence, the term ambulacra
being first translated into alleys or walks, and then the
organs which grow in them were subsequently supposed to
be the walkers. Without questioning this very question¬
able transition, we know that Agassiz is wrong in denying
the tentacula their pedestrious function. “ How, in fact,”
he asks, “ could these small tentacula, with all their soft¬
ness of texture, situated, as they generally are, in that part
of the body which is never brought into contact with the
ground when the animal moves, and overhung by calcare¬
ous solid spines ; how, I ask, could those flexible tubes be
used as organs of motion ? It is an undeniable fact, and I
have often observed it myself, that it is with their spines the
Echini move themselves, seize their prey, and bring it to their
mouths, by turning the rays of their lower edge in different
directions. Our own observations, on the contrary, have
satisfied us that the common Echinus moves from place to
place solely by the aid of the tentacular suckers; the spines,
as Mr Couch correctly states, acting as levers or crutches.
Agassiz exaggerates the littleness and weakness of the
suckers: in the common Echinus, whose spines are not
above half an inch in length, the suckers can be extended
one inch and a half, so as greatly to overreach the spines;
and they can at the same time be rendered firm and rigid
1 Agassiz in Annals of Nat. Hist. i. p. 40-42.
* The following epigram of Martial (xiii. 86) is very descriptive
Iste licet digitos testudine pungat acuta,
■* o i • -•. Cortice deposito mollis echinus erit.
Opusc. Subs. i. m. p. 113-4. Also Fleming, British Animals, p. 476. « Jntrod. to Nat. Hist, trans. p. 267.
’ Annals of Nat. Hist. i. 36
JIUSI
10(l,.by distention, from water, and the contraction of their own Wasps of Aristophanes, the old dicast, who is the hero ofEchinoder-
inata-. muscular parietes. The spines are moved principally, we the piece, repeats a fable respecting an urchin, who, when mata~
think, by means of the exterior irritable skin which covers his shell had been cracked by a woman, summoned witnesses v "^
the shell and envelopes their bases ; but when these spines to prove the assault. He is interrupted by the remark,
are verv large, the tubercle to which they are articulated that it would have been much wiser for the creature to buy
is perforated for the transmission of muscular fibres from a bandage. Ennius, in his Phagetica, mentions “ dulces
within, and which appear to be inserted into their roots by echini,” and “ calvaria pinguia,” the latter evidently a spe-
a coronet of fibres.1 The number of spines and suckers,— cies of Spatangus, which, we also know from Aristopha-
and let it be remembered that there are several muscles to nes, was considered a very dainty morsel. The Echinus is
every spine and every sucker,—on a single individual, is several times mentioned in Horace as good eating. The
indeed wonderful. A specimen of Echinus esculentus, of shells, cleaned and bleached, are pretty ornaments, with
moderate size, will have at least 160 primary prickles on which finical idlers dress up their moss or summer houses,
iatl
ZOOPHYTES.
1007
each of the large, and 80 on each of the small areae; that
is, 1200 in all; but reckoning the lesser bristles, there will
not be fewer than 3000: and there cannot be less than
100 suctorial tubes in each ambulacrum, making the num¬
ber of exterior appendages in this creature 4000. We join
in the conclusion of Baster : “ Quod si jam musculorum, ad
aculeorum et proboscidum motum necessariorum copiam
and naturalists their museums. Some fossil species are
called fairy-stones, their spines elves’ spurs; and with
these names were once associated, as w7e learn from Sir
Thomas Browne, suitable and terrible apprehensions, as
well as medicinal virtues ; “ common opinion commendeth
them for the stone, but are most practically used against
films in horses’ eyes.”4 Once only has an Echinus been
animo concipiamus, Omnipotentem, quse haec animalia crea- truly beneficial to our race. Some species of the genus
vit, sapientiam attoniti et venerabundi adoremus, necesse
est.”2
The seas of warm and tropical countries are the most
productive in Echinides; but the living species are few com-
’ ■’ which are found principally in the
Cidaris, we may observe, have very large prickles. The
heathen children of the island of Rarotonga, in the South
Seas, converted to Christianity by English missionaries,,
were in want of pencils with which they might be taught
to write on slates; for these “ they went into the sea, and
pared with the fossil, ^ r-..j - - —    “ „ , . , .
chalk and oolite formations, in such abundance, and in so procured a number of the Echinus, or sea-egg, which is
fine a state of preservation, that they are common and fa- armed with twenty or thirty spines. These they burnt
vourite objects in collections. Desmoulins has, in the fol- slightly to render them soft, that they might not scratch ;
lowing table, which, although incomplete, is interesting, and with these flakes of stone for a slate, and the spine ot
exhibited the proportions which the extinct bear to the the sea-egg for a pencil, they wrote exceedingly well; and
still existing species.
Clypeastre.
.Total No. 13  of which are living G
Scutella 35
Fibularia 17
Cassidula -    5
Galerites Id
Pyrine  7
21
9
0
1
0
6
hundreds of them took down the principal portions of every
discourse they heard.”5
We now proceed to give an analysis of a few of the modern me¬
thods of classification proposed for the Echinides. Linnaeus, keep-
ing his eye fixed on the recent species only, of which he knew no
more than seventeen, reduced them all under one genus, believing,
probably, that all previous attempts were premature; for he could
scarcely regard the differences on which certain groups were pre-
Echinometra  6   ^ viously grounded, as unimportant, or uninfluential over the habits
Diadema 14   7 0f the animals. Muller did no more than give a name to the
Cidarites 28
Echinone'e  2
Echinolampe 28
Nucleolite 22   4
Collyrite 11
Ananchyte H
Spatangus 57
The direct uses of the Echinides to man are few and ^   
trivial. As its name indicates, the Echinus escv.lentus is The system 0f Lamarck is exhibited in the following table:
0
. 0
18s
Linnsean sections, which were two, founded on the central or ec¬
centric position of the anus ;6 and the Linnsean simplicity was
praised and followed until the views of Cuvier, and the system of
Lamarck, freed us from the thraldom of the great Swede, and ge¬
nerated a new spirit, too little regardless, perhaps, of authority,
and too prompt to invent and promulgate novel plans, which have
had however one good result, in bringing before us prominently
and distinctly, structural peculiarities which were previously hid
disregarded amid the vagueness of the Linnaean generalities.
eaten in some parts of the south of Europe ; Pennant says,
“ by the poor in many parts of England, and by the better
sort abroad.” They are in season in spring, when the ova
are most developed, and nearly fill the shell, ihey are te-
corded as among the favourite dishes of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans. “ They w'ere dressed with vinegar, honied w ine or
mead, parsley, and mint; and esteemed to agree with the
stomach. They are the first dish in the famous supper of
Lentullus, when he was made Flamen Martialis, priest of
Mars. By some of the concomitant dishes, they seeme
designed as a whet for the second course, to the boly Pe^'
sonages, priests, and vestals invited on the occasion. pi-
charmus describes them as used likewise at the marriage
feast of Hebe: “ Thither came crabs and urchins, unable to
swim in the sea, but travelling only on the ground. In t ic
1. The vent below the margin, in the lower surface, or in
THE MARGIN.
* The mouth hencatJi, always central.
Scutella, J
Clypeaster, > Ambulacra contracted.
Fibularia, )
Echinonius, 1 Ambulacra complete.
Galentes, j , , ,. , .,
* * The mouth beneath, not central, but approaching to the
margin.
Ananchites. Spatangus.
2. The vent above the margin, and consequently dorsal.
* The vent dorsal, but approaching to the margin.
Cassidulus. Nucleolites. , , „ ,
** The vent dorsal and vertical; the shell regular.
Echinus. Cidarites.?   
     , . • c Fchinus or. record is that noticed by Mr Gray, “ nearly an inch and half
1 See Kirby’s Bridgew. Treatise,y>. 207. The largest spine o ' , . _
in circumference, and more than eight inches long. 1 a ’ than jq 000 pieces in the shell of the Echinus esculentus, >vi ou
2 Opusc. Subs. i. iii. p. 113. Professor Grant says, ‘ there ar® and „varia^ piates, or the very minute calcareous pieces disposed
counting the complicated dental apparatus of the raout), or le r P „ Qllt/- 0f Comp. Anat. p. 20. , • \ nr f \T„f
irregularly on the coriaceous membranearound thejraUnd the^ ^ somewhat simnar description, by Mr Taylor, in the Mag. of - U
3 Ann. des Sc. Nat. n. s. v. p. 234.
History, iii. p. 277.
Vulgar Errors, p. 71.
5 Williams’s Missionary Enterprises, p. 409.
Syst. Nat. p. 1102 and 1104.
6 Echinus.—“ * Regulares: ano vertical!. ^/b^J^eTMrPalkimWsTraSafiom3' Org^Remains, p. 119.
1 Hist. Nat. des Anim. sans Vert. ni. p. 6. \\ e have used iur
1008
ZOOPHYTES.
Echinoder- Of Mr J. E. Gray’s arrangement, published in 1825, we can
mata. only give a bare outline, remarking that it is the only attempt
V'—-' which has been made to classify the Echinides after the views of
Macleay. We have then, first, the
Typical Group—Body globular; mouth central, below ; jaws
conical, projectile, with Jive acute teeth; anus vertical, dorsal; ambula¬
cra complete, forming bands extending from the mouth to the anus.
Family I. Cidarid^e ; of which the genera are, 1. Cidaris ; 2.
Diadema; 3. Astropyga.
Family II. Echinid^: : the genera, 4. Echinus; 5. Echino-
metra.
Annectant Group—Body not globular, variously shaped; jaws
not projecting ; anus lateral or below; anus and mouth covered with
imbricate irregular scales.
Family III. Scutellidje: the genera, 1. Echinanthus; 2. La-
gana; 3. Echinarachnius; 4. Echinodiscus; 5. Echinocya-
mus; 6. Cassidulus.
Family IV. Galeritid;e; with the genera, 7. Galerites; 8.
Oiscoidea; 9. Echinanaus; 10. Echinocorys; 11. Echinolam-
pas; 12. Echinobrissus.
Family Y. Spatangiile; embracing, 13. Spatangus ; 14. Echi
nocardium; 15. Brissus; 16. Ova.1
Blainville’s views of this order are shewn in the following sy¬
nopsis of his method.
'Subterminal  5 Spatangus.
i Ananchites.
j'Nucleoli tes.
Echinoclypeus.
Echinolampas.
Cassidula.
Fibularia.
Subcentral -j I Echinoneus.
' Echinocyamus.
Lagan us.
- Clypeaster.
Echinodiscus.
[Scutella.
Central; anus  I infra lateral Galerites.
f Echinometra.
(central ^ Echinus.
C Cidaris.2
f Toothless.
Armed with teeth.
From the researches of M. Desmoulins, it appears that Blain-
ville would now unite Echinoclypeus with Nucleolites, Laganus
with Clypeaster, Echinodiscus with Scutella ; and Echinocya¬
mus is probably not distinct from Fibularia, for although they
stand in the table in different sections or families, Desmoulins
finds that Fibularia ought to be transferred to that which is dis¬
tinguished by its possession of teeth; and this also is the case with
Cassidula.3
The arrangement of Agassiz may be thus epitomized.
ORDER ECHINIDES.
FAMILY I. SPATANGID2E.
Body more or less elongated, gibbous; mouth with jaws, sub-
anterior ; anus posterior, sometimes on the upper surface of the
disc, sometimes on the lower; shell thin, granulous, the spines
setaceous, often compressed and unequal. The anterior ambula¬
crum is generally less developed than the rest. They form round
the mouth grooves, where the holes are larger, and whence pro¬
ceed ramified tentacula, like those of the Holothuriae. There are
only four oviducal plates, which are very distinct.
1. Disaster, Spatangus, Ananchytes, etNucleolites, Auct.
2. Holaster, Ag. = Spatangus, Auct.
3. Ananchytes, Lam. = Echinocorys, Breyn. Galea et Galeo-
la, Klein.
4. Hemipneustes, Ag. — Spatangus, Auct. p , i
5. Micraster, Ag. = Spatangus, Auct. Brissoides. iLchino
Amygdala et Ovum, V. Ph. ' Nats
6. Spatangus, Klein. = Echinospatangus, Breyn. V'"V
7- AMPHiDETUs,4g\ = Echinocardium, V. Ph. Spatangus, a B!
8. Brissus, Klein. = Echinobrissus, Breyn. Nuces, V. Ph. sDa'
tangus, d. Blainv. ’ ‘ P •
9. SciHZASTERjHg. = Echinocardium, V.Ph. Spatangus, 5.5/
FAMILY II CLYPEASTRES.
Body generally circular; mouth central or sub-central; anus
more or less approximated to the periphery, found sometimes at
the upper, sometimes at the under surface of the disc.
1. Catopygus, Ag. = Nucleolites, Auct.
2. Pygaster, Ag. = Nucleolites et Clypeus, Auct.
3. Galerites, Lam. = Conulus, Klein. Echinochonus, Blainv.
4. Discoidea, Klein. = Conulus, Leslie. Echinodiscites, V. Pk
Galerites, Lam.
5. Clypeus, Klein. = Echinoclypeus, Blainv. Echinosimus, V.
Ph. Galerites, Lam. N ucleolites, de Fr.
6. Nucleolites, Law. = Echinobrissus, Breyn. Clvpeus, Phil,
7. Cassidulus, Lam. — Nucleolites, Auct.
8. Fibularia,Larra. = Echinocyamus, Leske. Echinoneus, Goldf.
9. Echinoneus, V. Phels. = Echinanaus, Koen. Echinoconus
Breyn.
10. Echinolampas, Gray. = Echinanthus, Leske. Clypeaster et
Galerites, Lam.
11. Clypeaster, Law. = Echinanthus, Breyn. Echinodorum
et Echinodiscus, V. Ph. Lagana, Gray.
12. Echinarachnius, Lejfte. = Arachnoides, Kl. Echinodiscus
et Lagana, Bl. Scutella, Lam.
12. Scutella, Law. = Echinodiscus, Leske. Mellita et Rotula,
Kl. Lagana, Bl.
FAMILY III. CIDARITES.
Shell spheroidal, with two kinds of spines, the first larger oa
large mammillae, the others smaller, surrounding the base of the
first, or covering the ambulacra. Mouth central, inferior ; anus
opposite, on the summit, opening between the small lamime sur¬
rounding it, opposite and sometimes very near to the posterior
ambulacral space.
1. Cidaris, Lam.
2. Diadema, Gray, part of Cidarites, Lam. '
3. Astropyga, Gray, Cidarites, Lam.
4. Salenta, Gray,  Cidarites, Auct.
5. Echinometra, Breyn Echinus, Auct.
6. Arbacia, Gray, Echinus, Auct.
7- Echinus, LinnA
ORDER III.—STELLERIDES,s Lamarck.
The “ seas have stars,” sings Du Bartas; and if chal¬
lenged, he would probably have appealed to the members
of this family in proof that his fancy was in this instance
not more licentious than his verses.6 But it is only some
species which have felt the skyey influence over their
forms ; for even certain of the Asterias are merely penta¬
gonal, and some square, while the total forms of other ge¬
nera rather imitate a wheel in their facies, with spokes ra¬
diating from a central navel: and others again have sought
no impress from any object in the heavens or in earth ; for
though they have been called “ lily-shaped animals,” yet
is the semblance but postulatory, and he must have a more
3 Ibid. sup. p. 654.
I A,nnals°f x. p. 424-431. 2 Man. £Actinoloaie, p. 200.
Ann. des Sc. Nat. n. s. vii. p. 257, &c. ; and Annals of Nat. Hist. i. p. 300, &c.
6 ^ynonymcs . Asterina; Asteroida ; Stellerida ; Stelleridea ; Stelleridans ; Les AsUiries ; Astero’ides.
tifieis'spd Is . ^>e Steliis Marinis thus: Non coelo tantura, sed et mari suae stellae sunt, opera quidem unius Dei ar-
t tied ‘‘ ThtiTl 1 ,In h'? “ inquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors,” Sir Thomas Browne has a chapter en-
verv mipstinnahldani^?a s. 0 * ®rK are m their kind in the Sea;’ which, he rightly says, “although received as a principle, is a tenet
ahoiindinrr in tli ’ an(. W1 ^ .mJ ° restraint.^ After some good remarks, the chapter concludes with the following passage, and such passages
and ahr dl f*?'8 6 physic.an, render them delectable reading. “Lastly, by this assertion we restrain the hand of God,
the snecie* nf iLin ^ 3 ° L 'f CTfat,0J} ’ mabing the creatures of one element but an acting over those of another, and conjoyning, as it were,
althnnoTi in that i at d'stonee in the intellect of God ; and though united in the chaos, had several seeds of their creation. For
rnmmnr,- tP . • ‘®tinguljht mass, all things seemed one ; yet separated by the voice of God, according to their species, they came out inin-
therp as it rvpro le leS],)a” lrrt atlve semmahties, as well as divided places ; and so, although we say the world was made in six days, yet was
tnre 'and a sevpraf ^every®De> t^at ls> a distinct creation of distinguisht creatures ; a distinction in time of creatures divided in na¬
ture, ana a seteral approbation and survey in every one. ” Book iii. chap. 24
ZOOPHYTES.
1009
assimilating fancy than our own who perceives it in these permit of its frequent eversion and extrusion in the shape Echinoder-
objects. Amid this diversity of forms, we may neverthe- of bladdery lobes. It has no intestine, excepting in the
less remark, that aline drawn so as to connect the species of Crinoid family, where there is a distinct vent opening on —
the rays together would give a circular outline to the body, the inferior surface, near the mouth.1 But the nutritive
which is very rarely protuberant, and never globular. It parts of the food pass from the stomach either into saccu-
consists of two parts, the disc and the rays ; the latter lated reservoirs, as in Ophiura, or through narrow vascular
either continuous and homologous, or dissimilar and articu- passages into large complicated caecal appendages, which
lated to the other by the medium of peculiar scales. There lie along the floor of the rays, two in each ray,Bconsisting
is always a distinct dorsal and ventral surface ; the former of a regular series of pectinations or overlying lobules, and
in general vividly coloured, and covered with spongeous having no unapt resemblance to some beautiful compound
tubercles or scales, whose office is defensive ; the latter leaf or fern. Such organs we find in the Asterias ; and as
colourless, and furnished with the organs oflocomotion and it circulates through them, the chyle is largely subjected
of touch. Ihe colour resides in the mucous coat that oc- to the influence of the oxygenating medium, and prepared
copies the place of the epidermis of higher animals, but the for its assimilation. Such at least is the opinion of Tiede-
scales and tubercles are essentially parts of the thick creto- mann ; but it may be necessary to mention, that Cuvier,
coriaceous skin which gives figure and consistency to the Blainville, and Meckel regard these caeca as secreting or-
whole. In this skin there is deposited a considerable pro- gans, analogous to the biliary organs of many invertebrate
portion of carbonate of lime, with some phosphate of the animals, with which, says Dr Sharpey, it must be allowed
same earth, sometimes in the form of scales, either imbri- they agree in several respects. In the living animal they
are bathed, or rather float, in sea-water, which is presum¬
ed to be introduced within the body by means of numerous
small tubular filaments that rise up on the back between
the tubercles, penetrating the soft parts of the skin; and it
is ascertained that the water, after a time, may be expelled
cated or scattered; more usually in grains or short pieces,
so joined as to make a sort of knotted thread, that, by its
divarications and anastomoses, is woven into a netted frame¬
work, the interstices of which are filled up by the mucous
tissue. On the calcareous frame-work the spines and tu¬
bercles are placed, and these vary in size and structure through the same conduits,2 for there is no doubt of the
according to their position. When dorsal, they are mostly animal’s ability both to fill and empty its body. The ani-
short and obtuse, unordered and immoveable, excepting in mal, observes Dr Sharpey, slowly distends itself with the
so far as their degree of erection and relative position may water, “ and again, but at no stated interval, gives out a
be effected by the more or less turgid condition of the portion of it: this is obvious from the fact, that the same
body ; but on the sides of the rays, while their size is animal may be seen distended at one time and flaccid at
greater, they are also dressed in regular lines, and appear another. Naturalists are generally of opinion that the wa-
to be capable of being moved backwards or forwards by pe- ter enters and issues by the respiratory tubes (or dorsal
culiar muscles. In the Asterias, the under surface of the
rays is deeply furrowed from their origin to their extre¬
mity; and the furrow, analogous to the ambulacra of the
Echinides, is occupied with two or four series of tentacular
feet, which are also guarded by moveable spines, different
in their structure, however, either from those of the back
or sides, and forming a protective hedge on each side.
There is nothing similar in the Ophiuridae or Crinoidea,
filaments), and indeed no other orifices have been disco¬
vered ; we must however freely own that we have never been
able actually to observe its passage through these tubes.”
In the Ophiuridae, in whom these tubes are not to be found,
there must certainly be other entrances for the fluid; and
these are probably certain orifices situated on the ventral
surface, near the base of the rays. The water, however
introduced, is there for the purpose of respiration, the prin-
whose rays are not grooved, nor possess tentacular feet, but cipal seat of which seems to be the peritoneal membiane.
consist of a succession of similar pieces soldered to each “ Spread over the viscera and the parietes of their containing
other, so that they resemble the vertebral column of some cavity, and lining the respiratory tubes, it presents a great
slender animal, or. more exactly, from the squamous nature extent of surface, continually in contact with the surround-
of the pieces, the tail of a lizard; and, like that tail, they ing medium ; and we have found that a beautiful provision
are tapered and flexible to a certain extent, and equally exists for maintaining currents of water along the mem-
brittle. It is interesting to remark, that this ray, appa- brane, and thus effecting that constant renovation of the
rentiy very dissimilar from that of the Asterias, really finds fluid in contact with its surface which is required in the
in that genus its type and original; for the roof, if we may respiratory process. These currents are produced by means
so speak, of the ambulacral groove, is made up of a series of cilia.” « Ciliary currents take place also on the external
of pieces catenated exactly like those of the Ophiurae, with surface of the body, which probably partakes in the process
compressed processes arching up from each side after the of respiration; \ve ave moreover o serve emw in e
manner of ribs, between whose intervals the tentacular feet tubular feet, and on the internal surface of the stomach and
are extended. cseca: ,n thls last Sltuatl0n they are Probably subservient
The mouth is situated in the centre of the ventral sur- to digestion. 3 limit
face It is a circular orifice, with a membranous lip, capa- Themodeofprogression oftheStellendesisprobablylimit-
ble of great dilatation, but bounded by spinigerous and ed to a sort of creeping ;*
tuberculated angular projections, formed by the conver- language of most authorswouldinduce us to believe,
gence of the bases of die rays, that may be useful in cap- have we been able to the varas
taring and bruising the prey. A short oesophagus leads to that any one or wo ray ‘ P haonens to point
the stomach, a large membranous sac occupying the centre has heen insinua cc, made the leader for
or nave of the body; and though connected to the parietes toward the object or Pla«are vm d°f-
by several ligaments, yet suffidently loose and dilatable to the time being. The oigans of locomotion are very dit
1 Gray in Annals of Philosophy, n. s. xii. p. 392. , fiiaments are inwardly clothed with vibratile cilia,
* Reaumur in Linck. de Stell.Mar., App. p. 93. Ehrenberg has f ® ;'3ntSforhe"a" J see in it globules altogether
and he believes there is within them a circulation, not of water, but o “ ‘ » 3 ’ev in Cyclop, of Anat. and Phys. ii. p. 40.
like the blood-globules of other animals. Ann. dcs Sc. Aat. n. s. iv. p. . „ T , . SUSpend themselves obliquely in the
- Boster (*«, S*. i. p. 119) .od Bo.c .;,.lb„ the “ diS ihTioJw When Ih./wish lo descend, the, ceas’e thL =o-
water, and with their rays produce slight undulations, which s th Blainville has seen certain species of Asterias swim swiftly,
tions, and immediately sink to the bottom.” Hist. JSat. des i e/s, • p.
Mart. d’Actino/oyie, p. 241. 6 M
VOL. XXI.
1010
ZOOPHYTES.
Echinoder-ferent in the different families. The rays of the Asterias,
nmta. already mentioned, are broadly furrowed underneath,
t}ie furrows planted with soft tentacula, which are flexible
in every direction, being moved by circular and longitudi¬
nal muscular fibres, which enter copiously into their struc¬
ture. In form, these tentacula may be compared to a retort
or florence-flask with a long neck: the swollen vesicular bulb
is placed within the cavity of the rays on each side of their
mesial vertebrated column, while the neck issues from be¬
tween the interstices of its side-pieces, and protrudes out¬
wardly. They are hollow, being filled to a certain degree
with water, introduced by a set of ramified internal vessels,
which constitute an aquiferous system, similar to that which
we found in the Holothurioe.1 When the star-fish wishes to
elongate any particular tentaculum, it contracts the vesicu¬
lar bulb, and the water in it is consequently forced up the
neck, distending and stretching it, and putting it in a fit
condition to be applied against the ground or any object
within reach. To this the extremity is affixed by the ac¬
tion of the muscular fibres, some contracting the centre of
the point into a dimple, and others firmly appressing the
edge, so as to give it the form as well as the virtues of a
sucker. Now, by shortening the tubes which have been
so fixed, the body is drawn towards their insertion ; and by
a curious succession of these actions, the creature goes
whither it has willed.2 It is impossible to follow the exact
succession of the retraction and elongation of the suckers,
nor indeed do they seem to be called into action after any
regulated plan. Some are employed as stilts merely, on
which the body is raised up buoyant in the circumfluent
medium, while others are pulled in and stretched out to act
as legs or feet; and others again seem to be used, more
especially for the time, as seekers and feelers, that no prey
may pass unawares, while the main object in view is ap¬
parently only a change of place. But the Ophiurae pro¬
gress by a very different apparatus. “ The diverging rays
are firm and hard, have few spines, and no channel with
suckers; they are used by the animal as legs, and as they
are regularly placed, it can move in any direction that suits
it. To go towards any particular spot, it uses the two rays
that are nearest to it, and another that is most distant from
it; the two first curve at their extremity, so as to form two
hooks, which, being applied to the sand, drag the body for¬
wards, while the posterior is curved vertically, and performs
the part of a repelling lever.”3 This action of the rays is
assisted by some subsidiary organs, which have been hither¬
to unnoticed. On examining the rays of a living Ophiura,
we have noticed that every one of their articulations is fur¬
nished with a pair of strong sharp moveable claws, similar
to those of many insects and crustaceans ; and from their
position under the lateral spines on the ventral aspect, not
more conveniently placed for taking hold of a plain surface
than their form has an obvious adaptation to that act. They
are unquestionably organs belonging to locomotion, which
seems to us to be further aided by some filamentous tenta¬
cula that issue from pores in the ventral disc, whose func¬
tion, though mainly respiratory, may be in a secondary de¬
gree locomotive, by serving as stayers to support the body,
and elevate it above the unevenness and friction of the
surface traversed.
The nature and number of the senses bestowed upon
■ the Stellerides is a subject of doubtful inquiry ; for the or¬
gans of these senses are either so far removed from ours Ediinode
that analogy offers no clue to their function, or the resem- mata
blance is so forced and superficial that it may possibly lead
us to very erroneous conclusions. There is no reason to
doubt that the species are richly endowed with the sense of
touch ; but it is doubtful whether any part or organ pos¬
sesses that modification of the senses on whose discrimina¬
tion the luxury of taste depends. It is equally doubtful
to us, whether any have visual organs, for that blindness is
the lot of most of them is granted. Ehrenberg, however,
when examining living specimens of the Asterias violacea,
discovered a point of a bright red colour, precisely defined,
and situated beneath and towards the apices of each of the
five rays. This point he believes to be ocular; and to
give scope and direction to the organ, the star-fish curls
back the tip of the ray when in the act of progression.
Ehrenberg succeeded in tracing some nervous filaments to
the apex of the rays, where he also found a small ganglion
placed near the eye. In front of this ganglion, towards
the mouth, there are some jointed nervous fibres; but
similar articulations are not visible in the nerves situat¬
ed near the mouth itself, whence this illustrious naturalist
concludes, that the noblest part of the nervous system is
found towards the apices of the rays.4 But what office are
we to assign to those anomalous organs, which, in the
Echinides, Monro has compared to insect antennae ? They
exist in the Stellerides, principally on the sides of the rays
hid among the spines. “ Each consists of a soft stem,
bearing at its summit, or (when branched) at the point of
each branch, a sort of forceps of calcareous matter, not un¬
like a crab’s claw, except that the two blades are equal and
similar. When the point of a fine needle is introduced be¬
tween the blades, which are for the most part open in a
fresh and vigorous specimen, they instantly close, and grasp
it with considerable force. The particular use of these
prehensile organs is not apparent; their stem, it maybe
remarked, is quite impervious.”5
The Stellerides are oviparous, the ovary forming a grape¬
like cluster, placed near the origin and at the sides of the
casca, for there are two ovaries to each ray. The eggs lie
numerously imbedded in a colourless jelly, covered with a
thin pellicle, and are at first equally colourless ; but during
their progress to complete development, they pass through
a great variety of colours, and when fully formed, assume
invariably the distinguishing shade observed in the adult
animal.6 They escape from the body by certain apertures,
observable at the side of the mouth in the angle of separa¬
tion of the rays; and the greater number of the species are
said to deposit their spawn in spring. When excluded
from the egg, they are, according to Saars, very unlike the
parent, for they are then binary, and do not become radi¬
ated until after some weeks.7
The Stellerides are richly endowed with the wonderful
property of reproducing parts which they may have lost
from accident. In summer, it is asserted by Bose, the parts
pullulate and attain their original size in the course of a
few days, while in winter some months are required for
such production; but this is one of those loose assertions
in which the works of Bose abound. The time really re¬
quired is much longer, though not exactly ascertained, and
seasons probably influence it in no great degree. One ray
lopt off, or two or three, all grow again ; nay, a sipgle arm,
1 For a description of this apparatus, and of the interior anatomy in general, see the excellent article “ Echinodernrata,” in the Cyclop- of
Anat. and Physiology.
2 Reaumur in lib. s. cit. p. 92. Linck argues logically against this pedestrious property of the tentacula, which he wishes us to believe are
solely organs of touch and taste, little tonguelets. De Stell. Mar. pp. 13, 14. But logic may prove other things than facts.
3 Kirby’s Bridgew. Treatise, i. p. 202. The passage is translated from Reaumur. See Linck. sup. cit. p. 95.
4 Ann. des‘Sc. Nat., n. s. iv. p. 306. Mr E. Forbes also considers these scarlet dots to be ocular (see his paper on the “ Asteriadae of the
Irish Sea,” in the eighth volume of the Wernerian Memoirs') ; but Dujardin retains his doubts,
5 Sharpey in Cyclop, of Anat. and Phys. ii. p. 32. 6 Knox on the Nat. Hist, of the Salmon, p. 52.
‘ Ann. des Sc. Nat. n. s. vii. p. 248; and Lam. Anim. sans Vert. 2de edit. iii. p. 257.
*
ZOOPHYTES.
1011
■hinon
instai
provided any portion of the disc remain attached, will live and who therefore wreaks his vengeance on them by throw- Echmoder-
and become cinquefoil, as it was previously to its miserable ing them in heaps on the dunghill. In some places the com-. J
mutilation. There was a time when these phenomena gave mon species have even been used as manure ; but other-
rise to expressions of the greatest wonder,1 and to specula- wise man has not found theip adapted to his use, for the me-
tions more curious than edifying, touching the possible di- dicinal virtues which the early physicians and astrologers
visibility of the soul, and other metaphysical subtilties. We ascribed to them, have disappeared in their modern gene-
may safely from them infer, that the susceptibility to pain rations.
in these animals must be very considerably, and almost in- To remedy that looseness of description which of necessity be-
finitelv less than in animals of a more perfect kind, since longs to such general views as we have been giving, we proceed
finitely, less uian ^  ] to notice the systematic arrangements ot the order, whose only
common characters seem to be, as Linck long ago observed, a de¬
pressed multifid coriaceous body, with rays or lobes radiating from
the margin of the disc, and an inferior central mouth. Linck’s
primary division of it into the fissured and entire (fissae et inte-
grse) indicates his perception of those differences in structure on
which modern naturalists found their principal families ; but his
want of knowledge of system becomes very obvious in the subor¬
dinate details, when he exclusively drew the character of his se¬
condary divisions from the number of the rays; a character of such
trivial importance as not even to be specifical, but subversive ot
every natural affinity. Linnaeus arranged the whole under one
in these the pain consequent on such injuries, and the sym¬
pathetic fever which follows as its necessary result, would
be sufficient to kill them, independently of any other cause.2
In relation to habitat, the Stellerides may be enumerated
among the denizens of the shores of every sea, living ge¬
nerally at a depth of several fathoms, where they congre¬
gate in incalculable herds. There are beds of some species
on our own coasts, that spread over an extent of some
hundreds of yards, lying, in some spots, one upon another,
to the thickness of a foot or more. The species are more
to the thickness ot a too or more, xue — genus (T8terias); wh ch Lamarck divided into four, whose essen
various, if not more nroduct.ve, in tropical tom m empe- *£»£*£*, bo shortly stated thuss
rate or cold seas. They prey upon small testaceous mol-
lusca which they catch with their suctorial feet, and retain
opposite the mouth by means of the .spinous projections
surrounding it. We have found in their stomachs various
univalved species, but the conchifera are supposed to be
more especial favourites. M. Eudes Deslongchamps has
observed five or six individuals of Asterias rubens clustered
together in the form of a ball, the nucleus of which was a
Mactra. The star-fish had retroverted their vesicular
tial characters may be shortly stated thus:
* Rays articulate, distinct from the disc.
1. Comatula. Rays of two kinds, dorsal and marginal; tne
dorsal simple, short and filiform; the marginal larger, and
pinnate. j u
2. EtiRYAUE. Rays marginal, alike, dichotomous, and mucn
divided.
3. Ophiura. Rays alike, marginal and simple.
* * Rays continuous with the disc.
4. Asterias. Rays furrowed underneath, and tentaculiferous.
Cuvier adopted the genera of Lamarck, but, with a proper re-
« 1 i .  I 1 4V.-V. o f 1110 Vi Cllhstlf 11 tPn
from between the valves of the shell , but it is impossiDie viously bestowed on the same groups by our celebrated
to believe, with this naturalist, that the Asterias had sepa- count^ mfU1 lyjr Leach. The genus Ophiura, Cuvier lurther pro-
" s ^!e of nr its
^rbeTonV^tlo.oyelspec^y^hi.fli.id
has no other than imaginary existence. There can be the tails of lizards. in these “ the central disc has, m
doubt that the valves had partially opened, from the feeble- interval of the raySi on the side where the mouth is, tour
ness or death of the molluscum, before it was set upon by holeSj which penetrate into the interior, and serve pejhaps tor
the starfish3 We have seen similar clusters around a respiration, or, according to others, for tie r. a star
“or whelk Deslongchamp* opinion is indeed on y %
worth notice as coinciding with that ot the fisiermen, , “eferredt() theZoopl,yteSj Cuvier properly placed near theComa-
regardless of the certain inefficiency of the agent, ^e fo 1 ^ adoptin,; the views 0f Miller implicitly in regard to its struc-
Ofo n!!ile0^rr:r“.:LTtffnvchtn ^ Which the EneHnu, may he conai-
1 distant date, being found in AAl»lle,pm^«e^^ dered ""'f b/ lll.eir
■ and versified by Oppian, and hence copied without question deredjnte^ j, extraordinarv structure, but also by their being
bv every subseciuent popular compiler. amonff the earliest inhabitants of this planet. tnce e- , '
' ' b, Stpllprides are greedily preyed upon by this world, that whilst immense tracks of rocks are
skin, render them distasteful or formidabk, know notmng covered^in a recen ^ pl d ^th Rs mouth upwards
perfection. Dr Knox lias attempted to prove that thejva nated^ other at’Bhort h„ervaU The eoU,™ is
^““^Sr^cu^when^ ca^=d ,™a
•‘Wi
dupe of his art, by clinging to and clustering round Ins baits, t^    
, 11. p
394.
      9 Edin. Netc Phil. Journ., ...
1 Reaumur, Hi*. *. A I»»t1 Blum«b~:h'. W~;e/ Xa,- ^ t0
*.'StflZSZiSSA*.”4"p'
that the er.inot form, ««> -.in the deepest abyses of the wor.d of waters. Br^. Tnat.
7 Kirby is led by his speculations to believe
ii. p. 15.
1012
ZOOPHYTES.
Echinoder- to a rudiment of the column of the Pentacrinite with its unHlini-v ^
mata. arms. Besides the mouth, there is an anal onpnimr nn tlio ^ . a^, ^raw our 111081 Permanent characteristics of the species 8 Tn? !,•
' V tral surface, situated ou eSenc™ the ■' 'Z f °St ‘“'P"- 1,e f1” tdl8 » a diEcUou
exactness of the companson b^TcoratSS JtT ST*,ta"’ ^ c?ns®4uently a sexual union; and indeed
and Pentacrinus, iirs, detected bv the acuteness of Mi er and ’l’”'. ‘''"“"l “at .n the month of May in Greenland tbe, "
Gray, lias been singularly illustrated by theXcorerr of VTr I V r ,n |,a‘rs un,l<id face l"
v. Thompson, that Pentacrinus is only Comatula in its first sta<Te lated6” star‘like; sllPerior surfacetesse-
o existence; the head, in the progress^f developmentse^arSg smS^es^ ^ Wlth tW° ^ ofl^ lami- »ear.
om the stem, to become, instead of a fixed pedicellated Boriform Genus C^elastfr « TVff c u
zoophyte, a nomade star-fish in the bosom of the ocean In • ^E’ -g— Differs from the preceding genus in
fixed condition the Crinoidea appear to have had a considerable those?f thtSniCaan7atirwhosSCribed ^ arranged like
Sotf Se'ZUre °f aVn^^Se'byt^iS
Still moving, yet immoved from their sted; a° , ^ y™1,?,,01 .e Ccinoidea, while its form is that of the true
for the peculiar mode of the articulation of their vertebrae nroba- r1 ^ 18 °n 7, °ne f°®sil Species*
bly afforded them a great degree of mobility, with considerable double serfes of kmln^’h^7” ‘ ,7 Pentag°na1’ border^ by
security against dislocation.^ They grow erect, the stem being Gon, w fW™ T g S^U rPln<?S; °Pper surface nodose
security against dislocation.2 They grow erect, the stem being
in general sufficiently stiff and strong to support the heavier head;
but when it is not so, as in the Umbellularia, we find that, iust
under what has been called the pelvis, “ a hollow bladder-like mem¬
brane” embraces the upper part of the stalk for about two or three
inches, and, performing the office of a buoy or swimming-bladder,
keeps the head m an upright position.3
In 1826, Mr J. E. Gray proposed to divide the Stellerides into
three families. I. Asteriadaz, distinguished by having tentacular
reel in the ambulacra of its rays, and by a calcareous wart (the coroas
spongiosum of Spix) on the dorsal surface of the disc: II. Ophiuridce,
with solid articulated rays, and no wart: III. Encrinidw, co-equal
with the Crmoidea of Miller, and distinguished from the two pre¬
ceding by possessing a double aperture to the digestive organs, a
peculiarity which he was the first to discover in Comatula '
Genus Ophibxastkk, 4,.^ Bod'y sU^r^ieiy teTeiated
on its whole surface ; inferior grooves very narrow ”
elnnlTn0111^LLA’ “ iod-y star-llke> ™}'8 tuberculous and
elongated , epidermis porous in the intervals.”
Genus U11 as ter, Ag—“ Body star-like, entirely covered with
more or less prominent spines.’’
Genus Asterina, Nardo—“ Body pentagonal, covered with
surface deep^ 68 ? l'PI>er SurtaCe inflated ? grooves of the under
Genus Palmipes, Linck—Body pentagonal, very flat, thin, but
membranaceous at its edges. , uuv
Genus Calcita, Body pentagonal, slit at the angles ; te¬
guments granular. a
FAMILY II. OPHIURlD-ffi.
Our limits will permit us to give no more than a mere outline The n n- -a . nxuxiiuxr..
of Blainville’s arrangement, which rests on the same basis but are lhstlnguished by the central part of their
is more elaborately framed, and embraces the crinoidean genera mn7 r?lin^ f 'I8tinot and flattened disc, to which are annexed
which the industry and sagacity of Miller had enabled him t?detect Hieir surface a,,d eveil.raillifiod rays, with no grooves on
and define. 111011 surface. I hey are spimgrade animals, and have no true
Body
f Stellated.
Earn. i. Asterides,
Disciform.
Earn. ii. Asterophides,
_ Cupuliform.
.Fam.iii. Aste'rencrinides,
f Free,
I
L Fixed,
f Oreillers.
| Palmasteries.
-[ Platasteries.
I Pentasteries.
l^Solaste'ries.5
f Ophiura.
( Euryale.
Comatula.
' Encrinus.
Ph^ffocrinus.
Pentacrinus.
Apiocrinites.
Poteriocrinites.
J Cyathocrinites.
Actinocrinites.
Khodocrinites.
Platycrinites.
Caryocrinites.
Marsupites.
Pentremites.6
1 1 1 • 1 ^ 6 aim xiciv t? no true
suckers by which to walk, their progression being effected (and
with great faci hty) by means of five long flexible jointed processes,
placed at regular distances round the bodv, and furnished with
spines on the sides and membranous tentacula. These processes
are very different from the arms of the true star-fishes, which are
lobes of the animal’s body; whereas the arms of the Ophiuridse
are superadded to the body, and there is no excavation in them for
any prolongation of the digestive organs. The stomach is a sac
with one aperture, its wails externally covered with vibratile cilia
Ihe ovaries are not branched ; they are placed near the arms, and
open by orifices near the mouth, between the origin of the arms
1 heir investing membrane is also ciliated ; but on the rest of the
body and arms no cilia exist, hence we may conclude there is no
separate respiratory system.”—Edward Forbes.
Genus Ophiura, 'Lam—Disc much flattened ; rays simple
squamose, bearing very short spines adhering to the ravs.
. Genus Ophiocoma, Ag—This genus differs from the preceding
in having very long moveable spines attached to the rays.
FAMILY III CRINOIDEA.
buGonoftltf f n0li 1"5r0,d“ce<, :i"-v esse"tial novelty in the distil, great external relembhojift”tht^dito
on of this family, but, to compensate the brevity of our notices a distinct family, characterized bv the presence of tiro senarai.
of a'ocb 7h emptS’ We f,nd il T '» *f*» '“a definitions orifices to the intestinal canal, alih, uolfyer^ear to each Sher
of such of his genera as contain recent species, at length. These orifices are by no means’easiiy ItinguisES amonglhe^
family I—asteriad^e. w uch surround them, especially in the fossil species. The great-
The Asteriadae answer to the limits which I amarck naai,ynQ 1 u • °! Ii8 species ar,e pediculate, i. e. carried on a foot-stalk
the dorsal surface me l^Z^ W«“ trt7o posSr rays a pSe, The Id “/.T’8' "omever with two simple
calcareous wart, convex externallv and srooved likp-i mndr ' ’ P u ie edSes rays are pinnate ; mouth central, sunk ;
which has therefore been denom\na?ef 7"'?" thf ,oouth and the b°rder of the disc, obliquely pro-
bercle. It covers a singnlar” named tTetr'™!‘by ^ ^ ^ ^ fi“d ™d
mlttlrTqlhetf fimThf^wtTtlm StaSrieton' "tZ tuK,', ^ di““™red «>he body of the Coma,
accuracy of his description of its structure has howevpr t lit ’ 1 ,en- tye anllnal 18 kePt in a small quantity of sea-water, is
cohneeted with giperationt and *«£«££. £ SSfil^a^heS
^ Sharpey in Cyclop, sup, cit. p. 32. g -p • • * /'/ ■
i Annals of Philosophy, n. s. xii. p. 394. The Rev Air GniTlino-’0'1 m lu' Clt' P' 3 Ellis’s Corallines, p. 97*
unnecessary. See ]\lag. Nat. Hist. viii. p. 70. ’ “ » s arrangement so much resembles Mr Gray’s, that its quotation here is
e Man. d'Aclinologie, p. 235. ' j ,n ,. llles® are sub'Sent,Ia or sections only of the genus Asterias.
8 Man. d’Actinologie, p. 237. 10 SUbject 18 ably stated by Dr Sharpey in Cyclop, of Anat. and Physiology.
9 Man. d'Actinologie, p. 236.
'[iis calepV'
£>'
■
ZOOPHYTES.
1013
made the still more singular discovery that the Pentacrinite of the
Irish seas, which he first described under the name of Pentacrinus
Eurupccus, and which has since been made the type of the genus
phytocrinus by De Blainville and Agassiz, is a Comatula in its
earlier states of development. When not more than one eiahth
of an inch in height, this Pentacrinus “ resembles a little club,
fixed by an expanded basis, and giving exit at its apex to a few
pellucid tentacula; no other part of the solid fabric is observable,
but an indistinct appearance of the perisome. In those specimens
which have made a little more progress, together with the elonga¬
tion of the pedicle or stem, its joints begin to make their appear¬
ance; the body acquires a larger size and brownish tint, from a
grosser food; the tentacula of the mouth protrude in a greater
degree, and move slowly in various directions. In others still
more advanced, the joints of the stem become quite obvious, from
their opacity and white colour, and the base of the future arms, as
well as the auxiliary side-arms, are rendered palpable. The arms
from this period lengthen apace from their bifurcation, and have
superadded to them a double range of transparent jointed tenta¬
cula; so that the animal begins to put on a more perfect appear¬
ance, and now for some time merely acquires a somewhat greater
size and an extension of its arms, which,' although they solidify
from their origin upwards, remain pellucid and thick at their apices,
where elongation, evolution, and the secretion of calcareous matter
isgradually going on.” Subsequently the arms again bifurcate at
or near to their extremities, a second and even a third time, and
having reached the full development entitling it to the name of
a Pentacrinite, the head appears to be cast off, that it may become
a nomade Comatula. How just then the conclusion of Mr
Thompson from these interesting discoveries. “ From these ob¬
servations connected with the growth of this animal, and by which
it appears to present itself at various stages of its progress under
considerable diversity of form, naturalists may learn to avoid the
unnecessary multiplication of the genera and species of the Cri-
convex dorsally and concave below, supported in a few ge- Acalephse.
nera by an internal cartilaginous plate ; the rim, as well as-'v'-'—'
the oral aperture, mostly fringed with tentacular ciliated
appendages: 2. The Acalephes properly speaking, whose
body is irregular and multiform, bilateral, and sometimes
orbicular, with brachial or filamentous appendages, and ci¬
liary fringes.
ORDER I.—MEDUSIDES.3
Among animate creations, there is none that excels the
Medusides in beauty and ornament, or in the variety and
eccentricity of their forms;
there’s not a gem
Wrought by man’s art to be compared to them ;
Soft, brilliant, tender, through the wave they glow',
And make the moonbeam brighter where they flow.
When floating in the ocean, most of them appear like crys¬
tal bowls of the purest transparency, veined and patterned
with the most brilliant colours, and their rims ornamented
with fringes, furbelows, and arbuscles of such delicacy and
intricacy of workmanship, that even the most experienced
in nature’s works marvel how it is that such textures, too
frail to bear the lightest handling, are kept entire amid the
restless element of their nativity.4 We have often watched
with intense interest some of the least complicated, and, it
may be, some of the least beautiful, as they floated by us
on the surface of a summer’s sea. On a hasty examination,
they may seem to be supported there by their own inhe-
  „ . „ . -. rent buoyancy, and to be carried onwards with the tide or
noidea, by giving undue weight and consu oration to c laraeters c rren1. which they have apparently no pow'er to resist; but
oricinatine in the progressive evolution of individual species, and ’ ... j y ’
whih are consequently of a transitory and delusive nature.’- watched a while, they are seen alternately to contract and
Genus Comaster, Hg- This genus has the same organization expand the whole periphery of the body at regularly-timed
intervals, in a manner which Dr Roget has aptly illustrated
by comparing it to the opening and shutting of a parasol,
and with a quickness and force which we have felt to be
considerable. By these motions the Medusides can swim
against a gentle current, though they more commonly yield
themselves up to its persuasive violence ; and when alarmed
they can also sink deep into the bosom of the sea with con -
as the preceding, but the arms are ramifiedinstead of being simply
furcate.
Genus Ganymeda, Gray—The genus which Mr Gray describ¬
ed under this name in the Proc. Zool. Soc. of London for 1834, p.
15, he has ascertained to be founded on what is evidently only the
basal joint of the body of the English species of Comatuhi.—An¬
nuls and Mag. of Nat. Hist. i. p. 158.
Genus Pentacrinus, Miller—Pedicle more or less pentagonal.
small laminae. The only living species {P. caput Medusa) is a na
live of the Carribbean seas.
III.—ACALEPHdE.2—SEA-JELLIES.
bearing at intervals simple verticillate rays ; rays of the disc fixed giderable velocity, so as frequently to elude an attempt to
to the pedicle, each by a cuneiform piece, followed by two simple secure them. They can stop and maintain themselves at
pieces, after which the rays bifurcate, and at a little art er t lh- a depth, and rise again with equal ease to enjoy a nearer
tance divide into two, which then branch out into numerous ap- j y ’ . , 1 T i>‘,’i ,• .
nerKUc^pbinate at their edges. The space between the toe of intercom*, wth hght am air Lamarck's speculation,
the rays, occupied by the visceral cavity, is formed by numerous rendering it necessary to deny to them either nerves or
- ’ -  • ' " . rw , :  muscles, he has persuaded himself that these motions of the
body are entirely mechanical, produced by the influx and
efflux of imponderable fluids, such as electricity, permeating
and flowing through its gelatinous texture ;5 but we are very
sure that he will summarily reject this theory who has once
The Acalephse have been named by Blainville the observed the phenomena, which are certainly in some de-
Arac/modermata, to mark in a stronger manner how re- gree under the control of the animal, and regulated by its
markably they contrast with the Echinodermata in the will and sensations. It seems indeed to be now provei,
structure of the skin, which is a soft serous pellucid cuticle, more especially by the anatomies of Ehrenberg, that they
containing sometimes miliary granules, but always smooth are the effects o tie contrac ion o muscu ar . r(^’’
and even, and as thin as the gossamer’s web. They are ing from near the centre of he body to the circumference,
radiated animals of a gelatinous consistency, with an unarm- running alongside the vein-hke nutritious canals, a d by
ed mouth in the centre of the ventral surface, the entrance others in the rim, which have a circular directi .
into a stomachal cavity without proper parietes, but fur- know also that the Medf^es d0 =
nished with vasculiform canals ramified through the body ; formed after e same p a , V
their respiratory apparatus is ciliary, and their mode of ge- it is m ^is Aguiar and almost always
neration oviparous; they are all nomade and manne^and ine „ .......
move 1
tionsc
constituents of the class are divisible into two orders, viz., a companion lJL "l: i kingdom •
J. The Medusides, witli a body almost always circular, are presumed to represent m the animal hmgdom ,
' See J. V. Thompson's Memclr on the PMocrinu, Europe* Cork, 1827, 4lo, the Edin. A'ew Phil. Journal for 1836 , .ml Mr Edw.rd
Forbes’s History of British Starfishes. _ . i,„^ornlPS - Gelatines ; Jelly-Fish ; Sea-Blubbers,
a Synonymes : Radi ares mollasses ; Orties de merr£'. Anres : Acalepbe. Cyclomorpha ; Medusida.
3 Synonymes : Radiares mollasses ; Orties de mer fibres ; . rae ino er , c’ ]omorp|la ; Medusida.
3 Synonymes: Radiares medusaires : Acalephes simples ; A. . iseop or , c (/es Sciences Nat. n. s. iv. p. 290,
‘ See Kirby’s Bridyew. Treat, i. p. 199. 5 Amm. Vert. n. p. 444, 44b, and 4.- a.
&c.
1014 ZOOPHYTES.
AcJilephse. same fancy may see in them the living models on which our those genera which Peron and Le Sueur named agastric A l
■" v~ umbrellas have been made. The margin is usually fringed from a belief that they had neither mouth nor alimentary'--wf
with tentacular filaments; and in many species we also sacs ; for although this latter statement has been shewn to
observe, placed at wide intervals, a circle of coloured warts, be erroneous, yet the absorption of the aliment appears to
which, from their organization, are evidently organs of im- be through pores. But the bulk of the Medusides love
portance in the animal’s economy. Ehrenberg believes a grosser fare, and there is some slight evidence in fa.
them to be branchial, for connected with each of them he vour of their having a discrimination in the matter- for
has discovered a partial circulation of a fluid analogous to Gaede remarks that he has never found fishes in the sto-
blood; and, what is still more singular, he has detected in mach of Medusa capillata, but often worms; while in that
their near vicinity an organ retractile, within a sheath, and of Medusa aurita there are frequently fishes, rarely worms
containing a mineral crystal, to which he assigns the office The latter species, according to our observation, feeds
of an eye, because it is similar in structure to the eye of more frequently on pelagic Gammari; and minute crusta-
several infusory animalcules, and is more amply provided . cea and entomostraca constitute the principal food of most
with nerves than any organ other than one of sense ought of them. Digestion is extremely rapid. We remember
to be. once observing in the stomachs of Medusa aurita, several
The under surface of the umbrella is sometimes entirely specimens of a Gammarus unknown to us,3 and which we
naked, sometimes furnished with numerous scattered tenta- were anxious to examine : they were living when first seen
cular suckers, as in Porpita and Velella, or with greatly di- and when we left the Medusa in a basin of sea-water for
versified brachial appendages, which depend usually from half an hour, we little dreamed of the disappointment
the lips of the mouth. These are either free from each awaiting our return, for not a trace of the Crustacea was
other and separate to the base, or they coalesce so as to then visible.
form a kind of stalk previous to their ramification into lobes All the species are propagated by ova generated in an-
or filaments, each division having at its extremity pores propriate organs situated generally in the immediate vici-
for the absorption of the thin nutriment on which such nity of the stomach, but very variable in appearance and oe-
species must necessarily subsist. The Medusae with this neral structure. Previously to the deposition of the spawn,
structure resemble a bulbous root with its radical fibres, the ovaries swrell in a very remarkable manner, and the
and were therefore called Rhizostomous by Cuvier.1 The young Medusae, according to Blainville, are cast out through
greater number of the Medusides, however, have a distinct the mouth, sometimes after a certain degree of develop-
mouth, placed always centrally, either sessile or at the end ment in the appendages. In the Medusa aurita, accordin"-
of a species of proboscis more or less prolonged. It has no to Ehrenberg, the ova, previously to their maturation, escape
hard parts, nor teeth, nor jaws, and leads by a very short through the peculiar aperture of the ovarial sac into the
oesophagus into the stomach, consisting frequently of four water, wffiere they are laid hold on by the tentacula and
separate cavities excavated in the gelatinous parenchyma, the two layers of.the brachial appendages, and received
without any peculiar lining. From the stomach proceed nu- into little sacs which are formed on these layers, and which
merous vessels, which all bend to the circumference. Some have a direction from the interior outwards. It is in these
of these vessels are simple and undivided, others ramify di- sacs that the ova are metamorphosed and matured. While
chotomously like veins, and form anastomoses among their in the ovary they have a thin smooth membranous enve-
ultimate divisions. Injections from the stomach pass more lope, are of a roundish figure, and filled with a dark-violet
readily into the simple than into the ramose vessels; but granulous fluid ; but in the foetal sacs they have no shell,
both kinds serve for the conveyance of the digested food, and present themselves under three distinct forms. Some
wffiose unassimilated remains pass from the body through resemble bramble-berries, and their colour is a pale violet;
their extremities, which open by apertures on the rim. The others, also of a pale violet, are disciform, in shape like a
portion intended for nutrition and growth probably trans- miniature Medusa, without arms, and without nutritive
udes in part into the parenchyma, while it flows along the canals ; and the third, which is the most numerous, has a
vessels ; and a part seems to enter a peculiar vessel which cylindrical form, truncated at both ends, and of a yellowish-
runs round the periphery that it may pass into the partial brown tint. The last two are densely covered with cilia,
circulations at the marginal tubercles, and be submitted to and swim freely. The largest among them attain a diame-
the action of the air. It must, however, be admitted that ter equal to the one eighth of a line; and they are about
these tubercles exist in comparatively few species;2 and there one third of this size when they lose their shell. From
can be little doubt that the principal airing of the nutritive being unable to discover male organs in this Medusa, Ehren-
fluids is effected by the action of the circumfluent water on berg has hazarded the conjecture that the smaller ova may
the exterior surface, as w-ell as in the internal cavities and become, as we understand him, males, which remain always
vessels. Fo effect this great purpose the more completely, of a microscopical size, while the females only grow large ;4
we find that the oral and marginal filaments are clothed but the conjecture is a bold one. We are scarcely able to
with vibratile cilia, which drive currents of water over them reconcile these interesting facts with one observed by M.
in determinate directions; and these cilia are said likewise Saars. In a small volume published some years ago, this
to line some of the interior cavities. It is from their action Swedish naturalist described a new genus of Medusides
that portions cut off from the appendages continue to move under the name of Strobila, from its great similitude to a fir
like independent and perfect beings; a circumstance appa- cone ; but he now assures us that the Strobila is the young
rently so demonstrative of their completeness, as to have of M. aurita. In its strobiline state, it is composed of a
given origin to several spurious species. series of circular pieces, with numerous tentacula, and the
ihe Rhizostomes, as we have already mentioned, feed cone is surmounted by a cylindrical shaft: in its develop-
only on fluid matters, and such also is the condition of ment the pieces separate successively into disciform ra-
1 Regne Animal, iii. p. 278. Figures illustrative of the structure are given in the Bridgew. Treatise of Dr Itoget, ii. p. 888-9.
2 W e may here warn the student that he should guard against the too great extension of these general remarks; for the truth is, few species
have been examined anatomically, and even the most general detail will be found to have many individual exceptions.
3 Probably the Oniscus medusarum of O. Fabricius. Faun. Groenl. p. 257.
4 Ann. des Sc. Nat. n. s. iv. p. 297. Rathke apparently borrows his account of the development of the Medusae principally from Ebren-
berg, but he omits their escape into the sea previously to their introduction into the brachial sacs, which is really incredible; and he says that
when lodged in these sacs they have no longer a chorion, as Ehrenberg pretends, and are consequently already young Medusa:. See Bur-
dach’a Traite de Physiologie, tom. iii. p. 67, &c.
:
ZOOPHYTES.
1015
liated fragments, each of which becomes a perfect inch- found to be immense. They were about one fourth of an inch Acalepr.ae.
^■j .^ua^ i asunder. In this proportion, a cubic inch of w7ater must con-'
V The orowth of the Medusides is as rapid as their life ap- tain 64 ; a cubic foot 110,592 ; a cubic fathom 23,887,872 ;
nears to be short and transitory. There are many which and a cubical mile about 23,888,000,000,000,000. I rom
never reach the magnitude of a pin’s head ; and thence soundings made in the situation where these animals were
thev graduate upwards to a size, even in our northern seas, found, it is probable the sea is upwards of a mile in depth ;
f fully tw o feet across the disc, with labial appendages not but whether these substances occupy the whole depth, is
th;in six feet in length. The bulk to which they occa- uncertain. Provided, however, the depth to which they
I .;nn.,llv grow in the Indian Ocean is immense; and were a like extend be but 250 fathoms, the above immense number o
fuo-pness attainable by them in the northern seas, we might one species may occur in a space ot two miles square. t
lend an easy belief to those naturalists who tell us that the may give a little conception of the amount of Medusa? in
^ Kraken was truly a Medusa.2 Mr Telfair saw a Medusa this extent, if we calculate the length of time that would
, ... • i m r» —requisite, with a certain number of persons, for counting
this number. Allowing that one person could count a mil¬
lion in seven davs, which is barely possible, it would have
required that 80,000 persons should have started at the
creation of the world, to complete the enumeration at the
present time.”0
Great numbers, for all of them are not so, as has been
J\runcn wao “ *  - . 1Diri ,
cast on shore in the Bombay territory in 1819, which
must have weighed many tons. “ I went to see it when
the gale had subsided, which was not for three days after its
being cast upon the sand ; but it had already become offen¬
sive, and I could not distinguish any shape. The sea had
thrown it high above the reach of the tide, and I instructed
the fishermen who lived in the immediate neighbourhood
;"rdec y, that if any osseous or cartilaginous part asserted, of the Medusides, are phosphorescent anin^ls
lined it St be preserved; it rotted however en- emitting their lights at irregular intervals; and the flame
' „„d left'no remains. It could not be less than nine generally passes away after a short glow. 1 he large spe-
mmmm
St The Medus’ide:“bound in our seas during the summer — s^oHight^ rising surface, and ^gam
and autumn, and are thrown ashore in heaps after every f the sea.»6 The first kind of light is
protaWe
that the spawn of one 8u“me”Tof “he^ com" and friction when’ a fresh breeze curls the waves, or when an
ing summer1.1 In^ropic^lleas^hey we stfl/moni profuse, as ^sUp = through^memrng^s,
^ 4 ™ r dienS?of the vesse1, M ',ursu,ng 1,er
progress, and expanding for miles over the surface ; nor are v ® ies as we have observed, the luminosity
they weary of speaking of their beaut/ and Jm not be detected issuing from any particular point or
rescent and stinging properties. In the arctic seas, tne _ ^ seeffled that the whole body was impregnated
creatures are equally abundant, furnishing e S* wpj1 the light, which was given out involuntarily, if we
with the material of his growth, and swarming so th^k, w efk . for some exterior irritation was necessary to
of microscopic minuteness, as to communicate them colmir may s^ ^ appearance of it> though the Medusm do not
to the water. After lys description of a b distimruish whether the annoyance proceeds from an an.
transparent species, from 1-20* to 1-30* of an mch m 1 "“*te object. Species which possess the
diameter. Dr Scoresby proceeds to sty, I aftel7“T property are diffused through all seas, and the phenomenon
mined the different qualities of sea-water, and fo F | | l s5 beautiful and interesting in the Hebrides than
substances very abundant in that of an ol>»e-green aolom, s htUe^ ^ ^ ^ .n Australian seass a 1 he phospho-
and also ^^“"he olive-green si was
water.
s fidin. New Phil. Journ. iv. p. 406.
" _ Cl I * t-i O G ** JZ/Cl'lil'* J-TCtc/ J • l
• “ Ti TT 2 See Easter, Opusc. bubs. \. p. -o. ma(Je tQ turn thera to some
in the wav of manure upon arable land. _ rl t . e A,lJcj1 Mratpr.—“ ex Spara fluvio 1 ^
riffith's Cuvier, xn. p. - q” "'fl.T.io hausta a very wonderful fact, when we remember
to have "kept ’a” species'^for six days alive in a basin of fresh water,—e ^ ^ nnu:tn Subs. ii.
in the way of manure upon arable . . - t Tresa willcl,— r— , ..
to have kept a species for six days ahve in a animals in general. Easter, Opusc. Subs. n. p.
how instantaneously poisonous fresh water is . , . , „ 7 n &c
5 Edin. Phil. Journ. ii. p. 12. . See also Thompson’s Zoological Researc tes, P- >
‘ Bdrt. in Mag. of Mat. Hi*>. % '  * ^
so Thompson s toowgiccu " r']v elicited by friction, &c., from
6 Baird in Mag of Nat. Hist ^.P’““-^rtbeMedusides ex toto, maintain,ng thf the light is mere ye ^ ^ ^
7 Some naturalists deny the W^Lermated at the time.
do, maintaining that tne lignt S ^vl-n the Mag. 0fNat.
iralists deny the luminous prop^jr - — * -. the time. This opinion is ably supported by Mr w est o inio/however
some matter or fluid with which the water is impr g view, we refer to the same work, vo . • » ; many fathoms
Hist. iv. p. 505, &c.; and for some 0b«ervaUon8 confirmatory ^ ^ b ia ” sayl thf Rev. Mr Guilding,
appears to us to be untenable, and is apparen y ;P in the more shallow parts of the Carr ’ t| e bottom huge mollus-
depth, where they were beyond disturbance. While sai^ water3, i„ the midst of r*?*’™*"*™^ vii. p. 581. It were easy
an(] looking over the vessel s side when becalme ni t 636^ necer ascertain the species. Mag. ^ an(] in a vesscl of the same
cons or radiate animals emitting the splendou P> had a lutninous Dianea in a ?'ass m b 'uianea but We could obtain no
to quote similar facts, but a more conclusive one » aurita_ The light was readily evoked from the ^ tbe ob.
water we had, at the same f«ne a sroaU apmrne oceeded {Tom something else than the vt at - b .n the gaine work for June
S ^ M^u'in ^ ,0C. ofLondon for danuary IS3i , a ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
'VS 1. ^ to the a-ionof vo= it ~,U»«
s: K —■ * -h“the '”s* '
1016
ZOOPHYTES.
Acalcpli®. the movements of the animal. Macartney saw it increased
v' in the Medusa lucida when he warmed the water. The
light also became more vivid in alcohol; the animals, how¬
ever, quickly perished in it, and their light was extinguish-
ect. Spallanzani remarked the trickling of a viscous fluid
fiom the sui face of Medusae, which had a burning taste,
and produced an itching sensation on the skin. This" li¬
quid, mixed with water or milk, renders them phosphores¬
cent for some hours, particularly when they are warmed
and agitated. Dead animals, whose light was extinguished,
again became phosphorescent by the addition of a quantity
of spring water, and by movement at a heat of 26° to 37°.
Humboldt observed his fingers to shine for some time after
he had touched Medusae: he also saw the light become
stronger when the animals were galvanized. The light of
Medusae to which Macartney applied an electric shock, was
extinguished for an instant, but afterwards appeared more
vividly than previously.’1 In reference to the immediate
cause of the phenomenon, the opinions which have been
divulged are numerous and contradictory : here it must
suffice to give Tiedemann’s, as the most probable. “ Weigh¬
ing well all the circumstances,” says he, “ phosphorescence
would seem to depend on a matter, the product of the
changes of composition accompanying life, and, to all ap¬
pearance, secreted from the mass of humours by particular
organs. I his liquid probably contains phosphorus, or an
analogous combustible substance, which combines with the
oxygen of the air, or of aerated water, at a medium tem¬
perature, and thus produces the disengagement of light,
f he preparation and secretion of this substance are acts of
life, which change, augment, or decrease by the influence
of exteinal stimulants, whose action on the animals modi¬
fies their manifestations of life. But the phosphorescence
itself depends on the composition of the secreted matter,
and cannot be regarded as a vital act, because on certain
occasions it continues for whole days, even after the death of
the animal. - As tor its use, opinions are equally various: but
perhaps we err least when we conjecture it may serve to pro¬
tect those gifted with it from the aggressions of their enemies.
Many Medusides possess likewise a stinging property
sufficiently strong to blister the skin and inflict acute suffer¬
ing.3 Bose describes the consequences thus. When a
venomous Medusa touches the skin, there results a consider¬
able redness, with buttons of the same hue, which have a
little white spot in their centres, attended with a piercing
pain, which, after it has somewhat subsided, may be com^
pared to often-repeated pricks. This lasts generally a half
hour, and may be appeased by the application of linen
steeped in oil, or even in fresh water. The redness will
often re-appear after the lapse of several days, when the
part is exposed to a temperature higher than that of the
atmosphere.4 He imagined that it was occasioned by the
application of numerous microscopical suctorial papillm,
which issue from the surface of the tentacular arms, to
the skin ; but this is disproved by the fact of the dead ani¬
mal being not less vesicatory than the one yet living. It
probably resides, as Dicquemare believed, in some caustic
exudation of the exterior membranes ; but it is not identical
with the phosphorescent secretion, for some vesicating Me¬
dusae are not luminous, and we know from our own ex¬
perience that our native luminous species are not all
endowed with the power of vesication.
by their frequent minuteness and transparency, which remW a ,
them scarcely visible in the water ; by their soft fragility and ten. r_e!)iiiil
dency to dissolution, which prevents them being handled without S~"v'v
injury, and opposes an almost insurmountable' obstacle to their
preservation in museums. From these inherent difficulties the
classification of the Medusides is believed to be still in an itn’per!
feet and artificial state; yet a comparison between its Linnaian"
barrenness, when one small genus embraced all the known species
and its present richness, when many genera are necessary to ex'
hibit all its variety and fulness, affords a pleasing argument in
behalf of the zeal and inquisitiveness of modern naturalists
■Heron and Le Sueur, with a good knowledge of what had been
done by others, and with much new information acquired in their
voyages, were the first to attempt the orderly arrangement of the
Medusides ;5 but it was found to be too artificially constructed
and has not been adopted by subsequent systematists. Lamarck’s
method, which was based on Heron and Le'Sueur’s, has the recom¬
mendation of greater simplicity. It is as follows :
RADIARES MEDCSAIRES.
* One mouth only in the inferior disc of the umbrella.
1. Umbrella without pedicle, or arms, or tentacula.
[a] No lobes or appendages on the margin of the umbrella.
Fudora. Phorcynia.
[6j With lobes or appendages on the margin.
Carybdea.
2. Umbrella without a pedicle, and armless, but furnished with
tentacula.
Equorea.
3. Umbreha without a pedicle, but with arms'3 below, and generally
with tentacula on the margin.
Callirhoe.
4. Umbrella with a pedicle, with or without arms. No tentacula
at the margin.
Orythia.
5. Umbrella with a pedicle, with or without arms : tentacula on
the margin.
Dianea.
* * Several mouths in the inferior disk of the umbrella.
1. Umbrella without pedicle, arms, or tentacula.
Ephyra.
2. Umbrella without a pedicle or arms, but with marginal tenta¬
cula.
Obelia.
3. Umbrella without a pedicle, but furnished with arms under¬
neath. No marginal tentacula.
Cassiopea.
4- Umbrella without a pedicle, but with arms underneath, and
marginal tentacula.
Aurelia.
5. Umbrella having a pedicle and arms, but no marginal tentacula.
Cephea.
G. Umbrella having a pedicle and arms, and marginal tentacula.
Cyanea.7
The following table gives a synoptical view of the system
adopted by Eschscholtz in his work on this order,8 which has a
high reputation, and is founded on much personal observation.
1. M. Discophorse.
Medusae with a large central digestive cavity, and for their only
locomotive organ a gelatinous disc in form of an umbrella,
constituting the greater part of the body.
Section 1 Phanerocarp.®.
The ovaries are visible.
The distinction of the species is difficult, because of the changes
which they suffer in their growth ; and the difficulty is increased
Family 1st. f Cassiopaea.
Rhizostomidae Rhizostoma.
( Cepnea.
Family 2d.
Medusidae....
'Sthenonia.
Medusa.
Cyanea.
Pelagia.
Chrysaora.
Ephyra.
fiedemann s Comp. Physiology, i. p. 259. See also a summary of Spallanzani’s experiments in Griffith’s Cuvier, xii. p. 567.
2 Comp. Physiology, p. 269. ’ E
Hence they were named Urticce marina by the older naturalists, and sea-nettles by the common people. What Aristotle and Pliny
meant by their stinging acalepbes is very doubtful, as is shewn by Kirby in Biidgew. Treatise, p. 402, &c.
o 1 '.l' ^ * eTSc *' 163-4. Also Griffith s Cuvier, xii. p. 568. s Annales du Museum, tom. xiv.
under the name of arms, Lamarck embraces the labial appendages of every kind.
nim. sans J ertebres, ii. p. 491. 8 System der Acalephen. Berlin, 1829, 4to.
1
ZOOPHYTES.
1017
ilepli-
Section II—Cryptocaep^:.
The ovaries are concealed.
f Geryonia.
Family 3cl.
Geryonidae.
J Diansea.
! Linuche.
Family 4th.
I Saphenia.
I Eirene.
tEymnorea.
f Oceania.
Callirhoe.
Thaumantias.
f .Equorea.
Family 5th.
^quoridm.... ] P K1^13-
^ I Lunina.
I Eurybia.
l^Polixena.
Family 6th. J Eudora.
Lerenicidae... (Berenice.
Oceanidae i Tima.
| Cytacis.
| Melicerta.
(Phorcynia.
Blainville divides the class into two very unequal sections, from
the presence or absence of a solid plate of support to the soft ge¬
latinous umbrella or body of the animal,—the Cirrhograd.es having
such a support, and the Pulmogrades being destitute of it; and
they are further distinguished by considerable differences in the
nature of the appendages which garnish the oral surface. The Pul¬
mogrades, by far the most numerous in its constituency, and em¬
bracing the proper Medusides, might be divided into perhaps na¬
tural subsections by the character of their digestive organs ; some
having no mouth or stomach, as has been alleged, and others
having a distinct stomachical cavity, with one or more oral aper¬
tures. But Blainville prefers drawing the distinctive peculiarities
of the families from the form and appendages of the mouth, or
central part of the disc; for he thinks it very doubtful whether
any among them are really unfurnished with a stomach, a fact
which is anomalous in the animal kingdom, and which every sub¬
sequent observation tends to disprove. He gives the following
synopsis of his system, which embraces all the genera of Peron
and Le Sueur, and of Eschscholtz; but he tells us at the same
time that he doubts the existence of several of them, for they
seem to be founded on imperfect figures, perhaps representing
parts only of some mutilated species.
Sub-order I—Puemogrades.
Section i. Simple—Eudore : Ephyre : Phorsynie : Eulymene:
Carybdee : Euryale.
Section ii. Tentaculated—Berenice : Equoree: Mesoneme : Po-
lixene : jEgine : Cunine : Foveolie : Eurybie : Pegasie:
Obelie.
Section iii. Subprohoscidiform.—Oceanie : Aglaure : Melicerte:
Cytacis: Thaumantias : Tima : Campanella.
Section iv. Proboscided Orythie: Geyronie: Saphenie : Dianee:
Linuche: Favonie : Lymnoree: Sthenonie.
Section v. Brachiated and pedunculated.—Ocyroe : Cassiopee : Au-
relie: Melitee : Evagore : Cephee : llhizostorne : Chry-
saore: Pelagic.
Sub-order II.—Cirrhogrades.
The genera are, Velelle : Kataire : Porpite.1
Of these genera our limits do not permit us to give the charac-
rendered doubtful; and we are fain, in order to preserve Acalephae.
distinctness and precision to our definitions of the va- “ v'-'—''
rious classes, to set them aside as anomalous, or annectant,
or osculant groups, which, like corner-stones in a building,
are adapted, by their very irregularity, to cement and gird
the whole together. Most naturalists have believed them
to bear the closest alliances with the Medusides, more par¬
ticularly with the Cirrhogrades; but Blainville deems them
to have superior claims to a connection with the Mollusca.3
A common character can scarcely be assigned to the or¬
der. They are gelatinous, nomade, sometimes globular
and radiated, more usually without any radiation, and de¬
viating widely from familiar objects, so that we might
compare them to the beautiful but misshapen orchideous
and cryptogamous plants which blossom in the shades of
the tropics, rather than to any animals which even the
fancy of the herald-at-arms has yet pictured. Hence we
shall distribute the little we have here to say of them under
the two families which the order embraces.
The first family is named by Blainville Physogrades,
an air-bladder being their principal organ of locomotion.
Its general character is defined to be a regular symmetri¬
cal, bilateral, fleshy, contractile body, often greatly elon¬
gated, constructed with an air-bladder of greater or less
size, which Blainville supposes, in the spirit of a transcen¬
dental anatomist, to be formed by a partial inflation of
the intestinal canal, that has always a mouth and anus dis¬
tinct from each other, and placed at the opposite extremi¬
ties. The respiratory organs, according to the same author,
reside in the lengthened irritable cirri attached to the body,
and with which the ovaries are intermixed. The animals
appear to have the power of secreting air, by which means
the bladder can be filled more or less completely, and their
buoyancy and position regulated according to their instincts.
Whether the air is again absorbed when the floating Aca-
lephes wish to descend, or whether it is ejected by compres¬
sion from certain appropriate orifices, has been disputed.
The latter is the common, and, as we believe, the correct
opinion. A different opinion is however entertained by
Dr Grant; for after a storm of three days endurance, he
found many Velella; cast on the shores of Cornwall, which
should, on our hypothesis, have sunk to the bottom, and thus,
in its stillness, have avoided the wreck which they suffered.4
But a fact which concerns the Velellae alone, cannot be
legitimately applied to the Physales, since the discrepancy
in their structures manifestly prohibits such an application.
With relation to the Physales, Mr Peacock says, “ on com¬
pression, air escapes from the sac by small orifices at each
ters at length. Of their British representatives the number is most extremity.”5 Mr Baird, who had many opportunities of
imperfectly ascertained, and no department of our native zoology makin„ examinations of them, says of the same animals,
has been so greatly neglected. We need not painfully search the u * j ^ r of contracting and dilating their
“ dark unfathomed caves for novelties, so long as the surface of j /-\\ i
  membranous (air) bag at pleasure, and no doubt, by turn-
ming it to the wind, make it act the part of a sail to propel
themselves through the water. ‘ They are very often to
be met with at sea,’ says Sir Hans Sloane ; ‘ and seamen do
affirm that they have very great skill in sailing, and ma¬
naging their bladder or sail with judgment for this purpose,
according to the different winds and courses.’ Upon at¬
tentively examining the narrow or free extremity of the
bladder, a small round aperture is perceptible, surrounded
by a circular zone of fibres, of a beautiful red colour, like
the muscular fibres of the iris of the eye. Out of this small
and exhibit in their organization such a variableness among hole, which is not larger than would be sufficient to admit
themselves, and such a mixture of the elements of more the passage of a very fine bristle, 1 squec~e t te car out oj
than one class, that their true position among animals is the bladder.   
2 Svnonvmes : Les Acalephes hydrostatiques : Radiares anomales ; Acalepha Paecilomorpha.
* . i 1  J 1 T   A >>siATrrt n e tt H
our heaving ocean teems with varieties undescribed and unknown.
Of such as are known, the student will find the fullest account in
Dr Fleming’s History of British Animals ; and of several species
not specified in that excellent work there are notices and figures in
Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, more particularly in the
ninth volume, where Mr Templeton describes the Irish species.
ORDER II—ACALEPHES.2
After the example of Macleay, we restrict the applica¬
tion of this term to some families of Arachnodermata, which,
by their fantastic forms, are estranged from the typical tribes,
1 Manuel d’Acthwlogie, p. 270.
3 Man. d'Actinoloqie, p. 112. a u.o ».c.» ........ —j   . • - . ,, - »T . rr- .
4 Proc. Zool. Sac. Land. iii. pt. i. p. 14. j Ma^ °fNat; ^ “t8-u P --
6 Mag. of Nat. Hist. iv. p. 476. Knowing Mr Baird’s accuracy, we are disposed to receive his statement as correct, but it is opposed by Mr
George Bennett, who states that he could never discover the orifice in question, nor expel air from the bladder without a puncture being
previously made ; and, moreover, that the partial escape of air from the bladder has no influence on the creature s buoyancy, bee Proc. Zool.
Soc. Ixcnd. for April 1837, p. 43.
TOL. XXI.
This view has been adopted by Quoy and Gaymard, and by Lesson. ^Ann.jles Sc.^Nat^n. s v. P-^235 6.
6 N
1018
ZOOPHYTES.
Acalephas.
The genera enumerated by Blainville
family are,
as appertaining to the
1. Physalus,
2. Physsophora,
3. Diphysa,
4. Rhizophysa,
5. Apolemia,
6. Stephanomia,
7. Protomedea,
8. Ithodophysa,
9. Cucubalus,
10. Cucullus,
11. Cymba,
12. Cuboides,
13. Enneagona,
14. Amphiroa,
15. Calpe,
16. Abyla,
17. Diphyes,
18. Pyramis,
19. Praia,
20. Tetragona,
21. Subculeolaria,
22. Galeolaria,
23. Rosacea,
24. Noctiluca,
25. Doliolum.
Of these the Physalus is the most celebrated. It is
known to sailors as the Portuguese man-of-war, and almost
every book of voyages into distant lands contains some ac¬
count of its habits, mixed, as we may notice in the above
extract from Sir Hans Sloane, with a little fable. One of
the earliest descriptions of it is given by Clayton in his
account of a voyage to Virginia, which we extract, because
it is sufficiently descriptive, and gives the notions of the
period regarding its nature. “ In the sea I saw many
little things which the seamen call Carvels. They are
like a jelly, or starch that is made with a cast of blue in
it. They swim like a small sheep’s bladder above the
water. Downwards there are long fibrous strings, some
whereof I have found near half a yard long. This I take
to be a sort of sea-plant, and the strings its roots growing
in the sea, as duck-weed does in ponds. It may be rec¬
koned among the potential cauteries ; for when we were
one day becalmed, getting some to make observations there¬
of, the sportful people rubb’d it on one another’s hands and
faces, and where it touch’d, it would make it look very red,
and make it smart worse than a nettle.”1 Of the tentacula
which hang from the lower edge there are two kinds;
the longest being used by the Physalus for the capture of
its prey, and capable of being coiled up within half an
inch of the air-bladder, and then darted out with astonish¬
ing rapidity to the distance of twelve or eighteen feet,
twining round and paralyzing, by means of an acrid secre¬
tion, any small fish within that distance. The food thus
seized is rapidly conveyed to the short appendages or tubes,
which are furnished with mouths for its reception.2 The
creature is not only vesicatory, but luminous in a high de¬
gree ; and we may here remark, that these properties are
probably common to every species of the family.
Of the other genera all are remarkable for singularity of
form. We might single out as among the most curious,
the Rhizophysa, from its likeness to a bulbous root, with
long radicular fibres, and the Physsophora, which imitates
a root partly bulbous and partly tuberous; the bulbs re¬
presented by the air-vesicles which are clustered above
on a common stalk, and support the animal3 in an upright
position, while under them the stalk parts into many un¬
equal tubers, whence depend the fibrilose radicles, which
are the organs of respiration. The Apolemia and Stepha¬
nomia, if possible, surpass this eccentricity of form ; they
are living clusters of sea-grapes or currants, with tentacula
of curious structure pullulating from amidst the berries.4
The Diphyes, although less attractive, yet deserve notice
from the view Cuvier takes of their organization. He be- Acal
lieves that each animal, as it is usually taken, consists ofJr!
two different individuals, one being emboxed in a cavity
of the other; an arrangement which permits them to
separate without destruction to individual life. The Noc¬
tiluca is pre-eminent for its luminosity. It is a minute
gelatinous spherical body, with a depression on one side
whence protrudes a sort of contractile stalk or proboscis'
and we strongly suspect it is the same with the Medusa scin-
tillans of our shores, better or more amply described and de¬
lineated. Mons. Surivay, to whom we owe our fullest
knowledge of the Noctiluca, mentions that it seemed to
have disappeared entirely from its ordinary habitats in the
Channel during the period of the prevalence of the cholera
at Havre, which was in the months of May, June, and July
1834.5 The fact is too remarkable not to be recorded, and
seems to point to an atmospherical poison as the cause of
that plague.
De Blainville gives to the second family the name of
Ciliogradesf because they move about in the ocean by
means of certain rows of vibratile cilia which garnish the
body. They are gelatinous, translucid, fragile, very irrit¬
able and contractile animals, of multiform aspects, but al¬
ways evidently binary or bilateral, although there are not
unfrequently some signs of a tendency to radiation in their
structure. Thus the genuine Beroes are egg-shaped or
globular, girded longitudinally with eight ciliated bands,
equidistant or in pairs, so as to force a comparison between
them and the Echinus with its ambulacral grooves.7 The
alimentary canal is usually described as traversing the body
from pole to pole, with an orifice to each, the inferior and
larger being the mouth, while the vent opens opposite in
the centre of the apex. Near the middle of the body the
canal is dilated into a stomachal cavity, at the sides of which
the ovaries are usually to be distinguished by their vivid
coloration ;8 and from the same cavity there run two or
more canals, which tend towards the tentacula, on the lower
surface, and carry water to them ; for their elongation and
various movements are dependent on the propulsion of wa¬
ter into them from behind, or its reflux back within the
stomach.9 The bands on which the cilia are placed run
from the inferior or oral extremity, to the opposite one, al¬
ways in straight lines; they are of firmer consistency than
the rest of the body, and are apparently formed by a dupli-
cature of the thin skin, so inserted as to leave a fine canal
between their base and the surface. Through these canals
there is probably a constant flow of water, and it has been
suggested by Professor Grant that the play of the cilia may
be maintained by this current, for muscular action for such
a purpose seems to be inadequate.10 Our knowledge of their
generation is very imperfect. Eschscholtz has seen minute
Beroes, which even then had a close resemblance to their
adult parents, but they were destitute of the eight rows of
natatory lamellae. He could perceive in them only four
opaque longitudinal bands, which were probably the rudi¬
ments of as many rows of lamellae. These lamellae then are
developed not until after the body has assumed the figure
* Trans- an< 1688’ v-.xvii- P- 783- _ 2 G. Bennett ut sup. tit. p. 43.
. Milne-Ed wards believes that these (Physsophores) are not single animals, but the aggregation of a great number of individuals grow¬
ing by buds, and living united together like the compound polypes.” Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. i. p. 156.
1 he Stephanomiae are, according to Lamarck, compound animals, consisting of a cluster of individuals which enjoy a common life and
mutual communications through the medium of the central tube to which they hang. Anim. sans Vert. ii. p. 462.
7 ^00^" an^ Botany, i. p.492. . 6 The Y’ibrastes of Chamisso ; Beroides of Lesson.
I he boatmen of Sheerness, are familiar with the Beroepileus u under the name of the spawn of the sea-egg (Echinus), which it somewhat
resembles in its globular and ribbed form.” Grant in Trans. Zool. Soc. i. p. 9.
I have generally observed that the lively hues presented by the Acalepha depend on the bright opaque colours of their reproductive
gemmules, which are often red, sometimes yellow, or brown, or purple.” Grant in loc. cit.
i his description has been lately pronounced by Mr Forbes and Mr Goodsir to be inaccurate. They believe the supposed anus to be im¬
perforate, and a great portion of the supposed intestinal canal to belong to the circulating system.
Grant ut sup. cit. p. 12. Dr Fleming observed in Beroe ovatus water moving in vessels along the middle of the bands to which the cilia
are attached. I he animals can change the direction of the currents in the vessels, and also the direction of the motions of the cilia.
*
ZOOPHYTES.
1019
alepb* characteristic of the species ; and of the eight rows which
these all possess, it appears that at first there are only four,
between which the others are afterwards produced.
The Ciliogrades abound in all seas, but many of them are
rendered invisible to our dim vision by their pellucidity and
small size. They move about with great alacrity, some¬
times whirling on their own axis, or advancing forward
obliquely, or rising to the surface and again quickly descend¬
ing. As already mentioned, their principal organs of lo¬
comotion (and they are at the same time the organs of res¬
piration) are the banded cilia, aided however by the con¬
tractility of the body itself, perhaps also by currents of wa¬
ter flowing through them, and in some genera ( Ocyroes)
by the undulatory movements of certain fin-like, expansions
peculiar to them. When they wish to repose, they poise
themselves in mid water by the aid of their tentacula, or by
ceasing the play of the cilia ; but motion, constant motion,
is their joy and occupation. Their vivacity, their extreme
delicacy and fragility, the purity of the tints which colour
their internal organs, and their varying iridescence reflected
from the surface by the changes and motility of their cilia,
have made them the objects of admiration to every one who
has seen them. The Beroe ovum is, in the estimation of
Otho Fabricius, the most beautiful of the class, but so frail
as to be injured and broken by the gentlest handling; and
when we remember that their life is probably as transitory
as that of the Ephemera, it does indeed require from their
admirers all the philosophy of the poet to bid him say, unre-
pining, ,
Oh ! mourn not, that in nature, transitory
Are all her fairest and her loveliest things.
The family is coequal with the order Ctenophores of Esch-
scholtz, whose arrangement of the genera, though not the latest,
is considered the most satisfactory. He divides the order into fa¬
milies and genera thus :
1° Callianirides, which have a small stomachal cavity and
A. Tentacula simple, furnished with delicate filaments.
(o) Body extended laterally in the form of a ribbon. Cesium.
(6) Body globular or ovoid. Cydippe.
B. Tentacula ramified. Callianira.
2°. Mnemiides, which have a small stomachal cavity without
tentacula.
A. With straight prolongations near the moutn.
* With rows of vibratile cilia on the body.
(а) Surface of the body furnished with papillae, without
large lobes at the mouth. Eucharis.
(б) Surface of the body even, with large lobes at the
mouth. Mnemia.
** No rows of vibratile cilia on the body. Calymna. _
B. Without straight prolongations at the mouth,
3°. Berojdes, which have a large central cavity in the place
of the digestive cavity.
A. The rows of vibratile cilia exposed.
(a) Cilia shorter than the interspaces. Beroe.
(b) Cilia one half longer than their interspaces. Medea?.
B. The row” of cilia in furrows, in which they can be hidden.
Pandora.
Mr Edward Forbes has kindly furnished us with the following
synopsis of the British Ciliograda.
I Cydippe. Eschscholtz. Filamentary appendages.
1 Linn-Bows of cilia nineteen or twenty on the
summits of the lobes; “C Irish &a;'
iAift. East coast of Scotland and England. Irish »e
sssasoKSaSS?®«
in the furrows of the lobes ; filaments
coast of Ireland. about twenty;
4. C. pomiformis, Patterson—Bow d d Firth '0f
filaments rufous. Hob. Coast of IrelanJ ana^ ^
des^written1 in a^eculiarly ?=gand pL.ngstyle,
in the Trans, of the Royal Irish Academy, V. •> P
1st.)
Obs—Mr Forbes and Mr Goodsir have made many observations Polypes,
on the cilia of this genus, which lead to important conclusions on y ■
the nature of these organs in general. They found, as Mr Garner
had previously ascertained, cilia on the walls of the stomach and
vessels, and a row of minute ones surrounding the mouth ; but
none was seen on the filamentary tentacula, or on the walls of
the filamentary cavities. The cilia which are placed on the longi¬
tudinal ridges are linear-lanceolate, flat, and not hollow. They
are not webbed together, and have no communication with the
vessels which run beneath the ciliary ridges. Each row of cilia is
mounted on a transverse base of a more solid texture, and less
transparent than the rest of the body. The substance of this base
consists of globules irregularly imbedded in a homogeneous sub¬
stance. When rmo nf tbia imIisi np n is cut. nff it. bas nf
When one of the cilia of a Cydippe is cut off, it has of
itself no power of motion ; but if the smallest portion of the sub¬
stance of its base remains attached, it moves with great vivacity.
Hence the observers conclude that the .ciliary motion is effected
by the undulatory movements of this peculiar tissue ; which explanation
will also account for the rotatory appearance of the circles of cilia
on certain animalcules. Athenceum, Sept. 26, 1840, p. 746.
II. Alcynoe, Bang. Tentacula round the mouth.
1. Al. rotunda, Forbes and Goodsir—Ovate, rounded, crystal¬
line ; tentacula rounded at their extremities; natatory lobes
forming half the animal. Hub. Kirkwall Bay, Orkney.
2. Al. Smithii, Forbes—Elongate-pyriform, sub-compressed,_
crystalline; natatory lobes about a third of the length of
the animal ; tentacula acute lanceolate. Hab. Sea near
Ailsa Craig.
3. Al. [Bolina] Ilibernica, Patterson—Ovate, crystalline ; ten¬
tacula acute ; natatory lobes nearly one half the length of
the animal. An Mnemia Norvegica, Sars. ? Hab. Irish
coast, Mr Patterson, who has described it excellently in
the work above quoted.
III. Beroe, Linn. Neither tentacula nor appendages.
1. B. cucumis, Otho Fabricius. No spots on the external
surface; internal dotted with red points ; ciliaferousridges
red. Hab. Isle of May, in the Firth of Forth.
2. B. fulgent, Macartney. Hab. Hearne Bay..
Obs. The “ Eulimena quadrangularis” of Fleming appears to
have been a ciliograde. The name Eulimena is pre-occupied for
another genus of Medusa.
IV POLYPES.
The constituents of this class are in general animals of
minute size, and of almost gelatinous consistency, charac¬
terized by having the oral aperture in the superior disc or
extremity of the body encircled with a row, or sometimes
with several rows, of tentacular filaments. The aperture
always leads into a cavity appropriated to the digestion of
the nutrient matter, but in all other particulars the Polypes
differ so widely in their organization, that to give a view
of it which shall have any distinctness or use, there is a ne¬
cessity to separate the class into groups, founding their
distinctions on that knowledge of their anatomy which a
been recently obtained through the labours of Cuvier,
Blainville, Savigny, Rapp, Grant, Thompson, Ehrenberg,
Milne-Edwards, Dujardin, Farre, Lister, and others.
It is an axiom, that no class of animals stands isolated,
but every one has its kindred claims on those around it,
proving, not that each has been evoked from the pre-ex-
fstent class by innate or external influences, but that the
Creator has perhaps called his creatures into existence by
a fiat wordedP in one spirit, and which matter has obeyed
with one uniform intelligence. And thus it happens, that
while Polypes have mostly felt the force of radiation in their
development, they are not without their families that con¬
nect them with the unsymmetrical molluscans ; and since it
seems to us to be of importance that these relations should
be remembered (for what study is more interesting to the
zoologist than the mutual harmonies of two apparently re-
tP^rlasses^ we shall in the first instance divide the
XL into two sections, distinguished in a manner that
i • m- tbie relationship into prominent view. The mollus
cln Polypes have both an oral and an anal aperture to the
alimentary canal, and the tentacula that surround the for-
1020
ZOOPHYTES.
Polypes, mer are filiform and ciliated; but the radiated Polypes
“ v11- have only one aperture to their digestive sac, serving by
turns the purposes of a mouth and a vent, and the tenta-
cula that guard it are not ciliated, but very contractile.
I—MOLLUSCAN POLYPES.1
The molluscan Polype is always a very small, almost a mi¬
croscopic animal, with an elongated, slender, subcylindrical
body, which is bent upon itself like a syphon, so that the
two extremities approximate each other. The mouth is a
wide edentulous aperture, situated in the centre of the
circle of tentacula, which rise from its rim, and constitute
a funnel-shaped coronet of extreme delicacy. The number
of filaments of which the coronet consists is very variable,
but each of them forms a long slender filiform tube, cloth¬
ed on one side with vibratile cilia, by whose active and
well-regulated movements a current of water is incessantly
driven along them in one determinate direction. These
currents not only supply a succession of unbreathed water
to the animal for the purpose of respiration, but they carry
in their stream the animalcular prey that the polype feeds
upon. Under the tentacular coronet the alimentary canal
forms a kind of pouch analogous to the branchial sac of
the ascidian mollusca, and, like it, plaited usually in a longi¬
tudinal direction. From this pouch or pharynx the gullet
descends a short space previously to its dilatation into the
stomach,—an organ usually of an oblong shape, with its wells
studded with spots of a rich brown colour,—apparently he¬
patic follicles, that secrete a fluid which often tinges the
whole organ, as well as its contents, of a similar hue. The
intestine, on departing from the stomach, makes a sudden
bend, to which is suspended a large short caecal appendage;
and afterwards the intestine proceeds upwards in a course
parallel with the gullet to its termination, which is a little
below the mouth, behind the pharynx, and on the side of
the membranous sheath containing the tentacula.2
This kind of polype is never found isolated and naked.
It dwells enclosed in a calcareous or horny cell, of which a
great number is placed in juxtaposition, usually after a quin¬
cunx pattern ; and the entire congeries forms sometimes a
leprous crust, sometimes a stony branched coral, sometimes
a fleshy unformed mass, and at other times a horny flexible
sea-weed like polypidom, or one that more nearly resembles
some fine capillary moss or shrubby lichen. The numerous
tenantry of these aggregations are besides all connected
together, so as to form what has been named a “ com¬
pound animalevery individual capable of self-support and
of continuing its kind, yet so connected with the rest as
necessarily to participate in every good and every evil that
affects the community. The polypes are so connected with
their cells that they cannot leave them, for indeed the cell
and polype are merely parts of the same body. This, such
as it has been described above, is enclosed in a thin mem¬
branous sac ; and the cell is formed by a continuation of this
tunic reflected over the inner layer, and hardened by the de¬
position in it of calcareous or albuminous matter to fit it to
endure with impunity the contact and friction of the cir¬
cumfluent waters, or to protect the soft viscera from accident
and from the access of their enemies. Milne-Edwards
compares the cell to the lopt finger of a glove, which has
had its open truncate extremity ornamented with a thready
fringe, capable of being withdrawn by an act of involution
within the finger-stool. The point of junction between the
retractile portion and that which is not so, constitutes,
when the finger or polype is withdrawn, an opening usually
called the mouth of the cell, which is very often overhung Pol
with a sort of moveable lip or valvular fold named the
operculum. Two muscular bands are attached to the inner
surface of this valve, and their office is to draw it down
and shut close the cell when the tenant has retired for rest
or from danger.
The polypidom, formed frequently of a congeries of
many thousand cells, invariably begins with one only.
This original or seminal cell has no sooner been completed
(or even in many instances previously to its perfection) than
another begins to shoot out from a fixed point of its parie-
tes, the bud gradually enlarging and developing itself un¬
til the form and size of the primary one has been attained.
This process can most easily be traced in the common sea-
matts (Flustra) and Lepraliae, where, round the margin of
the crust, cells can at all seasons be observed in every
stage of their evolution ; one just budding, another half
formed, and others again nearly complete. They never
begin their original in the body of the polype, but al¬
ways from the parietes, or from the connecting medium of
the cells; and it is not until these have made considerable
advances to maturity that the polype becomes distinguish¬
able within them.
From this mode of increase there would seem to be no
natural limits set to the magnitude and duration of the
polypidom, except what arise from accident or exterior
causes. The original polype and its immediate successors
may grow old, languish, and die; but the solid cells re¬
main in their connection as a root and fixture, while the
newer races, which have sprung up towards the outskirts,
continue their work, generation following generation in
rapid and ever-multiplying successions. The polypidom
in this respect resembles a tree in its growth: the trunk
and main branches have stood years and centuries, but the
increase has been made by annual shoots and renewals,
and the last only know vigour and juvenescence. And as
the form of the tree depends on the fashion of its ramifica¬
tions, so that of the polypidom on the mode of evolution
of its cells, for every part of the axis is not equally orga¬
nized to produce buds, nor the same parts in all. Hence, if
the primitive cell has only one point fitted for this genera¬
tion, the polypidom will be built up in a catenated chain;
if the cell has two points, two series of cells are form¬
ed, and in several the multiplication goes on in a regular
arithmetical progression; but in others the cells are heaped
together without apparent regularity, as in Alcyonella and
Alcyonidium, where the softness of all the parts seems to
allow of an irregular succession of buds. In this order,
however, the general disposition of the cells is certainly
after the quincunx, affording examples which the learned
Sir Thomas Browne would have gladly adduced in proof
that “ Nature geometrizeth and observeth order in all
things, and of the generality of this mystic figure.”
The molluscan Polypes are all hermaphroditical and ovi¬
parous. The ova, which originate in the organized me¬
dium connecting the individuals together, are lodged and
matured within the cell in some families; but in others
their matrix is a little pearly globe that is placed over the
mouths of the cells, and often constitutes the principal
beauty of the specimen. When ripe for expulsion, the ova
are of a vivid orange or yellow colour, of a roundish shape,
and clothed with vibratile cilia, by means of which they
swim about to and fro in the water like beings endowed with
volition, and scatter themselves abroad.
The structure and form of the polypes seem to be very
much alike throughout the entire class, so that it becomes
1 This order corresponds with the Pohjzoa of Thompson, the Bryozoa of Ehrenberg, the Ciliobrachiata of Farre, and with the Zoophyta As-
cidioida of Dr Johnston.
awiaa or ui oonnston.
- See Farre in Philosophical Transactions, an. 1837, p. 406, &c.; M. Edwards in Lamarck’s Anim. sans Vert. 2de edit. vol. ii. p. 214; and
Johnston s British Zoophytes, p. 240, &c.
ZOOPHYTES.
1021
poly 3. necesssary to resort to the more varied polypidom for the
'basis of a method to arrange it into families and genera.
Many such methods have been proposed, but in general so
little are they in harmony with the structure of the ani¬
mated tenants that they are of little value. Of the more
recent ones none appears to us so good, as no one is
so comprehensive, as that of the celebrated Ehrenberg, an
outline of which is exhibited in the following table. We
have only to remark, that the microscopic polythalamous
shells which Ehrenberg arranges in the class for the first
time, have been usually referred to the cephalopodous mol-
lusca, where evidently they had no claim to be placed;
and very lately Dujardin has contended, in opposition to
E" Ehrenberg, that the animalcules inhabiting them are not of
higher organization than the homogeneous and gelatinous
M ™ Infusoria.1
Bryozoa.
Animalia asphycta, tubo cibario simplici, sacciformi aut tubuli-
formi, vera corporis articulatione nulla aut sensim numerosiore,
corporis forma gemmis aut novis articulis accedentibus sensim
aucta, hinc indefinita, nunquam sponte dividua, omnia et sin¬
gula verisimiliter periodice ovipara, ideoque hermaphrodita.
Ordo I.—Polthalamia.
Libere vagantia et loricata.
Monosumatia.
Familia I. Miliolixa.
G Genera 2. ? Miliola, ? G romia.
Familia II. Nodosarina.
G Gen. 11. Glandulina, Mucronina, Nodosaria, Orthocerina, Den-
talina, Lingulina, Frondicularia, liimulina, Yaginulina, Pla-
nularia, Marginulina.
Familia III. Textularina.
Gen. 6. Bigenerina, ? Dimorphina, Textularia, Grammostomum
( Vulvuluria), Polymorphina, Virgulina.
Familia IV. Uvellina.
G Gen. 11. Guttulina (et Globulina), Uvigerina, Bulimina, Valvu-
lina, Rosalina, Clavulina, Globigerina, Pyrulina, Sphaeroidina.
Familia V. Rotalina.
G Gen. 22. Operculina, Soldania, Planorbulina, Rotalia, Trochu-
lina, ? Spirulina, Calcarina, Pleurotrema, Planulina, Discor-
bis, Omphalophacus, ? Gyroidina, Truncatulina, Lenticulina,
Nonionina, Cristellaria, Siderolina, Dendritina, Robulina,
Anomalina, Saracenaria, Cassidulina.
Familia VI. Plicatieia.
Gen. 6. Biloculina, Spiroloculina, Triloculina, Articulina, Quin-
queloculina, Adelosina.
Polysomatia.
Familia VII. Asterodiscina.
Gen 5. Asterodiscus, Lunulites, Orbitulites, Cupularia, Flus-
trella.
Familia VIII. Soritina.
Gen. 2. Sorites, Amphisorus.
Familia IX. Frdmentartna.
G| Gen. 3. ? Dactylopora, ? Ovulites, ? Polytripe.
Familia X. Heeicosorina.
G| Gen. 5. Peneroplis, Pavonina, Vertebralina, Orbiculina, ?Hete-
rostegina.
Familia XI. Heeicotrochina.
Gen. 3. Polystomella, ? Amphistegina, ? Geoponus.
Familia XII. Alveolinea.
Gen. 2. Melonia, Alveolina.
Familia XIII. Fabularina.
Gen. 2. Fabularia, Coscinospira.
Ordo II Gymnocor^e.
Libere vagantes, nudae.
Familia I. Cristatellina.
Gen. 2. Cristatella, Zoobotryon.
Ordo III.—Thaleopodia.
Stolonibus thallove membranaceo affixa, incrustantia nec adnata,
sed loricata.
genella), Valkeria, Stephanidium, n. G. Dynamene, Halodac- Polypes.
tylus (= Alcyonidiuni). s. r . .
Familia II. Cornularina.
Gen. 1. ?Cornularia.
Familia III. Escharixa.
Gen. 5. Eschara, Melicertina (= Melicerila), Crisia, Acamarchis,
N otamia.
Familia IV. Ceeleporina.
Gen. 5. Cellepora, Flustra, Membranipora, Briolophus, n. G.
Apsendesia.
Familia V. Auloporina.
Gen. 1. Tubulipora.
Ordo IV.—Scleropodia.
Stolonibus destituta, excreto fulcro axique anorganicis firmiter
affixa eisque fruticulosa.
Familia I. Myrioporixa.
Gen. 9. Hornera, Idmonea, Retipora, Distichopora, Myriopora,
Tilesia, Cricopora, Ceriopora, Spiropora.
Familia II. ? Antipathina.
Gen. 1. Antipathes.
This extensive class contains few or perhaps no species
that contribute directly to the use of man, or interest him
by their applications to the arts on which he prides him¬
self. Their instincts and habits are obscure ; and although
the beauty and variety of their polypidoms is singularly
great, the pattern is on too minute a scale to have ever
engaged vulgar attention. Their influence on the earth’s
surface is however not inferior to that of any class of ani¬
mals whatever. Large formations of limestone, of chalk
and chalk-marl, and extensive banks of sand, have been
the result of their active life, and prodigious multiplications,
continued over untold ages. “ Many, and probably all,
white-chalk rocks,” says Ehrenberg, “ are the produce of
microscopic coral-animalcules, which are mostly quite in¬
visible to the naked eye, possessing calcareous shells of
2? t0 2S8 ^ine in magnitude, and of which much more than
one million are well preserved in each cubic inch; that is,
much more than ten millions in one pound of chalk.”2
The Radiated Polypes, or Anthozoa of Ehrenberg,
present us with a greater diversity of structures than the
molluscans. In all, the body is perforated superiorly with
the larger circular opening into the digestive cavity, and
surmounted with a coronet of tentacula; but the structure
of the stomach, and the disposition of the tentacula, vary
so much, that if our classification would follow and reflect
a representation of the principal modifications of this va¬
riety, we are constrained to subdivide the class into three
sections as follows:
I. Helianthoida. Polypes single or aggregate, free
or permanently attached, fleshy, naked, or encrusted with a
calcareous polypidom, the upper surface of which is crossed
with radiating lamella;; mouth encircled with tubulous ten¬
tacula ; stomach membranous, plaited; intestine 0, anus 0;
oviparous, the ovaries internal.
II. Asteroida. Polypes compound, the mouth encir¬
cled with eight fringed tentacula; stomach membranous,
with dependent vasculiform appendages; intestine 0,
anus 0; reproductive gemmules produced interiorly. Po¬
lype-mass variable in form, free or permanently attached,
carnose, generally strengthened with a horny or calcareous
axis, enveloped with the gelatinous or creto-gelatinous crust
in w’hich the polype-cells are immersed, and which open on
the surface in a starred fashion with eight rays.
III. Hydroida. Polypes compound, rarely single and
naked, the mouth encircled with roughish filiform tenta¬
cula ; stomach without proper parietes; intestine 0, anus
0; reproductive gemmules pullulating from the body, and
naked, or contained in external vesicles. Polypidoms
horny, fistular, more or less phytoidal, fixed, external.
Familia I. Haecyoneeeea.
Gen. 8. Halcyonella, Vesicularia, Bowerbankia, ! arrella (= La~
■ •• Recherche, sur ,e. Organic P« F. Duj.rfin.” in .he 4,h „„d Mlowi.g Wume, of .ho
s4conde serie.
2 Annals of Natural History for June 1841»
1022
Polypes.
I—HELIANTHOIDA -1
ZOOPHYTES.
The typical representatives of this order are the Actiniae
or sea-anemonies. which abound on every European shore
between tide-marks, rivalling in beauty and vividness of
colouring their floral namesakes. It is now well ascer¬
tained that the animals of the madrepores, sea-mushrooms,
and brainstones of tropical seas, differ from the Actiniae no
otherwise in essence than in their power of excreting, from
the inferior portion of the body, a large quantity of calca¬
reous matter, the deposition of which under and around the
body, and in the tissue of the folds formed by the tunics of
the abdominal cavity, constitutes the cell or polypidom, into
whose hollows the tenant can partially or wholly retire.
“ The stony substances so formed are called corals, and
their mode of formation causes them exactly to represent
the animal which secretes them: the upper surface is
always furnished with radiating plates, the remains of the
calcareous particles which were deposited in the longitudinal
folds of the stomach, before referred to; and as these plates
do not usually reach to the centre, there is almost always a
vacant space in the middle between them.” The cells are
either single and cupped, or they are branched like a tree, or
they are aggregated together so as to resemble a cauli¬
flower, or even to imitate the human brains; all these va¬
riations resulting from the manner in which the animal
emits from the whole surface, or from a particular part of
the sides of the body, the bud by which the new indivi¬
duals of the general mass or society are produced.
The Helianthoida are all oviparous, the ova being pro¬
duced in appropriate ovaries situated between the compart¬
ments formed by the septa that radiate from the outer
parietes of the stomach to the skin. The ova are contrac¬
tile and motive, being carried about from the action of the
cilia that clothe the surface. “ Under the microscope
they prove of diversified form, many resembling flattened
peas, some elongated or exhibiting irregular prominences,
some almost spherical, and some which cannot be referred
to any particular figure.” After moving about for several
days, during which their forms suffer some slight change,
they insensibly relax in their motility, the cilia disappear,
and having become stationary, each ovum rapidly runs
through the stages of development that lead it up to the
similitude of its parent.
The productiveness of the species and the rapidity of
their growth are very great. The calcareous species often
form enormous masses of coral, of the size of which we
cannot judge by the specimens usually shown in collections,
which are small individuals taken in the sheltered places
among the rocks, where they are not exposed to the action
of the waves, and collected before they have reached their
proper magnitude. “ The form of the masses appears to be
greatly influenced by the positions in which they have
giown, and the size of the individuals greatly depends
on the quantity of nourishment they are able to procure.
This is proved by the fact, that if all the individuals of the
same mass are equally exposed, they are of an equal size,
but if the surface of the coral is waved, as in the Explana-
lia, the individuals on the convex part of the mass, which
could procure the most food, are large, while those in the
concave or sunken parts are small ”—J. E. Gray.
It is to the polypes of this order that the origin of the
coral islands in the Pacific and other tropical seas are prin¬
cipally ascribed. The quickness of their growth, and the
depths from which they rise, have been undoubtedly exag¬
gerated ; yet this, with every deduction, is so great that
the coral-bearing Helianthoida are justly reckoned the
pi incipal operators in the mutations of the bed of every
J Synonynjes: Zoantbaria, Blainville; Zoantaires, Milne-Edwards.
3 Synonym es : Zoophytaria or Ctenocer
tropical sea, as they were in the seas of the primeval world. P0i •
They roughen the bottom and fill up hollows in every
shallow sea ; they occupy the tops of reefs in deeper ones
and bar up the entrance to harbours and lagoons ; they cap
submarine mountains, and bring them to the surface; and
they lay up everywhere the materials for the formation of
future quarries of limestone.
The families and genera into which the Helianthoida have been
distributed are as follows :
Fam. I. Actiniadcc—Actinia; Anthea; Adamsia; Iluanthos; Me-
tridium ; Megalactis ; Actinodendron ; Epicladia ; Hetero.
dactyla; Lucernaria.
Earn. II. Zoanthidcs—Isaura ; Hughea ; Zoanthus ; Mammilli.
fera; Corticifera.
Fam. III. Madreporidce—Fungia ; Turbinolia ; Diplocterium ;
Cyclolithes; Desmophyllum; Cyathina ; Caryophyllia; Mai
nicina ; Oculina ; Stephanocora ; Cladocora ; Columnaria;
Strombodes ; Cyathophyllum ; Pterorrhiza; Anthophyllum •
Stylina; Favia; Astraea ; Dictyophyllia ; Favosites ; Monti!
cularia ; Meandra ; Dendrogyra ; Turbinaria; Explanaria;
Merulina ; Pavonia; Agaricia; Polyastra; Haliglossa; Poly!
phyllia.
Fam. IV. Poritidce—Madrepora; Porites; Alloporina.
Fam. V. Pacilloporidce—Seriatopora; Anthopora; Poecillopora;
Heliopora.
Fam. VI. Milleporidce—Millepora.
l am. VII. Distichoporidue.—Distichopora.2
II—ASTEKOIDA.3
The name of this order is derived from the starred
marks that stud the surface when the polypes have con¬
tracted and hid themselves under the skin of the common
mass or polypidom. These marks are produced by the
incisures whence the tentacula are evolved; and hence the
number of rays in each mark is mostly eight, but sometimes
only six in number, corresponding with the number of ten¬
tacula. These organs are, in this order, comparatively short,
thick, and fringed or pectinated on the margins, and they
radiate from a flat disc, in the centre of which the mouth is
situated. This aperture is always circular, and leads by a
gullet into a long cylindrical stomach, which is as it were
suspended in a thin membranous sac or vesicle, and kept
in its central position by eight or six septa or ligaments
stretched between it and the vesicle, dividing the interme¬
diate space into as many distinct compartments. From
the inferior extremity of the stomach there hang eight
or six twisted, intestine-like, but probably biliary, append¬
ages, into a w'ide cavity, that communicates freely with the
fleshy parenchyma by which the polypes are connected
together, for the Asteroida are all compound Zoophytes;
that is, each species is a collection of numerous individuals
participating in a common life, while each individual at the
same time enjoys an independent vitality for every part of
its body. The connection is effected partly through the
medium of the skin, which is formed by the confluence of
the outer thickened tunic of the polypes, and partly by
aquiferous ducts that depart from the infra-abdominal cavity
just mentioned, and permeate the entire mass in every di¬
rection.
The forms of the polypiferous masses are very various.
Some are fleshy amorphous productions, covered with a
coriaceous skin loaded with variously-shaped calcareous
grains or crystals ; others resemble a quill, and are called
Sea-pens ; others are like a rush or rod ; while many, like
the Gorgonia and Coral, are eminently imitative of marine
vegetations. The internal part of the amorphous species is
2 Synopsis of ihe British Museum, by J. E. Gray, p. 75. Lond. 1840.
a of Blainville; Alcyoniens, M. Edwards.
ZOOPHYTES.
1023
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Polyp;-
fibro-gelatinous; “ but when the axis assumes an erect or a
branched tree-like form, the animals excrete in the centre
of their body a more or less rigid support, which has been
called their axis, and which has sometimes, though erro¬
neously (from its being commonly seen in collections with¬
out the remains of the investing animal), been considered
the entire coral. This axis is thickened by depositions of
fresh layers of horny matter on its surface as the mass in¬
creases in size and requires more support, the increase of
the thickness and length of the axis being always simulta¬
neous with the growth of the mass.”—(J. E. Gray.) In
some genera the axis is bony, in a greater number it is of
a horny nature, and very compact, in a few it is formed by
the aggregation of siliceous needle-shaped spicula, and in
others it is calcareous and stony ; of which we have a fami¬
liar example in the red and black coral of the Zoophyte
that furnishes the coral of commerce, so highly valued for
ornamental purposes. In the genus Isis, “ the axis has
been considered as jointed, because the stony and the
horny parts easily separate from each other when the mass
of the animal has been removed and the axis is dried ; but
a larger and larger quantity of stony matter is gradually de¬
posited as the mass increases in size, and in the large masses
the axis of the lower part is almost entirely stony, like the
axis of Corallium.”—{J. E. Gray.)
The Helianthoida are all oviparous, and it has been
recently affirmed that the sexes are distinct and sepai-ate.
Dr Erdl of Munich says that he found in Veretillum only
female individuals in one polypary, and in another only
males ; and he has convinced himself of a similar distinc¬
tion existing in the genus Alcyonium or Lobularia. Plate
DVI. fig. 9.
According to J. E. Gray, this order arranges itself under the
following families and genera:
Earn. I. Cornularida Cornularia.
Earn. II. Clavulariadce.—Actinantha; Clavularia ; Telesto.
Earn. III. Tubiporidce.—Tubipora.
Earn. IV. Coralliadce. —Corallium, Plate DVI. fig. 3; Isis; Mop-
sea; Melitcea; Prymnoa; Muricea; Scirpearia; Eunicea;
Plexaura; Gorgonia ; Pterogorgia.
Earn. V. Antipathidct,—Antipathes; Leiopathes.
Earn. VI. Briareidce—Briareum.
Earn. VII. Lobulariadce Lobularia ; Ammothsea ; Anthelia ;
Sympodium; Ithizoxenia.
Earn. VIII. Zeniadce Zenia; Nephthya; Nidalia.
Earn. IX. Ilyalonemidce—Hyalonenia.
Earn. X. Pennatulidce—Pennatula, Plate DVI. fig. 8 ; Virgu-
laria; Renilla, Plate DVI. fig. 11 ; Pavonaria; Veretillum.
Earn. XI. Umbellariadce—Umbellaria.
crustaceous animalcules and small worms. These are no Sponges,
sooner seized upon than they appear to be paralysed by ''■"‘“v'-*’'
some poisonous secretion of the polype, for their struggles
and resistance are stopt as it were by magic, and they are
carried unresisting to the mouth, and forced into the central
digestive sac.
The Hydroida are reproduced by gemmules or buds,
which are developed from the common substance of the
body. In the Hydra they spring from no particular part,
but in other genera they have a determinate origin, and in
many others they are contained, like ova, in ovarian cap¬
sules, whence they are not discharged until ripe for evolu¬
tion. But perhaps the most remarkable feature in the
history of these Zoophytes, is their power of being multi¬
plied by mechanical division. If a snip be made with
a fine pair of scissors in the side of a Hydra, not only
does the wound soon heal, but a young polype sprouts from
the wounded part; if it be cut into two portions by a trans¬
verse incision, each soon developes the wanting parts of its
structure ; if longitudinally divided, both portions soon be¬
come complete animals ; if it even be cut into several
parts, every one of them will rapidly assume the form and
functions of the original. The inversion of its body, by
turning it inside out, does not destroy it; on the contrary,
the exterior surface assumes the office of a stomachical
cavity, and that which was originally internal will give birth
to buds, and take upon itself all the properties of the skin.
See R. Jones’s Outline of the Animal Kingdom, p. 26.
The Hydra is locomotive and naked, but the majority of
its order are permanently affixed to their sites, and are in¬
vested with a horny sheath or polypidom, which in many
instances excels all other zoophytical productions in the
delicacy and gracefulness of its form. These polypidoms
are converfoid and more or less divided, the ramifications
being divided in a variety of elegant plant-like forms.
The stem and branches are alike in texture, slender, fistu-
lar, and almost always jointed at short and regular inter¬
vals, the joint being a mere break in the continuity of the
sheath, without any character of a proper hinge, and evi¬
dently formed by regular periodical interruptions in the
growth of the polypidoms. Along their sides, or at the
extremities, we find the denticles or cup-like cells, within
which the polypes are contained, arranged in a determinate
ovder,;and either sessile or elevated on a stalk. Plate DVI.
fig. 12. Though of the same substance, the cell is some-
thino- more than a simple expansion of the stem or branch;
for near its base there is a distinct partition or diaphragm,
on which the body of the polype rests, with a plain or tu-
bulous perforation in the centre, through which the con¬
nection between the individual polype and the common
medullary pulp is retained.
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III—HYDROIDAJ
The Hydra, or fresh-water Polypus (Plate DVI. fig. 10and
14), of which more has been written than of any other Zoo¬
phyte, is the type of this order, very remarkable for the ex¬
treme simplicity of organization of its members, and for their
wonderful powers of redintegration and reproduction. I he
polype, considered independently of its polypidom, possesses
no defined organs whatever; but when highly magnified, the
whole body is seen to consist of a granular substance, the gia-
nuleS being loosely connected by a semi-fluid albuminous
matter. On the upper pole of this gelatinous and very con¬
tractile body there is an aperture encircled with a variable
number of tentacula, roughened with nodules, and extreme y
extensible, so that the creature can spread and stretch them
lar and wide in search of prey, which consists of very active
According to Mr J. E. Gray, this order embraces five fami¬
lies, viz.
Earn. I. Hydraidae—Hydra. Plate DVI. fig. 10 and 14.
Earn. II. Tubulariada Tubularia; Eudendrium ; Corymorpha.
Earn. III. Corynaidce.—Coryne; Syncoryna.
Earn. IV. Sertulariadce.—Thoa; Sertularia; Dynamena ; Thuia-
ria ; Pasythea ; Epistomea ; Lirizoa ; Plumularia ; Anten-
nularia; Cymodoce; Salacia ; Idia.
Earn. V. Campanulariada.—Laomedea ; Campanularia ; Peri-
pyxis.
V.—SPONGES.2
The Sponges differ so much from all other Zoophytes,
that De Blainville has constituted with them a separate
1 Synonymes: Sertulariens. M. Edwards: Polypi aria, J.E. Gray.
2 Synonymes: Spongue; Spongiadae; Spongiaires; Ponfera; Amorphozoa.
1024
ZOOPHYTES.
Sponges, class, under the denomination of Amorphozoa, to mark that
want of a definite and constant form in their species for
which they are remarkable in the animal kingdom. Their
general appearance and structure must be familiar to every
one. They are soft, elastic, porous or cellular bodies, of a
uniform structure in every part, without any organs or ves¬
sels, and capable of absorbing large quantities of liquid,
which they again yield up on pressure, without injury to
their textures. They are quite insensible to every sort of
irritation, and can contract neither the body as a whole, nor
any portion of it; nor can they remove in any way from the
site on which they have grown.
In a recent state the sponge is filled with a colourless
animal jelly, the quantity of which varies much in different
species. This jelly is apparently homogeneous ; but, with the
assistance of the microscope, it has been discovered to be
full of numerous transparent spherical granules. It is dif¬
fused through every part of the sponge, filling the intercel¬
lular spaces, and it lines also the canals which permeate the
mass, and often covers the surface with a slimy coat.
1 he sponges used in domestic economy are composed of
a horny fibre, netted together so as to form small irregular
meshes, with larger canals and holes interspersed. The
fibre is solid and transparent, generally smooth, but some¬
times closely invested with a fine branched vascular tissue.
These sponges are soft, compressible, and eminently bibu¬
lous ; but there is a gradual passage from them into others
of a more rigid and compact texture; and on examining
into the cause of this change, we find that the fibre has
become loaded with crystalline needle-shaped spicula,
which, chemical tests assure us, are formed of pure silex
or flint. There are many sponges in which these spicula
predominate so far that the horny matter has become of
secondary importance; and such sponges, after beins
dried, resemble crumbs of bread, and are easily rubbed
down into a powder merely by friction between the finders.
Mr Bowerbank has shewn that the transition frorn’the
fibro-horny to these siliceous sponges is insensibly made,
and that many species which were believed to be purely
fibrous, contain in fact numerous minute imbedded spicula.1
There is another class of sponges, rather of a felted than
reticular structure, and containing a very scanty proportion
of oiganic fluid. They are usually of a grayish-white
colour, and are loaded with spicula, but the spicula are
composed of carbonate of lime. These spicula are more
variable both in form and size than the siliceous kinds; for
in the same sponge we often find some which are needle-
shaped, others that are club-shaped, and others that are
formed of three or four divergent prongs. There has not
been discovered any sponge in which the calcareous and
siliceous spicula naturally co-exist; but some species of a
compact fleshy texture have been described, in which,
while the central parts are crammed with spicula of flint’
the surface is covered with a layer of calcareous earth.2 ’
In all sponges the surface is porous, and of a finer and
closer texture than the interior, which is also permeated
with some irregular sinuous canals, that open on the surface
in the form of circular orifices, which have been called their
oscula, but which are properly their vents. When living
and in health, the sponge is continually imbibing by the
pores the water which surrounds it. This water, penetrat¬
ing to every part, fills the cells and distends the body
equally; it is then forced into the canals, and driven, in an
agitated current, from the body, through the oscula. By
this circulation the air and food of the sponge is supplied
and its effete excretions removed ; but by what agency it is
originated and kept up, is not positively ascertained. Dr
Grant thinks it probable that minute vibratile cilia planted
in the canals and pores are the moving power; w’hile'
Dutrochet ascribes the phenomena to that law of endos
mose which he has discovered to regulate the transmission
ot liquids of unequal densities through all organic mem
branes.
Sponges are propagated by gemmules, which originate in
the organic mucus, and are carried out of the body by the
effluent currents just described. In some sponges these
gemmules are ciliated and locomotive when mature • but
it seems probable that the majority of the species produce
only unciliated gelatinous grains, which are nevertheless
endowed with a very active motility, like the ultimate par¬
ticles of even inorganic matter. r
With one or two exceptions, sponges are natives of the
sea, ranging from tide-marks to a very considerable depth
I hey are scarce and small in cold latitudes, and gradually
increase in size and numbers as we trace their course
towards the tropics, but perhaps they abound most of all in
the genial seas of the Australasian islands. The sponges
of commerce are chiefly procured from the Mediterranean
and from the Bahama islands in the West Indies.
The classification of sponges is in a state of the utmost
uncertainty, and most of the genera rest on very insufficient
characters. 1 he names of such as have been proposed are
as follows:
litho. i
Ptytes,
Alcyoncellum.
Achilleum.
Cseloptycium.
Choanites.
Cnemidium.
Chenendopora.
Grantia.
Hallirhoa.
Hippalimus.
Halichondria.
Geodia.
Lymnorea.
Manon.
Myrmecium.
VI.—LITHOPHYTES.4
Siphonia.
Scyphia.
Spongia.
Tethia.
Tragos.
Ventriculites.3
The Lithophytes, in the restricted sense in which we use
the term, are plant-like marine organized bodies, which
adhere to other substances by a crustaceous base, and are
composed of an internal fibrous axis encrusted over with a
chalky porous bark, either continuous, or divided bv septa
into numerous equal articulations. From the time of Ellis,
who was a strenuous advocate of their animality, they have
been always described as members of the animal kingdom;
but the observations of Blainville and Schweigger leave no
doubt of their being truly vegetables, differing little from
many algae.
There are two families of lithophytes. In the first the
calcareous crust is rather thick, compact or minutely
porous, and jointed. The family corresponds exactly with
the genus Corallina of Linnaeus, subdivided by Lamarck
and Lamouroux into the following genera: Cymopolia,
Coiallina, Jania, Flabellaria, Amphizoa, Penicillus, Galax-
aura, Acetabulum, and Polyphysa. Many of the species
aie veiy pretty, and the Acetabulum is a parasol in minia¬
ture. Plate DVT. fig. ]3. One species (Corallina officinalis)
has been much celebrated as a powerful vermifuge.
T he second family, from being more decidedly vege¬
table in its aspect, is named by Blainville Fucoidecc. In
it the cretaceous crust which covers the stem and branches
is veiy thin and continuous, and it offers to observation no
trace of pores. The organic substance is also more gelati¬
nous, and consequently approaches nearer to that of the
true sea-weeds. I he genera are, Udotea, Dichotomaria,
Liagora, and Neomeris. (D> M.)
1 Microscopic Journal, i. p. 8, &c.
3 For the fullest and most accurate account of the struct,,™ Lam- Ani™" sans Vert 2de edit. ii. p. 606.
in the 13th and subsequent volumes of the Edinburqh PhilosonhimFt1&1° °[ sPon&fs> the reader is referred to Dr Grant’s papers
Lamarck's Animaux sans Vertibret. 9 phical Journal; and for a description of the genera and species, to the 2d vol. of
4 Synonymes: Corallinse ; Calciphytae.
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INDEX.
ICal simfl*
IcaH
Page
ACALEPHiE 1013
Acalephes 1017
Acanthocephala. 997
jCTI
ilcyi
iinpl
Anth(
JSTl
ipole
.Iscar
iSTE
Actiniad^e....
Alcyncie 
Ampbistoma...
Anthocephalus.
Anthozoa 
Apolemia 
Ascaris 
ASTERIADjE....
1022
1019
996
995
1021
1018
997
1012
ASTE
Gn
11
Asteroida 1022
Gray’s arrange¬
ment of. 1023
Beroi Beroe 1018
Bothriocephalus  996
Ceni
Caryt
Cest
ClLK
£si
Csenurus.  995
Caryophyllseus  996
[ Cestoidea  996
j Ciliogrades 1018
I Eschscholtz’s ar-
rangement of... 1019
Cieiogrades.
Synopsis of Bri¬
tish Species ....1019
Crikoidea 1012
Cucullanus  998
Cydippe 1019
Cystica  995
Cysticercus  995
Distichoporid^e...1022
Distoma  996
Diphyes 1018
Echinides 1003
Lamarck's ar¬
rangement of.. .1007
Blainville’s do.... 1008
Agassiz’s do 1008
Echinococcus  995
Echinodermata... 999
Echinorhynchus  997
Entozoa  992
Filaria  998
Page
Fistulides 1001
Latreille’s ar¬
rangement of....1002
Blainville’s do 1003
Gymnorhynchus  996
Guinea-worm  991
Helianthoida 1022
Holothuria 1001
Hydroida 1023
Hydra 1023
Intestinal Worms 991
Cuvier’s arrange¬
ment of  998
Ligula  996
Liorhynchus  997
Lithophytes 1024
MaDRE PORIDiE 1022
Medusides 1013
Lamarck’s ar¬
rangement of. ...1016
Page
Medusides.
Blainville’s ar¬
rangement of. ..1017
Milleporid.e 1022
Monostoma  996
Molluscan Po
lypes 1020
Ehrenberg’s ar¬
rangement of...1021
Nematoidea  997
Ophiostoma  997
Ophiuridje 1012
Oxyuris  998
Pentastoma  997
Physaloptera  998
Physalus 1018
Phy sogrades 1017
Physsophora 1018
PtECILEOPORIDiE.... 1022
Polypes 1019
Polystoma  997
Poritid^. 1022
1025
Zug.
Page ^ v
Portuguese man-of-warXQlH
Radiated Polypes. 1021
Rhizophysa..., 1018
Scolex  996
Sea-anemonies 1022
Sea-eggs 1003
Sea-jellies 1013
Spiroptera  993
Sponges 1023
Stellerides 1008
Stephanomia 101 ^
Strongylus  997
Taenia    996
Tetrarhynchus  996
Tetrastoma  997
Trematoda  996
Triaenophorus...  996
Trichosoma  998
Tricocephalus  998
Tristoma  997
Zoanthid.e 1022
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Vi
ZOROASTER, or Zerdusht, a celebrated ancient
philosopher, said to have been the reformer or the founder
of the religion of the Magi. It is wholly uncertain to how
many eminent men the name of Zoroaster belonged. Some
have maintained that there was but one Zoroaster, and that
he was a Persian ; others have said that there were six emi¬
nent founders of philosophy of this name. Ham the son of
Noah, Moses, Osiris, Mithras, and others, both gods and men,
have by different writers been asserted to have been the same
with Zoroaster. Many different opinions have also been ad¬
vanced concerning the time when he flourished. Aristotle
and Pliny fix the date at so remote a period as 6000 years
before the death of Plato. According to Dionysius Laer¬
tius, he flourished 600 years before the Trojan war ; accord¬
ing to Suidas, 500. If, in the midst of so much uncertainty,
any thing can be advanced with the appearance of proba¬
bility, it seems to be this, that there was a Zoroaster, a
Perso-Median, who flourished about the time of Darius
Hystaspes ; and that besides him there was another Zoro¬
aster, who lived at a much more remote period among the
Babylonians, and taught them astronomy. The Greek and
Arabian writers are agreed concerning the existence of
the Persian Zoroaster ; and the ancients unanimously
ascribe to a philosopher whom they call Zoroaster, the
origin of the Chaldean astronomy, which is certainly of
much earlier date than the time of Hystaspes. It seems
therefore necessary to suppose a Chaldean Zoroaster dis¬
tinct from the Persian. Concerning this Zoroaster how¬
ever nothing more is known than that he flourished to-
I wards the beginning of the Babylonish empire, and was
the father of the Chaldean astrology and magic. All the
writings that have been ascribed to Zoroaster are unques-
tionablv spurious.
ZOSIMUS, a historian of Constantinople, who has had
various editors, is supposed to have written in the fifth^cen-
tury. He is described as “ comes et exadvocatus fisci; and
from his own work it is evident that he was not a Christian.
He-wrote the history of the Roman empire from the
of Augustus to the year 410. ihe first book conta.ins brie
notices of the earlier emperors, ending with Diocletian ; but
in the other five books his details are more ample. A
version of this history was published by Leunclavius in lo' ,
and in 1581 H. Stephanus added the Greek text of the first
two books to his edition of Herodian. All the six boo s
were published by Sylburgius in the third volume of Ins
VOL. XXI.
“ Roman® Histori® Scriptores Gr®ci Minores.” Francof.
1590, fob This was followed by other editions, of which the
best is that of Reitemeier, Lipsi®, 1784, 8vo; Bonn®, 1837,
8vo. The latter impression, forming a volume of Nie¬
buhr’s “ Corpus Scriptorum Histori® Byzantin®,” was su¬
perintended by Bekker, who has corrected the errors of
the former edition, and has omitted such critical notes as
he did not approve. In both these impressions, some an¬
notations of Heyne are added to those of Reitemeier.
ZUG, a canton of Switzerland, the smallest of the whole
confederacy. It is bounded on the north by Zurich, on the
east and south-east by Schwytz, on the south-west by Lu¬
cerne, and on the west by Aargau. It is only 110 square
miles in extent; and is divided into two parts, the inner and
the outer amt or bailiwick. It contains 1876 dwellings,
with 14,710 inhabitants. They are all of the German race,
and speak that language. The religion is that of the Ro¬
mish church, and the canton contains nine parish churches,
with three monasteries, all under the bishop of Constance.
The constitution is a pure democracy. All the males
who have completed the age of nineteen must become
soldiers, and must be regimented in the militia. An as¬
sembly of the whole inhabitants is held on the first Sun¬
day in May, when the several officers are chosen for the
year. The chief, called the Landamann, is elected for two
years, and from the two bailiwicks alternately. The officers
of the militia are nominated for life. The council consists
of thirty-four members, and in ordinary times assembles
three times in the year, and at such other periods as the
chief may deem it necessary; but a committee of that body
is permanent, and superintends the police, and foims a court
of appeal from the ordinary tribunals. There are inferior
authorities in each of the two bailiwicks, who rule in local
affairs. The taxes are collected on liquids consumed,
whether wine, beer, or spirits ; besides which there are
stamp-taxes, and payments for licenses to carry on trade;
but the whole burdens are very light. The contribution of
the canton to the general confederacy is 1250 francs, and
the contingent of men 250.
The face of the country is alpine, but the highest moun¬
tain, the Ruffi, does not exceed 4830 feet. The other
mountains, as the Rossberg, the Zugerberg, the Morgarten,
and the Dreilanderstein, are lower. The river Reuss is the
principal stream, which runs to the lake of Zug, and re¬
ceives the smaller brooks. It forms the boundary with the
1026 Z U L
Zuinglius canton of Aargau. The lake of Zug, one of peculiar beauty,
II is about nine miles in length and two and a half in breadth.
v u ^ au' The road by its side presents points of view and striking
objects which charm the eye, and leave a lasting impres¬
sion on the mind of the traveller. This lake is danger¬
ous to navigate with a strong southerly wind, on account
of the sudden violent gusts. It has however some trade
on it, and is abundantly stocked with fish of various kinds.
The lake of Eger, and that of Fenster, have their peculiar
beauties, and, like that of Zug, abound in fish. The cli¬
mate is that of the Alps, but rather milder than in some
other parts. The soil is good, and yields corn and wine,
much fruit, especially plums, and great quantities of wal¬
nuts and chestnuts. There are no manufactures except two
paper-mills. The trade consists in the export of butter,
cheese, cattle, wool, hides, dried fruits, and chestnuts.
These are sufficient to pay for the few foreign necessaries
and luxuries that are wanted. The chief profit is however
derived from the very numerous foreigners who visit the
country in the summer months, and who find good accom¬
modations, but at no very cheap rate.
The capital of this canton likewise bears the name of
Zug. It stands on the lake at the foot of a mountain. It is
fortified, contains two churches, a Capuchin monastery, a
hospital, a council-house, a workhouse, and 2800 inhabi¬
tants. It is a poor place, except at the time of the annual
fair, which continues fourteen days, when there is an ap¬
pearance of activity.
ZUINGLIUS, Ulricus, or Ulrich Zwingli, an able and
zealous reformer, who laid the foundation of a separation
from Rome in Switzerland, at the time when Luther was si¬
milarly employed in Saxony, was born on the first of Janu¬
ary 1504, at Wildehausen in Tockenburg, a distinct republic
in alliance with the Swiss confederation. He was sent to
school at Basel, and afterwards at Berne, where he learned
the Greek and Hebrew languages. He studied philosophy
at Vienna, and divinity at Basel, where he took the degree
of A. M. in 1506. While he officiated as preacher at Zu¬
rich, a Franciscan sent by Leo X. came to publish indul¬
gences there; against which Zuinglius, after the example
of Luther, declaimed powerfully. In the course of this op¬
position he started a new doctrine, which he called Evan¬
gelical Truth; and from the beginning of 1519 to 1523,
he preached not only against indulgences, but against
other articles of the Romish church. But though Zuin¬
glius made no less progress than Luther, he conducted
himself with more moderation ; and wishing to have the
concurrence of the civil powers, procured two assemblies
to be called at Zurich. By the first, he was authorized to
proceed as he had begun; and by the second, the outward
worship and ceremonies of the church of Rome were abo¬
lished. During these transactions, Zuinglius published
several books in defence of his doctrines; but treating of
the eucharist, and prescribing a form of celebrating the
Lord’s Supper different from Luther, he was involved in
violent disputes with the rest of his reforming brethren.
Respecting the divine decrees, the opinion of Zuinglius
and his followers differed very little from that of the Pela¬
gians; and instead of declaring, with Calvin, that the
church is a separate independent body, vested with the
right of legislation for itself, Zuinglius ascribed to the civil
magistrate an absolute and unbounded power in religious
matters, allowing at the same time a certain subordination
among the ministers of the church. This was abundantly
agreeable to the magistrates of Zurich ; but the rest of the
Swiss cantons disallowing of their proceedings, the opposite
parties had recourse to arms ; and Zuinglius, who began as
a preacher, died as a soldier, in 1531. His works have
been published in four volumes folio.
ZULLICHAU, a city of Prussia, the capital of the cir¬
cle of the same name in the government of Frankfort on the
Z U R
Oder, and the province of Brandenburg. It stands on a fer- Zurich (
tile plain, is surrounded with walls and ditches, and contains'—v-J
760 houses, with 5900 industrious inhabitants, who are em- :
ployed in making fine cloths, linens, hats, and hosiery, and
in breweries and distilleries. It is the place where, of late
years, many large and cheap editions of the most popular
books in the English language have been printed very cor¬
rectly ; and it furnishes Germany with the writings of Scott
Byron, and others, at a price greatly inferior to that at
which they can be imported, and thus contributes to extend
the knowledge of our language and literature.
ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland, one of the most an¬
cient of the confederation. It is bounded on one side by
the dominions of the grand duke of Baden, and on all
other points by the Swiss cantons of Schafhausen, Thurgau,
St Gall, Schwytz, Zug, and Aargau. The wffiole extent of
the canton is about 640 square miles, including the lakes.
The population, by a census taken in the year 1837, was
found to be 231,576 individuals, all of whom, except 2000
Catholics, belonged to the Protestant reformed church.
The canton is purely of German origin, using only that
language, but with a strong patois among the country people.
It contains six cities (so denominated from being or having
been fortified), eight market-towns, 149 communes, and 467
villages, with 26,400 houses. The education of the people
is carefully conducted. Besides a university in the capital,
and several private institutions, there are no less than 385
public schools, in which more than 55,000 children are in¬
structed in the lower branches of learning. The contingent
of the canton towards the general defence of the confedera¬
tion is fixed at 3700 men, and the annual payment of 74,000
francs. Ibis canton is one of the governing departments,
and is therefore, alternately with Berne and Lucerne, the
residence of the diplomatic body, and of the persons en¬
gaged in the official business of the confederation. The
surface of the canton may be properly described as an un¬
dulating succession of plains and hills of no great eleva¬
tion, except two ranges, whose highest peaks are about
2000 feet above the level of the lakes, or about 3500 feet
above the level of the sea. With the exception of those
peaks, the land is fertile and well cultivated; producing corn,
wine, fruits, and an abundant store of butter and cheese for
the support of its own dense population. The towns and
villages contain a most industrious population, chiefly em¬
ployed in the manufacture of silk and cotton goods of a
fine and elegant texture, which are formidable rivals of
the English and French fabrics at the fairs of Frankfort
and Leipzig, and in the cities of Germany. The rapid
streams afford a power by which some very extensive cot¬
ton and silk mills are turned.
The most prominent feature in the face of the country
is the lake of the same name as the canton. It forms a
kind of crescent from east to west. It is about twenty-
nine miles in length, and in breadth varies from three to
four miles. It is chiefly supplied with water from the river
Linth, into which descend the melted snows of the glaciers
of Taede and Kistenberg. Though its depth in many parts
is 600 feet, yet, owing to shoals in other parts, it is only
navigable by vessels of a light draught of water, or by
steamers, with which, within the last three years, it has, like
the other lakes of Switzerland, been abundantly furnished.
The lake in the hottest months is raised from ten to fifteen
feet by the more rapid melting of the ice on the glaciers.
The lake of Zurich is next to that of Geneva in extent;
and, though destitute of the grandeur of scenery of that
and of the Wallenstadt and Lucerne lakes, its banks exhibit
the peculiar charm of rich and high cultivation.
Zurich, the capital city of this canton, stands on the
lake described in the preceding article, about 1270 feet
above the level of the sea, at the point w'here the beauti¬
fully translucent river Limmat gushes out and passes under
(!u l iy(h-
Z U Y
a very broad wooden bridge, which is the chief market¬
place. The city contains 14,500 inhabitants, who are in¬
dustrious, economical, and consequently thriving. They
, conduct considerable manufactories of silk, linen, and cot-
z y M
1027
south. It is said that the Zuyder-zee was formerly a lake, Zwei-
and that the land is swallowed up which united North hrucken
Holland with Friesland. II .
ZWEIBRUCKEN, better known under the name of
ton ; and this is the focal point for the sale of the goods Deux Fonts, a beautiful city, once the capital of a princi
1 Cl I/NHC xn/"»l 1 ♦‘XT A tVxtxt -XT r\c\\*c* w.x 1 I fxT ■»-» r\ tit Vvy-.l ^ T) I   I   r*
prepared in the populous vicinity. A few years ago it
might have been described as a gloomy ill-built place,
and by no means a clean one; but of late the advance
of wealth is abundantly shown in the great improvements
which have been and still are carrying on. This is espe¬
cially remarkable near the lake, and in the post-office and
two hotels, one of which (the Bauer) is the largest and
most complete establishment in Switzerland, if not in
Europe. The university was only founded in 1823, and
has never had many students. It was, in 1839, the pre¬
text or the cause of a revolution in the canton. Dr
Strauss, a man of learning, but the author of a work of
infidel tendency, had been appointed professor of divi¬
nity. There had been discontents for some time in the
pality, but now belonging to the Rhenish province of the
kingdom of Bavaria. It stands on the river Erblach, and is
surrounded with walls. It is well and regularly built, in a fine
situation, with hills and woods around it. The princely re¬
sidence is in a ruinous condition, and a part of it is convert¬
ed into a catholic church. Two of the churches are cele¬
brated as fine specimens of architecture. The city contains
7250 inhabitants, employed in making cloths, leather, snuff,
and tobacco. The learned society which existed here during
the last century, and published some of the best Greek and
Roman classics, is extinct.
ZWENIGORODKA, a circle of the Russian govern¬
ment of Kiew. It extends in north latitude from 48° 44'
to 49° 20', and in east longitude from 30° 28' to 32° 2'.
parts of the canton without the city, against the muni- It is watered chiefly by the Lincuska, the Zingley, and the
cipality, who were the electors of a disproportionate num- Bojarka; has very little wood, but many valuable tracts of
ber of the legislative body. This election to the profes- 1-J "u li:—‘~J ~""'1 
eorship was made by that corporation, previously suspected
of antichristian principles ; and the country people flew to
arms, besieged and took the city, displaced the municipa¬
lity, ejected Strauss, and made alterations in the elections
to favour the anti-capital party. Tranquillity was restored,
after some lives had been lost; but how durable it may be,
time must determine. The markets are well supplied with
land, which, when cultivated, yield good corn. The capi¬
tal is of the same name, on the river Zingley, and though
called a city, has only 200 houses, with 1230 inhabitants.
It is distant 1003 miles from St Petersburg. Long. 30. 44.
E. Eat. 49. 12. N.
ZWICKAU, a city of the kingdom of Saxony, the capital
of a bailiwick of the same name, in the province of Erzge¬
birge. It was formerly a strong fortification. It is now a
fruit and vegetables, and tolerably well with meat and poul- well-built place, containing four churches, a college with
try. Though the river and the lake furnish some fine fish, a library of 16,000 volumes, a hospital, two military maga-
thev are high in price when compared with other articles of zines, 890 houses, and 6000 inhabitants, who manufacture
food The city was fortified, but is not kept in a very de- woollen and cotton goods, leather, and some hardware. Near
fensible state ; some of its works having been formed into to it are several mills for making paper,
most pleasing walks, with views over the lake, and the ZWOLLE, a city, the capital o the circle of the same
snowy tops of the distant Alps in sight in the back-grounds, name, in the province of Overyssel, in Holland. It stands
One of the defences of Ziirich is the lake itself, on which on a canal two miles from the Ysse , and is very strongly for-
anattempt wasmadeby the French in 1799 to attack the tifled. !t U well and regulatl, built, tmd haae.ght churches,
city by water, on which occasion the inhabitants armed all some hospitals, and a large grammar-school. Zwolle contains
th(f craft they could collect for the defence, and placed the 15,640 inhabitants, among whom are many rich capitalists
flotilla unde/the command of a British naval officer of the who trade extensively in the products of the country, and
‘ f Williams conduct some large sugar-refineries. The city is surround-
7TTTPHFN a circle of the province of Guelderland in ed with pleasant promenades.
tthe* city^f^flhe^same japoi^^^^i^trLuffi Conran”situated'at^ebottcra^fBmda
84,000 inhabitants. The capi al is ^ 71 which is two miles deep and six broad, but has only
name, situated at the point ^ fwoy’and a half fathoms of water on the bar, though there
the Yssel. It is strongly fortified, and walls, De ng ^ ^ d . The town is defended by a small
planted with trees, form a Pleas^S F°^e belon°-ing to citadel, and mostly enclosed with a stone wall. Long. 73.
suburbs are many fine houses and gardens oeioiyng io e ’ 7
the merchants of the cit>'- n^SffihabiSnts8 who hav^nS- ~ ZYMOSIMETER (formed from fermentation,
several good schools, and 10,200 inhabitants, measure) is the name given to an instrument
nufactories of cottons and lin^®’o.ta^ne^S’EbreLaJ.ie52. 7’ described ’by Swammerdam in his book De Respirations,
tilleries, and paper-mills.
30. N. „ , riprman sinned bv the mixture of different matters, and the degree
Oceanywhich" extends fCi to t,Sh in the United hL "pTyed » —The Z
s=r sm “ s ;"=a w—
THE END.
.Printed by Thomas Allan & Co.,
and Balfour & Jack,
and Stereotyped by Thomas Allan & Co.
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ZOOPHYTES
PLATE 1)11.
AsatrLs hunbricoicUis.
Tetjurhynckus Ungualis.
Cysticercus tinna.
Fasaola hepcUica.
Polystoma pingubcola.
Cyclocotvles Bell/?ties.
Sphyrwn l/pviyalus.
Penella Pdosa.
(hondiveanthus jcyphi/e.
Geo. Aihrum. Sculp*
ZOOPHYT KS.
PLATE DHL
3.
‘’SRSfeiSffljm
W«‘’S liss*^“4»5Kfe. ^
Echinus esadentus.
Ciduns hystrix.
Pentacrinus auopceus.
Echdwcyamiis mimdus.
Spatangus piirpnmis.
Astenas rubens, Phiinv.
Conuitida Adwnm
:t£o Aihnan.Sadp?
ZOOPHYTES
Oeo. Aikmmn, Sculpt
PJuzophysa /Uifornus
PLATE DIV.
Holothuna papiUosa.
Phpscdus pelcujica.
Holothuria tabulosa.
irfo. Aikman, SixUp?
ZOOPHYTES.
PLATE DV.
1.
ZOOPHYTES.
PLATE DV1.
CoraUuun rub mm.
Zoanthm sodatus.
Actinia corn Hina.
Luccmana campanula.
'tfutlassiananthos astir.
Fun pul crassitentaadata.
8 'jyophyUicu fascLcuLctixu
AUyonw/n anrantixuwn
PennatulO’ grisea
Ferulla violaccn
Hydra fusca
Hvdra fusca
Aceta bulum mediterrarwum
Crystaletla niucedo.
Sertularia tamarisca.
Geo A ibnan.
Sculp*.
I
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